URT/S-1 FAOISF:421TAN-4
X AND PLAN FOR IRAIGATIO:1 DEVELOPME T F THE PANCJANI A WAMI RIVE- BASINS
In E
r'iNAL REPORT
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME VI lyV FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Fo0 V 4, rev" R
MaroUSOMA o rfirreti FOr
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Internationalborderes Roads Railways
2WProject area PANGANI--;TI RIVE. rASINS SURVEY AND PLAN FOR IRRIGATION DEVELOPMaNT IN THE PANGANI AND WAMI RIVER BASINS
UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA K m
()CATION OF TANZANIA
IN AL: VA FAO/SF:11- /TAN4
Survey and Plan for IrrigationDevelopment In the Pangani and Wami River Basins
UNITED L BLIC OF TANZANIA
FinalReport
Report prepacod the Government of Taw..ani by the Food and Agriculture Organiziltion of tho United Nations aoting as executing agoncy for theUnitedNations Development Programme
JNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OP THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 1969 vii
ABSTRACT
The accompanying report describes a project undertaken by the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania, with the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme1/,to investigate the potential for irrigation development in the Pangani and Wami river basins, to prepare detailed plans and work schedules for pilot areas, and to draw up programme of irrigation development for execution in the seven years following the completion of the projeot.
The need for the development in the Pangani and Wami river basins is part of the need for improvement of the national and regional economy, but particularly arises from the pressure of population in the upper Pangani basin.
The Governmentts request for assistance was approved by the Governing Council of the United Nations Special Fund in January1964. The Food and Agrioulture Organization of the United Nations was appointed the Exeouting Agenoy, and the Ministry of Agrioulture was appointed as the Government Cooperating Agency2/. The UNDP contribution to the project 'as in the form of professiond and technical personnel, contractual services, equipment and supplies to the value of
$ 1 225 300, and this was matched by the Government counterpart contribution in kind estimated at 921 000.
During the execution of the project aerial photography of part of the Wami coastal plain was carried out by contractors AeroPreoisa of Lebanon, and of the Wami escarpment area by Messrs. Story and Partners. The other surveys and investigations were carried out by internationally recruited experts and Govern- ment counterpart personnel.
11/ Assistance to the project was provided by the United Nations Special Fund until 1st January1966. On that date the Special Fund and the Expanded Programme of Technioal Assistance were merged into the United Nations Development Programme which oontinued to provide assistanoe to the projeoti
2/ Ministerial reorganization led to the Government Cooperating Agenoy being changed from the Ministry of Agrioulture to the Ministry of Lands, Settlement, and viater Development. viii
It is estimated that in the headwatere region of the Pangani approximately 300 000 acres are under some form of irrigation and that about 500 000 acre,feet of water aro currently abstraoted annually from various tributaries, largely for irrigation. Mainly duo to unsuitable soils the potential for expansion of irrigation in the Pangani baein is limited. Four areas, totalling some 20 000 acres are proposed for development. The form of development proposed inoludes the improvement and intensifioation of emisting irrigation farming, as well as development by settlement of unused, or largely unused, areas.
On the Wami coastal plain consideration is given to irrigation development on some 50 000 acres. Flood control, however, is essential before major irriga- tion development can take place, and land development costs for irrigation are too high for irrigation to bear any part of the costs of the neceesary flood control reservoir.M jor irrigation development, therefore, cannot take place unless and until a decision is taken to develop the hydroelectric power potential of the Wami.
An order of priority for irrigation development is suggested, and it ie proposed that early attention shouldbe given tothose areas where improvements and intensification of ceristing irrigation can be effected. Pilot areas are recommended for each of the proposed main development areas, two of which have been established, and a detailed engineering design has been prepared for a third. Proposals for future work on the pilotareas arosubmitted, and it is stressed that development based on settlement ehould not oommonce until farming systems have been fully tested on the pilot execi.sp managerial and administrativo problems studied, and the neoessary infrastructure and supporting services can be provided.
Pmphsin Is g*ven 'botho nood. foy' soordinr,tion of all with sectorial Uto,vonto jn urr ns.go2 nnel. ho demi.rvhAjty of a unified irrigation development oll;hoy to onnrys ;'1131 socrodtpationo - ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1
The Background 1 The Plan of Operation 2 Hydroelectric Power 7 4, Brief Account of Execution 8 Reports 13 Acknowledgements 13
CHAPTER II SUIZ1ARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMIMIDATIONS 15
A. THE CONCLUSIONS OF nib SURVEY 15
General 15 Land and Water Resources 16 Markets 18 Irrigation Development 18 Pilot Irrigation Areas 20 Health 21 Hydroelectric Power 21
B. RECOMIZNDATIONS 21
Irrigation Development 22 Processing 24 Establishment of a Unified Irrigation 24 Development Authority Training 25 Health 25
CHAPTER III DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT 27
General 27 Location and Physical Description 27 Climate 30 Communications 30 Land Use and the People 31 Health 33 Táze No.
CHAPTER IV SOIL SURVEYSAND SUITABILITY FOR IRRIGATION 35
General Introduction 35 Summary of Findings in Pangani Headwater 41 Region Summary of Findings in the Middle Pangani 42 Region Summary of Findings in the Wami Coastal 48 Plain
CHAPTER V CLIMATOLcGY AND HTDROLOGY 55
Climatological and Hydrological Data 55 Climatology of the River Basins 56 Hydrology 66
CHAPTER VI WATER CONTROL ! USAGE 71
Background and Present Situation 71 Hater Control and Storage 72 Proposed Irrigation Use 74 Water Use in the Pangani River Basin 76 Hydroelectric Power Development 78 CHAPTER VII IRRIGATION 77 :1777ERING 89
Kahe lirigation Scheme 89 Mivaleni Upland Irrigation Schete 94 Naururu Scheme 96 Marwa Scheme 100 The Coatal Plain of th,?. Wami River 101
CHAPTER VIII SOCIAL CONSIERATIONS 1.2LTCATIONS FOR 103 SETTLET,TNT
Introduction 103 Main Findings 104 Application of the Main Findings to 106 Irrigation Settlement
C7APTER IX AGRONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS 109
1, Current Land Use 109 Experimental Work 113 Pilot Irrigation Areas 121 Priorities for Irrigation Development 122 page No.
CHAPTER. X RKETING CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE 125 NI AND KLEE IRRIGATION SCHEMEf
Introductiou 125 Cost of Overheads fOT Irrj.con Do-relopment 127 Returns cud Variable Coss of Production 128 Other Consiaara-Uoym 131 Dairy Prodlaction 133 Crop Rotatiou 133
: 'EMENT AND DEVELOPYI, T OF rah; PROPOSED 137 GA ON AT KAHE
Kale 137 Miwaleni Upland 140
APPENDIX I PLAN OF OPERATION 141 APPENDIX II LIST OF-STAFF ENGAGED AT VARIOUS PERIODS ON 155 TEE PROJECT
APPENDIX III MONTHLY ANNUAL DISCHARGES IN ACRE FEET 159 RIVER WAMI AT MANDERA STATION No. 102
APPENDIX IV HEADQUARTER STAFFING 161
APPhIVDIX V PROPOSE7 ST* 1 LOCKS 163
APPENDIX VI BIBL7 1.65
APPENDIX VIILIST 07 SPECIIILIS TS .A.3a CO7SULTAN TS REPORTS 167 PB.0.0IICIT:D 11_9111 PROrrf?O 'I! OP fraATI 0 NS 3.1i reLrE P i I Lt.7.1:127,? S:CliS '11:q:,..1)/7,: Acreages and 36 2 SamnoA: Aroar AAJAÌ-,veel Pahgcmi and. Jaml racAms Irmigairion Clasmes cm.6, Aorocg,.A 54
Wteen gounjy 1.-:a.nSclA at Selected Sites 59 'rhohn;3)
4 Summo.f,mod CiAblat j Jg.0 Aon thc, 65 Jow®: kombi Pamgani and the -;.nn Ua07.7
5 Evauai-,iolt L0,360t,:,iAprossed ih Yrches per 65 Month CompoThd rf;,t3iVepAan°:,1 :51co2oula and Measured 2row L!,,o,,, i; ! PacA)
6 Stifilway;\, co7 VJO T,i(-Amoo.-6. -Pcn...j'.1.:13ztion 68 Developwnt in tb.e Paugani River Basin (in aovr,) ):o..)
7 RiverLawiArnima'l Modiargo. in Acre Feet at 68 Eindera Cacgim-r; Ation
8 Estimate J.:7 Co:,t 61)poI am o 74 Coo.lrno2
9 Ar cnc:. Loss in the-hgani , 77
10 ".;''is yam; 81 ,
11 ,; "' 83 ' 6.1 1.¡; 0111 Off, ii 1")
12 -; Aor ;Ao Power 84 VT,toul 5,71v,1 CLii
Table No. Page No,,
13 Estimated Cost of Layout for Surface 94 Irrigation Kahe
14 Estimated Cost of Layout for Overhead 95 Sprinkler Irrigation Kahe
15 Estimated Cost of Layout for Surface 96 Irrigation Miwaleni Upland Irrigation Scheme (1966.5acres)
16 Yield of Maize Varieties from Bulk 114 Plantings (lbs/acre)
17 Yield of Grain of Four Varieties of 115 Sorghum (lbs/acre) T OF FIGURES
Page No.
No.
Frontispiece: Location of Tanzania in Africa PanganiWami River Basins
1 PanganiRiver Basin Location of Irrigation 3 and Hydroelectric Power Investigations
WamiRiver Basin Location of Irrigation and 5 Hydroelectric Power Investigations
Areas of Topographic and Soil Surveys of 9 PanganiWami River Basins in Tanzania
4 Location of Soil Surveys in the Pangani Head 37 water Region
5 Irrigation Class Map of the Miwaleni Spring 39 Area
6 Irrigation Class Map of the Kahe Area 43
7 Location of Soil Surveys in the Middle Pangani 45 Region
8 Irrigation Class Map of the Naururu Area 49
9 Location of Soil Survey in the Wami Coast 51 Region
10 Mean Annual Rainfall of Pangani River Basin 57
11 20 Percent 'epobabill',,y Annual Rainfall of 61 Pangani kiverBaHin
12 10 Percent Probability Annual Rainfall of 63 Pangani River Basin
13 Arcas of Suggested 'Cri.igation and Hydroelectric 79 DeveloDmeut of PanganiNami River Basias in Tanzaala
14 Load Growth for the Moshi, Arusha and Central 87 Coastal Areas Figure No Page No
15 Kahe Irrigation Scheme 91
16 Naururu-Irrigation Scheme 97
17 Management and Operation of Kahe Irrigation 139 Scheme when Fully Developed :ODUCTION
1.The Backrounc
The United Repub/Io of Tzania lios just south of tho oquatov be Lakes VictoriaTanganyika and Nyasa9respeotivoly9and tho Indian OcemJ, oountry is tholargest and mos populous in the East African region1-7it yt 10 million inhabitants living in an aros of some 361 800 squaro milec, Thu population is conoontrated in tho highor rainfall ave asalong tho oorq, the shores of Lake Victoria and in tho northern and southorn highland Tho economy of the country is heavily dopenc1uit onrioulturc. percont of tho population obtain thoir living diroctlyOP indiroctV Z.1,1 c43.7 culture9 vhich a000unts Cor Moro than 70 porcont of tho gross domost:is prorlqo. Some 81 percent of tho countryus total c:cport oarnings aro derived ,T.rom »al)z,) of agricultural produce producod both by small holders and estatos,
The Pangami and Womi rivor basins9 lying in the northeast corneq: r7, 7 country9cover 28 000 square miles and oontain a population of about pooslo of whom 1.1 million live uithinhe Pangani ViVOP basin wii,hc' some 11 600 squaro miles. Tho gross valuo of o.:;.portod agricultural prod7katn from these two rivor basins is tothe order of F,10 million poundo9 abontq111:1 quarter of thetotal w:ports ftom Tanzania, Thegreatest contribution comr,- f27om 'Wio densely populated and relatively prosporous Pangeni rivor
o n as the Republio of lea 2
D000tjeo oenoprIseion ie tbo PseTede liaeen neo high and it le not nncommon to J110 loosJ10.00un the monetden neopen oith peonlatione of two thousand people ode' noudon mijo. Tilnethoemoeo tho nvevego eato growth of population within tho basLu to owe pdecon?fie annem, an complerod to on estimated ea1ion0 ,oevaeo erouth rate of 1.6 peoonb por nunuo Tho neod to intensify egreceltnrai production nnd to roduoo populatton preesures by resettlement is thorofeee r,M13011iio
Primaeely to moot the requeeemonte of additional hydroelectrio power develop- ment in the Pnegani rivor basin, Mosses. Sir William Halcrou andPartners, Coasniting Eaginoors, London, eecommended to theGovernment that major storage of flood watoe of the Pengani should beaffected by the construction of a high dam at Nyembn ea Mungu.This recommendation was nubmitted tothe Government in 1962, 2.11the Coneultanic ronort °Tho Devolopment oC the Pangani Basin". In eddition i.e eoeving tho main pureoee of hedroelootricpower development, the dam, uhich io now completod, made available consideeablequantitios of water for iveign0,011eueposos. Sevoral alternatives on the use of tho water were proposed bethe' C (-Inn u?.°¡;*art 0
.k:kthe oaeo of tho Wame river beein a proliminarysurvoy of the water e000nroon poLentJal was oaeriod out by FAO in 1963end the eesults were submitted ieepnbloati,oe, No. 1626, "WaLey Rosoveoes Potential of tho Wami Basin".
in 196:3, tho Government co7 the Peeublioor Tenevnia requeetedassistance from the United, Nateone Seecial Fund (UNSF)1/, For a projoot designed toprovide toohneoal data on whioh to ban() irri6p,tion development in the Pangani and Wami rivoe bnoleo, and to anbmit proposals for irregation devolopment that could be mplomented tho poeiod 1967-197/1. The roquost was approved bythe Governing COUDOHuftho ONSF in jannae,y 1964. FAO erne appointed the Executing Agency andtnoMle:.eteeorAgrioulturo Hao eppoiutod ao tho Govornment Cooperating Agenee',2/0 WHO was requested to consider tho health implication of the project.
2. The Plan of Operation
A Plan. of Oporntion ontitlod "Survey and Plan for Irrigation Devolopment in Vlo Pangani and Wami Rivor Basins" was drawn up and signed by FAO as the eouting Agenoy for the UNSP on10 Aeril 1964,and,by the Government of Tanganyiles (now Tanzania) and the UNSF on 17 April 1964. The Flan of Operation was
esnietanco to tho project was providod by the United Nations Speoia/ Fund entil the let january 1966. On that date the Special Fund andthe Expandod TeeogvemmoorTochnical Assistanoo wero merged into tho United Nations Doe.olopment Peogeammo whioh coutinned, to rondo).- assistance to this project.
lAnistoeial voorganimation led to the Government CooperatingAgency being changed feom tho Ministry of Agreoulturo to the Menistry of Lands, eettlemeot end WaterDevolopment, 7
subsequently amended to take into acoount the formation of the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zansibar, and the chango in the Government Cooperating Agoney,
The purpose of the project1130to doormtnc, through surveys ond invostlGa- tions, the teohnical and eoonomio basis0)7deeign for rrigation development of the Pangani andWRMiriver basins. Daeed on[-,he results of the investigationo ouitable pilot demenetration areas woro to be oelseted,Rp.aaatc,iloa deolgns and eohedules of work prepared for those areas, In addition, a programme of irriga- tion development in the two basins for implementation in tho seven years followingthecompletion of thc projoot wae to be establiohed. Thoinvestigations included hydrologioal studios for both ground and surface water, engineering etudieo needed for the planning of storage dams and resorvoaro, flood proteotion works as well as irrigation and drainage oyetems. In addition, investigation° into the soils, suitable eropping patterna, irrigation practices, sociological conditions, health implications and economice were included in the tormo of reference. The Plan of Operation iu attached as Appondfr I,
Tho UNSF oontribution to the project wasri1 225 100 and coveaod the oost of international experts, eubcontractual aervaces, equipment and. supplaes. Tho Government contribution in %ind was oatimated at Z921 0000 Thas oovered the cost of oounterpart technioal and administrative pereonnel, local equipment odaa supplies, buildings and construotion, and cost of transporting and handling project equipment.
Y7e4.roeleotrie Power
During the investigations it beoame apparent that the area suitable for irrigation development in the Pangani basin was limited, and full use could not be made of the water regulation provided by the recently constructed Wyumba Mungu dan. In the Wami basin irrigation demanded major flood control storage which could only be economioally justified, if o4 all, should a multipurpose scheme be developed involving the productior of hydroeleetric uower.
The need to develop electric power to meet the rapidly growing demand in the Pangani basin, coastal and central arena of Tanzania was hIgh]ighted in an appreciation of the market for electricity an Tanzania carrted out by Messro. Merz and Molellan in1964. Although the Plan of Operation did not include invesLigatione into the development of hydroelectric power, this was inoludod in the work programme of the projeot for the foregoing reasona.
The areas investigated with a viow to irrigation devolopment and the provision of hydroelectric, power in the Pangani and Wami basins are shown in Figures 1 and 2. 4. ,.ef Account of Execution
The owrations otho project commouced on 22 April 1964 and ceasod on 15 Fobruary 1900. The Projoot nanagor ues appointed on 1 January 1964. The project hoadquartors which had originally boon sited in DarosSalaam were moved to Moshif in !Tjliwnjavoa0,3i011carly in 19650 Shortage of housingf office and (30mg()20cinties in neoessitatod another sito as project head- quarters. Inaddition, oarly investigations in the Wmai basin directed interest to tho000,stalplain aroa where lengthy preliminary invostigations were required bofere a'1.1.11 investigationalprogramme could be developed. In the meantime, activities oonld bo otonded in the Pangani basin and Moshi provided a suitahlo contro.
staff and staff assigned to the projeot by the Government Of 'own in Appendix II.
(b) of field work carried out
The0:1-'0C',2for 1.prigatioa dovulooment Proposed in ho Halcrow Report formed the basic o.o. whioh tho projoct Planned its dotailod podologioal, topographical 1 Ad ongLasering sur's'eys in the Pangeni basin.
In t;lo Uami basin tho bacio dsta obtainable did not permit investigations of tho cent:,7a1 alluvial plaln. An overall appraisal indicated that tho arca best suitodfe,initial irrigation development was on the coastal Dlain and subsequent invostigations lioroforoUOY0limited to this aroa0
aattrves d maiin
TopcgraphIcal sLpvoys uero oarriod out for uator storage, flood control tioa sohomes. In addition, survey work uas oarriod out for reoonnaissanco ouposes. In Aie 2angani basin all surveys were carried out by conventional survoy methods. n tho Oami basin tho majorDEVC6of tho mapping tras accomplished by photoT,ammario methods°
Tho :pro;looi, La'rengod for aerial photographyat a coal() of 1z10 000 covering about 360 0 acroo of the Wami coastal plains and along the middle reaches of the':J.2131:1..0c).%0 This photography izas undertaken by contractors AcrePrecisc, of _,eb-nollo Other :lorial photography uas borrowed from tho Survey Division Dar- csSaJaam, Air Sufvey Division, DaosSalaam andMOSSY00Story and Partnors, DaJ-43-4:*jaj.a. On bohal;:. of the C,otromment the firm ofsurvey contractors1 Messrs0 ja,ners, cl providod aoial photography cover ofa further 150 000 coros of 11
Photogrammetrio plotting, at a soale of 1:10 000 with tenfeet vertical interval contours and covering 22 000 acreswao carried out for the main irrigaa. tion area in the Wami basin. In addition, Messrs. Story and Partners plotted a further 35 000 acres at the same scale and vertical interval in thearea of the Wami escarpment.
Topographical survey: at a soale of 1:10 000 with oontours at tenfoot vertical intervals were oarried out in the Pangani basinover45000 acres, and at a scaleor1:2 500, with contours at one foot intervals for four pilot irrigation areas.
The areas of topographioal surveys are given in Figure 3.
Soil surve s
Soil surveys to determine suitability for irrigation were carried out at reconnaissance, semidetailed and detailed levels, within six major areaa in the headwaters of the Fangani, the MiddlePanganiregion, and the Wami coastal plain. The areas surveyed at reconnaissance and semidetailed levels totalled uome 280 400 acres. In addition, exploratory work and check surveys covering an area of 160 000 acres were oarried out either at the request of the Government,or to ppraise areas prior to.more detailed investigation. Detailed soil surveys over some 4 500 acres were carried out in possible pilot soheme areas.
The areas of soil surveys are also shown in Figure 3.
clirnatolo and water resources
Climatologioal and hydrological statistios were compiled and analyzed for application to studiea of water availability, control and irrigation requirements in the Pangani and Wami basina.
(iv) Irrigation engineerinfi
In the Pangani river basin preliminary assessments were made of the total seasonal water requirement for four proposed irrigation development areas. These requirements were well within the overall quantity available for irrigation after taking into consideration the requirements for other users, including hydroelectric power.
Preliminary investigations were carried out into flood protection worke, and designs for storage reservoirs were prepared together with preliminary costs. 12
Deteiled designe for three pilot irrigation areao were ereparcd for loc lities euita.b14 for subsequent major development in tho Pangani basin. The foueh projeet aren in the Paagani basin lo of low priority and no detailed desige for a pilo vas prepared. Two of tho throe pilot areas were estabiishotle 'no at Alwaler5 and one at Keheo
Ooesidceeation vas given to tho design of irr4,gation leeleuto in all the soleoted peejoet creas ard preliminevy estimates of coat were prepared.
En view of the limited irrigation potential of the area downotream of the pecoatly eenstructed Nyembe ya Mungn dam, coupled oith the finding thatlerigae. ou devejonment in tho Ward coastal area would not be economically justifiod ae a eeogle purpose peoject, consideration was iven to the possibilities of hydeeeleee eceeee development in tho Wami basin°
(v)
StudieJs of e::ieteng experimental data and current orooping patterns in the peo3ooe necias wore carried outo ¡lumber of eeTeriments wereestablished in the Miweloei aad Kehe project areas in Moehi district in the upper Panganl basin. Thee() ceepoeimowts yore designed toprovide information onsuitable crop varieties, culturalpractices, fertiliser treatmento3 and frequency and method of irrigation, but the project ended before tho full eeeperimental programme could be deve3epeclo
No agronomioal uork was carried out in the Warn' coastal plain, but preliminavey suggestioes for Cuture uorle were eubmittedo
Soo'
Fnoiologioal camel° surveys oovereng255families were carried out in the ove:' populaed bghleed and lowland looalittes sureounding eeeao proposed for ireigeeou deeelopmeuto Tice eurvoys eere designed to obtain and assess factual informet7ee or seceai, cultural, 000nomic and other significant institu- eteonej elreeeseeeeetioe, and to relate the effect of these characteristic° to 00eoehlee eeeeeeoeensed evegation schemes0
a wao oolleoted1)5rfive field assisi,ants under olose supervision fc17 a period of intensive training°
eeeconolusions and recommendations were intended for application to the aeeas et b7ivaleni, Kehe end Nauruele, in the Pangeni basin. The beale eepeute ierigaeieu development in the rangani and Verne ..eivor basins were eeediee. OF0 ced e repoet prepared. 13
(vii) Economic or,
A preliminary economicapp,:aisal of the Kohe schemo was o,-,:ryor. ant Dr. Allbaugh oarl;¡ in 1966, and his report entltlod "An Bconomie oC the Proposed Kahe f.rrigatien P-c'ejest 5n the Pangani River Baelp,Ta1A10).a"was submitted to tho Governmen't tho end of that year. A Nrther economic appraisal of the Kahe aad Miwaleni upland schemes was pv(-T- 1)7 Dr. Moeo ia1967and he report entitled "Economic Appral.sal af th,7,
Miaaleni Project Areas" was forwarded to the Government early 5 ) ?c,111 detailed oudies aro requiro,1 bo2oro a finea economic, 1.sc rucx b a.doo
A survoy of the market prospecte Cor wazious orcas wr,,s . Dr. Bauer in1967and a report entitled "Marl'eting Prospecta 1:.(T,F,, Grown in the Survey and Plan :'or f.rric;atiwt Development in theP,701/W, - Basins Project Aroa" was prspaxod.
5. Reports
The finalreport ön the project is contained in a single ;-. the projeot a number of speoialists and consultante reports 17ovr 1-1(3 have been handed over to the Government. A list of theseropoc.J- in Appendix VII.
6, Aoknowled
The assistanoe and cooperation reoolved from many branchca of the Government and other anthorities, as well as various ocimp-, .E-Toto individuals, are gratefully acknowledged.
In particular, the assistance from the following Ministries De_ Institutes and Orga.na.tions was appreciated;
Ministry of Lands, Settlement and Water Development, par t:
The Water Development and Irrigation Division; The Survey Divisor The Ubunge Ptainung and Research Station; The Land Division.
Ministry of AgriOulture:
Agriculture, Veterinary andFOYOSt2Dlvisions; Agriculture Research SGation, Tocgeru; - Agriculture Research Station, Ilenga.
Looal Government Council Regional and Area Commissioners and Orficers, eta, Tanganyika Elect)flic Supply Co.,W.,JDar 15
CHAPTER II
ART OF CONCLUSIO COMM NDATIO
A. THE CONCLUSIONS OF THE SURVEY
1. General
The Pangani and Wami river basins, lying in the northeast oorner of Tanzania, cover 28 000 square miles and oontain a population of about 1.5 million people of whom about 1.1 million live in the Pangani basin with an area of some 11 600 square miles. As a result of the wide variation in soil and olimatio oonditions, the population of the Pangani basin is unevenly diatributed and is largely concentrated in the northern mountain areas. The need for the development of irrigation in the two basins is, of oourse, part of the need for improvement of the regional and national economy, but particularly stems from the population pressure in the upper Pangani basin.
