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Review of Water Resource Exploitation and Landuse Pressure in the Pangani River Basin

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Review of Water Resource Exploitation and Landuse Pressure in the Pangani River Basin Western IndianWATER Ocean RESOURCE J. Mar. EXPLOITATION Sci. Vol. 5, No. AND 2, LANDUSE pp. 195–207, PRESSURE 2006 IN PANGANI RIVER BASIN 195 © 2006 WIOMSA Review of Water Resource Exploitation and Landuse Pressure in the Pangani River Basin Yohanna W. Shaghude Institute of Marine Sciences, P.O. Box 668 Zanzibar Key words: Pangani river basin, water resource, land use, anthropogenic, Tanzania Abstract—The Pangani River Basin, with a total area of 43,000 km2 is one of the most important of Tanzania’s river basins. Water and arable land are the most important resources. The water balance in the Basin is estimated at about 900 million m3 per annum. The increasing water demands to meet various socio-economic needs are placing the basin under critical water stress. Irrigation abstraction and evaporative losses at the Nyumba ya Mungu reservoir are the major contributor to the observed water stress in the basin. Deforestation on the highlands and the use of traditional and environmentally unfriendly agricultural practices also have direct impacts on the water retention capability and may significantly contribute to the observed water stress in the basin. In addition, changes in climate regime, due to increasing temperature and reduced rainfall conditions, contribute to the reduced water supply. This coupled with the land degradation problems, has multiple effects on the coastal environments. Management options, using the limited water and land resources more innovatively and sustainably, have been suggested. These options include: 1- reforming the current water rights allocation system, 2- looking for long- term strategies for improving irrigation efficiency, 3- further promotion of innovative agricultural methods and 4- application of modern innovative techniques of water storage such as Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) in preference to surface water storage systems. INTRODUCTION national food security and the uncertainty of the rain-fed agriculture due to the deterioration of the Water availability is one of the key issues in many rainfall conditions. Irrigation was therefore global fora (FAN 2001; GWSP, 2005). The average considered to be a viable solution for stabilizing global water availability reveals declining trends, and boosting agricultural production in Tanzania with a 37% decline per capita availability of fresh (Kalinga and Shayo, 1998). water since the 1970s, as population growth and Water impoundment by damming is driven by degradation of water supplies outstrips the capacity the ever-increasing demand for electricity due to to develop new sources. The global water system demographic growth and national economic is experiencing drastic changes due to both climatic reforms and constitutes the most important motives changes and anthropogenic influence, with water for damming in Tanzania (URT, 1997). The abstraction for irrigation and its impoundment by estimated total energy consumption of Tanzania damming being among the leading anthropogenic is more than 22 million tonnes of oil equivalent activities responsible for the changes (GWSP, (TOE) or 0.7 TOE per capita, and is dominated by 2005). biomass-based fuel, comprising charcoal and In Tanzania, the major reasons for water fuelwood. Hydropower, coal, natural gas, solar and abstraction stem mainly from the need to improve wind power and geothermal energy, which are E-mail: [email protected] 196 Y.W. SHAGHUDE currently highly under-utilized, are considered as its abstraction for irrigation. The focus of the potentially abundant energy sources (Kitova, present study is on the PRB (Fig. 1). The study 2003). Damming is considered to influence major reviews published work on the PRB in order to: 1- reforms in the Tanzania’s energy sector. The highlight related upstream anthropogenic and hydropower potential, estimated to be 4.7 GW but climatic issues and their linkage to coastal erosion with currently only 10% utilized (Kitova, 2003), north of Pangani river and saline intrusion at the is considered to be a viable solution for boosting Pangani estuary (Shaghude, 2004b), and 2- to Tanzania’s national energy capacity as well as recommend policy management options for the reducing the usage of biomass fuel which has PRB. negative impacts to the environment (URT, 1997). Unsustainable use of biomass fuel potentially leads THE STUDY AREA to increased land degradation problems with multipliable effects on water resource availability and people’s livelihoods. The study area The scope and objectives of the study The Pangani River Basin (PRB), with an estimated area of 43,000 km2 (IUCN, 2003; Turpie et al, Previous studies by Shaghude (2004a, 2005) 2003), is one of the most important freshwater provide a detailed account of the anthropogenic resources in Tanzania (Fig. 1). Some 5% (3,914 and environmental issues of the adjoining Rufiji km2) of the basin lies in Kenya, but 95% of the basin in the context of past and present catchment basin is in