It is estimated that about a third of a million acres are under some form of irrigation in the upper Pangani basin, and that on mounts Meru and Kilimanjaro about half amillionacre foot of water are abstracted annually,.largely, for irrigation purposes. Current irrigation praotices are wasteful of water, ana there is considerable room for improvement in water usage and intensification of production. Surveysinthe upper and middle reachos of thePanganiriver ihowed the limited availability of unpopulated, or only lightly populated, land suitable for irrigation development. Although a preliminary reconnaissance revealed a large, virtually unpopulated area suitable for irrigation development in the ooastal plain of the Wami river basin, the area is some 250 miles from 16
the densolr poeulated mountain areas of tho upper Pangani basin, and offers a drastic) ehange in environmental conditions totusmountain dvellere of the north elieeo indicate that effective relef of population pressures in tho upper Pangani will be ach3eved more by the developmentora systematic emtencien programme aimed at intensifying and improvingeristing irrigation in that re6len, than by tho development of irrigation schemes in the limited areas vhieh ere reapepulated, or only lightly populated, and in which the sojls are of fair or marcnnai suitability for irrigation,: Theirrigation development proposed as a neenit eZ theSI.1.21Whowever, provides an opportunity to build up ozper:ienee both In the improvement of e:dating irrigation and the establishment by potTemeu new areas.
2. ttroo
Soils
The soil surveys carried out during the project at reconnaissance and semi- detailed level iitondod over a total area of 280 434 .cres. In addition, broad reconnaissance and clett:led surveys were oarried out.
Y.n aoIledwater region of lic) Panuni basin there are some 38 000 acres of good 017,,Els 7:10JAsv voprosenting56percent of the area surveyed. Details rogoxiltagaeo::istenoe of shallou phases of those soils and of salino and alkaline patches11P,ve JQi;to be determined however. A high proportion of the land is ourreetlw in neo and some Corm of irrigation ic practised over much of the land under ,7,ttlai;lou.
;.ho middle region of the Pangani basin no irrigation Clase I soils were identified although some39000 acres, or 43 nercent of the area surveyed, are suitable ro:,ia:olgation in Classes II and /II Salinity and alkalinity re major problems in this region; irrigation is currently being practised in localized areas.
'he oroa sur . y.ed at reconnaiss nee level in the4miooastal plain the 57OW lore' rf soils suitable for irrigation in Classes I and II. The are elze very spe :ely populated (seo Chapter IV).
The completion of the Nyumba ya faungu dam and reservoir on the Pangani river has vomoverlaodanger of frequent flooding in the oentral plains of the basin. Further, ,..Cte.o meeting the commitment for hydroelectric power generation in the the river, the reservoir has made available am additional 233 000 eere Zeet, (i)' water for the expansion of irrigation upstream of the Hale pewee eni,ai(i. The Miwaleni springsOTOthe main source of water for the largest 17
of the o,reasn opor,,,e'l for fiovoJ J.oz, Noohi dPie b0, In arls1:1 1,e)v), C , ,; 101,10)" O.:Pet:1Z e Of C ellbrit ant" Jh ',rep::C t. ry cC, 111(101..11. detorrainoel
Thcitof;Alf:,I,T,71., 1, 'o7 "hi- ,no,00no, cori,
ri,Lscho.:ocsoo o r,o;o4., ;.7or, sorne 3 000 000-Alpo, , o bao s°,`,:imtryCor i oorf,:oon "r P e`' i.;;^ t of Abel,bi 05 :ab e Cn ttrC.
, ' LY1.1,,Oh , I. (lonobruobion O oe:rvo C Ot 1,7(7 ci tr.1 v
C o
2, wide range of crops gi-fn/n on estates e,nd intheP.ga.ntbar:,.1n rniroS rc blic ctreJi, cond.i.t).onswh...1, oh eau eocur , . ,y; ino3.udo coffee 9ter,hananas na.1,
1,tt:ttl,t Of le gum° and ve.rion,o, c;t, tt't , 't 9 ft: crop prodnot oio"oo f Or 110h1e) 11.01:1 0,0311c, c.,) a:1 r 7A' ;,,,r 01, region Of the 0,; r'y t lase of unon-t.' ablo t Ion 70!: (")»: pop , - fortili7.ere no:ati,ibu to *IA) ,STIc")
The o,rsronomio oko,r3j.00 oyo,(01 ri,;;; 101,10:17Te,3:100,,E1 Of tin Sh:'1 .0"-J. The H.0 y101dS Of 00100'600. e5,',ope srnIP lu Yo, Pot ontiol of 1).01-70.17 r;et tell ;; ;
11.100role end he 1.10 e erfl 12:1, " ; "06.4 oniono end 'bursto e "e'e r re. f1 ; - F".`4 4.ng
andz?.r.cl. of manacemeni, p;ID d Lavo t trror C,2,1",k ryo vv:Aei-Aou v.na time of the yer,;o 7f.',ohoO000r, Th, rogulremero, votH;;L:-..,c , '0,j%; Ito "V'.., mc, 01) d.ecortIono,fi.on 'aeocie 'Jo 7:)of, t,,,',, .:41(,,e;:,-oo, o Lo-orivJ,;.; be r e em o o rLJ 0:2cl , ", , This, is a long pre ,,,- hi; ..(.! produo i.onclad. the ,dne r FPrrr t 7, Devolopmont of 8-,a,t ','',',,,'''t majo°repo ofLIJo --r, beans , 'Oa or.l.w.lti of?(,.!! ,
DO i; en for 't no 6.1..0 1: 0. 1;1: . r N r'rr C.C1-0 .11*. 1.0 Pr' hc'cbory oapacit,oa br-1
No agronewir.,, -.Gym:A° 1,7c, , ;20:' tion development, but .11 the(-,c,WG.c,".1 and possibly tobacco rh.orld -18
In addition to the usual rango of cereals, legumes, and rootorops, c000nuts, aashavaluto and various tropical fruits aro grown on a small soale by the very 21°.)23Qpopulation living in tho Wami coastal plain. Detailed studiee are required before recommendationo can be mad° for crops whioh should be included in an iarigatjon development orogrammo. Due to the high tsetse population no cattle are kept in the arca: and the lack of animal and traotor powor, together with the laot of local market incentave, aro major contributing factor° to poor cultural atandards and low orop yle]ds °to Chapter IX).
Markats
Good 4xport markets exist for a number of the orope under consideration including cotton, chillies, seed beans, and for fresh onions and various processed vagetables of the right quality. There is an internal markzt for sugar, maize, dairy produotse and with the establishment of a bag factory at Moshi, also for kenaf fibre. Communications and primary marketing arrangements in Moshi are in gonoral oatisfaotory for these produote. The growing regional and national demand for lieuid milk, and tho inability of the recently oompleted dairy faotory in Arusha to obtain adequato supplies locally, indicate the desirability of develop- ing milk production.
Primary marketing facilities aro not so dovelopod in the central Pangani aeglon as in Moshi, and communication° are peor. In both areas cooperativosplay a majoa part in primary markoaing.
In the kiam ooaotal plain primary marketing is such that there is little 91oductionancentivo for tho °mall number of cultivators in the area. General dovelopment to date has boon very limitad and communicationo are extremely poor .caa) Ghaeter
4' Ir'i,:nti.on Develo ent
High dovolopment costo or uncuitablo soils ruled out much of the land . alaeoti.gatcd with a viol; to irrigation dovolopmont in the Pangani river basin0 f'our aaeao aro proposed for developmont. Tho aoroages and preliminary estimates af engineering capital coot are given bolow.
A roservoir for flood control and tho provision of a base flow to ensure aaigation water throughoutaheyear is a preroclaisite to large scale irrigation ,aavolopment on tho Wami coastal nlain.A preliminary estimate of irrigation evelopment ovor 50 000 acres indicatea an engineering cost of about Shs T 3 200 aer acro: ei:oluding tho cost of tho oterage reservoir. 19
Not Ectimatocl.
Xvrig,7,blo OcTJtal Water Hou , Area Oonit RequLvo- (8h2 T/ morsi; (aores) P.m" ii (:loro 'fo t
o Kahe (i) surfaee irrigation 8 800 2 760 60 000 or 17vom (ii) overhead sprinkler 11 000 2 560 60 000 NJImlooj Sprvlogn 2. Miwaleni 2 000 3 020 14 000
pump*w:
Naururu 2 200 3 380 20 000 aivnion
'ver
4. Marwa 7 000 500 36 000 romp clAvovrOnn .Crom 2,0rov
1/ One US dollar is equivalent to7.14 Tanzja shillings.
The estimated ongineering costo por zero 4"or the )'ive ochemec aro baoed cek full development of each area. In practice, development would take place over a number of yearo. Tho rateordevelopment oanno be forecast at thio otagov and will depend on the resulte obtained from pilot aresv the availability of experieneed management and trained exteneion and cooperative otaffv the readineon of settlers to come forwardv the rate t which the oettlore adapt themselves to new oonditionsv and the availability of funde. In the early stage of develop- ment capital costo por acre will be higher than the quoted estimatoov ae oertain works will require to be oompleted in full from the outoov irreopecOve of the area initially brought under irrigEetiono
The rato of improvement in production i.e likely to be factor where the farmers are familiar with the development arca, the crops included in the farming system, and have experience of irrigation however simple or inefficient theiv current practioes may appear. These oonditions will apply where development based on the improvement of 0e-doting irrigation farmingv ao it doce in partv at leastv at Miwaleni,Upland and at Naururu Experienee gained in the develop- ment of these areas by meano of intensivev eoordinated rural extension programmes would be of wide application to the very oztonsivo aroF, eurrent3y under como form of irrigation in the Pangani headwaters, and middle regions Where irrigation development io 'lo be established on settlement; as at Kahep -20
P ejoe',e rw.ltelm bac,e0 on uoll tried and familiar oroco shoul d be developed e)lot ereas bufnre settlemeat -.akeo plaoe.More remunerative and ooplcn.:10aod1 formior4 vntems may. be Introdueed no they are developed and the oceier: f,!as;.rueuoo 17; established.
Because of thn soile and topograoy in the Marwa areaoverhead sprinklee irr.u::aen poposed. The on.!..aoe::ingr;020por aoro are highg and apart from pvevd!'11,!U.nLLec. ans!istrnen tn oz.-jut:WE farmersg it would. be advisable Lo await t CiYoT the (1.0.110.aeudiee of overhead sprinkleoperation proposed "-CY Kali° pilot area; befe?e any notion takes place at Marwa0
control is aFO-GYOq10,20 tOir1-1ZZtiOn developmant on the Rani coastal Q0nt Of1.aud devolopmen7t Tor irrigation is Loo high for irrigation
(i,r3 L. 0.r the fLcioci cor.1;fol renervoivo irvigatiou dne-elepmen;3 ern oely ,1/0 coci; oi ;!1.00d. eentrel uua storage i.e borne by 12d.reoleetvePOMPgeaaration. A decision as -Lo whathor hydroelectric poner ni iL ha 0e,Jo1opod jea Um 1110.b!:.ain has yet!,o be taken. The area issparsely peprintodg ard tho oonditione are no diffe.oent free nlose of tho overpopulated
but (7,'»')2 )71. hea?thy mountain c.J;o17,s tho upper rangani basing that-it is unlikely that, olptiTInaot numbero of people uould be atraeted -Lo tho ceasta/ Plain from the n.pper !?angani. mountain arcas in tho ferseoable future.No alternativo source of peoplet'OPthci major devolopmen, of irrigation in this axon has yet been invecLisated. Feo the foregoing reasons irrigation development on tho Wami coastal plain io lileolN to proceed slowl,v and etendOVOP my years (see Chapter VT+,eeeinn 4 at CbZDtOP n:and Chapter XI).
5. Pilo 4 4
04'norr:InE4i2:mid in the ihterest of efficienoyg irrigation development roc none.w,:;11clovea of control and supervision. Inevitably, laudteaure and problems 11511 arise whieh will be further agEravated if curPí prao L.onl :rooJ cc1e Logther with the etaffnecessary for thedissemination oT tbjn1732owled!eeturn/.1(.1i; avallab3e0 Moreoverg the rate of adoption of rrILY74-xdoil1cci nr nL aun nald the 1a el of yields obtained byfamily workedfields ,71J-2 17'ca) ebtained Croo fields worked 1-1:ylabourers under direct rhoolL ;)(1oxiNDosed, bofcra e. final economic judgementfor full develop- mole madr!. rrigati,on areno are,therefore, requiredin each main eco v)5,n90:7, Ocvelopment. Ip those areas agronomio investigations rre7,v cp,rnc,0 ovkLQw.:poPimenLrA. and field scale, the nouial and adminis ra- Lire'.).7T,1)1c.rao nf ooLicDmon.6 ITIP.7 he studied, staff of variousdiselplines may pvr-, 2or.A naerield. uonditions, zind a domonsi;r0,n.on for future vare;, mc fc,IJishock In addition, data will be made available which 110j ,q,*(D posnlio r, morn reliable oceaomic assessment of mala developments to tae: TZ -, 21 -
Health
Bilharziasis is the principal medical problem associated with irrigation, although malaria, amoebiasis, and nematodes are present andoare will have to be taken to ensure that irrigation development does notworsen the 'health situaLion. Currently no human trypanosomiasis has been recorded but in the Wami where there is a high tsetse density and Glossina brevipAlpis ispepen, human trypanosomiasis could be transmitted, should oases be imported.
Hydroeleotrio Power
The cost of land development for irrigation in the Wami coastal plajn. j.s so high that irrigation can bear no part of the cost of a flood control pnd storage reservoir on the Wami river. If the storage cost could be chargedtoh,ydrooleetrio power generation it would be a step forward in the development of largo scale irrigation on the Witi coastal plain. It is understood that Governmenti2 considering the Wami basin, together with other areas, as a possiblePOU:r°00of additional power to meet the forecast of load growth for the Noshi !!rurhav and Central/Coastal areas from about1975/76onwards*
As a follow up to the initial proposals by SWECO, Consul-LIng TE;ngj.neer and Architeot, preliminaryoonsiderationwas given to the alternat2ve development of underground and surface power stations. The tentativo cos% ounderground power development with an installed oapaoity of 165 megawatts andanestimatedannual energy of775million Kwh is E 36.2million. For surface power devclopmen with an installed oapaoity of73.5megawatts and an estimated annual energ7 million Kwh the tentative oost ie E. 28.76 million. Both coe esimatc'e 2ucude the full estimated oost of the main storage reservoir on Lhe Womt7 wh:oh would also control the flood waters on the coastal plain (seo sociou 5 of (lhape VT.).
B. RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the oonolusions of the survey, the following reoommen are made. -22 -
1. Irriion D.orcient
Of the irrigai:ion areeL peoposed, Kaho, Miwaloni upland and Naururu offer the hest potential for oarly development. Although i would appear that priority attention should be given to Kahe, and full development of Miwaleni,upland should depend on tho effect of substantial groundwater abstraotion by borehole° on the floo of tho Miwaleni epringe9 in the light of present knowledge, it is recommended
'akpA, early attention be giren to the improvement and intensifioation of existing irrigation at Miwaloni upland end Naururu.
as
Irrigation development should be based on ei:perience gained in pilot areas establiohed within each main area peoposed for development. Initially each pilot area should aim at developing, testing and demonstrating a simple farming eeeteu based en well tried crops whieh are familiar to the people of the area. Te these irrigation development aroasouch as Kche,where development is dependent en eetlementv part of the pilot area should be eat aside in order that the p.,oposocl farming system could be furt?Ier tested under conditions of family operated bGfore large cicala eettlement is started.
Reseaeoh into moro intensive and remunerative farming system should be w.!..rriod out concurrently with the development of the simple farming systems whioh will be adopted in the firet years of main doveloement.
Kahe dMiwaloniu cl
Pilot areas have been establiehed at Kahe and Miwaleni upland on 200 and 100 acres eespective3y0 The main crops for inolueion in the simple farming system to be tested may well be cotton2 4yhrid maizop and seed beane with vegetables, inoluding tomatoeou onions9 and chiYlies, grown as minor orop.
Should Government policy support tho expansion of sugar production by 'out-growers in Moshi district, and if factory capacity can be made available, then sugar cane should be tested for early inclusion as a major orop at Kahe.
In view of the demand for kenaf fibre in Moshi when the bag factory oommenoe operation, investigations into the cultivation and decortioation of kenaf should continue.
Because of the more effioient control of water applications by overhead sprinkler irrigation, it is recommended that thio method be tried out on part of the Kahe pilot area, in view of the salinity and or alkalinity problems in parts of the main areas.
Investigations into the problemo and economies of produotion and processing of the potentially more rewarding vegetable crops should also oontinue. 23 -.
A dairy unit should be established at an zarly dateso that the economics of milk production from grade otock fed on irrigated foddercrops can be studied, and experienoe gained in dairy management.
Naururu
A pilot irrigation area should be established at Naururuon about 250 acres as soon as funds and staff are available, and again early attention should be direoted to the development and testing of a simple farming system basedon crops well known to the people of the area.
Many of the soil units found in the main development areaare contained in the proposed pilot area, and speoial oonsideration should be given to the ivriga- tion development problem° oet by the intricateBollpattern prevailing in the main development area.
Marwa
It io recommended not to ootablioh apeloarea at Mama nneil the impleoateoun of tho operation of an overhead oprinklor oyotem have boon etudied in detailou the Kahe pilot area, and the financial and etaffing oommitmente of Koh°, Miwaloni upland, and Naururu areas have been fully mot.
Flood control is essential before major irrigation development can take place on the Wami coastal plain. The cost of the flood control and storage reservoir can only be borne by hydrooleotrie pouer. No pilot irrigation area should be establiehed unless and until it ie decided to develop hydroolectrto power in the Wami basin. Thom will be sufficient time between the taking of a decision to develop hydroelectric power and the conotruotion of a flood Genteel and storage reservoir for pilot area invootigation to be eavviod out withou delaying main development.
n
Further atudiee should be carried out on the groundwater supplieo in i;vto lower areas of Moshi and on the effeot of substantial borehole abstraotioro on the flow of the Miwaleni springs.
Detailed eoil surveye are required at Kahe, Miwaloni upland and Yaurure. These schemee should then be reappraised in tho light of data fror the pilo i;areno and the detailed soil eurveye. 24
Development at Naururu and Miwaleni upland should aim at improving and inLensifying existing irrigation as part of a full, coordinated rural extension programme. At Naururu this should include improvements to the intake and load canal from the Pangani.
A schedule Eel. phased settlement of Kahe should be prepared as soon as a satisfactory simple farming system has been fully tested on the pilot area, and staffiug requirements can be met.
The introduction of potentially more rewarding farming systems, including intensive vegetable production for processing and dairy farming, should not take place until Uhese systems have been fully tested on the pilot areas at Kahe and Mioaloni upland.
Even if a decision is taken to develop hydroelectric power in the Wami ooastal plain, and a flood control and storage reservoir is construoted, major irrigation development is likely to proceed slowly in view of the lack of popu- lation innu)area and other problems such as poor communications, lack of markets, associated with the development of the area.
Consideration should be given to the source of people who would develop the area, and a oareful study should be made of the full implioations of attraoting large numbers of people to this unpopulated locality.
2. processing
Vc,,71 1es are processed into various products.Varietal suitability to the vou:i products varies considerably. More detailed rioultural research is required before oonsideration can be given to the type of produot to be produced and the establishment of minimum economic processing facilities.
In the meantime oonsideration should be given to aoquiring the unused pilot dehydration plant from the Tanganyika Farmers Cooperative Association in Arusha for the preparation of sample offers of dehydrated produots and trial shipments*
E5;a1nt of a Unified Irri ation Development Autho
The in interests involved in the development of water resources require close coordinaLion of all with sectorial responsibilities for waterusage, and an administrative organization with legal powers. Within the overall organization for the development of uater resources, there isa need for a unified authority uih rpeso responsibility for irrigation development. Such an authority would be responsible for coordinating and evaluating projeots beforeauthorizing their execution,andfor preparing the plans, controlling, authorizingor 25
executing the individual projeote. The authority would onouvo that tho structure essential for sucoessful irrigation projectc7 Locluding communic3tions9 markets, exteneion, research, and social °ervices v:ere developodo aad uould arrange for the neoessary training of all conceruod Although 1 moy be cRla that this can be aohieved by joint consultation3ndaction by 11.ovarious ministries, past experienoo elsewhere has °hour the advantage be uained from a unified authority.
Trainind
Irrigation development programmes will reauire the participation in varying degrees of various organizations and individuals inoluding local authoritios2 influential leadere of the community, andCOODOITUVOsoeieties in addition to the staff at all levele of a number o: Government department°. It is essential that the training of all oonoerned should be closely coordinated,
In addition to the training of staff :!.n. the practical toohniques oi* irriga- tion and farming and the provision of he necessaryWYEIAOODDpublic opinion requires to be brought to understand tho need for control and discipline in irrigation development programmes.
Full use should be made of the pilot area° vhon planning traininprogrammeso and oonsideration ehould be given to short overseas practical training courses for selected intermediate and field level workers.
Health
Medical soruting of the settlers and' :6ment of all diseases which could be of epidemiologic importance (malaria, bil1ar5iasis2 andS'iostomiasis)2 should be done before the eettlers arrive on the seheme, Vaccination of all settlers and immunization of the children should be c=ied out,Treatment and followup on individual record oards should be eotablisedand the region of the country from whioh the settler comes noted.
Malaria prophylaXieshould be oonsideo,f. er the arrival of neu, immune settlers.
The bilharziasis hazard, considered as ore of',310majcc? heo.nh requires the institution of molluscicide convol monlode in 1ieUCJ,OP supp);,;, intake for the irrigation schemes. Intensiv3 hoc,,1V,h ckleeuioa (1.5.xTooa prevention of oontact with water is indispenclab!.n. Obsorvaor ofthoooccal ohanges and surveillance of the irrigrion.133-emfc2 QAaile &lon111..1)( folEAvoa from the beginning. CHAPTER III
DESCRIPTTON OF THE PROJECT AREA
General
The Pangani and Wami river basins lie in the northeast corner of the United Republic of Tanzania, and cover a total area of approximately 28 000 square miles, or about 8 percent of the area of the country as a whole. Some15percent of the population of the country live in the two basins, with heavy concentration on the mountain slopes on the northern and eastern edges of Pangani basin. The gross value of exported agrioultural produots is some & 10 million pounds or roughly25percent of the national figure, with the greatest oontribution ooming from the Pangani basin.
Location and Physical Desoription
(a) Pangani river basin
The Pangani river runs for a distance of about 330 river miles from the steep slopes of Mount Meru and the Kilimanjaro massif in the northwest to the Indian Ocean at Pangani in the southeast. The western edge is flanked by the Masai steppe, whilst the east is bounded by the North and South Pare Mountains and the Usambara Mountains. The basin covers an.area of some 12 000 square miles and lies between longitudes36°30'E and 39°E and latitudes 3°S and 5030'5. - 28 -
The perennial streams from Meru and Kilimanjaro, and the flow from several epringo emanating from the geological contaot between the underlying basement complex andhe ouperimposed voloanics merge into one single river, the Plangent, at tho ape:: of the detrital fan a few miles south of Arusha Chini. From thio pointy for a distance oí about 100 river miles, the Pangani beoomee a "stranger" river running in a semidesert trough for 60 miles to Kirua, thereafter paseing through a series of falls and rapido over a distance of 25 miles to Buiko, and then down a final fall at Mandera before reaching its oonfluenoe with the Mkomazi, ii;s, largest tributary. Below the Mkomazi the river entera a short eatarac stretch and then, below Korogwe, reoeives much of the drainage from the Central Usambaras through the Luengera, an intermittent river. It then drops down ths escarpment in a series of faLls finally reaching its estuary through a short Gorge and a sluggish, meandering course across the coastal plain.
The uppermost tributariee begin on tertiaryrecent voloanios assooiated with Kilimanjaro and Meru, the basin itself lying almost entirely on Preoambrian orystalline metamorphic, rook. Recent and Pleistooene to Miocene laoustrine sheets, overlying the Preoambrian basement, floor the valley between the lower Moshi area and Hedaru.Neooene fluviotile and marine beds oocur along the ooaet near Fangani and there are small patches of Paleozoic and Mesazoio rooks near the river mouth°
By comparison with other Afrioan rivers, the Pangani is not a great river, but duo to various footers its flow was relatively equable prior to the oonstruction of the Nyumba ya Mungu dam, even though there was only one lake (Jippe) of any importance in its headwaters. The main reason for the comparatively equable flow of the Pangani is the poroue nature of the soils in the upper oatoh- ment area whioh rapidly absorb the rain water. The absorbed water partly reappears as perennial springs on the southern flanks of Meru and the Kilimanjaro massif and accounts for about half of the total annual river disoharge above the Mkomazi oonfluenoe.
(b) Wami river basin
The catchment area of the Wami river and its tributaries oovers approximately 16 000 square miles and lies between latitudes 35°30°E and 39°Eand longitudes 5°S and 7°S. The basin is bordered by the Rufiji and Ruvu rivers on the south and by the Fangani, Msagesi and Mligazi rivers to the northandnortheast.
The river rises some 60 miles north of the town of Dodoma, where it is known as the Kinyanoungwe river. Near Miwapwa it bears southeastwards° and flows into Lake combo near Kidete. The area drained above Kidete, the western plateau, oovers neaxly 6 000 square miles. Only after heavy flooding in the oatohment area does Lake Combo overflow and river water from the western plateauenters the lower river system.
Below Kidete the river is known as the Mkondoa which, flowingeoutheastwarde, penetrates the Nguru and Rubeho range of mountains andemerges at Kilosa onto an alluvial floodplain. Here, flowing initially eastwards and then northeastwards, it passes through an area of extensiveswamp land known as the Mkata Plains and 29
Tendigo Swamp. In this area it joins three 1.ibu1arios named the Mswero, Mkundi and Wami, the main river now taking the name of kiE) Wami. The river continues to flow north/northeaetwarde until about 40 miles north of Morogoro. Here the river swings sharply east and shortly after this reaches the upper edge of the esoarpment where it leaves the central plateau. Belareea 11E3 Mkondoce-Wama river confluenoe and the escarpment, the river ie joined by the major tributaries Mkundi, Liwale, and Lukigura. The central plateau covers an area of approximately7100 square miles.
From the central plateau, the river falls rapidly down the escarpment. About five miles downstream of Mandera Bridge it levels out to enter the coastal plain and flows at a gentle gradient eastwards into the Indian Ocean.
The Wami basin ie oovered by sedimentary and metamorphio rocks formed in the Archean period. The right bank of the Kinyasungwe tributary in the western plateau is formed by a granite shield (part of a mantle which covers a largo part of Tanzania, extending from Lake Victoria down to Lake Nyasa).
Alluvial sedimentary areas formed in recent periods are:
The central alluvial plain of alluvial deposits.
The coastal plain of the Wami basin, a continuation of the Fangani coastal plaint which is formed by marine sediments between elevations of sea level to 120 ft.
The basin may be divided into five main topographical areas:
The rolling country of the western plateau at elevations ranging between 3000 to 500W.
The broken and deeply gullied ooriatry of the Nguru and Hubeho Mountains through which the draina.ge sys6em of tha western plateau and of the southern part of Mae lnc1. 35e2,
The central alluvial p1aiu gorltly olooing ia a uniform gradient from the foothills of 'hemountaies 4o the edGe ofthe escarpment from an elevation oC 1500° to 1100°
The area of the escarpment where the Wami river runs through narrows falling from 1100' to 100' within a distance of 60 miles.
The coastal plain, which includes the ali.uvlaT valloy broad flood- plain and a higher marine shelf hhrougb the riirer valley is cut, near the coast. Unlike the Pauganf. tho I'lov of the Wucti ranges widely. 30
. Climate
Rainfall
Both basins may be divided into two broad zones lying east and west of longitude37°20'(approximately).
In the coastal areas east of this line there are usually two olearly defined rainy periods, the short rains from November to Deoember, and the long rains from March to May. Annual rainfall ranges between 40 inches to 50 inches.
West of this lino, in the central area of the Pangani and inhe western plateau of the Wami, rainfall is low, unreliable and may be res'6ricted to a single periodanytime between November to May. Precipitation may be 20 nches or less.
Exoeptionstothis division 000ur in the mountain areas of Kilimanjaro, Pare, Usambara, Nguro and Rubeho where the pattern is often illdefined and where rainfall reaches as high as 80 inches a year.
Temperature
In most of the areas of interest to irrigation development temperatures fluotuate over a limited range. In the Pangani basin mean monthly temperatures rango from a minimum of 68°F to a mean maximum of77°Fin the headwaters area, and a mean minimum of76°Fto a mean monthly maximum of 83°F in the coastal plain. The temperature conditions in the Wami basin are similar.
4. Communications
(a) The Pan ami basin
The basin is well serviced by a small single track 1.06 m gauge railway line which runs from Tanga in the southeast, about 30 miles north of the Pangani river mouth, through KorogKe to Moshi and Arusha in the northeast. The northwest end of this lirio connects with the NairobiMombasa line from Kahe, 17 miles south of Moshi, to Voi. The southern end of the ArushaTanga line in connected to Dares- Salaam at a junction 40 miles from Tanga.
A main road runs down the eastern side of the basin from Himo on the Arusha- MoshiMombasa road in the north, to Korogwe and Tanga. Access elsewhere in the basin is by secondary roads and tracks which are often impassable forone or two days after heavy rain. A single traok of very low standard parallels the riveron 31
the right bank. The river may be orossed at the Nyumba ya Mungu dam and at Toronto.
A scheduled air service oalls at Tanga, Moshi and Arusha, and airstrips suitable for light aircraft, and as emergency landing grounds for others,are maintained at Enaare Nairobi, Some, Mombo and Makanya.
(b) The Wami basin
The only two townships of major signifioance, Dodoma and Kilosa, are linked by the central raiJway line whioh runs from DaresSalaam to Kigoma.
There is a network of reasonable main roads but the eystem of feeder roads is inadequate and of a low standard.
5. Land Use and the Peo le
(a) The Pan ani river basin
Of the total area of 12 000 square miles it is estimated that some9000 square miles arosuitablefor grazing and as game reserves only. Most of the grazing liesin Lhe west ofthe basin and is used by the pastoralista Masai. Of the remaining -1 000 square miles, some450square miles or288000 acres, are taken up by estato agricultura in whioh sisal, coffee, tea, oereals and sugar are major crops° About450000 acres are oocupied by forest reserves. Small holdings cultivated by the localpoopleoocupy the remaining utilizable land, esijmo.to0 to h ho1, i.5m.71.11.0nacres. There is a strong element of cash orop or the local people, particularly in the Kilimanjaro aveaLo.L'( 013LstT,,olfa as major o:4)ev[; crops in addition to food crOps.
i5 5L.;PA-0. a "tj'.i;some form of l_rvigation agrioulture is practised ovex noor,c.,,DrJ on soothaPa slopes o;:' Kilimanjaro and Meru, and in the AL.UM,V,1 hom 61J 1ix8hLy pki.11ed irrigation farming carried out on pomo of ho esats, i,he local people in ihe mountain areas have praotised usXng furrows, over many decades, and more recently in loc61.Q',, in the low areas.
A wide ,11r.;, al'eV0011by the local people and reflect the ooloA6e7; n envicenmental conditions. On the mountain slopes the en;.(171?,»25 ti1C1MCoofie, bananas, maa, olusine, beans and a variety of b1so niìucluug oonsideoable tonnages of onions. On the lower plains common orov a;-e mo,T.!e,cot,;o11; ca5pax,a, p,raet potatoes and beans, with minor garden 32
planting of vegetabloc. In memooathe valleys whore irrigation is available such as southweet of Same, an parta of aho Mkomasi valley, and in limited areas around Kalle, riceiF1
The total populaaion of the basin is approximatelyloimillion people, and it is made up of some ean different tribes. Although customa, habits and language vary, swthili is understood almost everywhere. Numerically the Wa Chagga are the most importan, and together with the Wa Pare and 4a Kali°, are most directly ooncerned with the areas proposed for irrigation development. The intensivo cash orop paoduoaion, particularly in the Kilimanjaro area, has resulted in a relaLivoly hlgb otandard of living. This is being threatened by the rapid growth in population as the aystem of inheritance leads to fragmentation of holdings, and employment opportunities in the urban areas are inadequate to satisfy the needs of the younger generation. Tribal affiliation, family ties, health conditions and personal attachment to the environment are the main barriers to population movement.
Chapter VIII of this volume describes in more detail the sociologioal oonditions, and Chapter IX the ourrent land use, in the areas seleoted for irriga- tion development. These areas, Kahe and Miwaleni upland in the headwaters region, and Naururu and Marwt in the middle rogion of the Pangani, were selected following investigation of a number of possi.bla aaeae suggested by earlier surveys, partioularly thoue contained in tu: acaort by Sir William Halorow and Partners, 1962.
(b) The Wami river basin
Land use is much less intensive than in the Pengani basin with largo areas of the b sin uninhabitea end, others only extensively grazed by cattle of pastoral tribes. The presenceor E3,:, s0fly in the central alluvial plain, alonk the escarpment and in tbe ooastal plain, is a limiting factor to grazing develop- ment. Estate agrioulture is more restricted than in the Pangani basin and is largely oonfined to sisal produotion along the railway lino in the central alluvial plain. Small soale subsistence farming is oarried on in various loca- lities, particularly around Dodoma on the western plateau and on the southern foothills of Lbs Rubeho and Nguru mountains.
There are eeverai traaes 0.omin2ted numerically by the Wagogo, who provide one quarter of the k)tal populataon of some 400 000 people living in the basin. The Wagogo, onWI°wooera clatoau, cmd ho Masai are pastoralists. The other major tribal groups, the Wasangara, Wa Kagura and the Wa Nguru, live on the mountain slopes and obtain their livelihood by oultivation.
An early appraisal suggested that the aoastal plain offered the best opportunity for irrigation development.Following on from further investigation a very sparsely populated area was proposed for irrigation development. The few inhabitants of this area are dependent on subsistence farming, fishing, or wages from the railway, sisal estates, and the Salt Works. A more detailed description of the area proposal for irrigation development is given in Chapter IX. 33
6. Health
Bilharziasis is the principal medical problem associated with irrigation development. Transmission of S.mansoniand S. haematobium exiets in thePangani basin and of the 1 tter only in the W i ,:rea. The vector snail of the intestinal form, B pfeifferi, is present round the scheme in the lower Moshi area, and its prolific breeding under irrigation development is well known.
In the whole of both river basins, malaria is endemic), and the spread of malaria in new irrigation areas could constitute a real danger. Many of the settlers on new irrigation areas are likely to be relatively.non-immune individuals from the mountains where malaria is absent.
Amoebiasis and nematodes are also prevalent and steps will need to be taken to prevent the situation deteriorating under irrigation.
Currently no human trypanosomiasis has been recorded, but in the Wami basin where tsetse densities are high and the more important Glossina brevipalpis is present, human trypanosomiasis could be transmitted,should oases be imported.
Although the nutritional status in the lower Moshi area is betterthanin the rest of the country, it is uneatisfactory in the Wami region - especially in protein oonsumption - and the population would certainly benefit from changes induoed by irrigation, both by diversified oropping and higher food production and by higher per capita inoome. CHAPTER IV
OIL SURVEYS AND SUITABILITY FOR IRRIGATION
1. General Introduction
Between June1964and Deoember 1966 soil surveys were carried out at different levels in pavo oT Olo two basins. A number of the areas to be surveyed had already been selected 2raor to the start of the project. In addition, broad reconnaissance and e:7plorp.,tory surveys were carried out during the life of the projeot to identify o.rers For furher study. The location of the soil surveys is shown in Figure3. Table i llots the different areae in which the surveys were conducted, together with the acreages and levels of the surveys.
The surveys were directly concerned with suitability for irrigation, and the soils were grouped according to the irrigation classes established by. the United States Department Interior, Bureau of Reolamation. The irrigation clasees aro briefly definedobfollows:
Class I Land highly suitable for irrigation farming.
Class II Land moderately suitable for irrigation farming.
Class III Marginal land of fair suitability for irrigation farming.
Class IV Not irrigable, except under special conditions.
Class V Undetermined suitability for irrigation.
Class VI Nonarable land which cannot meet the minimum requirements of other classes. - 36 -
Table 1: Areas of Soil Surveys Giving Aoreages and Level of Survey
Areas Reconnais- Semi- Detailed Other Observations and sanco Soil detailed Soil Sur- Soil Sur- Level of Survey Survey Soil voy voy Acreage Survey Acreage Acreage Acreage
Pangani Headwaters Re ion
Miwaleni . 28138 1 500 Kahe Off 00 0 39 506 1 727 40 000 General exploratory survey followed by semidetailed and detailed surveys.
iddle Pangani Re ion
aWR .000o000.00 15286 Check survey. NaUrUnle.00move. 15220 739 Semidetailed and detailed. gage 0000000 000 0 39 950 40000 Exploratory and semidetailed. edaru00 0.000 0 0 36120 60000 Broad reconnaissance and semidetailed.
Wuni Coastal P a 121 500 Intensivo reconnais- sance.
seellaneous
Upper niva)eni .0 .0 .0 2 000 Broad reconnaissance. _aloe 496 Detailed by Govern- ment request. Avungwe .0 General exploratory. gago-Remitl0000 (M. ditto Buikom00000m000 ditto Lako Manka00000too .0 ditto Mkomasi valley0.. 3 000 Broad reconnaissance. Lwengera valley.. 2 000 ditto Lower Pangani General exploratory. Central Wami ditto 41-
2. Pan ani Hee
Thin section oovorsinvostigatioas oaoriod out in tbo aroa ahoy() tho Nyumb ya Mungu domo and includoe oreas looatod between the Fangani rivor and its tributaries: tho KiLnlotua: Rau: Muo and Soho rivors. The location and lovol of tho survoyn aro shown 3.-Fino 4.
A semidetailed survey of 28 138 acres was orriod out around&ridbelow the Miwaleni springs. Tho objeot was to asoortain t1ie amount: naturo: and distribution of the soils and todotermine thoirsuitability ;.'Orirrigation agrionitnro with water dorivoa from the springs. Tbo aroa jnvontigated included land lying to the uorth cva easi. oC the spmugs boyona command.: an uoTi ao 07:tonsive areas tobhesouth undor command,
Nuoh of the lana uncial' command betueen the Ran ana the Mno v*vt:12F, nro salinity ova alkalinityproblems: and theno problems inereaso in intensity south- wards. A detailed soil survey carried ou.6 on 1 500 aores immediately south of the springs further confIrmea this, /-
In all, some 12 500aCYCJOof Clase I land were mappod. Mos of thi.et land suitable forirrigation icon tho alluvial slopes ahoyo commondr) thc springs and water must beobtained eithor by pumping from the springo ov from boveholos The good irrigation land undor command in restricted to narvou t:.ripri along the ylvors and in the Kaho Forest Reserve:togethor utthsmallscattered pockot. Som 10 116 acres am completely unsuitable for irrigation duo mank-to serious salini'Gy and alkalinity orobloms. Adverse topography: flooding, shallowness and rockiness aro additional inhtbiting facoro.
VIAremainder of tho arca includes only 710 acres of Class iand suitability-2ovirrigatiou: and 4 713 acres of Class 1,7410. orrginal suitability.
The distribution ofland according to irrig tion class's in Figure5.
Within the land classifiod: at semidoallod laveian sui.tabla %::)r Lion agriculture above gravity command of the Mivaloni springs: ru a.7ca selecoa ror J.rrigation development.
The ground slopo of tha aren is ;7airl2rot000yoxylue from 1;700 immediately above the springs e 'c 0O on the northern edge of tho arar. solcoLod.
The soils aye devoloped on alluvial materia/ of volcanic orjgin. The.,yc.IN1 usual1,7 a dark -i:eadioh brown: ana are of a hoavy clay tos.4nrc When 1:7 become vel7 sticky and plastic.Strong: medium granular surface ntlincaron aro usual: uith variations in tho structural development oftho nubsoil, Deep cracking isprevalent duringtho dryseason.Located on sloping laqd abovo tbo springs: tbo soils are frac from flooding duringtherains, 42
The pH in usually loss tha n Exoass salinity occurs in looalized areas, and requires oorrectivo measures. Drainage, uhioh is essential, is not c:cpeoted to be a serious problem. On tho whole the investigations show a reasonably ioJuctXi soilv although further investigations are required to boato the salino aroas and to define tho remedial me asures requirod.
(b) Kahe
A somidetailed survey uas earried out over39500 aoves in tho Kaha area, total area of come 25 000 aoros iras considered suitable for irrigation development. Tho butlz of tho remaining land uas unsuitable because of el:ooso- imelyhigh salinit and alkalinity,. Tho distribution of land according to irriga,- .en classes is shown in Figure 6.
The soils in the area selected for irrigation development aro deve/oped in old aAuvial-colluviol materials derived originally from the Kilimanjaro voloanicso neyare mainly deep, well drained and Permeable silt loe= and clay louts of a wool: struoture, and are highly calcareous below 30 inches.There aro however, ¿regular inclusions of shallou soils ovorlying gravels, cemented gravels and realm, Drainage of those shallow soils under irrigation will depend upon the nature of the underlying gravels and their depth above slowly permeable material° The ph of the surface soil is generally high, above7,and increases in depth in the subsoil. The vaheo of eleetrical conductivity in tho surface soils is in the main high, but in tbo subsoils it indioatos varying degrees of salinity, cd oar° is required to ensure that the water table, which is currently at a safe UJI;e1, cisco notPi90to tho rooting sono under irrigation.
In general the soils are suitable for irrigation but a detailed soilsurvey of the whole area is required to locate the shallow inclusions, and to delineate areas of high slinity, before full development takespla000
.Summary of Findings in tbùR on
Thin section oo7ors surveys carried out in thearea 0::tending from the Nyumba ya thuigu dam to the vicinity of Korogwe, and includes the croas influenoed by the Fangani iver and its tributaries, the U1aoma5i and Luongera. The looation 0.3a i0V0/0of the survey ove shoun in Figure7.,
(a) u
In general the soils in the central Pangaui regionare besot with problems inoTuding high salinity, high alholility, poor drainage, inclusions of shallow soils, and seasonal flooding although tho oonstruotion ofthe Nyumba ya Nungu_aam will now havo oontrolled serious flooding.A reconnaissance survey of 230 000 aores oarried out by FAO in1957in the Sane distriot of the Pangani valleys revealed no Olas I irrigation lands and loss than 2 percent of the area recon- noitered was olassed as moderately suitable for irrigation rioulture.
During the ourront inveotigatione a semidetailed soil survey was oarried out over come 15 000 across inoluding all of the aoils olaesed as moderately suitable for irrigation in the earlier r000nnaiosanco by FAO. At this semidetailed level somo 4 600 acres, or 30 percentorthe area surveyeds wao olasoed as suitable for auctained irrigation.This area oontainss however, somc inolusions of poor, and nonagricultural land, whioh will requirt a detailed soil ourvey to boato. Thoso inolusione are oocaeionally oaline/alkaline patohoes but more frequently ahallow phases of tho soilo mappods overlying a oaloareous hardpan. The fine texture of aomo of the aoilo roquireo spooial oonsideration of drainage.
A detailod ¡Jail survoys oarried out ovor some 700 aoroo in tho area proposed for a pilot Behemos furthor rovoaled the intrioaoy of the soil patterns and although tho aelooted soilo are cuitablo for irrigations orops and grassos adapted to salinity/alkalinity are reoommendod for invootigation. These include ootton, rice, matzos sugar canos and various vegotablec in tho deepor Boilo. The diatribution of land a000rding to irrigation claso io shown in Figure80
()
The area io in the central Fang&i vogions about ton miles north of the prop000dNaururu irrigation development area. It nos on rising ground to the oast of the rivor from whioh it io ooparatod by a highly alkalin4 and saline floodplain which varios from one to two and a half miles in width.
Provioue ourvoyo oarriod out in thio area by FAO in1957,and by Hunting Toohnioal Sorvioes in1961,failed to revoal Claoo I or II soila. A broad check survoy of tho area oovorod by thoso earlior atudieo gave similar resultas and the area proposed for dovolopment oonainta of some9300 acres of Class III soilos or °ono of marginal ouitability for irrigation.
Within tho area ooleotod for deVolopmeut noither oalinity nor drainage are likely to proeent soriouo problema. Tho main diffioultios lio in the steepness of tho alopeos and the coarso texture of tho soilo. FOPtheso reaoons Sir William Halcrou and Partnoro oonoluded that overhead irrigation would be necessarys and this ooncluaion io fully oupported.
(0)
Some39 950acres were mapped, at oemidotailed levels on the opposite bank to Naururu. Class II land amounted to5 970acres, and Class III to 14 450 aores. These irrigablo Boils do not occur in large blocks but are distributed in irregular aroao on the floodplain. 48 -.
The area is beset by problems related to dovelopmente espeoially high salinity and alkalinitye poor drainage, seasonal flooding, topographical tions and an espeoially rich fauna that could be both destructive and dangerous.
(d) Hedaru
Following a brief reoonnaissance 36 120 acres uoro investigated at semidetailed level. Of this some9 370acres of Class II land moderately suitable for irriga- tion were mapped. Fair or marginal lands acoount for4 760acr.s and15 550acres were separated into Clase V as worthy of future investigations.
Unfortunately the area has a variety of problems relating to tho economics of applying water, viz, length of oanals, salinity and/or alkalinity and the inclusions of shallow soils. Much of the area can be eliminated on the basis of adverso topography and rockiness.
4. Summary of Findings in the i Coastal Plain
The area is bounded on the east by the coast linee and in the w st by the DaresSalan to Tanga railway except on the Wami floodplain where surveys wore extended upstream. The northern and southern boundaries are approximately tho edges of the Wami river basine although in the south tho boundary je abrupt duo to the drainage complexity of the areae and corresponds to a lino marking the first tributaries draining into the Huvu. The survey was based on aerial photographs with some ground control. In the north traverses were made every 1-2 miles for augering and inspection0 ln the south duo tothedifficulties of making direot traverses, ground control was more scattered. The location of this reoonnaissanoe survey is shown on Figure9.
The general area within whioh the area seleoted for development is proposed, is divided into two olearly distinguishable parts. These are the lluvial flats .whioh oomprise the old floodplain on both sides of the Wami river, and tho higher shelf level of old sandy beach linese clay flats and alluvial deposits, which slopes gently seawards. The Wami river cuts its wry through his higher shelf, which may be regarded as the coastal plain proper, on its wry to the sea.
The alluvial flats along the river are subjeot to annual flooding, especially in the /ower roaohes. Upstream, to the uest, the flats aro channelled by many old drainage linese running roughly parallel -k)the river and marking former river courses. With such natural drainage lines and a gentle slope to the east, the western floodplain is inundated for shorter periods than the graded flato near the coast. The salinity influence ofhe coastal accumulation of salts extends inland into parts of tho floodplain, in the groundwater. Tho precise boundaries of these transition areas have not been cleermined. TANZANIA Figurc
LOCATION OF SOIL SURVEY H\9 THE' WAMO COAST V-UFJ1M --kmenzum,21,-77=panancrpm.rnpor==
6°00.
mit;AO1
=====%"5'
5°00
1 t....111111,-,1110m* Tti SCAL 1.500,000.
LEGEND
allway Line. ==natza:=EN,,n9== °ads or _____
imiR. Catchment oundary.-- - mnaissanceSoilSurvey. NreAreAra AREAS OF TOPOGNAP1-11(..
PANGANI-WAlk,g1 (:-:flVER DASENS
616.0 Woo' 00/70' z
1111141.1111 1:002)0 I 11^1404I1I2CEr 40.104 NORD 00 TAILED 0.07' 01110 00110 GOIL 044200 ScoICIUMSO MOO tx0a0 007Att.tto nrcs \ (11.a0 t 1 r11%/1.00 400 rra0
1102.111 '21., 2' Aol- , ocs
00011141104 41;' ,z 200 I 0 AEMAL 1101110 von 100000 VI OPT 000 CO 111L64 12,1''14,1 0402 11l2'AL11111 IRMO 4004 TCT10 1011200 111 IFT 1130 400 1.1,mplag '40 111114PILOT 4000 ,Can . TCT3 101422 01 'PI 1100 t03
1. II121t/1110016110P',IIT 1,1401.4 4411/000011,14 '1,080 n000 7000 071400 0/00,010 412011.1009, eCtIC7, RENY A .1 00 F7
° 11400 1044' 1 Ane.,A 00210117011.00 70.'110 'CO 011000I000000,,J"' tlf L10400 LEGEND tlsol.ono Dan 4'1'm 1v, 21-1100/1011 001r, ^UMW 1 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS 110041100 /MA C.T tOrn.,If .10,1:n e.0 010 7000 SIMI ITffiC)O 21127 19020 (.n:) 0400000 011.0T Ana, SOIL SURVEYS 110,10 400,1 OlIO TOO 0411004 A 0 TV 000240 VMS 21 I FT 0f) (0000 00000 00 TOCO n1041;770 DETAILED SOIL SURVEYS SI !,,,VIOCO.,yft0
r 4") 044. Fi¡pl.: 9 , 0 071,2 0 0lOrig,110 AM 1110700110011 orf t^,yntoeY5°'1 904004 0011111 ,.. ), ,,,,,... 0 01071,0110n1,2111000011.070110 CP ' 'y-' ;i "1 1100EnCiR 01111 1/1C,060VI 10 OT N.. 8 2111TO KW tL0 L 00,040 40200 4 4) 0070200/C0 1111,311OerlimcmDIM 4,4 é rlornr+0 V 400000, il 04. /---,.. 1/30,00e 90.000 (00119 tie 4,, "ii' .3, LI ,, *Tr_ , 1 4...,...,,A , T' (1) /' ' t.1,0,1 .Cr,,t. 0242,4 i'l 10)1100e 11(101,,,I0p1:2 r, iN^N 01,4100,,l,f;t,c ,0,4401A ("0:A1rz 380, 101,140 001110 :10.030:f.,1C,I,' 1fi' It Ysi7,-\--siss.\ i 0 r A 0 0C"0 "0',.0L'1'1 ,1^1r: t, q CA? LI, 00 LE vctia0 4,, 0 1141 110,aI.Mt\c.',e,-,^ AC.,11,. r I A 0 070111:01t" 11.07711 0 ) "01 1 1/1,,,,a0,, t so . V 22401 0C,1,10 ') /:/: ,6 e
0,1111,40/C1A11(1 4'2'
s ) *---f",t:-,,,,,,,,,o 0 , J , - ,,,,,, ,; 4 .44-4. , )41 '1,4To'i'L,,F,',',''c;;',.' `,ezr' ,,,/ ,,1,1 0 70') 40021. /04-,* ',I 0211, 104 0001:0 s...14 éb ;.44,v " -h', - . 4 é 4_4. PRil )1,,1 _1 ,,p 2 , ,
TOO
1.11YERING I
1411ways acad. Mood wrest toststavatben 101.0 ...... CotaI2.+en4 Weal/Mu
Tonámoas 1422422.0. 121122 -53°
An escarpment of varying height and Irregularity eeparatoe thia alluvial floodplain from the higher coastal shelf, or coastal plainproper. Thie higher land is flooded in the wetseason by aocumulating water from the high, dissected land to the west.
A crossseotion of the northern coastal plain shows generally highdissected land in the west, with long, low, regular, pedimentary outwash slopeebelow. These are partially dissected bynarrowdrainage lines that are dry most of the year, and occur at intervals usually greater than one mile, so that largo, flattish areas are common. Below these oolluvial slopee, the broad flat graavg mainly blaok olay plain,extendceastward towards the comet, dominated by the reoent sandy marine acoumulation.
On the southern coastal plain the bl °ley flats are absent, or very looal and the topography is dominated by the regular olopee of the caloareoue marine deposits, overlain by oolluvial eands, and the diecontinuoue eroded remnante of old beaoh lines which mark higher, former sea levela.
During the survey the soila were classified acoording to the potential available after problema of flooding, drainage, irregular topography, forest density and low fertility have been brought under control.
The reconnaissance eurvey over 121 500 acres revealed an extensive area of land with good potential for irrigation. No lees than 15 760 aorea of Clase land and 41 720 acres of Clase 11 land were mapped.A further 36 360 acree of fair or marginal land are available. Soil° now included within Class V could be reclassified after forest oleo ance and further investigation.