Tanzania, spreading mainly over three pressures due to natural climatic change, land-use administrative regions, Arusha, Kilimanjaro and change and water impoundment by damming and Tanga. The main sources of flow to the Pangani Fig. 1. Map showing the location of the Pangani River Basin, its boundary and important basin features, namely, main river tributaries, mountain ranges, lakes/reservoirs, locations of hydropower stations and major Large-scale irrigation schemes (1 = Lower Moshi, 2 = Ndungu and 3 = TPC. Observe the Kikuletwa and Ruvu tributaries feeding the Nyumba ya Mungu (NYM) reservoir from northwest and northeast, respectively WATER RESOURCE EXPLOITATION AND LANDUSE PRESSURE IN PANGANI RIVER BASIN 197 are the mountains of Kilimanjaro and Meru through supporting the livelihood of most of the basin’s the Ruvu and Kikuletwa tributaries, respectively, inhabitants (IUCN, 2003). The expanding human with additional flow sourced from the Pare and population is increasingly intensifying the pressure Usambara mountains. on the available resources, resulting in conflicts The PRB has several small lakes (Fig. 1), Jipe, and threats to environmental and future livelihoods Amboseli and Chala, but the Nyumba ya Mungu of the people (GIWA, 2004; Payet and Obura, reservoir, with a total surface area of 15,000 ha, a 2004). The pressure on the woodlands for instance maximum water depth of 40m and a storage poses significant threat to biodiversity and the capacity of 875 Mm3, is the most important surface water resource, with associated multipliable effects freshwater storage in the Basin. Several wetlands on the people’s livelihoods (CEP, 1995). Moreover, also exist in the basin, namely, the Kirua swamp the increasing pressure on the arable land leads to (about 900 km2 or 90,000 ha), located at the increased land degradation, which in turn leads to downstream end of Nyumba ya Mungu, the Ruvu lower farming yields, which again leads to swamp, about 35 km2 (3,500 ha), located increased poverty level (CEP, 1995). immediately south of the Ruvu tributary at Lake Jipe, and another, about 40 km2 (or 4,000 ha) Population pressure located at the confluence of Ruvu and Kikuletwa rivers. Historical analysis of the population statistics for Geomorphologically, the Basin constitutes of the combined totals of the three administrative two units, namely, the highlands and the lowlands regions (Arusha, Kilimanjaro and Tanga), whose also called the “Maasai steppe”. The highlands, boundaries roughly approximate the PRB which comprise of steeply sloping mountain terrain boundaries, show higher population growth rates rising from 1,000m to over 2,000m above sea level between 1967-1988 than 1988-2002 (Fig. 2). The (Fig. 1), are characterized by abundant rainfall average annual population growth rates during (1,200-2,000 mm), high biodiversity, intensive 1967 and 1988 was about 6.6%, which decreased cultivation, urbanization and densely populated to about 1.0% after 1988. The low population rural areas. The highlands hold more than 80% of growth rate after 1988 could be the result of the the basin’s inhabitants (IUCN, 2003) and annual increased pressure on the arable land, which in turn population growth rates reach 4%. The lowlands, had been the major impetus for emigration of which comprise of low sloping terrain generally people especially from the Kilimanjaro Region below 1,000 m descending to the coastal plain (Fig. (URT, 1998; 2002a). According to URT (1998, 1), receive relatively low rainfall (<500 mm per 2002a), the Kilimanjaro Region has the highest year), and are characterized by low species negative net lifetime migration in Tanzania. This biodiversity, scattered croplands, arid rangelands is mainly attributed to the fact that the two major and smaller settlement areas. The population ethnic groups in Kilimanjaro (the Wachagga and growth rates on the lowlands are close to 2% in Wapare) have the tradition of seeking green average. The coastal plain, with its eastern African pastures, and with the increasing pressure on the coastal and mangrove forests both of which are available land resource in the region, people with characterized by high species biodiversity, is an insufficient land were forced to seek alternative exception as it is characterized by high species livelihoods options elsewhere in Tanzania (URT, biodiversity and high rainfall. 1998, 2002a). Seasonal emigration is also a common phenomenon in the Kilimanjaro Region, ANTHROPOGENIC PRESSURE ON where the people seek supplementary livelihood THE PANGANI RIVER BASIN options in other parts of Tanzania, but still maintain close ties with the land they own in the village The PRB is endowed with a wide array of regardless of its size (William, 2003). Such people resources, including water, arable land, forests, usually pay periodic visits to their home villages, minerals and fish. Of these, water and arable land particularly during Christmas and New Year are by far the most important, directly or indirectly holidays, and also periodically send remittances 198 Y.W. SHAGHUDE 4.5 2002 4.0 1988 3.5 3.0 2.5 1978 Population (millions) 2.0 1.5 1967 1.0 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Fig.
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