The problems to irrigation development in the area relate mainly to the following:
(0 Flooding. Floode are produced by overflow from the ' i river in the wet season and mainly cover the alluvial flats of the old floodplain. The northern coastal plain also floods, partly duo to discharge from the hilly area west of the railway through numerous distributaries.
Drainage. Many of the aoils are of a heavy texture with asaosiated poor internal drainage and are located in depressions.
Topography. The topography is variable d ocoasionally irregular neoessitating levelling in most areas.
Bush and Forest Density. Much of the southern coastal plain d the alluvial plain is oovered by dense bush.
Salinity. No serious problems are evident and saline soile are mainly oonfined to the nonagricultural "salino" and "aeaside" nomplexes. High phi is usually coincident with calcium carbonato as either nodules, conoretions or segregations within the profile.Careful water management is nevertheless neoessary to avoidsalinityproblems developing on the heavy textured soils and olay flat inolusions, near the °oast.
Low fertility. No information is available on fertility levels. Experience with similar soils, under similar olimatio conditions, suggest that those with sandy and medium textures may have a very low fertility level requiring heavy fertilization to produce good crops. The heavier soils are not so degraded and have a higher base content and better potential fertility. - 54 -
Table2:'Summary of Areas Surveyed in the Pangani and Wami Basins Giving Irrigation Classes and Acre
Irriga- Pangani Headwaters Re ion Middle Pangani Region Wami Coastal Total tion Plain Classes Miwaleni Kahe Nauru Ngage Hedaru acreage '70 acreage aoreage acreage acreage acreage aoreage
lees I 12 599 44.77 25 53664.74 ------15 76012.97 53 895 19.22 Clase II 710 2.52 300 0.76 4 600 30.22 5 970 14.94 9 370 25.9441 72034.34 62 670 22.35 Class III4 713 16.75 2 740 6.94 - - 14 450 36.17 4 760 13.18 36 36029.92 63 023 22.47 Clase IV 2 190 7.78 70 0.17 9 420 61.89 8 890 22.25 2 450 6.78 - - 23 020 8.21
Class V 1 005 3.57 10 15025.69 1 200 7.88 4 160 10.4115 550 43.054 530 3073 36 595 13.05 C/ass VI 6 921 24.60 710 1.80 - 6 480 16.22 3 990 11.05 23 13019.04 41 231 14.070
otal 28 138 39 506 15 220 39 950 36 120 121 500 260 434
From these figures it oan be seen that:
Approximately64peroent of the total area.surveyed or about 180 000 acres are included in the first
- three °lasses whioh are regarded as suitable for irrigation agriculture.
Of this,116 500acres are in Classes I and II(highlysuitable and moderately suitable) or41.5peroent of the total. Some63000 acres or22.5peroent of the area are Class III of fair and marginal suitability.
To this irrigable land should be added9000 acres of Class III marginal land at Marwa ddle Pangani and suibable land intheMkomazi valley, Lwengera valley, Ruvu basin and espeoially in the Central am/ uhere regularsurveyswere not oarried out. CHAPTER V
flIMATOLOGY MW HThROLOGY
l GlirnatooicLi and drolo.ical Data
Climatological and hydro/ogical data areessential in planning for developmen'G. The responsibility for the collocGion and publication c):7 gical data ros Le primarilywiththe East African Noteorologi.or.1 IlentocH dopartmen operates a number of moteorologicalstations anda data from stationsoperated byothor agencies, both Government private. Tho collection, pr000ssing andpublicationo.!7 hydrological ,fl almost exolusively oarried out by tho Water Development andT.VE%Gi4 through the Rydrolocr Section.
The distribution of meteorological stations naturall;v 1-cT1on densitios and ho dogrec of agrionlural dovc]opment, and is olosel communioations and accocc. For the purpoao of the FangauiPami Frojca' not poso serious problems in the initial stagos of dovelopmontr as development areas aro fairly close to present recordin,,7 s6aions, !lf7 '11c advances, howover, it uill be advisable Lo establish full metcoroiogio'70 in all future irrigation areas as and uhen they aro identified.
In the Pangani basin there are six stations with A reasonable seal° meteorological eauipment, and three in the Wami basin. In both rivor bacns there are many moro stations recording rainfall and temperature° In additicn.9hr DaresSalaom metoorological stat2on givea a good repronolloPormor. loGioal elements in tho constcl pinins of the two rivers. 56
There are more th 90 rainfall stations in the Paagani basin and over 60 in the Wami basin. Only 20 approximately were used as key otationo because of the short periodo overwhichrecords were available or because of the unreliability of many ei7 the records for the rest of the stations. There io a definite need for aaaegraphic recorders particularly to obtain data on high intensity rainfall over short porjods.
Tho Pangani and Wami river bastas have received considerably more attention As a result, tho hydrological - 11a,11 olly other regionin Tanzania ia recent years. data available from a number of koy otatione araora satisfactory level of reliability, not onay for preliminary planning but aleo for project operational eel-Tonef1.
teoamflow recorde have been maintained in tho Pangani basin sinoe the early eeei.c.is, bat, recordinge in the Wami were not etarted until about1950.
2. Climatology of theRiver Basins
Ta seasons of the East African elimato are oontrolled by the northward and souahaeaa movement of the sun.The area of greatest heating due to solar energy, referred to as the Heat Trough, experiences low atmospheric, pressure. The nevemeua of the Heat Trough, or low pressure centre; followe the sun with a lag cr):about four to six weeks behind the time of the sunls mimum elevation.
The sun io approximately overhead in Tanzania in early March and midOotober, at the Heat Trough can be expected to have maximum effeot about early April and. medNovember. Thio trough of low pressure in the region produces a general movement of air masa from the eurroandang high pressure belte. The result is a sono of convergenoo causing vertical upward movement of the air, oondensation and precipitation.Thiscontinues from March to May oausing the long rains, and from November to December with the short rains.
flLainf a
On the coast, the mean annual rainfall occurs in two distinct seasons and is in the order of 40 inches. As the distanoe inland inoreases the rainfall decreases. Local topography produces considerable changos in the general pattern. A most notioeable variation is the merging of the two distinct rainfall sSasons west of lengitnde 7020°. In the mountainous areas of Kilimanjaro, the Pareo, Usambara, :Nampoand Rubeho, the rainfall pattern io illdefined. The highest mean annual rainfall experienced in some parts of the mountain slopes is as high as 80 inchee. -59 -
Rainfall distribution mapu woro compilad for the Fangani basin showing the pattorn of tho mean annual rainfall and tho probable pattorn once in ovory five and ten years. Theso showed that on the average the Pangani basin rocniven rainfall in oxooss of 30 inches on30poroent of tho total area of tho basin° Once in every five years only12percent of tho total arca of the basin may rocolve rainfall in excess of30inchoop and once in ten yearo thia may be roduoodfurthor to 7poroent of the total area.
Populations are oonoentrated in ho arcas of high rainfall. Areas which receive mean aanual rainfall in excoes of30inchoo gonerally contain a popu- lation in exoess of 200 people per square mile: Where the mean annual rainfall rangos between20-30inohes tho population donsity io lower and varios between 75-200per square mile. Below20incheo thepopulationdensity falls 'rapidly and may be loso than5per square mile in arcas recolving loop than15inches.
Rainfall distribution maps for the Pangani basin showing tho general pattern of mean manual rainfall and the probable pattern once in 'every five and ten yearn (20percent and 10 percent probability)0 are shown in Figupos 10g11 and12. Monthly distribution at selected stations are also givon iniFigure 10.
Similar rainfall die4ribution mapo for tha aami basin were no t prepared but it is antioipated that conditionu will approximato to those in the Fulgoni.Mean monthly rainfall at selected sitas in tho Pangani andIcsmi baoin i.e given in Oso following tablo.
Table3s Mean Monthly Rainfall at Seleoted Sitee (in Inches)
,44444.4n414--444.44:44.144.4447 t44444.444.4.4d44.4n4144...I.,144r444 4144 .1.4414 2444armurn..,...4.1...,,,a ^ S.... sm.. man Location JanFeb Mar Apr Mcy Jun jai Aug Sept(Jute Nov No Yoar
44. 444144WW4a4444*.a44444 45441144414.44.44 444.4-4444.4.44.44.444 1.4^ .-41,144,0414,44144e4 4444.4444 4444. 44447 jani b,
ICaho 1.300.891.68 3.632.560.160.280.120.32 0.64 1.141.2213.94 iwaloni 1.430.981.85 30992.8200180.300,150035 0.70 1.26103315.34
basin
agamoyo 2.65 2.60 4.3310.17 8.85 1.541.01 1.471.34 2.24 3.294.3343.82 Aandera 2.88 3.20 5.12 8.25 6.07 1.040.66 0.961.18 2.5i 3.192.8637.92 Aorogoro 3.523.926.22 8.024.060.840.550,450.58 1.23 2.383.4035.22 odoma 5.864.604.86 2.120.240.08 0 0 0 0.22 0.934.1123.02 - 60 -
There are few stations equipped with automatio rainfall,gaugoe, and the instruments ourrently operating have only a short period ofrecord. For this reason few reoords of rainfall intensity for periods of less thanone day are available. Daily rainfall data aro available froma large number of stations and reoords often °over a considerable number of years. The following data represent the maximum rainfalls in Dar-es-Salaam duringa 40-year period of records
Duration Total rainfall
1 day 8.50inehes 2days 10.10 " 3days 10.89 4days 13.06 n 5days 16.55 "
D r-es-Salaammaybe regarded as representativo of the coastal plains of both basins.
(c) Temperature, relative humidity, sunshine and evaoora ion
(i) Tem eraturerelativeh idit and sunshine
Data for temperture, relative humidity, d sunshine forthelower Moshi areas, and for the coastal areas of the Wami, are presented in Table 4. Tn both reas it was necessary to combine data from a mimber of different stationsto provide adequ te information.
Evaporation
Evaporation losses from free uater surfaces were computed from meteorological data obtained in the Wami coastal plain andthePangani headwaters using Penman°0 formula° The evaporation lessee are shown in Table5. This table shows tho computed evaporation, using Penman's formula, together with evaporationlosses from a standard 'A' evaporation pan.
Tho climatological data (collected during the projeet, in conjunction with tentativelyproposed cropping patterns, provided a b sis for determination of evapotranspiration and water requirements for irrigation projects. - 65 -
Pablo 4: 3ummart5ed Cli.matologioal lka for the Lower Moshi Areaof the Pangant and tho Coas tal Area of the Wami
rLooatton jai) Feb Mar Apr My JunJul Aug Sopt Oct NovDec
T.,(wor------___ Noshi .rea
ViO011 omporat.uro (°C) 25.3 25.5 25.5 24.3 22.6 21.3 20.7 21.1 22.2 23.8 24.7 24.8 400nrelativo plum.di.ty(V2) 65.8 62.3 65.4 74.1 71.4 65.2 63.7 64.3 62.4 61.7 63.3 63.6
4ean sunchtne 273 255 239 204 146 153 136 171 207 248 237 257 (lourG)
ami ooasta.
Moan kemperature (°C) 27.4 27.8 27.1 25.6 25.4 24.6 24.9 24.8 23.5 25.8 27.8 27.8 Moan rolat).ve lumtdjty 80.5 77.0 80.3 81.5 81.3 81.4 81.080.6 75.4 75.0 74.4 76.2
unshino 216 223 177 124 207 215 216 246 235 266 264 246 lours)
Table 5: Evaporation Losso x reseed in mohos per Month Computed with Penman's Formula and Measured from Evaporation Pans)
Location Jan FebMar APrMay Jun Jul AugSept Oct Nov Dec Total.
/Penganl Nvaporatton 11.5 8.6 9.4 6.7 8.1 6.8 5.3 7.4 7.3 8.9 7.7 10.4 108.1 ionman's formula 7.5 6.6 7.4 6.6 6.9 5.5 4.2 5.3 5.3 5.7 5.9 7.1 73.0
Coastal plain Evaporation an 7.7 8.7 6.4 4.6 4.7 4.4 6.0 5.1 6.1 7.5 8.2 7.0 76.4
Penman's formula 6.3 6.2 4.6 6.7 5.3 4.4 5.1 4.6 5.3 5.7 4.6 7.2 66.2 1
_ 196d 0.4U.' . ,,P,1 t:(111.111.1. t' ..r.,12,1111t1 OJI111)1011(111:1i 2)./.0it ths_:4.1...,VH 10 piat, va-Lloy.
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1Y1 Thus out f': '.)(P.; 'CD vvd.,s.,,, L'7), cA,c.,3.opiao.,'). i br.F:Ar:v 01.111) , H)o-,1,L. r1;,-.)(3.21,:o,joc:i.r: a0.0d 01' '0.1c,o,-.1'13C) 000 1.°- 12c., 'Go 20 01;;11.(3, C)C.Y..1 L. ,;"ecr;, 0/-»") 1.11clii,[3.i,): Io,),. (Jo.F,c,hor.le.s the A o.n0. ) Ifl oil0-2 :I Pi° :I orio j; - 68 -
Table 6: Summary of Water Requirement for Irrigation Development in the Pangani River Basin (in acre feet)
Miwaleni upland area 14 000 Kahe irrigation area 60 000 Naururu irrigation scheme 20 000 Marwa pump irrigation scheme 36 000
Total 130 000 Mkomazi valley Buiko diversion 49000
Total irrigation abstraction 179000
(c) Rydrolózioal studies in the Wami river basin
Streamflow records were available from1953in the case of the Dakwa gauging station on the central alluvial plain, and from1954in the case of the Mandera station on the ooastal plain, below the confluence of the Lukigura river.
As stated earlier, the flow of the Wami is characterized by wide variation, both seasonally and annually. Maximum and minimum monthly flows for the month of January, as reoorded at Mandera, were approximately858 534acre feet in 1962 and 6 264 aore feet in 1961. Annual discharges over the 10.year period of record varied from 616 000 acre feet to3 275000 acre feet. The annual discharge at the Mandera station is given in Table7,and the monthly and annual discharges in Appendix III.
Table7: River Wami Annual Diecharge in Acre Feet at Mandera Gauging Station
Mean annual flow in 1000 ac.ft. 892 1 122 1 665 1 207 660 1 074 6163 275 1 5902 343 -69
Based on the flow figures for the 10 year period1954-64,the floods that occurred in 1961 would appe r to have a recurrence interval of between 12o 18 years. The maximum recorded flow used for the rzting curve was 27 000 cu.ft/s, but this is almost'certain t6 have been exoeeded 'outside of the observation timee. A flood mark said to have occurred at the same period in 1961 would correspond to about57000 cuoftis on the extrapolated rating curve.
To provide an acceptable degree of regulation to meet irrigation, power development and flood control requirements, it is estimated that an impounding capacity of 1.5 million acre feet is required above the coastal plain.
Records of silt load in the Wami river have been made at Mandera in August 1965and in May1966. The indications are that the silt load is comparatively low. At a flow of 1300 cuoftis the silt load was approximately 50Onz.-201day, and at 4 000 ou.ft/s,700tons per day. Based on the records theGE-1,1wae0 annual silt burden would be about 150 000 tons or approximately 100 acr ' volume. If a flood control dam should be constructed as proposed in ChFT:,' VII most of the silt would settle in the reservoir created on the river. At Oj proposed capacity of1.5million acre feet, this would appear to be lasicliaCioant
To ensure that the silt load has not been underestimated, more recordings should be taken, partioularly during periods of high disoharge. 71
CHAPTER VI
WATER COROL AND USA
1. Background and Present Situation
(a) Parisi_r3.verbasin
The waters of the Pangani river basin are used more intensivelifor irriga- tion and power development than those of any other river system in Tanzania. In the headwaters of the Pangani, on the slopes of Mount Meru and Mount Kilimanjaro, a considerable quantity of water is abstracted annually. Even so, a large quantity aver ing annually above 900 000 acre feet, floW down the river and is regulated by the Nyumba ya Mungu dam.
Below the Nyumba ya Mungu dam several small irrigation areas take water from the Pangani. The largest of these areas, Naururu, extends to about 1 000 acres. Downstream of the Buiko narrows, in the main Pangani valley, no major irrigation abstraction takes place.Water is used by the Pangani Falls hydro- electric power station, constructed in 1932, and the recently completed Hale hydroelectric power station, sited seven miles upstream of the Pangani Falls station.
The main tributary of the Pangani river is the Mkomazi and irrigation has been practised for many years in the Mkomazi valley. Currently there are seven irrigation areas, totalling some 3 000 acres in this valley.
Before the construction of the Nyumba ya Mungu dam the expansion of irr a- tion farming was limited for two reasons. Firstly, the lack of storage restricted the area under irrigation to that which could be irrigated from base -72
1:jous, and secondly, the demands of the hydroelectric power stations in the JorI'angani had to be met. These demands were laid down in Ordinance No.16 of 1961, often referred to as the Hale Ordinance. Briefly the Ordinance stjTolated a flow of not less than 450 cu.ft/s. at the Grand Pangani Falls, and n!mailltenance of all naturally existing flows up to 700 cu.ft/s. at Hale, the si.to the new hydroelectric power station. To safeguard the requirements of irrigation and the hydroelectric power stations, Sir William Halcrow and Partners were commissioned to draw up a comprehensive plan for the development of the PanL,;onj_ basin and supply the necessary details for the construction of the dam at Iy-umba ya Mungu. Work on the dam commenced in 1964, and was completed in 1966.
The construction of the Nyumba ya Mungu dam reservoir eliminated the danger of frequent floods in the central plain of the Pangani river, ensured that the ..eqnirements of the Hale Ordinance would be fulfilled, and made available som 2j 000 acre feet of water for irrigation development above or below the dam.
In 1955 a dam was built at Kalimawe in the Mkomazi valley. The dam is sited on a tributary, the Kisiwani river, about 60 miles upstream of the confluenceof the Pangani and Mkomazi rivers. This dam, the capacity of which has recently beeu increased from 15 000 acre feet to 30 000 acre feet, assists in partially corto]linz the flow of the Mkomazi river. Sited high up in the catchment of the kkomazi, and upstream of a major tributary, the Sesseni, it provides limited flw)6 control in the lower Mkomazi valley.
(b) The Wami river basin
J1,1959, a small earth dam was constructed for irrigation at Ikowa on the Majedeula river, a tributary to the Kinyasungwe. The original capacity was 3 )00 acre feet but considerable silting-up subsequently occurred in the reservoir and the small irrigation scheme has not been a success.
Two further small dams were constructed in the western plateau. The first Hombolo dam, on the Kinyasungwe, was completed in 1956, with a capacity of some 26 500 acre feet. The reservoir has been used for fishing with great success. The -ocond, Dabolo dam, also on the Kinyasungwe, was completed in.1961,with a res?i.voir capacity of5200 acre feet.
Irrigation of small holdings ispractised along the river banks in the Lumuma valley and in the Mkondoa valley. The area under such irrigation is small,
l'-ol and Stor
river basin
As rtated earlier, the construction of the Nyumba ya Mungu dam removed the :ecluent floods in the central plain of the Pangani, although uncontrol- .%.:biltaries still lead to spillage losses at the hydroelectric power 73
stations in the lower Pangani, and flooding on the coastal plain. The areas still subject to recurrent flooding are the lower stretches of the Mkomazi valley, parts of the Luengera valley, and the coastal plain.
In their 1962 report, Sir William Halcrow and Partners included a scheme for irrigation development in the lower Mkomazi valley. Additional flow control measures are required before major development in this area can take place. The Water Development and Irrigation Department have selected and surveyed a site for storage upstream of the Kalimawe dam, and put forward proposals for hydroelectric power stations on the three main tributaries of the Mkomazi river, the Hingili, Yongoma, and Sesseni.
Possible irrigation areas in the Luengera valley require either the construction of a dam to control flooding or extensive river canalization and dyking.
As the Plan of Operation called for a programme of irrigation development over the seven years following on from the completionofthe project, and as full development and control of the Mkomazi valley may take15to 20 years, consideration for irrigation development was largely confined to the headwaters and central reaches of the Pangani river.
(b) iver basin
The major areas suitable for possible irrigation development are on the central alluvial and coastal plains. Development of irrigation on the central alluvial plain in the area of the Mkata and Tendigo swamps is dependent on a system of flood control on the Wami river and its tributaries upstream of the plains. In addition, extensive river channel works throughout the area must be carried out to drain the swamp lands before agricultural development .can take place.
It is considered that the area best suited to initial irrigation developmenI is on the coastal plain, where an estimated net acreage of 50 000 acres of irrigable soils can be developed from a small diversion and regulating dam. Before ahy planned agricultural development of the coastal plain can take place however, it will be necessary to control the flood waters. A storage dam is necessary, not only to prevent extensive flooding oí the alluvial floodplain but to provide sufficient base flow to irrizate the whole area throughout the year. From the hydrological data available the storage capacity necessary to ensure an acceptable degree of flood control is estimated to be1.5 million acre feet. The cost of construction of a reservoir of this magnitude cannot be borne by irrigation, and consideration was given to the development of a multipurpose irrigation and power project. The development ofshydroelectric power is discussed later on in this Chapter.
Of the alternative dam sites considered, the one immediately downstream of the WamiLukigura confluence was found to be the most economic.This is refer- red to as the upper Pone dam site. Before further design can be carried out, however, a thorough site investigation is required. Although indicattons are that siltingup of the reservoir is unlikely to be significant, additional data are required, especially during flood periods. 74
River training and dredging works for widening the channel are required in the coastal plain, as power and controlled spill release from the upper Pongwe dam would be in excess of the discharge capacity of the existing channel. The cost of design and construction of the upper Pongwe dam for flood control and power is given in the following table.
Table 8 s Estimate of Cost of Upper Pongwe Dam for Flood Control and Power
Description Quantity Unit Rate Amount (shillings) (E)
Site clearance and establish- ment 40 000
Excavation, including removal of top'soil over dam area, and excavation of cut-off 800 000 cu.yds 8/- 320 000
Fill to dam embankment 12 130 000 Ir 15/- 9 097 500
Grouting L.S. 1700 000
Spillway and diversion works L.S. 480 000 11 597 500
lo%for contingencies 11 o
12757 250
10.% for design and supervision 1277_325
14 032975
Prooe on Use
Of the various areas investigated in the Pangani and Wami basins five are Proposed in this report for development in the first stage. Four of these areas are in the Pangani basin and total about 20 000 acres. The fifth area is on the Wami coastal plain and extends over about 50 000 acres. Proposals for the development of these areas are discussed in brief detail in Chapter VII. -75 -
During the course of the project a number ofother possible irrigation areas in thePanganiriver basin were considered and theseare discussed briefly here.
(a) Pangani river basin
Marwa right bank
The preliminary investigations revealed that the topographywas such that only a very narrow, steeply sloping strip could be brought undereconomic pump lift. In addition, the terrain was broken making a uniform layout almost impossible. For these reasons, together with obviously high infrastructure costs and sociological problems, no further investigationswere carried out.
Ngage
A semidetailed survey of some 40 000 acres revealed only about 6 000 acres of Class 2 Irrigation land, and this was found to be dispersed within thearea in irregular shaped blocks. Unsuitable topography limited the development of several thousand acres of Class 3 soils. This area was considered to be unsuitable for irrigation development.
Hedaru
A preliminary soil reconnaissance indicated that the area might be suitable for irrigation development. Engineering stuaies were carried out to determine suitable sites for river intake works, canal alignments and pumping station and a semidetailed soil survey extended over 36 120 acres. These studies revealed that the area ofland suitable for irrigation under gravity command could not justify the high cost of canal construction, much of which would have to be cut from rock. In addition, the area of suitable irrigable soils which could be brought under pump lift command was inadequate. This area was considered to be unsatisfactory for further investigation.
The floodplains between Buiko and Mandera
Reconnaissance in the land under command on the floodplains on both banks showed the land to be uniformly saline and alkaline. -76 -
Mkomazi river valley
Sir William Halcrow and Partners proposed the development of irrigation in the lower Mkomazi valley using water diverted from the Pangani into the Mkomazi, at Buiko. This proposal was examined. It is considered that more detailed soil and topographical surveys are required before the extent of the areas suitable for irrigation development can be determined.Further, as the lower stretches of the Mkomazi valley are subject to frequent flooding, river control measures are required. It is recommended that the diversion should not take place until full control and development of the waters in the middle and upper Pangani have been completed. In the light of existing knowledge it is estimated that some 50 000 acre feet may be abstracted by the diversion for the irrigation of about 6 000 acres in the lower Mkomazi valley.
Apart from a reconnaissance soil survey on some 3 000 acres no further investigations were carried out in the Mkomazi valley. The Water Development and Irrigation Department are investigating the possibility of several small schemes in the middle and upper reaches.
Luengera river valley
Possibilities exist for some 2 000 acres of irrigation in this valley but flood control or dyking will be necessary before the area can be developed. FUrther studies are required.
) The coastal plain
Investigation showed the need for flood water control, or highly expensive river canalization and dyking. In addition, drainage water would need to be extracted by pump.
A proposal that 250 cu.ft/s should be abstracted from the Pangani between the Hale hydroelectric power station tail race and the Pangani Falls hydro- electric power station intake was examined. It was concluded that the area of suitable land was too small to justify the length of lead canal.
4. Water Use in the Pan ami River Basin
Estimates for different uses in the Pangani basinare shown in Table9. 77
Table9 s Estimate of Water Use and Loss in the Pangani Basin (in acre feet)
Irrigation
Upstream of the Nyumba ya Mungu dam- Kahe and Miwaleni - 74000 Downstream of the Nyuma ya Mungu dam - Naururu and Marwa- 56000 Future diversion into the Mkomazi valley at Buiko 50100
Total irrigation requirement 180000
Losses
Evaporation from the Nyumba ya Mungu reservoir 120000 Evapotranspiration, and seepage along the central Pangani reach 135000 Unregulated flood spills below the Hale power station 217000
Total losses 472000
Power
Available at Hale power station site 508000
Total 1 160 000
Thus it can be seen that the quantity of water required for irrigation is about 180 000 acre feet, for power 508 000 acre feet, and the balance iost in various ways is about472000 acre feet. It should be noted however, that the water, after use for power generation at the Hale and Pangani Falls stations, would still be available for irrigation development in/the coastal region. However, as already pointed out, the coastal region is subject to flooding and pump drainage is required. Irrigation development in this area would involve expensive engineer: works. 78
5. Hydroelectric Power Development
General
Estimates of water requirements in the Pangani basin (see Table9),show that of the total usable water nearly three-fourths have been allocated to power generation in the overall development of water resources.
In the case of the Wami basin, the cost of the storage dam, which is required to prevent the extensivo flooding in the coastal plain and to provide sufficient base flow to irrigate throughout the year, is so high as to make the project un- ecQnomic if built solely for irrigation. If the store cost in the Wami could be charged to hydropower generation, as in the easeof the Pangani basin, it would be a great stop forward for the purpose of starting large scale development of irrigation in the Wami basin.
In view of the high allocation of water for power in the Pangani basin, and because of the absoluto necessity for power development to precede large soale irrigation development in the Wami basin, consideration was given during the project to various hydroelectric power schemes, although this aspect was not specifically included in the Plan of Pperation. The details are contained in the Report, Irrigation and Power Development. Only a summary of the main con iderations is given below.
Po en es in the Pa n basin
(i) andera h droe owe
Balfour Beatty and Co. Ltd., Consulting Engineers to the Tanganyika Electric Supply Co. Ltd., proposed a power station at Mandera,35miles upstream of the Hale power station. The proposed installed capacity is 20 MW, with.an annual energy of 64 million kWh. The Consultants estimated that with the Mandera station in operation the Hale and the Grand Pangani Falls pc?Wer stations could operate at a more favourable load factor and produce an additional 26 million kWh. The sito investigation was completed in1965but no further action has been taken to date.
(ii) Hydroelectric power on tributaes of the omazi river
The Water Development and Irrigation Department has, under consideration in the South Pare area three small schemes on the Hingilili, Yongoma, and Sesseni tributaries of the Mkomazi. The total installed capacity of the three schemes would be about 17.5 MW with an estimated annual energy of92million kWh. Figure AREAS OF SUGGESTED IRRIGATION AND HYDRO-ELECTRICPOWER DEVELOPMENT of PANGANI WAMI RIVERBASINS N TANZANIA
Woo' 08;60 D39.00'
Du/ALCML1014110 PM ocuatta ''. HIPIRINCILTAL 01011311I07 16000 0000 100000000 "o 00981101110 001 9011111011 040000- 0001004041 1171/201108T/011 "°/
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$00101 PARR 00110400 1140124 00010471000 0011043 N 00151010 90000 avracr..vii ARCA POR cavatorianuT 10010 STATio TOTAL 0100 A01100 II/STALLED 10 00 II 0 MI EN,,,,,e4
114140I0KU 100100101' actlaint MICA ISO AMR ARRA POI0000010941311/ 3002 ACM MD ARIA 00114010 100 0110101181101 040011 000044805 WO AMR IPILO/ 10490011A \ L.0.001OLV03,io 01001.001,0111 \ OCTALLCO rouatiDO Dv LE GE N D \ \i POSSIBLE IFIFIIOATION DEVELOPMENT -\ 1, i ;... ¶ ....,.1 luSgovo 'POSSIBLE HYDRO-ELEGTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT o k i ...... , _) RPM, 0 PAR0011 ,4 POSSPOLIE DAM SITES POSSIDLO POMISR ORVIDLOPM104 ./1( i 1110TALLCI 110140 .,:1 1 40 DM \ i ,...f....,::.' ,f1Aive / I N, / \
r,PnnoIrl 1/4 1 '11,\/ *-s° 100.11 0 (01000) 90011,0 02011011 FLOOD 0001101 ARC C140117 01070I010 001111010 087400 PIPOLODRCRY IIISTALLCO900000 00 WI
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0111140104 (1141/ Il11.0111111 rcno DTAT/80 040001490000 eztn ono na rdsoicna rovato rzvat.vuuov. PURPOSIDO C.:ASTAL 18012000 UV memo= e°
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Roliwavs 00.4,. gt.ed wnbar ev.v.vet4.
tevowften1 Ton,va.vos.noory.. IIII00 s000' Sete' -81 -
(iii) Grand Pangani Falls power station
A small power station, known as the Pangani Fallspower station, with an installed capacity of17.5MW has been in operation since1932. Balfour Beatty and Co. Ltd. proposed theconstructionof a new power station at Grand Pangani Falls, and suested that the old Pangani Falls power station should be taken out of commission. It was subsequently suggested that the old Pangani Falls station should remain in commission as long as possible at leastuntil additional installed capacity to replace this station would become available.
The proposal was based on a regulated flow of700cu.ftis for power generation. This requirement is met by the allocation of508000 acre feet per year for power, as shown in Table9.
Summary of proposals and costs for hydroelectricpower development in the Pangani Basin
The proposals and costs for power development are summarized in Table 10.
The total cost of the various proposals is 11.97million for an additional installed capacity of82.5MW. The total estimated additional output is405 million kWh.
The locations of the different power stations are shown in Figure7.
It is suggested that all the hydroelectric power stations in the Pangani basin should be interconnected, making a continuous grid from Arusha through to Dar-es-Salaam. This would enable the interconnected power stations to operate on a more flexible schedule.
Table 10 Summary of Data for Hydroelectric Power Schemes in the Pangani Basin
Station Installed Estimated Estimated Capacity Capital Cost Annual Energy (E million) (million kWh)
Mandera 20 3.22 64 + an additional26from Hale and Pangani Falls Hingili Yongoma 17.5 2.40 92 Sesseni
Grand Pangani 45 6.35 223 Total 82.5 11.97 405 - 82 -
(c) Hydroelectric power development in the Wami basin
(i) Background
The river Wami in passing down the escarpment falls approximately 850 feet in a distance of some 32 miles.There are two basic methods by which this natural drop could be developed for power generation:
Underground power stations could be constructed using vertical intake shafts and gravity tail race tunnels.
The head could be concentrated at one or more penstocks using power canals and surface power stations.
In October 1966, SWECO, Consulting Engineers and Architects, submitted a preliminary proposal to the Government for a two-stage development with under- ground power stations, referred to as Wami 1 and Wami 2. The total proposed installed capacity was 160 MW which, under system load operation, would provide an annual average production of745million kWh. The total estimated cost of the preliminary proposals was about £29 million. The consultants proposed that their preliminary appraisal should be followed up with a comprehensive study to provide more accurate information on which the final cost figure could be worked out. The FAO team examined the preliminary proposal by SWECO in the light of topographic and hydrological information which was obtained subsequently, and during this examination gave consideration to the alternative of surface power development.
(ii) Uhde
Based on the preliminary proposal by SWECO, a tentative scheme was worked out which includes two underground power stations, Wami 1 and Wami 2, with an installed capacity of 80 MI each, as proposed by SWECO, and which requires the construction of the upper Pongwe storage dam, a re-regulating dam for the Wami 2 power station, anda re-regulating and diversion dam for irrigation of the coastal plains. Two alternative sites were considered for the re-regulating and diversion dam, one at Lugoba and one at Matonga, but more detailed investiga- tions are required before a final choice can be made. A small5MW power station could be established at the Lugoba (or Matonga) dam.
A summary of tentative costs for underground power stations operating on system load factor is given in Table 11. -83
Table 11 z Summary of Tentative Costs for Underground Power Development Operating a System Load Factor (about53percent)
Station Installed Estimated Eetimated Capacity Capital Annual Energy Cost1/ (E million) (kWh million)
Upper Pongwe Dam 14.0
Wami 1 80 9.8 400
i 221 80 10.9 345 Wami 1 and 2 including upper Pongwe dam 160 34.7 745
Lugobal/ 5 1.5 30
Total 165 36.2 775
Including cost of transmission lines. 2/Including the cost of reregulating dam the lowest Pongwe dam. inciuiing the full cost of the reregulating and diversion dam.
It needs to be stressed that the estimates are very tentative due to the lack of underground geological information and the resultant difficulty of estimating tunnelling costs. A careful geological exploration.of the tunnel route is an essential part of any further consideration of this scheme.
(iii) Surface power development
As an alternative, to overcome the uncertainty of the geology, considera- tion was given to surface power development in two stages using canals and pen- stocks. This proposal envisages the construction of the firbtpower station (Wami 1) at a site about niue miles downstream of upper Pone dam, and Wami 2 at the site about three miles downstream of Mandera bridge. A summary of tentativo costs for this alternative, planned for base load operation, is given in the following table. - 84 -
Table 12 s Summary of Tentative Costs for Surface Power Development Operating at System Load Factor of 100 Percent
Station Installed Estimated Estimated Capacity Capital Annual Energy Cost1/ (MW) (E million) (million kWh)
Upper Pongwe dam 14.00
Wami 1 25 5.85 215
Wami2Z/ 45 7.40 395
Wami 1 and2 including upper Pongwe dam 70 27.25 610 ugoba2/ 3.5 1.51 26
Total 73.5 28.76 636
1/ Including cost of transmission lines. 2/ Including the cost of the reregulating dam the lower Pongwe dam. Inclusive of full cost of the reregulating and diversion dam.
(iv) Possible means of meeting the load growth
Forecasts of load growth for the Mosbil Arushal and central coastalareas are shown in Figure 8, according to which the maximum demand of the system would grow approximately as follows:
end of 1968 about 65 MW
It " " 1970 80 MW
" "1975 11 150 MW
" "1980 11 260 MW
The total generating capacity at present is about75MW, including 13 MW, including 13 MW at the DaresSalaam thermal plant. This thermal station is now being enlarged to its full capacity of30MW which, together with the8MW plant currently being installed at the Nyumba ya Mungu dam, will meet the demand until 1972. (See Figure 8).
The load growth up to the end of 1974 could then be met by the hydroelectric plant proposed for Mandera, with an installed capacity of 20 MW, and the three small plants, totalling17.5IN, which are under consideration on the tributaries of the Mkomazi river. (See Figure14). - 85 -
The installed capacity of the hydroelectric plant proposed for Grand Pangani Falls is 45 Mi, but the net addition to the system would only be27.5 MW, if the old Pangani Falls power station, which has been in operation since 1932, is taken out of commission when the new plant comes into operation. The new plant, as indicated by the load curve, should come into operation by the endof 1974. The total installed capacity when all hydroelectric power schemes of the Pangani basin are completed would be 165 MW. This would meet the load giowth up to 1975/76. (See Figure 14).
(v) An alternative sossibilit to meet the loadrowth
If power production should be developed as described above, the need for additional installations would arise in1975/76. It is reasonable to expect that the hydroelectric schemes in the Wami basin would be considered for this purpose. Further, it would be most desirable to advance the time of commissioning the Wami power stations to a date earlier than1975/76,if possible, in view of the most favourable impact it would have on the irrigation development of the coastal region in the Wami basin. This aspect was given some consideration during the projert.
fhe suggestion is to defer the new Grand Pangani Falls power station to a future date and to replace it with the Wami power station. If it is possible to continue the operation of the present small Pangani Falls power station for a few more years, then it is desirable to do so. In such a case the above ground Wami 1 power station (25 MW) would be, more or less, able to replace the Grand Pangani Falls power station. On the other hand, if it is absolutely necessary to take the small Pangani Falls power station out of operation by1974,then it would be necessary to go ahead with the above ground Wami 2 power station which will have an installed capacity of45MI. The annual energy output of this station is estimated at 395 million kWh which is considerably more than'that of the Grand Pangani Falls power station, which has an annual energy output of 223 million kWh.
Considering the shortness of period available between now and1974,it would be too much to expect completion of any more than the dam at upper Pongwe and one of the two above ground power stations (Wami 1 or Wami 2). Even this would perhaps be a tight schedule, but consideration of an underground 'power station would definitely add to the delay in view of the necessity of geological investigations which are not even started. Figure 14
TANZANIA
LOAD GROWTHFOR THE MOSHI,ARUSHA AND CENTRALCOASTAL AREAS
300
250
200
100
75 62 50
1966 1970 1975 1980
Years 89
CHAPTER VII
IRRIGATION ENG INHERING
As a result of the studies carried out, four irrigation schemes are proposed for the Pangani basin. The schemes are referred to respectively as the Kahe 000 acres), Miwaleni upland (2 000 acres), Naururu (2 600 acres) and Marwa 8 000 acres schemes, and cover a total irrigable area of some 20 600 acres. In the Wami river basin an area of some 50 000 acres is proposed for irrigation development on the coastal plains. The engineering aspects are discussed in detail in the Report Irrigation and Power Development, and are briefly summarized in this chapter. The general location of the irrigation schemes are shown in Figure13,
In view of the lack of detailed soil information and of any firm decision as to which crop should be grown, various assumptions, especially with regard to water requirements and drainage, had to be made when preparing the preliminary designs for the engineering layouts. These initial designs and cost estimates will have to be modified in the light of experience, particularly agronomic, gained from pilot areas established within the areas proposed for irrigation development.
1. Kahe I ation Scheme
(a) General
The area selected for irrigation developmen; is located some threeand half miles to the south of the Miwaleni springs and to the west of theMoshi to Tanga railway line. The location of the scheme and boundaries of two alternative layouts, one for surface and one for overhead irrigation, are shownin Figure 15. -90
gqiee.eea is',Tell 37::v;?0 hibp11road and raj_i communication. Kaho railway staioy) is aj'e,Ac_.1che.L-e Moshi Janches, one branch going south to Tanga and 'Ody.e4-Ja.).am, anC ono going east tojOil3the Nairobi to Mombasa liuc e,t Vnt, A ooauncin ftc Tanganyika Planting Company sugar esr.Lai L L:iuTh j,lLC:ahe :,111ongb the northern half of khe 6cheme area connees ,t\utch.o,ChiniLuPieshi. The earth road connecting the sch,c=m z2,ca 0hio Tequi2esLobe brought up to all weather standard.
The water supply for developme.o.0 uf the area is from the Miwaleni springs which, have a meal]-J,-10;1 co,)"t/s, devi.aing from this value by about 5cu.ft/s. The q-noljy of tbe water is suitable for irrigation purposes.
Comparisons between mez., .1::7,j_ements, based on tentative cropping systems, and mean dischi'. ftomt1.1 ..jings, show an adequate water supply throughout the year. To - ard against a coincidence of adverse conditions hovever, the proposals include provision for the development of four boreholes already established. In goile.ral, the quality of groundwater is satisfactory, although at some points it may be on the unsafe side. In addition, about one hundred acres of water logged land around a spring in the southern section of the scheme could be reclaimed by using tube wells to lower the water table, and if of suitable qualj.ty,the water could be used to supplement the supply to the scheme during peak dwands.
Gerne al rigation layout
The iruigatiod tohLo..a(Lc,e of some 60 000 acre fee% ei uacer, a-Is planned tb.76; tt)eoAtersupply for the Kahe scheme should come from th via a lead canal to a storage pond on Lh leiL bald_ e Llta ban ricr YfotoiJLisuui..11:,two ;-J%?,-,rnative distribu- tio pf::poi:ocL Th,=7 c.%).1.° ul(2.faGe and the se.000d.Ccw2 f Tn- iriay have to b Erl nc t en ailoo,dc Lecluji.ed. '6(-) 0c)set aside for COt.,1411W.-; cha-oer the application of
L;S-1.):!11m. 7.with well be tr'
The cao cao. _ the surface irrigation 1:,, 788 acres of which1 306 acr., JTeunder C;c)(i-iL:command, anCl.982 are commanded by a low lift pumping The schemeIsCivided into two inde,-,2eadenily irrigated areas, One arco ne m-,.th of ' egzeìheo blanticey Com7,ally radlea7 lru,ie and amotutt-i LC) 2 (HI ;i°1 C. S SOP 61.1. totals 5r(),) 93
The most economic and feasible field unitis a block of 20 x 6 subunits in a gross area, including laterals, roads, windbreaks, etc., of about145acres. The shape selected for the subunits allows for regroupingfor different acreages without affecting the ratio of netacreage to gross area commanded.
Storage ponds, canals, and all distributaries (excludingfarm ditches) should be lined, and consideration was given toalternative lining materials, including earth, buried membrane, exposed prefa1ricate0 a4,Thalt,soil cement, and synthetic rubber or rubber coated linings. Further studies are required before a final choice can be made. In view of the soil conditions particular attention was given to drainage in the engineering design.
Provision is made for access roads to all sides of each unit, minor roads on the south of all laterals, a main road on both sides of the main canal, and main ring road around the whole scheme.
The overall engineering costs total Shs T24,7,million or about Shs T2 760 per acre. The details of the estimate are giiren in Table 13. The requirements for foreign exchange in the capital cost are low.
In the case of overhead irrigation, th a ltant economy in water usage, together with the more favourable ratio be1;1:3 :.ros and net area irrigated, enables the area urde c irrigation from the 1springs to be increased by some25percent, to 11 GOO acres. The total ca-pital cost for development of the 11 000 acres is estimated to be Shs T 27.9 miDTiou, but the rust iper are is estimated to be Fihs T 2550as compared 1-1r, t 60 Tee surl'aoe This reduction is partly due to the spreafThn: ove,):hedds ovel, a Jp-rGer acreage, but mainly due to reTings in the euu t of the distribution and drainage system, land levelling, and eeer storage, :c..n addjtion, overhead sprinklev ir- rigation has advantages in evercoming layout p-voblems due to the irregular shallow soil inclusions. A preliminary economic assessment of surfacemiaover- head irrigation indicated that the advantag9 lay with the latter method. The details of cost estimates are given in Tahlo 14.
A detailed engineering layout was pi ..d for a pilot irrigat±rra az.eanf 200 acres and established on the ground, .11. boreholes to supply theITFJ;P17, During the design, particular attention w.c given to simple water control and measuring devices and to alternative canal 7iring material .s- 7oF!cial onnsideP- tion was also given to minimizing earth movemem aolTever, ifoz raviolis -ce,:fsors the designs were not completely adhered to (7017 t1j construnl'cjon .2tage,
In view of the advantages to be gained from overhead irrigation, it is recommended that ibis method of water applicion should be included in the tudies to be continued on the pilot area. Ther studies of drainage and seepage are required. -94 -
2. Miwaleni U.land. Irrisation Scheme
(a) General
The scheme is located some 11 miles east of Moshi, and lies immediately north of the Miwaleni springs and below the Arusha-Moshi-Tanga road. The ground slope of the general area is fairly steep, varying from1:700immediately above the Miwaleni springs to1:80in the north. The area selected for initial develop- ment was restricted to slopes not in excess of 1:100. For this reason the overall engineering layout proposed covers some2000 acres, although a semidetailed soil survey had revealed_ a block of some8000 acres of soils suitable for irrigation. As more experience is gained in the irrigation of these soils, the area could be extended northwards onto the steeper slopes, using contour terraces or other known techniques.
Table 13 : Estimated Cost of Layout for Surface Irrigation - Kahe
Area under Area under Total gravity pump area command command
gel, irrigable area in acres 7 808 982 8 788
000.0 it 0.00 Costs in Shs T ...... Improvement of access roads 350 000 350 000 Diversion dam ana headworks 96 260 96 260 Lead canal 1569 460 318 000 887 460 Storage ponds (including pum.,) station) 341 900 598 800 940 700 Maiil canal 1345 000 - 1 345 000 Laterals and minor drains 4 092 775 518 000 4 610 775 Main drains 350 000 44 500 394 500 Sublaterals and field drains 4 920 850 620 000 5 540 850 Land clearing 1880 000 240 000 2 120 COO Land levelling 2185 680 274 960 2 460 640 Farm ditches and drains 78 060 9 820 87 880 Internal bridges and culverts 48 000 10 000 58 000 Pump house (including dril- ling and equipment) 160 000 160000 17 417 985 2 634 080 20 052 065 Engineering design and supervision (10%) 1 741 799 263 408 2 005 207 19 159 784 2 897 480 22 057 272 Contingencies (10%) 1 915 978 289 748 2 205 727 Total in Shs T 21 075 762 3 187 230 24 262 999 Price per acre in Shs T 2 700 3 246 2 761 -95 -
Table 14t Estimated Cost of Layout for Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation Kdhe
Net irrigable area in acres 10976 Cos .A. Shs
Improvement of access road 350 000 Diversion dam and headworks 96260 Lead canal 1 400 000 Storage pond 265 000 Main canal 1400 000 Laterals, pipes, minor drains 3 000 000 Main drains 400 000 Sprinkler system 13203 000 Land clearing 2 400 000 Land levelling 240 000 Setting out of farm units 110 000 Internal bridges and culverts 50 000 Pump houses (including drilling and equipment) 180 000 23 .094 260 Engineering design and supervision (10) 2309 426 25 403 686 Contingencies (10ó) 2540 369 Total price in E.A. Shs 055
Price per acre in E.A. Shs
WaterSU
The scheme lies above gravity command of water ..1-omLho springs, and (ratv for irrigation development will be obtained from underground reserves by moans n2 boreholes. The effect of substantj.al groundwater abstraotion.ethe flow of be spring, and hence on the water suvoly to Mahe, is not kno.un,and_ Zurthee hydrogeological studies are required. The quality ,of the grounuater has been tested and was found to be satisCactory and similar to that 7Crom the sprl_ngs.
General irrigation la out
A preliminary engineering layout was prepared for some2000 acres, and the design makes provision for the use of some 14 000 ac.ft of irrigation water.
The full development proposal envisages the establishment of 15 boreholes, including the two already in e:T.istence, with a total abstraction capacity of 26cu.ft/s. It is proposed that the boreholes should be interlinked to reduce the need for standby boreholes and pumping equipment, and should be powered by electricity from a central diesel generating center with a capacity of 0.7 MIT. Provision is made for lined storage reservoirs of sufficient capacity to provide weekend storage. - 96 -
Along the northern boundary of the scheme, where the slope is about one percent, a terrace layout is proposed. Low down on the more gentle slopes the field furrows are off-set at about 15 degrees to the contour.
The engineering development costs are estimated at Shs T 5.9 million, or about Shs T 3 020 per acre. Details of the estimate are given in Table 15.
A tentative estimate for pumping costs for an average pump lift of 100 ft is between Shs T360to Shs T 400 per acre per annum, including amortisation of capital.
A topographical survey at 1 ft-vertical interval is required before the final design, modified in the light of data from the pilot area, can be prepared. This pilot area, which uses boreholewater, was established on about 100 acres.
3. Naururu Scheme
(a) General
The area lies approximately 25 miles south of the Nyumba ya Mungu dam, and is on the floodplain close to the left bank of the Pangani river. It was included amongst the areas recommended for further investigation by Sir William Halcrow and Partners in 1962. The general location is shown in Figure 16.
Table 15s Estimated Cost of Layout for Surface Irrigation Miwaleni Upland Irrigation Scheme (1 966.5 acres)
Capital costs in Shs T
Access roads 170 COO Boreholes 230 000 'Pumps and ancillary equipment 300 000 Power station - 0.7 MW (2 x 350 kW aiesel alternators) 500 000 Storage reservoirs at Shs T 10 000/-per ac.ft 1 440 000 Lead and main canal system inclusive of structure 800 000 Main drainage system 300 000 Site roads, bridges, culverts 100 000 Land clearing at Shs T 100 per acre for 2 400 acres 240 000 Land levelling at Shs T 400/-per acre for 1 966.5 acres 786 600 Setting out field units at Shs T 10/-per acre 19 665 Construction of field ditches and drains at Shs T 10/-per acre 19 665
4 905 930 ontingencies (10%) 490 593 5 396 523 Engineering and supervision (10%) 539 652
Total 5 936 175
or Shs T3019/-per acre -99-
Included within the proposed scheme is an area of some 1 000 acres which is under a simple forro of irrigation command although only a proportion, estimated to be come 400 acres, is under irrigated crops. The lead canal to this area has been dug from a primitive intake on the Pangani river. From gaugings of flow it was found that about 20 cu.ft/s reached the start of cultivation area due to heavy losses in the canal.
Communications to Naururu from Same are poor, especially during the wet season when large stretches of the existing dirt road on the floodplain are impassable. Considerable work is required to bring the new road, at present under construction from Same direct to Naururu,Upto standard.
Water supply
The water supply to the scheme is by gravity from a simple fish-mouth intake on the Pangani river.
General irrigation layout
The general area considered suitable for irrigation development consists of about 4 600 acres in a narrow and irregular strip bounded by non-saline alkaline soils. The shape of the irrigable area complicates the design of a regular layout, and the area covered by the preliminary engineering layout has been reduced to a gross area of 3 400 acres. This gives a net irrigable area of 2 600 acres.
The engineering survey work was limited to the determination of the location and extent of the area under locally developed irrigation; a detailed survey of the proposed intake site; and a main canal trace survey from the intake site and back to the river.
The preliminary layout makes provision for the use of about 20 000 acre feet of irrigation water. The main canal has been designed to provide all the necessary irrigation water during an eight-hour period. The alignment of the main canal is taken, wherever possible, to avoid contamination with salts. A short section will require lining to prevent the movement of groundwater into the canal, and depending on results of further seepage tests, and additional stretch may require lining.
The soil conditions required a deep drainage system, and pumps will be needed to extract some of the drainage water. Detailed topographic and soil surveys, together with data from a pilot area, are required before a final design can be prepared.
Although, with the completion of the Nyumba ya Mungu dam, the changes of the recurrence of floods which occurred in 1964 are greatly reduced, it is proposed to protect the scheme area with a dyke and interceptor drain.
A preliminary estimate of the total cost of the scheme is Shs T7.5million or about Shs T 3 380 per acre.
An engineering design was prepared for a pilot area of 255 acres, located so as to include a representative selection of the problem soils identified in a detailed soil survey of 700 acres. The layout has not yet been established on the ground. 100
4. Marwa
Tbe area intheeentral Pangani region, about 10 miles north of the proposed Naueuru schema nlies on rising ground to the east of the river from which it is separated by a bighTy alkaline and salino floodplain which varies Zrom one to two and a half milesInwidth.
.7a7a.,Tea suvveysOaXV1.0&out in this area by F11.0 in 1957, and by Hunting Techuical Seivices iu 196), faUed to reveal any Class 1 or 2 soils. A broad check survey ofhe araa ecrvered by these earlier studies gave similar results, and the area proposed for development consists of some 9 300 acres of Class 3 soils, or soils of marginal suitability for irrigation.
Within the area selected for development neither salinity nor drainage are likely to present serious problems. The main difficulties lie in the steepness of the slopes and the coarse texture of the soils. For these reasons Sir William Halcrow and Partners concluded that overhead irrigation would be necessary. This conclusion is fully supported, and the proposed development of Marwa is based on an overhead sprinkler layout on a gross area of8900 acres.
Within the area proposed for development there are three villages, Kiriya, Marwa and KWa Pateli. Of those Kiriya and Marwa are little more than fishing and cattle grazing centres with some small scale farming carried out along the river bank. Roads or tracks connect Kiriya with Lembeni on the main road and railway, and Marwa and Kwa Pateli with Sano. Extensive improvements are required for the access roads to the scheme and to roads within the scheme.
In the preliminary design provision has been made for the use of about 36 000 ac.ft of irrigation water. Eater for the scheme is to be taken from the Pangani river at three pointn using simple fish mouth intakes. From these intakes the water will be taten, by canal, across the floodplain to the edge of the rising ground from where iwill be lifted by pumps to the irrigable.land. A provisional overheaa sprinkler layout together uith cost estimates was prepared. The overall development coet to estimated to be approximately Shs T 25 million or Shs T 3 566 per acre.
This scheme is alloca,ted a low priority in the development of irrigation in the Pangani basin ana more detailed investigations are required before a pilot scheme for the area rail be established. Details of the engineering considerations are contained tu the Perrrt Irrigation and Power Development. 101
5. ,oastal Plain - Wami River
Genera
Before any significant irrigation development can take place on the Wami coastal plain, it is necessary to control the flood waters of the Wami river, and to provide sufficient base flan to irrigate the proposed development area throughout the year. The construction of the upper Pongwe flood control and storage dam with a reservoir capacity of 1.5 million ac.ft is therefore a prerequisite to irrigation development in the coastal plain.- As already stated, the cost of the storage dam estimated at E 14 million is so high that it cannot be borne by irrigation, and irrigation development must await the development of hydroelectric power on the Wami river.
Preliminary consideration was, however, given to the selection of an area for irrigation development, and to the preparation of provisional estimates of the capital costs involved. In addition, an outline of a pilot irrigation scheme of some 100 acres was prepared. The location of the proposed development area is shown in Figure 6.
Communications in the area are not good. The principal road crossing the area is the old route f'rom Bagamoyo to Tanga This dirt road connecs with the new DaresSalaam to Korogwe highway along minor dirt roads from Bagamoyo to Msata, Sadani to Mono, Mkwaja to Kwamsisi end IiiweraAmboni. A.I. er rain most of these roads are in apoor condition and often impassable.A regular passenger train service connects Wami to DaresSalaam, Korogwe, and Tanga.
ro osed 7_evelo ment area
A soil reconnaissance of 121 500 acres placed 93 840 acres in a category suitable for sustained crop production under irrigation0 44ause of the salinity of the soils at the coast and the saline nature of the groundwater below thefloodplain near the coast, it -was decided to leave a buffer area between the saline complex and the area to be irrigated upstream. For this reason, together with engineering and economic consideration, the gross area of the proposed development area was reduced to 68 100 acres, giving a netarea of about50000 acres. Of this acreage,15400 acres are on the alluvial flats which comprise the floodplains on both sides of the ri7er, 18 800 acresare on the higher northern coastal plain and 15 800 acres areon the southern coastal plain.
The water supply requirements for irrigai;ion of(;he area throughout the year, estimated to be about 480 000 ac.ft, together vitt the necessary flood control, are met-by the proposed upper Pongue reservoir. This reservoir Will have a mean annual discharge of abouj; one million ac.ft, vhich will be available for power development on the escarpmen, as eellas irrigation developmen-Lon the coastal plain. - 102 -
A small re-regulating and diversion dam with a reservoir capacity of about 50000 ac.ft is required. From this, nine tenths of the irrigable area would be under gravity command, and a single pumping station would lift the water to the remaining5000 acres. Two potential sites for this re-regulating dam were investigated, one at Mtonga and one at Lugoba, but no final choice was made. A lead canal from the clamp along the northern coastal escarpment would convey water to the northern coastal plain, and an inverted siphon from this canal would take water across "- floodplain to the southern section.
A preliminary irrigation layout was prepared for an area on the floodplain for which adequate topographical data was available. Based on this, it is estimated that the cost for irrigation development would be about Shs T 3 200 per per acre, or about Shs T 160 million for the 50 000 acres. No portion of the estimated cost of the upper Pongwe flood control and storage dam is included in this figure.
A suitable site for a pilot scheme was selected on the alluvial floodplain on the north bank of the river, about one mile downstream of the railway line. The area requires flood protection by a dyke and interceptor drain and it is proposed that the water supply should be by pump direct from the river into the canal system. An outline for one hundred acres was prepared, but a detailed soil ig;required before a final pilot area design can be drawn up. CHAPTER VIII
SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FORSETTLEMENT
L, Introduction
In all too many planned settlement schemes results are discouraging. Costs are high and achievements small. Inadequate surveys and investigations, together with excessive speed in planning, have often resulted in premature implementation. The major unknown factors in most agricultural development schemes and, unfortuna- tely, the least carefully assessed, are not what crops to grow, what varieties to select, how much water is required or what modern farming pratices to apply, but how the human element will react since the farmers are the ultimate users for whom the technical development is planned. People do not vary their customary behaviour unless they feel some need which existing ways do not satisfy, and resist changes which they do not understand, or find difficult.
Farmers who have spent their lives in a community with its established social, cultural and economic patterns find great difficulty in moving to a new area where they are cut off from the familiar pattern. By the continuation, as far as possible, of the necessary social institutions in the environment of the new area, the farmer is more likely to accept the desirable social changes and adapt himself to the new conditions. The term 'social institutions' is used to cover the social habits established by groups, and the range of institutions is as wide as are the interests and activities of the people. Social institutions include such primary institutions as family, tribe, and religion; and secondary institutions such as those of education, economics and marketing, formal control and administration, health, and communication. 104
This chapter briefl:i Rammarisas the main ,:inctings of a study of these social institutions together uith recommegdons as to how these findings may be used Lo assisL :farmers to adapt themselves Lo irrigation development schemes at Kahe, Miwaleni, and Naururu. The recommendations should be taken as a basis only for further development in the Pangeni and Nami basins, and in these areas they should be subject ho modification in the light of experience gained from the schemes proposed for initial dev+.=,J4:Tment.
2. Main Findings
The Village Development Committ Village Chairman, a d the elected lbalozi /./ Droved to be theMOE eeetive agents in int o ucing new ideas to the existing communities.
The average age of the farmees is found Lo be surprisingly high, and not in general accorddinthe quoted national average. In addition, it is found that farmeys have a high degree of bsi kiicnlec1gs about improved farming methods, even niNigh many ere not in e, -oosition Lo put their knowledge into Pracice. .(.11 conknadiction 'Lo maw other parts of the wor]d, it is found that the nide -;.eallo-,:s eve .:eE0(0/- adolytimoy.ove0methods more ovickly than their equival9h .15.7.(;y has little significant bearing on, Oej.Pn ;1j:f? r";-
nIhi, The 1le.rabe..3:so ic1dee usband, ,-.1s7, and_ or ;. T.)ciocl..:11) 1.1.P ocl r5.dependapts anti. 'cLio aehendan'Gs, bj.gb1)1.0pol,21.1ou evailahle farm labourpRJ:c'emiTy, :Th:3,e1,. 'L ui,nt r Lo. 6ataYmining the a5.',.;e of the cultive,ted farm tho geoe,t .7"1-10.IJie0,a-nri.,,I.Gy Der acYe.
More than 50 borcent of -tb.7, IT7TPJaUmiis :;.'oon0 to be in the young age depehdeucy groop,uiii,cb inolud. s all nnaer yerea.s of age, the Zerbility and cl epeudency vatios heing emop,TA LJ n ighe:Ti, intnevoria.
The average size of the farm holding is highor the plains than on the mountains,M.I.dtheve in an invese the size of the holdings and the retilms pe?'
A1thou11 the ave:,:sa,'3e :;:amil-,7 income the Pangani basin is nearly Sho N J.5009 ibero aVO-,:07Gonsidezabl.e un'ugo 5,n-Zara:11y incomes. Si.milarly the crJtjidatell.;,07-e70Eise Hbm. T 260 ou the mountaii), and less than bajer of 'ibis i:igure on 1,he 011Diu..6'Lo vovy yvviations, The 7.),Cl.'-1(2.11.c.; forFZ?..1'! n'L' en .71-,) SI .671 e (3))1.1 05. dill 0111- ¡3 lde
1/ The elected representative of some 10 households. 105
The farmerts relative state of progressiveness. The size of family labour. The size of farm holding. The withdrawal of the young active farmers from farms to urban centres leaving the burden of farming on low productive parents in the old age dependency group. The values which the farmer attributes to leisure and work.
The traditional laws of inheritance amongst the WaChagga, where both the first and the last born sons inherit the farm, has led to fragmentation, which is now being increased as population pressure is resulting in land division amongst all the sons. Property rights of women do not exist in the Pangani basin, except in parts of the Usambara mountains.
On the farm there is a definite division of family labours male jobs; strictly female jobs; and some which overlap.Farm wives take an active role in farm labour. The keeping of farmerile accounts is usually carried out by the farmer's schoolchildren.
Farming is valued highly by most farmers, anddespite the uncertainty of present farming, they would not exchange theirpresent occupation. Mechanization, especially of ploughing, is greatly desired. Although there is considerable production .of cash crops, food crop production, especiallythe staple foods, has prior claim on production resources. Of greatest importance to the farmersare sufficiency of food, education of their children, and theprovision of suitable clothing for their wives.
Livestock, despite its inferior quality, is numerous, being a yard-stick of wealth and social standing, an insurance in old age and a security in times of want.
The main causes of farmers' dissatisfaction with their present localities are lack of capital and shortage of land and water. Farmers with large families are found to have a more favourable attitude towards resettlement. In the Moshi district, the age of farmers and dissatisfaction with their present locality is found to be inversely correlated.
A noticeable decline in the previously widespread belief in tribal curative methods is found, and increasing faith is being placed in modern medicine.
The structure and function of a number of institutions were examined in order to determine their role in creating, or changing social values.
The family, as the central core of all social institutions, was considered, together with the problems associated with it, such as polygamy, divorce, separation and desertion. Strong dislike is found with any attempt to try to reduce or eliminate polygamy.
The influence of the tribe on the individual is found to be greater than both family and religious influence. Tribal identification and group solidarity are very noticeable. Tribal inter-marriage although not forbidden is discouraged. 106
Cooperatives are a major economic institution and have a vital role in the development and change tal7ing place in the country. The high percentage of memb ship shows that farmers are co9peratively minded. The_Village Development Com- mittees proved to be the most effective channel in reaching the individual farmer, and were the most effective source of information on farmers' needs and problems.
Age and tribal affiliation are not considered important in those who are working to effect changes, although their familiarity with the area, local condi- tions and problems is of great importance. Traditional sources such as the Vil- lage Development Committee have the greatest influence in spreading new ideas, whereas informal sources, such as leading farmers of the community, are the most effective in influencing the application of the ideas.
The radio is found to have a very large effect in breaking down the tradi- tional isolation of the rural people, and programmes related to agriculture are the most popular. The peak listening time is in the evening.
cation of the Main Findieee gation Settlement
In order to help farmers to accept and adjust themselves to new environments it is suggested that Villeea Development Committees, and 'balozil should be established at the start of the development stage.
Stability of the social aspects, and a progressive influence, are likely to be provided by the inclusion of some elderly men and families, although priority should be given to the recruitment of mature persons between 30-40 years with largo families. This ago group, in addition Lo providing the family labour eeceesary for high productivity, tondo Lo adopt recommended farming practices relatively quickly. The whole) family should be brought together on the scheme juet as soon as it is practicable Lo erosent them as a unit to the new farming practieee. The influence of the tribe, or the individual, suggests that a size- able group of Carmers of oimilar type and outlook, and chosen from the same locality, should be made neighboure on a scheme. Tt is not expected that the 7erieeirg together of different religioee groupo in likley to oanee any major :Teietion. Selection uithin the yonug 7elmeied and immature Groups is inad- vise:1-)1e.
Adequate housing ie ueceesary to make eettlement on the scheme acceptable, ana eufficiont loan facilities shonlei be provided to enable farmers to construct their own houses. The engineering layouts do not make provision for houses to be eotablished on individual plote within Lhe irrigated area, and it is suggested that villages and community °entree ehould be established outside the Perimete'r of the irrigated land, Health requirements demand the eeparation of field canals from homes, and indicate the undesivability of horno gardens, which inevitably will mean some irrigation. However, the neea to avoid a sterile, desolate vil- lage environment, together with the needto provide a sonso of individuality to tho settlers, may require that some modification Lo this principle should be considered, ana the crovinc, of vegetables end Cruit in home gardeno under irriga- tion may have to be permitted. Any nodiflcation will, however, require very epecieJ attention to the roonletenl, health haearde. 107
The consideration at Kahe and Miwaleni which is being given tothe develop- ment of a farming system which incorporates dairy production is highlydesirable from a social security viewpoint, as well as from technical andeconomic consi- derations. Although from an economic aspect it is essential that the cropping system should aim at the maximum production of high value commercialcrops, it is recognized that the system may well have to include the growing ofstaple food crops in view of the importance attached to staple foodcrop production by the people.
The size of the individual family unit has yet to be determined after further agronomic and soil studies have enabled a firm cropping system to berecommended, but the rights of the individual to the family unit should be recognized within the system of land tenure in order to enable the farmer to develop a feeling of personal interest in the land. It is suggested that the need to levy water charges should be fully explained to the farmers and this aspect should be dealt with as part of the overall training programme. A multipurpose cooperative should be built up on each scheme, and after a number of years should be in a position to take over the management of the scheme.
A degree of mechanization should be introduced, and the major operations such as ploughing should be fully mechanized. In other farm operations the level of mechanization should be fixed so that maximum use can be made of family labour. Provision for this has been made in the preliminary irrigation layouts.
The establishment of new, or expansion of existing schools and dispensaries is of the greatest importance as is the provision of adequate medical, social, and recreational facilities.
It is suggested that settlement should be in two stages, the first of which should extend over a period of about four years. The aims of the first stage should bes
To train the farmer in the techniques of irrigation farming.
To develop and train a cooperative organization which will increasingly take over responsibility of management of the scheme in the second stage.
To ensure, as far as is possible, that the farmer intends to be a genuine settler and is reasonably adaptable to the requirements of irrigation settlement, before he is granted a right of occupancy over the land provisionally allocated to him.
At an early date during this probationary training stage the settlers should be encouraged:to bring their families, and should be provisionally al- located an area of land. It will be necessary to provide credit facilities so that the settlers can build their own houses, preferably as a community development selfhelp project. Initially, assistance will need to be provided to the settlers until adequate returns are obtained from the irrigated fields. As far as is possible this should be in kind in preference to cash. - 108-
Close control and supervision of all aspects of training, including ultimate management, will need to be supplied by a competent salaried manager during this first stage, but at all time there should be the maximum consultation possible with the settlers.
In the second stage, the settler having demonstrated his desire to remain on the scheme, and shown a reasonable aptitude for irrigation farming, should be granted a long-term right of occupancy over his land, and the management of the scheme should gradually be handled over to the cooperative. CHAPTER IX
AGRONOMIC INVESTIGAONS
1. Current Land Use
(a) Miwaleni springs area
This general description applies to an area of socio 28 000 acres on the lower slopes of Kilimanjaro, lying between the Mgshi to Rimo round in the north, and the Moshi to Tanga railway line in the southwest. The Pangani river, known in this area as the Ruvu, forms the eastern boundary. This, area included the proposed Miwaleni,upland scheme of some 2 000 acres. For the location refer to Figuré4.
The dominant vegetation is Acacia thorn bush, but the pattern is variable. To the south, in the saline areas, mature palms are particularly common. There are frequent forest clumps and two forest reserves, and the river banks usually support a high gallery forest. Open thorn bush with much grassland is the common pattern on the slopes below Kilimanjaro, and grasslands also occur in the wetter areas between the Rau and the Mue river.
It is estimated that about50percent of the area is under crops, although the percentage is higher in the northern section where the proposed irrigation scheme is located. The local people irrigate a proportion of the land, uzing water from various streams. The water available is limited, and with a low, erratic rainfall of some15inches per year, crop yields are poor. -no-
The following crops are common in the area:
Food cros maise, beans, cassava, paddy,bananas, pidgeon pea, sweet potatoes and vegetables.
Cas orops cotton, vegetables (tomatoes,cabbages, onions and curcubits) and bananas.
Of the crops groun maize and beans occupy about half of the area under cultivation. The cultivation of bananas, vegetables and paddy is restricted to areas irrigated by furrous from the Rau river. Cotton, pidgeon pea and cassava are grovn throughout the area and are largely dependent on rain. Although a proportion of the main:e and an increasing area of cotton are grown in pure stands, moot of the orops are interulanted. The main cropping season is during the long rain season commencing in March. In general, crop yields are low and although no reliable figures are available it is estimated that average yields per acre of maje are about 800-1 000 lbs, of cotton about 500 lbs of seed cotton, of beans about 400 lbs, and of onions no more than about 3'000 lbs. Lack of water is the major limiting factor to higher yields. Other limiting factors are poor cultural standards, includinE; lack of timeliness of planting and weeding, lack of use of fertilizers, and use of unsuitable crop varieties.
The size of holdings varies considerably, but the average may be about5to 6 acres. Hired tractors, supplied by the cooperative union, are used to plough a proportion oC the land, but.ox cultivation is not practiced. Some of the farmers are resident in the area, and some live on the higher slopes of the mountain where the mainC1NDDSare coffee and bananas, but hold annual cultivation rights on land in the louer areas. The number of permanent residents in the louer areas is growing as the population density on the higher mountain slopes inureases.
Cotton, aDO maize sur plus to :.eeuirements, are sold through cooperatives which have been established Yor a num'oer of years
(b) The Kahe area
This general description applies to an area of some 39 000 acres south- nest ef the Minaleni springs, and contains the proposed Kahe irrigation scheme ot' some9000 to 11 000 acres. It is situated between the Kikuletwa and Rau rivers. Tbe location is shoun in Figure 4.
The natural vegetation is open thorn busb dominated by Acacia. Coarse gyasnos occur in some parts but bare natches sometimes occur on shallow soils overlying cemented gravel.
ilccluding the sugar and sisal estates, continucus cultivation is confined to the river banks oC the Rau, uhere supplementary irrigation water. can be supplied to a range of crops. Particularly common are maize, bananas, beans and cotton. The 2est of the area is mainly uninhabited, with only localized 111
attempts, in favourable years, to grow maizeor cotton. Lack of water is the main limiting factor to agricultural productionin the nonsaline nonalkaline areas, the rainfall being highly erratic and averaging about 14inches.
Nauv.p.J.11
This description applies to some 15 000 acreson the left bank of the Pangsni river, and includes about 2 200 acres proposed for irrigationdevelopment. The general location is shown in Figure5.
The vegetation is variable with large grassy plains in thoseareas with highly saline and alkaline soils, and trees dominant along old watercourses and the river. A parkland vegetation is common on the nonsaline- nonalkaline soils, the trees being particularly dense in parts. To the east, close to the edge of the floodplain9 large areas are almost completely bare of-vegetation due toover- grazing of the very alkaline soils. A variety of wild animals, including a high baboon population9 are present.
The population is located mainly in the villages of Naururu and Mferigini, and is largely dependent on irrigation agriculture based on water obtained from the Pangani river through a simple offtake. The total area under irrigation command is some 1 OCO acres, although it is estimated that no more than 400 acres are cultivated. The gross area of each holding varies from about five to fifteen acres.
Annual, biennial and perennial crops are grown in mixed'stands, although it is estimated that about75percent of the area is under annual crops. The most common mixtures include maize/cotton, maize/cassava, and maize/cotton/sweet potatoes. In addition, a few plants of beans, chillies, sugar cane, pawpaw, bananas and pidgeon pea are frequently included in the mixed stands. Tobacco is grown in small plots.
The local cooperative society provides limited assistance for cultivation by tractors, and in the main all cultivation is carried out by family 1aboUr. Poor irrigation and cultural practices, combined with a wide range of pe^ts, are major limiting factors to increased crop production.
Marwa
This general area, in which some 8 000 acres are proposed for development of overhead irrigation, is located in the central Pangani region, some ten miles north of Naururu and is shown in Figure7. Within the area are three small vil- lages mainly dependent on fishing and cattle grazing and a limited amount of irrigation farming, which is confined to the river banks. - 112 -
(e) Wami coastal,plains
The general area is located on both sides of the Wami river, and on the floodplain extends about six miles' upstream of the Tanga to Dar-es-Salaam railway line. The location is shown in Figure9.
The vegetation is very variable and ranges between large areas of grassland on the northern coastal plain, to large, very dense forest clumps in the south, on both the coastal plain and the Ward_ floodplain. Other areas are dominated by Acacia thorn bush, tall mature palms, or salt bush. The grassland vegetation in many parts of the area is subject to annual burning and large areas, especially on tae northern coastal plain,'have a grassy fire climax cover. The mean annual rainfall is about 40 inches, but this is badly distributed with some50percent falling in April and May-June and July being the driest month. Rainfed agriculture is hazardous despite the mean annual rainfall of 40 inches.
The total population is small. It is estimated that in the 120 000 acres to which this description applies the total population will not exceed5000. A largo proportion is centred on the sisal estate, the salt works and the railway. Farming and fishing occupy the remainder.
In this general area of some 120 000 acres, within which about50000 acres are proposed for irrigation development, only about 1 000 acres is under cultiva- tion, excluding a 4 000 acre sisal estate. This cultivation is scattered along the river and beside stretches of the railway line and various roads and tracks. Holdings are small and average less than three acres per family.
Most of the fields are grown with a mixture of at least four to five crops, although maize and beans usually dominate the mixtures. A few fields of pure stands of tobacco are grown, and this is usually followed by maize or vegetables.
Other crops grown include bananas, coconuts, cashew nut, tobacco, beans, cowpeas, gram, cassava and sweet potatoes.During the long rains, and in areas prone to limited flooding, rice is grown.
In general, the standard of cultivation is very poor. A large proportion of the staple foods grown is consumed by the family. Cash requirements are met mainly from the sale of crops like bananas, pineapples, coconuts, mangoes and cassava.
Due to the presence of tsetse, no cattle are kept in the area, and neither animal nor tractor power is available.All cultivation is carried out manually. No reliable figures of family income are available; but it is estimated that the average income is about Shs T 300 per family.Improved cultivation, the use of higher yielding crop varieties, the provision of a source of power to sup- plement hand labour, and irrigation, are necessary to raise production and the standard of living of the people. - 113 -
2. Experimental Work
A programme of agronomic investigationswas started which was limited to the Miwaleni upland and Kahe areas. The broad aim was to investigateways of in- creasing'the yields ofcrops currently grown in the area, and to examine the potential of such new crops as lucerne, berseem, kenaf andsunhemp. The programme commenced with some simple observation plots on the Miwaleni,uplandarea in1965, and with the termination of FAOss participation,ended with the harvest of the 1967long rain trials. A programme of investigations for1967/68was handed over to the Government.
In the initial stages of the agronomic investigations stresswas placed on studies of the varietal, manurial, and cultural aspects of thecrops selected for study. It was intended that more attention should be given to the studyof the water requirements of crops, in combination with such related factorsas manuring and plant population, from the short rain season of1967onwards.
(a) Summary of agronomic investigations at Miwaleni upland
A pilot irrigation area was established on about 100 acres, water for ir- rigation being obtained from boreholes. In addition to the limited area under experimental and small observation plots, certain crops were planted on a field scale by direct labour. These bulk plantings provided information on yields, labour requirements and practical problems of irrigation under field conditions. The results of the trials and observations are presented undor the following grouping of cropss food crops, fodder crops, fiber crops, vegetable crops and oil crops.
(i) Food oros
Maize
During the long rains of1965, 1966and1967various varieties of maize were planted on a field scale. In all cases the plant population was around 15 000 plants per acre, and ammonium sulphate nitrate was supplied at the rate of cwts per acre, half of which was given at the time of planting, and half as a top dressing6-8weeks after planting. The yields obtained are summarized in Table16. 114
Table16 Yield of Maize Varieties from Bulk Plantings (lbs acre)
1965 1966 1967
Total areaYield per Total Yield perTotal Yield per (acres) acre area acre area acre (acres) (acres)
M6 3 1 606 2 2 037 Early pearl / 3 1 933 Kenya hybrid.622 2 4 343 Karanga local1/ 14 2 626 Kenya hybrid 4 725.?./ 623 3 492 21
Local varieties of open pollinated maize. During the process of land levelling the top soil was removed from a section of the land to a depth ranging between 8 inches to21inches. The average yield of 4 725 lbs per acre was obtained from the undisturbed section, and the average yield of3 492lbs per acre came frote the section where the top soil had been removed. The variation in yield reduction ranged from a minimum of264lbs per acre to2 128lbs per acre, giving an average reduction of 1 233lbs per acre. This illustrates the need to reduce top soil movement to a minimum.
A number of trials designed to provide information on varietal suitability, rate and time of fertilizers application and spacing, were carried out during both the long and the short rain growing season. The yields obtained during the short rains were consistently lower than those obtained from the long rain crop. This was partly due to climatic conditions and partly due to difficulties in irrigation.
Varietal comparisons showed the marked superiority of the hybridsover the open pollinated varieties. Kenya Hybrid632gave more than double the yield of M6,the lowest yielder, and exceeded other varieties by some33percent.
Although there was little response to phosphate, and none to potash, nitrogen at the rate of 80 lbs per acre, in two applications, gave significantly higher yields. Further trials are required on spacing and nitrogen requirements at dif- ferent levels of plant population as trials to date have provided inconclusive results. 115
Beans
A number of varieties of beans were grown on a field scale during the long rains of1965, 1966and 1967, and during the short rains of1966. They included varieties grown locally for food and for export as seed beans: Only during the long rains of1965did two varieties, Canadian Wonder, and a white haricot bean, exceed 1 000 lbs per acre. In general, yie/ds were low throughout, particularly during the short rain season.
Trials were carried out to investigate the effect of fertilizers and various innoculants duxing1966and1967,yielded poorly, with only one trial producing yields in excess of 1 000 lbs per acre. Again, in accordance with general expe- rience, yields from the short rain crops were highly unsatisfactory with stunted growth and poor setting of pods.
There were indications of a response to phosphate at the rate of 40 lbs of nutrient per acre and to innoculation with soil from old bean fields.
Sorghum and finger millet
Observation plots of these two cereals were grown in1965and1966. Promising yields were obtained but graineating birds can cause considerable damage in this area, and provide an ever present threat to small grains, particularly when con'-' centrated on a relatively limited area in an irrigation scheme. The damage caused by graineating birds is illustrated in the yields from the sorghum variety plots given in Table17.
Table 17 Yield of Grain of Four Varieties of Sorghum (lbs/acre)
Yea Variety 1.65 1966
SB 68 1 758 834 78 3 708 954 726 Nil H 6 060 Nil -116-
In1965the damage by birds was relatively little. In1966it was so severe that the harvesting of the varieties H 726 and H 6060 was abandoned, and only a small proportion of the other two varieties was saved from the birds.
Fiber crops
Cotton
This is a major cash crop of the small local farmer in the low areas of Kilimanjaro region, and has been grown for many years. A long established gin- nery is in existence in Moshi, and arrangements for local marketing and export are satisfactory. Yields obtained on observation plots at Miwaleni were unsatisfac- '6Q:ivhowever, and ranged between 1 200 and 1 500 lbs per acre of seed cotton. With *.-.1:1ect from1967a comprehensive research programme has been initiated by the Central Regional Research Centre, Ilonga.Although current levels of yield are low, the fact that the crop is well known to the farmers and that it is a non- perishable commodity for which a well understood marketing system is in existence, -justifies further investigation. It should be noted that yields in the order of 2 500 lbs of seed cotton have been consistently obtained from 2-4 acre plots grown ill the past, under close supervision, in the lower areas of Moshi. These yields were obtained from the variety BP 52 then in general use in the Kilimanjaro region.
Kenaf
Observation plots planted in1966and1967yielded approximately600-700 lbs per acre of fiber. This is well below yields obtained elsewhere, including Kahe, where fiber yields of up to one and three7quarter tons per acre were obtained. Decortication was carried out by machine on a focal sisal estate, and the resultant product, due to the short fiber length, was classified as grade C. The price for grade C is about Shs.T. 800 per ton as against Shs. 1600per ton for grade A. In recent years considerable interest has been taken by Government in this crop, there being a ready market in Kenya, and plans for establishing a bag factory in Moshi. Further investigations into the agronomy and processing of this crop are necessary, but despite the low yields obtained on the Miwaleni upland plots, the much higher yields at Kahe, Arusha and elsewhere in the region justify further work.
Other fiber crops
Small observation plots of reselle and sunhemp were grown. .The results indicated that there may well be a place for sunhemp either as a fiber crcp, on the suitability pf the fiber to the requirements of the bag factory t ) ,-,,sablished at Moshi orasagreen manure crop, which would be of special !,z4lifilto the soils of Kahe which have a weak structure. - 117 -
Forage crops
Lucerne
This crop was grown on a field scale of 16acres using the variety "Hairy Peruvian". Planted in Juno 1966, the first cut was taken inSeptember. Over a twelye-month period some eight cuts yieldedan average of about seven tons of semidry hay per acre,or about 0.8 tons per cut per acre. The feeding quality of the hay was very satisfactory. Drying is a problem during the rainyseason and investigations into diving techniquesare required. Further research should be carried out on varieties, spacing, manuring, irrigationrequirements and weed control.
Production of lucerne hay from the Miwaleni,upland pilotarea has found a ready outlet amongst the cattle owners on the mountain.
Berseem
This fodder crop has also shown considerable promise and on an observation plot34 400lbs green material was obtained in four cuts over a period of five months. A general manuring of 40 lbs of nitrogen and 60 lbs of P20was used, and a subsequent fertilizer trial confirmed the marked response to fiertilizer at this level, applied at the time of sowing.
The water requirement of this crop is higher than that of lucerne, but it has a number of advantages. As a five to six month crop, cultivation of berseem permits a more intensive rotation to be followed. In addition to a high yield potential, it is easier than lucerne to convert into hay and there is less loss of leaf during the process. A further possible advantage is that it is more tolerant of alkali conditions and may, therefore, be more suited to the condition of Kahe and Miwaleni upland.
Other fodder crops
A number of legumes and grasses were tried, all of which gave good results,
Vegetable crops
A wide range of vegetable crops was grown,particular attention being given to tomatoes and onions. Most of the vegetablesshowed excellent growth and yielded well during the cool, long rain growingseason, but in accordance with general experience, with few exceptions, yieldswere poor during the short rain season. 118
Onions
This crop was grown under experimental and field conditions and the results show that yields of about 20 tons per acre can be achieved during the long rains from varieties such as Texas Grano. This variety consistently outyielded all other varieties, but its keeping quality is not as good as the locally grown Bombay Red, and its lack of pungency makes it less popular with the local consumer. The varieties recommended for dehydration processing gave unsatisfactory yields. All varieties yielded poorly during the short rain growing season.
A problem to be overcome before large scale cultivation of onions becomes practicable is the development of a suitable technique for either direct sowing or transplanting in fields, preferRbly the former.
Tomatoes
These were grown under field and experimental conditions and excellent
results were obtained during the cool long rain season. Under field conditions, . given a high standard of management, average yields of around 10-18 tons per acre can be expected from market varieties such as Money Maker, and a little less for the paste varieties like San Marzano. As already stated, a high standard of management is necessary. Fertilizers are required and particular attention must be given to pest and disease control.
No suitable variety has yet been found which will thrive during the short rain season. As all the year round supply of tomatoes is necessary if the main outlet for the crop is to be a processing plant, further investigations into varieties suitable for the short rain period and which meet the qualities demanded by the processor are required.
Chillies
These are grown on a garden scale by the local people, and are sold both for local consumption and for export. No yield figures are available of current local production, but yields in excess of 2 000 lbs per acre were obtainedon the observation plots. The crop was practically free from insect pests and diseases, had a fairly low water requirement and appeared to be one of the few crops capable of yielding well during the short rain growing season. 119
(b) Agronomic investigations at Kahe
Food crops
Beans
In general, the results obtained with this crop, both from extensive field scale plantings and from experimental plots, were similar to those obtained at Miwaleni upland, and were disappointing. Yields rarely exceeded 1 000 lbs per acre and were often appreciably lower. There was no significant response to fertilizer application.
Maize
In both field scale and experimental plantings the variety Kenya Hybrid 632 again proved to be the outstanding variety.Yields obtained in the long rain growing season were in ;the order of5000 lbs per acre as compared with an average yield of about 2500lbs per acre from a local variety. Experimental work on fertilizer responses'and frequency of irrigation was inconclusive.
Fodder crops
Lucerne
Approximately 44 acres were sown to lucerne in1966,a basal dressing of 20 lbs of nitrogen and 40 lbs P20 being applied at planting time. Yields were disappointing and with eight cuts'per year averaged about half a ton of hay per cut per year, as compared with 0.8 tons per cut at Miwaleni upland. Before any large scale cultivation can take place at Kahe, the suitability of lucerne to the area and its yield potential require further investigation. The problems of salinity, alkalinity and concretionary layers mentioned in the Soils chapter may limit the potential of this crop.
Fiber crops
Cotton
During the long rain season of1967,twenty four acres were sown to the local variety IL58. The average yield was a very unsatisfactory657lbs of seed cotton per acre. Part of the crop was not harvested due to heavy stainer 120
damage. Other possible contributory factors te tue low yield were the unsuita- bility of IL58,too severe a restriction of irrigation water in order to restrain excessive vegetative growth, and possible effects of salinity/alkalinity.
In addition to the field scale plantings, a number of trials were established by the Central Regional Research Station at Ilonga, but results are not available.
Kenaf
Experiments to determine the effect of fertilizers' application on different row spacings gave inconclusive results. The average yields obtained, however, suggest that, under field conditions, fiber yields around three quarters to one ton are obtainable. This is a highly satisfactory yield, and with the plan to establish a bag factory at Moshi requiring the importation of 800 tons of fiber a year from Kenya, the crop warrants more detailed investigation. Particular attention is required to be given to finding a suitable mechanical method of extracting the fiber without loss of quality.
Vegetable crops
A range of vegetables can be grown successfully in the long rain growing season, but with few exceptions the short rain season is unsuitable. More at- tention was given to onions and tomatoes, and the results in general were similar to those obtained at Miwaleni upland.
Conclusions
No firm recommendations for an intensive cropping system can yet be made. The production of vegetables, particularly tomatoes, on a major scale for processing poses a number of problems, not the least of which is the regular, all the year round supply to the processing plant of vegetables of the right quality for processing. Certain fiber crops, notably kenaf, show promise but require further investigation into processing techniques. The fodder crops also show promise, particularly lucerne and berseen, and it is suggested that serious consideration be given to investigating the implications of developing a farming system based on cattle and their products, especially milk.
Dairy production by smallholders on the mountain has been developing slowly over a number of years, and increased attention has been given to the provision of improved animals since 1964. Althoughstandards of management are generally low, the management of cattle under intensive conditions is not a new concept to the people. With good communications and a ready outlet for milk to the UNICEFassisted dairy factory in Arusha, in addition to the settlers and local people, a market is assured. From an agronomic viewpoint the effect of lucerne - 121 -
and berseem, together with animal manure, on the soils of Kahe in particular, would be very beneficial. The economic and marketing aspects are discussed in more detail in Chapter X.
3. Pilot Irrigation Areas
Of necessity, and in the interest of efficiency, settlementschemes based on irrigation involve a high degree of control and supervision. Inevitably, land tenure and managerial problems will arise, which will be furtheraggravated if sound, practical knowledge, together with the staffnecessary for the dissemi- nation of this knowledge, is not available. Pilot irrigation areas are therefore required to be planned, taking into consideration these.difficulties. There are three main purposes served by pilot areas. Firstly, as has already been shown, there is a need for considerably more agronomic work. This requires a relatively small acreage, which is unlikely to exceed 10 to 20 acres, and a largerarea, possibly to the order of 60 to 80 acres, where more realistic assessments of yields, farming'systems and practical problems associated with irrigation farming can be studied on a field scale. These areas should be operated by direct labour.
Secondly, there is a need for extension staff to be fully trained and experienced in the practical requirements of irrigation farming. This training and experience can be gained in the areas under field scale irrigation.
Thirdly, in addition to investigating the technical and practical problems of irrigation farming there is the need to investigate the human reaction to irrigation settlement, and the many land tenure and managerial problems which will arise. Moreover, the rato of adoption of recommended practices and the level of yields actually obtained from family units, as compared with yields from fields worked by direct labour, must be assessed before a final economic judgement for full development can be made. This requires that the pilot area should contain an area of land for settlement of a relatively small number of family units, once sufficient practical technical knowledge and trained staff are available to proceed to this stage of pilot area operation. Where irriga- tion deVelopment takes the form of improvement of existing irrigation this last stage may not be necessary, but is hecessary where development is t6 be based on settlement, as at Kahe and the Wami coastal plain.
Miwaleni upland is an area already under cultivation, and simple irrigation is practiied now. Development of this area will largely be based on improvements of existing irrigation by people already settled in the area. The pilot irriga- tion area of 100 acres which has been established serves the purpose of providing technical information and practical experience for extension Workers, and is the basis for an extensioh development programme.
At Kahe, little cultivation takes place and development will be dependent on settlement. A pilot irrigation area which has been established there on 200 acres, and which like Miwaleni_upland is supplied by borehole water, will need to incorporate a number of family units into the later stages of operation. - 122 -
Within the Naururu area there are approximately 1 000 acres of cultivation under a simple forra of agriculture, and development will partly be based on improvements to existing practices by local residents,as in the case of Miwaleni upland and partly on settlement from elsewhere. An engineering layout for a pilot area of some 250 acres has been prepared, but is not yet established on the ground.
No engineering layouts for pilot areas were prepared for Marwa or the Wami coastal plain, although a site was selected and an outline for a 100 acre pilot area, together with the necessary flood control measures, were drawn up for the latter scheme. The pilot area in the Wami coastal plain will need to be extended in future to include a limited number of settlers, but in view of the lack of data on the area, experimentation and field scale observations will be required for some years first.
A pilot area may well need to be in operation fora period of about five years from the commencement of agronomic experimentation before further develop- ment takes place. The period will obviously vary considerably between Miwaleni upland, which in based on improvement to existing irrigation ana forwhich some agronomic information is available, and the Wami coastal plain scheme, which is based on settlement, and for which little agronomic information isto hand.
4. Priorities for Irrigation Development
The initial capital cost of the engineering layout for an irrigation scheme, and the potential return from the farming system recommended, are only two of several factors to be taken into account when considering priorities for develop- ment. Of considerable importance is the rate at which the farmers are likely to adopt recommended practices and raise yields towards the potential established by experimentation, and on this will depend the full cost of development. The rate of improvement of production is likely to be faster where the farmers are familiar with the development area, the crops included in the farming system, and have experience of irrigation, however simple or inefficient the current practice may appear. These conditicns will apply where development is based on the improvement of existing irrigation farming, as it does in part, at least, at Miwaleni upland and at Naururu. In both of these areas a wider range of crops is grówn, and shortage or inefficient use of water is a major reason for low yields.It is suggested therefore that in the Pangani basin prior attention should be given to the improvement of existing irrigation within an intensive, coordinated rural development programme in these two areas. The pilot areas at Miwaleni upland and Naururu would be primarily concerned with providing technical data from ex- perimental and field scale plantings, and the training of extension staff to implement the irrigation development extension programme.
The final engineering layout, which will be modified in the light of informa- tion from the pilot area, may well take some time to complete and should be instal- led with the minimum disturbance of existing land rights and with capital ex- penditure consistent with the level of production. In the case of Naururu, improvements to the existing intake and the lead canal, as proposed in the engi- neering section, can be carried out immediately. Improvements to communications to this area should also be effected. 123
In the case of Kahe, very little cultivation takes place and development will be based on settlement of cultivators drawn from elsewhere. Agronomic investigations which have been carried out to date have been disappointing in general. Although kenaf yields were promising there are problems of processing to be solved as.it is a crop which will be completely new to the settlers. There may well be a strong possibility for dairy development but this must be assessed over a period of years, and adjustment to commercial milk production will be a lengthy process. It is suggested that work at Kahe should remain concentrated on the pilot area, within which familyoperated units should be established as soon as there is enough technical experience gained to proceed with reasonable confidence. The social and managerial problems should also be studied in the pilot area before systematic expansion of settlement takes place.
No engineering layout has been prepared for a pilot area at Marwa, although such an area, based on an overhead sprinkler irrigation system, will be required before full development can be considered. Initially, development should be restricted to improving the limited irrigation practised by the few people resident in the area, and to improving communicationS'.
In the Wami coastal plain, flood control is essential before any major ir- rigation development can take place. The cost of flood control is high and can only be borne by hydroelectric power. No pilot irrigation area should be established unless and until it is decided to develop hydroelectric power in the Wami river basin. There will be sufficient time between the taking of a decision to develop hydroelectric power and the construction of a flood control and storage reservoir for pilot area investigations to be carried out without delaying main development, once flooding has been controlled.
Initial investigations in the pilot area should be directed towards improving the yields of selected crops which are grown in the area, and the integration of rainfed and irrigated agriculture. A limited number of family operated units should be included in the'pilot area after farming systems have been tested using directly employed labour.
The coastal plain is very sparsely populated and the environment presents a drastic change to the conditions in the overpopulatednorthern mountain areas of the Pangani basin. Considerable thought will have to be given to the source of future settlers to develop the area, as it is unlikely that significant numbers will come from the headwaters region of the Pangani. .2APTER X
ECONOMIC AND MARKETING CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE MIWALENI UPLAND AND KAHE IRRIGATION SCHEMES
1. Introduction
Economic viability requires that the schemes should be capable of paying their way without subsidy, and it is essential to base economic considerations on a true and complete assessment of costs. Should wider policy issues require that certain cost elements be excluded from the accounting system adopted, the extent of the consequent charge to general revenue must be clearly visible. Although it may be possible to obtain a soft loan for a particular project, the expansion of public expenditure will make it necessary eventually to seek loans on hard terms. In the preliminary considerations given to the economic viability of these schemes, the annual service charge on capital investment has been based on an amortization period of 20 years and an interest rate of 6 percent, giving an annual service payment of approximately 8.7 percent.
In view of the population pressure in the Kilimanjaro region it is desirable to settle as many families as possible on the schemes. In principle therefore, and to meet the needs of the region, the schemes should be capable of bearing the full amortization charges, together with costs of administration and manage- ment, and still leave the intensively settled farmers in a position to obtain a reasonable net income. In the light of prevailing income pattern of the region a net disposable family income of Shs T 2 000 per year is considered tobe a fair target. Regional family incomes are indicated in Table 18.
Although the final engineering designs will be modified in the light of further soil surveys and additional data to be obtained from the pilot areas, the estimates of capital cost provide a reasonable basis for computing the an- nual service charges. Estimates of total production costs, gross and net revenue - 126 -
per annum are severely limited however, by the lack of agronomic information available from investigations carried out at Miwaleni upland and ¡Cake, and the need to use yield and production costs obtained from elsewhere. In addition, the meaningful estimate required is the net return per acre per annum from a farming system in which the individual components are integrated so as to make full use of the land, water, and labour which is available. It is not possible at this stage for any such farming system to be firmly recommended and any reference to crop rotations can only be tentative.
The high capital cost of irrigation development requires that the aim should be to devise a farming system which maximizes revenue. For social reasons however, it may be necessary initially to include the production of staple food crops for domestic consumption. However, illogical this may appear from a purely economic viewpoint, the fact remains that despite the substantial development of a cash economy in Moshi district there is a strong reluctance to be dependent on purchased staple foods. This attitude can no doubt be overcome in time, but will need to be taken into consideration in the early stages of development.
Table18 a Distribution of Average Family Income and Farm Size
District area Average farm Average family income size Net farm Supplement-Aid by Total income ary earned second family income family income earner
acres shillings 0
Moshi district
Highlands 3.3 758 760 13 1 531 Lowlands 6.5 '4 400 26 1 020 North Pare districts
Highlands 3.2 334 406 108 848 Lowlands 4.4 212 1 512 21 1 745
The people of Moshi district have demonstrated their ability to adapt them- selves to many of the requirements of the day. The period of adaptation to more sophisticated production techniques under irrigation therefore, may not be as long as might be expected elsewhere. Nevertheless it will take time to adjust to new crops and farming systems, especially to the sophisticated production techniques demanded by crops such as tomatoes and other vegetables grown on a commercial scale to meet the requirements of a processing plant. Initially -127-
therefore, it is advisable to giveconsideration to basing the major production on crops which are familiar to the people, and develop more complex systemsas experience is gained.
2. Cost of Ovorhe Irrip\ation Development
The total cost of the engineering layout for surfaceirrigation of8 788 acres of Kahe is approximately Shs T24.3million and for the irrigation of 2000 acres at Miwaleni upland is Shs T5.9million. Including investment in storage and buildings, not shown in the engineering estimates,the capital cost per acre is Shs T 3 061 and Shs T3 319for Kahe and Miwaleni upland respectively.
Estimates of the annual cost of overheadsper acre for the Kahe and Miwaleni upland irrigation schemes are summarized in Table 19.
Table19: Estimates of Annual CostofOverhe (Shs T per acre)
Shs. T. Shs. T. Annual service charge at 8.7 percent in capital invested 266 289
Maintenance, operation and renewal charges 52 350
Supervision and management 140 140
Total 458 779
Maintenance, operation and renewal charges include an estimate of the annual operating costs of the low lift pumping at Kahe of Shs T7per 'acre, and a very preliminary estimate of thé borehole pumping costs of Shs T300per acre at Miwaleni upland. - 128-
It should be noted that, while the Kahe area is presently barren and un- cultivated, the Miwaleni upland area is under fairly intensive cultivation at present, and the net annual value of current agricultural production is tentatively estimated to be Shs T 100 per acre.With the steady expansion of the acreage under cultivation due to population'pressure, and the possibility of increasing yields at relatively little expense by extension work, this figure of Shs T 100 is considered to be conservativo. As the aim is to assess the additional value of crop production resulting from the proposed investment in irrigation development in the Miwaleni upland area, the value of existing produc- tion must either be deducted from the estimates of total returns from the scheme area, or added to the estimated costs. If the value of existing crop production is added to the cost of overheads, the apparent difference between Kahe and Miwaleni upland overhead costs of Shs 321, would be increased to Shs 421.
Returns and Variable Costs of Production
In order to assist in assessing the merit of various crops and their potential for inclusion in a crop rotation the expected returns are set against the variable costs of production. The variable costs are those which are specific to the production of a particular crop. They include cost of seeds, fertilizer, insec- ticide, machine operating costs, and labour. In the summary given in Table 20 the variable costs are given including and excluding labour. Labour provided by the family would be excluded from the cost calculations and only the cost of hired labour required at peak times would be included, but this is not possible to estimate until the crops are assessed within a complete farming system. The yield figures used in the calculations are estimates based on local consultation and observation. They assume the use of known varieties of crops and good standard of management.
The returns from various crops and the variable costs are summarized in Table 20. 129
Table20 s Estimates of Returns and Variable Costs1/for Various Crops Kahe
(2) (3) (4) (5) Crop Yield Ex farm Total Variable costs' Returns over lbs price return Shs per acre variable costs Shs per Shs lb per exclud. includ, exclud. includ. acre labour labour labour labour
Cotton 1 300 .411/ 533 215 480 318 53
Kenaf 1 400 .6211 868 1931a13261?-/ 675 542 (fibre)
Maize 3 500 .195A/ 683 231 355 452 328
Lucerne 17 600 .073/ 1 280 484 731 796 549 (semidry hay)
Tomatoes 22 000 .04/ 1 320 281 853 1039 467
Onions 22 000 .0621 1 320 317 799 1 003 521
Berseem 20 000 1 460 544 859 916 601 (semidry hay)
Chillie 2 000 1.02/ 2 000 137 659 1 863 1 341
Sugar cane 88 000 .01&12/ 1 600 276 976 1 324 624 11 Food beans 1 200 .251 270 165 327 105 -57 (local)
Food beans 1 000 .3511/ 350 165 327 185 23 (export)
Seed beans 800 711/ 560 180 342 380 218 (export)
Footnotess see next page -130
1/ The variable costs include cost of seed, insecticide, fertilizer, machine operating costs, and are shown both with and without labovr costs. In the case of tomatoes an additional supervision cost of Shs T 20 per acre has been added in view of the strict management required for the production of this crop to meet processing requirements.
2/ Weighted average prices for cot on paid in 1966 by the Cotton Lint and Seed Marketing Board assuming an avere percentage of 80 percent Grade A and 20 percent Grade C.
,a/ Weighted average price of kenaf fibre based on Kenya factory prices of Shs T 1 600, Shs 1 400, and Shs 1 000 per ton for Grades A, B and C respectively and after deduction of estimated handling and delivery costs to the bag factory to be constructed in Moshi.
1/ Based on the National Agricultural Products Board's price for maize of Shs T39per 200 lb bag.
.5/ This is the price at which the small quantities of lucerne produced by the schemes have been sold to the relatively few farmers keeping high grade cattle on Kilimanjaro. This price is less than half the price paid by Kenya dairy farmers.
The price of tomatoes is based on local estimates of the price it would be necessary for a processing factory to pay in order to be competitive both within Tanzania and in the export market.
This is a tentativo estimate of the price for onions which a dehydrating plant, established near to the scheme, could afford te pay and maintain a competitivo position in the, world market.
There being no local production on market.for berseem, the price is estimated on the basis of the price obtained locally for lucerne. This crop is usually cut and fed in the green state.
The price for chillies is based on the price offered by an export firm-for the variety Long Red Cayenne.
12/Based on data supplied by the sugar estate at Arusha Chini. The labour rates are those paid by the estate and are considerably higher than the Shs T 4.5 paid elsewhere.
The local market price for good quality food beans in recent years has fluctuated around Shs T45per 200 lb bag. Exporters pay up to Shs T 80 per 200 lb bag for export food beans, but the average price, allowing for up to 15 percent rejects, transport and handling, is about Shs T 70 per 200 lbs. Seed bean prices vary between Shs T 160 to Shs T 180, but allowing for up to 25 percent rejects in addition to handling and storage,
the average ex farm price is taken as Shs T 140 per 200 lbs. .
12/As variable costs are those specific to the production of a particular crop/the cost of machinery employed only for that crop must be included. Little is known about the mechanical decortication of kenaf, and the variable costs for this crop may be substantially underestimated. - 131 -
4. Other Considerations
On the basis of returns over variable costs per crop acre chillies,sugar cane, tomatoes, and onions appear to offer the greatest promise. Appreciably below, but still appearing to be capable of supplying a reasonable returnare the fodder crops of berseem, and lucerne, and the fibre crop of kenaf. Maize, cotton, seed and food beans for export are towards the bottom of the list. Food beans for local sale show no economic potential for inclusion. Other factors however, require consideration, and these are briefly discussed below.
(a) Marketing
There appears to be a good export market for chillies and this crop is currently being exported in substantial quantities. In-the case of sugar there is no free capacity at the factory on the Tanganyika Planting Co. Ltd. sugar estate some 2 miles from the Kale scheme area and connected to it by a private railway line. Tanganyika is however, a net importer of sugar, and the current consumption of 7 kg per head is low in comparison with Kenya and Uganda. A policy decision to aim at self sufficiency may influence the expansion in factory capacity at Arusha Chini particularly if, as is quoted, the Tanganyika Planting Co. Ltd. is the cheapest producer in Tanzania. In view of the good experience with outgrowers for the Kilembero Sugar Co. Ltd., it may be possible to develop a similar arrangement for Kahe.
There is no significant regional market for fresh tomatoes, and although with suitable packing and transport arrangements there is a national market for fresh tomatoes, the main market outlet for any significant production would be a processing factory producing paste and juice for internal consumption as well as export. Currently some 400 tons of tomato paste and juice are imported. The region is, and has been for many years, a major producer of onions. There is a limited seasonal import of fresh onions of some 300 tons per year, but the main outlet lies in the export field either as dehydrated onions for Europe, or as fresh onions.
Although small avantities of lucerne produced on the pilot areas are sold locally at a price alSus1, per55lb bale, and there are possibilities of building u6 a reEdoaal markeb for lucerne, this is too unpredictable to justify the production of111Ge-meand berseem as cash crops. The most promising use of these fodder crops is as feed Zor dairy cattle kept on theschemes. This is discussed later.
The CoffeeOLLL-i.ngGo. of Moshi plan to start a bag factory at Moshi in 1969 and import some 800torIE!of kenaf fibre from Kenya. This will-provide a ready local market in addition to the existing Kenya market.
Cotton has been the major cash crop produced by small holdersin the low areas of the regions'for many years,and the marketing of this crop through well establishe.d channels in, for all practical purposes,unlimited quantities, is a s:con,z uoim; in favour of cotton production. Maize is purchased by the Noional A,7ricultural Products Board(N.A.P.B.) although considerable quantities - 132 -
are sold or exchanged locally. It should be investigated whether the N.A.P.B. could increase maize prices to the amount of money saved on storage, when receiving off-season maize grown in the short rains. This is of some importance as maize is one of the few crops which will yield reasonably well during the short rain growing season. Tanzania is a major world producer of seed beans and a well organized marketing arrangement exists for the export of this crop, as it does for the export of food beans.
(b) Field requirements
Of the crops under consideration maize, beans and cotton are the most widely grown on a large scale, although there is a significant production of onions. Chillies and tomatoes are grown widely but on a garden scale, and sugar cane production by small holders is limited to very small areas. Kenaf, lucerne and berseem are completely unfamiliar to the people. Although farmers can be taught the production of new crops and the use of improved techniques, this will take time and where highly specialized forms of production are required, considerable risks are involved. This applies especially to the production of vegetables of suitable quality and in regular quantities to meet the requirements of processing plants. Apart from the fact that it has not been found possible to produce satisfactorily short rain season onions and tomatoes, and hence ensure a regular supply of these vegetables to a processing plant throughout the year, the very high standard of pest and disease control which is absolutely essential for com- mercial scale production of tomatoes, militates against the introduction of these crops as major earners of cash. Chillies are remarkably free from pests and diseases with the possible exception of bird damage, but are extremely unpopular to harvest. This again suggests that chillies should be limited to small scale production. Kenaf is a crop which is new to the people but is a relatively simple one to grow. A problem which has not yet been solved however, is a cheap and efficient method of extracting the fibre by mechanical means and still retain quality. Kenaf appears to have excellent potential for inclusion in the crop rotation but this cannot be realized until the problem of processing has been solved. No trials on sugar cane production have been carried out, but the level of production on the nearby estate is a reasonable indication of the yield potential. Etperience of commercial scale sugar production is limited largely to former employees of the sugar estate who have sulsequently settled in the lower areas of Moshi. This is a relatively straightforward crop to grow and in case that factory capacity can be provided warrants consideration as a major crop. It is understood that Government policy did not favour the inclusion of sugar production at Kahe, but it is not known if this policy still stands. From the foregoing sections it may be seen that in the early-stages of development cotton, seed beans and maize cannot be excluded entirely on the basis of their compara- tively lower returns over variable costs.
The fodder crops of lucerne and berseem can best be considered in conjunction with milk production. 133
Dairy Production
The agronomic advantages to be gained from the growing ofleguminous fodder crops and the use of animal manure have already been noted. Preliminary examina- tion of the economics of milk production suggesta return per acre from milk comparable to that of the more valuable crops.
There is an assured market for milk through the dairy factory established at Arusha with UNICEF assistance. This factory was built with a capacity of 6 000 gallons per day. Milk supplies to the factory have consistently dropped as estate production has fallen, and are now below the level of 2 500 gallons per day required for economic operation. It is intended to import supplies from Kenya. In addition, there is a requirement of some700gallons per day by employees on the nearby sugar estate, and of course, the needs of the farmers and their families on the schemes.
The preliminary assessment of the economics of dairy production assumed the good management of grade stock fed on home grown irrigated fodder crops, together with roughage and supplemented by purchased concentrates and minerals. The calculations were based on a high carrying capacity of 4 beasts to the acre producing an average of564gallons per head over a lactation period of 282 days. A price of Shs.2.75per gallon was assumed for revenue estimation purposes. The estimated return over variable costs per acre for milk production is about Shs T. 1400,excluding labour costs of fodder crops, and about Shs T. 800 if labour costs are included. It should be noted that production costs are very high and errors in management can rapidly result in substantial losses.
The supply of suitable grade dairy cattle is likely to be extremely limited, and the build up of a large dairy unit as a major economic enterprise will extend over many years. Particular care will have to be taken when building up the herd to prevent the introduction of disease, and a quarantine centre will be required. In addition, the dairy herd will need to be protected from local cattle. Stock movements, particularly by butchers and traders on the mountain, will have to be studied and measures taken to avoid contact between the herd and the trade stock.
The lack of reliable information on production costs, including fodder crop production, and on returns, requires that dairy production should be limited to the pilot area for a period of at least five years. At the end of this period, during which additional fodder crops should be tried, the economics of dairy production can be more reliably assessed.
Crop Rotation
Agronomic factors other than the availability of irrigation water limit crop production. Of the crops listed onions, tomatoes, beans and cotton can only be grown during the period extending from February/March to September/ October. New varieties of techniques may be developed to overcome this problem - 134 -
but at present none is known. Further, in order to prevent the build up of cotton pests the Cotton Ordinance requires the uprooting and burning of cotton plants by a specified date in the latter part of the year. Kenaf may prove suitable for short season production if planted before mid-August, but this has yet to be proven, and the seasonal suitability of berseem has to be further investigated. Of the annual crops only maize, with a reduced yield in the order of 3 000 lbs per acre, and chillies can be relied upon to produce reasonably well during the short rainhot growing season commencing in October.
Under irrigation intensivo production with the minimum of fallow period must be aimed at. The extent to which this ami can be met by the crops under considera- tion is limited to their adaptability to different seasons of the year. As has been pointed out, with the exception of the perennial crops of lucerne and sugar cane, and the annual crops of maize and chillies, the growing of the remaining crops is limited to the long rain growing season. The period which the crops occupy the ground ranges from some 4 1/2 months in the case of beans, to up to 7months or more in the case of cotton,
(a) Cropping patterns for immediate consideration
In view of the points considered in sections 3 to5and in the early part of this section, any early development of irrigation outside the pilot area would need to be based on a simple rotation of cotton, maize and seed beans. In addition, vegetables, including onions, tomatoes and chillies, would be grown in a garden plot. Assuming a family unit of 4 acres plus 1/3 of an acre of vegetables, and a degree of mechanization, a basic rotation may be as shown in Table 21.
Table 21 s Basic Rotation for Early Implementation
Crop Area in acres Return/Variable Costs Exuding Long rains Short rains Labour Shs ong rains Short To
Cotton 2 636 636
Maize 3 452 1 356 18o8
Seed beans 1 380 380
Vegetables 1/3 1/3 (chillies) 420 600 1 000
3 82LJ, 135
The basic rotation gives an estimated returnover variable costs per acre of approximately Shs T. 900. If the estimated annual cost of overheads of Shs T.458per acre for Kahe are deducted, the net return to the farmerper acre could be in the order of Shs T.442or Shs T. 1815per family unit. In the case of Miwaleni upland the overhead costsare appreciably higher and amount to Shs T.779per year, excluding the value of current production tentatively estimated to be Shs T. 100 per acre. The net return per family unit at Miwaleni upland, after deduction of full annual overhead costs, wouldtherefore only be in the order of Shs T.520. It should be noted that it may be necessary to hire some labour for peak seasonal work, such as cotton picking.
On account of the market for kenaf fibre shortly to be established in Moshi and the higher potential revenue from this crop, kenaf could profitably replace cotton as soon as a suitable method of mechanical decortication has been establi- shed. In the case of Miwaleni upland this would increase the net returnper 41/3 acre unit to about Shs T. 1 000 which is stilltoo low to justify the capital cost of development.
If factory capacity could be made available at the sugar estate, the repla- cement of 2 acres of cotton by 2 acres of sugar cane at Kahe would increase the returns over variable costs from the family unit to about Shs T. 1 250 per acre. After deductionorannual overhead costs the net return per family unit of 4 1/3acres woula be about Shs T. 2 400.
The returns over variable costs per acre for the basic rotation, or variants which could be expected to be implemented in the reasonably near future, would appear to justify the capital outlay estimated for irrigation development at Kahe but not at Miwaleni upland.
(b) frIpplEg_patterns for future considerations
The development of a farming system based on milk production is highly desirable in view of the existing and growing demand for liquid milk within easy reach of the area, and the apparent profitability of such an enterprise. Such development however cannot take place at anearly date due to lack of reliable data on production costs and returns, together with various management problems. A pilot dairy unit should therefore be establiahed as soon as possible. The unit, based on zero grazing, should be supplied with fodder grown on the irrigated pilot area. Detailed studies should be carried out on the costs and returns of milk production, including the production costs of alternative fodder crops. Such investigations may extend over a five-year period before dairy development can commence and progressive farmers participate in a cooperative dairy unit. The rate of subsequent build up of a full dairy herd is likely to be limited by the availability of suitable stock and it is unlikely that milk production can assume a major role in under10-15years.
The need for an intensive and high revenue earning farming system has been stressed. Despite the problems associated with intensive vegetable production for processing, the potential high returns, together with the desirability of diversifying exports and developing local industry, justifies continued investiga- tion into agronomic problems and the economics of vegetable production for proces- sing. In view of the high production risks, this enterprise should be introduced on a small scale in the development areas after it hasbeen fully tested on the pilot areas. The small vegetable dehydration plant available from the Tanganyika Farmers Association might well be used during the period of investigation. - 137 -
CHAPTER XI
MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROPOSED IRRIGATION AT KABE AND MIWALENI UPLAND
L Kahe
The overall concept of the scheme is one of participation by Government, management and tenant. The main functions of Government are the supply of initial capital and development effort, and the provision of public services such as research, education, health and welfare. Its share of the benefits will be derived from direct and indirect taxation. As stated in ChapterX,the cost of management and supervision has been included in the overheads of the scheme. The management initially established will be responsible for the direction and control of the development of the project, including the training of a cooperative to assume, eventually, full managerial responsibility. In addition, it must, in agreement with tenant committees, set aside money out of profits as a reserve fund. The tenants, as members of a cooperative, will share directly in the profits from the farms, and proportionately, according to their contribution, in the profit of any subsidiary activity. The management and operation of the scheme when fully developed is illustrated in Figure 17.
As Figure 17 shows it is proposed that the total irrigated area should be divided into5blocks for administration and management purposes. Each block should then be divided into units which will support 20 families and each unit subdivided into fields of about 20 acres. Each settler should be allocated one acre in each field, the whole of which should be planted to a single crop. The full scheme should ultimately accommodate some 2 000 families. Two Or three villages will be reqUired for each block, and these should be sited to reduce the walking distance to a minimum. The staffing required for the overall management of the full scheme and for the daily operations within each block is given in Appendixes IV and V. 138
(a)Rate of devel2p
In Chapter X the annual cost of the overheads of Shs T Li,»6 assumed the implementation of the full irrigation layout from the outnet.nis 7ill not occur in practice.The rate of development uill d:pelid OA Iha D:esalts obtained from the pilot area, the availibility of experienced manag.ement end trained ex- tension and cooperative staff, the readiness of eettlers to come foruard, the rate at which the settlers adapt themselves to ileve eonajtions, and the availabi- lity of funds.The implementaion of frill aove1pmelit eili eeetenJ ,-)yer a period of several years.Approximately Shs T2.3 or 13 pei.cept of the total estimated capital 3:equipernent .j'er j2rigation, eill be needed, at the commencement of the main development foy such uorko es the dt,rersiou Jam and headuor3:s9 the leaa canal and storage pondand im):ecrvemen%s to eoLmuilicejj.eils, Th.; pemafLning capit.7.1 expenditure uill be rovzhiproper'ttonal to the acreoL;e a3ve3oped each year The annual overhead contn pee° -,.ere will therefore bc. irLccníly aigher thee Rhn T 543 in the initial years.
Tbe"J oEica,1 serve-J.1e -1)+ 6,;-\F.!oprae-tyi, plaa'51ed. iinplemerrbation of thc ran-11) ,.;1)'01.1 t(741. that an ofliccu of ellfflejent e-e.thoripub rJuoi1ed oy;lex eont-inuity of the fie10 7/ol°,7;.71..de0. tbe i rlof tie, project and the later -j'olleL up ectloo -10,0'the C:nvete,reenie,
A detailed soil survey of the whole of the Kahe ir:egeeLiob J(.711Pfll should be carried out as sooi. ae possible :-n6rire3teC, together iT:Ltbtbe grounater and subsoil investigelons etreeq;; eemeJ.e6,
Agronomic studies on'L-helj:p.en Rjy,maT CL), ec. ,,0-0.1,¡nue on 1_1a pilot areo, both os en ee:perjmenel eecT e -(" e'V) =c?PiAA,1,3 1-,1:-osval=ime eeztension staf;7110111a be Jeve)eped ,71dd made o; 'Ti' operauons ou 'L-he pilo-i; areao provide stFtff teohntques. mie-iit hai beee shova nat of e;:j.oinlc basic cropping system GRP De off'6.11e no o'r a limited number of families sb.oul6 be asishr°J. criY1:1 :eemejelirg laud the pilot area.This should be done tu ocdee te obt,ejie ne.er c.snessment of crop yields obtaiaed 1)7 family unite? shd the veL ebs prolems ef mereasement which will arise. A final engineering design aadninecL etilAetes ect;i1 be prepe).ed in the light of the de'6ailed soil survey ana dj-Vte.. 2ww Lho fi,AfJ area, enda schedule for development prepared. 139 °
Figure 17
and Croeration of Kahe ion Scheme when Full Do
, scheme headquarters :paIntanance- o--:,erataDn D 4 .anci roneral
and
...... _
ad fo r od.-o.c; 'cp. on 'i :4_-.4c-,--,43.0.-46-12:-4-44a 1 : ; sr: Is 4 !enciIle r.°4--i ns ! r-- ! 4-44,4ip1? hf E2.2ELmach iner;» a-10_1111Z, 7=s__ and. jarati on: ,D:rocessing4 _
---r4ir)",-* block 3 blOck 4 block'5
; block headquarters
sulsf.--at. on harvestin0 adminis sration ;
GovsrnsisnI sarvices haelGa vi1lase
- schoolins 140
2. Miwaleni Upland
As indicated in Chapter X the returns_per acre from Miwaleni upland will not justify high development costs in the near future. This situation may change if and when the way should be cleared for dairy development or the production of vegetables for processing, but this is likely to take a number of years. In view of the fact that the area is already under relatively intensive cultivation, it is proposed that the development should take the form of an intensive, coordinated rural extension programme. In the context of irrigation development the aim should be the intensification and improvement of the existing irrigation which makes use of waterfrom streams and where practicable, supplementing the water supply from boreholes with a relatively low pump lift. The coordinated rural extension programme would aim however at the maximum participation by the local people in all aspects of rural development including social, health andeduca- tional improvements as well as improvements to the existing irrigation farming. In viewof the very considerable area of land currently under some form of irriga- tion in the headwaters of the Pangani river particularly in the lower area of Moshi, and the large potential for increases in crop production resulting from intensification and improvements to existing irrigation, Miwaleni upland could well be developed as an example for wide application elsewhere. It is proposed that detailed consideration should be given to the development of such an ex- tension programme.
The training programme for irrigation development should include a number of overseas fellowships in simple theory and practical techniques for field level workers. APPENDIX I
PLAN OF OPERATION
UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJECT IN THE REPUBLIC OF TANGANYIKA
Surve and Plan for I a on Develo en s inhe Pa ani and Ward 'ver Basins
S222ial Fund Alloca ion: US $ 1,225,300
Consisting of:
Special Fund Contributions US $ 1,117,300
Government Contribution towards local operating costs: US $ 108,000
Government Counterpart Contribution in kind: US $ 921,000
Duration 3 years
Executin., Agency Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Co-operating Government Agency Ministry of Agriculture
For the purpose of the Survey and Plan for Irrigation Developments inthe Pangani and Wami River Basins to be undertaken by the FAO of theUnited Nations acting as Executing Agency for the United Nations SpecialFund, this Plan of Operation shall be the Plan of Operation provided for inArticle 1, Paragraph 2 of the Agreement signed on the 17th day of July,1962, by the Government of the Republic of Tanganyika and the United Nations Special Funde - 142 -
A. ose
The overallI)u:,-pueof1-,b-(,71 1,113 ":7° 0feEri.(2,r 'I'LL-, Et[-,:fon developmen Po_osv..,.-i eys aud
investic;a-LiORE lrii I):),-,.'Erj 'LI ' leer,'. Lions for pilo ;.;demons 1.,-co -Lo ;a:;. i cd CLo e ic-i and. Vat: schedules of Llr pile cjciuui1çl.-to p.-ogrom of irrigation development in the t.30 \/- -,,reard, following the compls Lion co'Lite pe-oiec L-
2. Training of looP.I ieiuoum in tl-te cri nue aspec of irrigated farming is one of the main pu-rpoe the
B. Description *7 r'ro
To achieve the above objectives the project will consist of,t
aerial ph otogcaphy ,D;.: about 'I!!;()b eeererecee reeeer-r
a I ei1i cn al) Le o ii;u Ca71 ..1_0 000 LiiC.;.-)11-'110 La's
at vei-d,ceLLiuiceL 2, 0
contour manpLi1.12.:by 1-)hoto,_,I'3ramc, L-Q, at e sce.,le of +.»)0
contours a Ly orti ccl ill :.fea.-v a 13 (,).r.. 5 -17 t o1-se.1'area ;;otE'lling
ground Itt., 1:12 j C.:1. L.L . y(Lice cc'6%)...) 1;: icyL.
ei0 tcsCuLl )tt!i;ire"?. S1.1C; ,1 u CL' c° 11E3.
(7," I ,PII),D,
ceGi CV,J. r .7t'i lu h)0 acres ;
; , t C. C'ilc, 1, )Cl it t' I /L. I rt,
/. , , , Oki ticuil1)3t-i,-1ít- LIIL cet-e. I, , ,' , '
semi-deta, 1 `111.-I" I". define, .;.I »t,
-(3.e tafi.led acres ill circler ;.-,e t y :,sEles L 3,1,L71 /*e2,121..e foi '1,-,be eca, .3? , e Le 'eee-ae. e-e the 1-2e11,:,;o0.el.4'e:4.er:i.e. Lu CCIIIit-it Cl LI"t, setai Jeee ; 'wet I e hp1 I, /I,I,I . ,,ti, , ,L cStei11 ; eacly 1,5f Cl 31 LII., t I 143
hydiologj col Qbse r o,t 1 ci ,.: of Lhe riverflows in the Pangani and ITami m=7nuiredtO supplement the data already exii,u J3ased naaisdata- the amount of water whichcan be made avRi tavJle J crigation in the conditions to be expec ed im 1;hec'utnra nil1. be defjned, It is expected that about0 eaattionalliTax-0]og,ic;E\1 stp,t1s will be reQPired, of whi nh mes iii U, be irno''ami hasimF
agronomical studies including analysis of data of the various existing cor.op e:ne-_cimer s, a tud.y of si)itable cropping patterns and crop p:nations, .a.yout fields, methods and rates of irrigation. The inveaj;igaions suoi/J0 cryi- also problems of farming in combination with livestock raising;
sociologirel,.1)=r2't116.y of institutional solutions suited to thefl,,flaD, tenure, setlement, operational methods and the means to achieve acti-vH nerticipation of the cultivators in all aspects of irrigatj. :F'arming;
(x) assessment 0:1:7 seanonal water requirements for the projects-(7),Idel b,7se-1. as,,mme(1 ca-op-pin,s pa t'ter t Rnd clinic,. tic ondi ticue : nu. of1,7-E1 te7
1,11,71 ¡'',,,1--1:"tr; rin ;0.t 110 end, -ad 6 h-E- ¿ O 1_000 ,rro n
'7'11(J116( olaholp arid eqig-oorstoreze Lood pfotod,tlop as --Jejl as ixrica-
tioa aralna,,:e 'ï 't Tbose. st12.6les Yi:11 be of prolimjpary
natliftry, 'COTJD basi:hs rod_ d.etn.11 for :7.1eleoted areas voleior, Fill lo(tode der-jz,) of 27ialla lrisatioal systems and f11:,:estlPf\oo, heeded for the ci,,T.101. o t¡lams mpjop t-oly of Ve,j;E:1" kabavdour rel:jatton to'5,:ai;eaaoi17 wa:st of the st&les for 'ire pilot hc;. 3oi..octea for: aafly deviopmoht;
prepa, ti, 7 -I, cost for these pr., xiii) :),of in(7-1LJ4ioE.: comparative e m te n.cbankgro-o-ad of regional and .ta h cnr I 6,7,T.E1 op meli t
pfepav ,-)o 0-- and schedules of work for the projec
feparaioout ,,, definite program of development in the basins of' M., -o:or:ar-,-2rE, as racommond.ed for implervmLation in the se/on y9exs Npecomi)letion of the 0:coject;
prepeXP*jo:i.of a, omprehc-rnslve .7'ep0-,-twith all necessary oops, ..pay-11; sor'. tr cover all aspects and phases p2 0ja(- - 144 -
II. WORK PLAN
A. Participation and Contribu ion of the S ecial d:
4. The Special Fund shall provide the following through the Executing Agency:
Experts. A total of 402 man months of expert services as detailed in Appendix I below. Within the total of 402 man months of expert service minor adjustment of individual post assignments may be made by the Executing Agency, if this is found to be in the best interest of the project.
Equipment and Supplies. Equipment and Supplies at a cost not exceeding US $ 301,000 as detailed in Appendix I and Table II below. A more detailed list of equipment and supplies will be drawn up later.
(0) Sub-contracts. Sub-contracts at a cost not exceeding $85,000 for aerial photography, contour mapping and test pits and borings as detailed in Appendix I below.
Miscellaneous. Miscellaneous services and facilities as detailed in Appendix I below.
B. Contribution and Particiation of the Cove
5. The Government shall provide the following as a counterpart contribution in kind:
Personal services comprising:
Professional staff: A total of 145 man months of professional staff service as detailed in Appendix II below. Within the total of 135 man months of professional staff service, minor adjustments of individual post assignments may be, made by the Government if this is found to be in the best interest of the project.
Other staff: An estimated total of 2,422 man months of other personal services as detailed in Appendix II below.
Buildings and Construction: Establishment of the four pilot schemes as detailed in Appendix II below.
Eauipment and Supplies: Equipment and supplies as detailed in Appendix II below. -145-
Miscella eoussMiscellaneous service and facilities as detailed in Appendix below.
Cost of trans ortin and handn. of e.uipment0 The cost of import and customs clearance of project equipment, its transportation, handling storage and re ated expenses within the country, its insurance after delivery to the project site.
The estimated cost of the counterpart contribution as detailed in Appendix II below is based on the most realistic information available at the time of drafting this Plan of Operation. It is understood that price fluctuations during the period of'execution of the project may necessitate an adjustment of said contribution in monetary terms; the latter shall at all times be determined by the value of the services and facilities required for the proper execution of the project.
The Government shall make available to the project all the records and information necessary for the implementation of the project under Article III, paragraphs 1 and 4 of the Agreement between the Government and the Special Fund and referred to in the preamble to this Plan of Operation, irrespective of whether the material has been published or not. This will include all reports, soil maps, texts, records, in particular all such information dealing with previous work, on the subject matter of the project, all available topographical or other maps or charts at suitable scales and any other information which in the opinion of the Executing Agency would facilitate the operation of the project.
80 773lef,,es. anC.
The Executing Agencys contractors and their personnel (except Government nationals locally) shall have the right to the following:
Immunity from legal process in respect of all acts performed by them in the execution of the project;
immunity from national service obligations;
immunity from immigration restrictions;
the privilege of bringing into the country reasonable amounts of foreign currency for the purposes of the Project or for personal use of such personnel, and of withdrawing any such amounts brought into the country, or, in accordance with the relevant foreign exchange regulations, such amounts as may be earned therein by such personnel in the execution of the project; and
the same repatriation facilities in the event of international crises as diplomatic envoys. -146-
9. All personnel of the Executing Agency's contractors shall enjoy enviolabi- lity for all papers and documents relating to the project.
10. The Government shall either exempt from, or bear the cost of, any taxes, duties, fees, or levies which it may impose on any foreign firm or organization which may be retained by the Executing Agency and on the' foreign personnel of any such firm or organization in respect of:
the salaries or wages earned by such personnel in the execution of the project;
any equipment, materials and supplies brought into the country in connection with the Agreement or which, after having been brought into the country, may be subsequently withdrawn therefrom; and
as in the case of concessions current)y gwnted to the United Nations experts, any property brought, jncluding one privately owned automobile per employee, by the firm or organization or its personnel for their personal use or consumption or which, after having bxoughtiitcLbe country: mF,,Tsul)seeu ently be withdraJm Lhere?"romupon dopaTture c)sPchpernmiael.
11. The privileges and immunities to which such firm or organization and its personnel may be entitled, coferred to in paragraphs 8,9and 10 of this Plan of Operatj.on, ncçv be(ro1-vd by the Executing Asenoy uhere, in its opinion or in the opj.aion Flma, almo15.t:vvould impede the course of justice .1nd. in wivnclf h) the successful completion of the Project cn- the intere:11i; o the FTecial Fund or the Executing Agency,
12. The Executing.. geneysi)F,Jap1nvi.de th Government with the list of personnel to whom the pri-vilegos rind. iluoties enumerated above shall apply.
13. eratin Cos
With reference to the payments to H made by the Government under Article V, paragraph 1(a) and (d) of the i::» to in the preamble to this Plan of Operation, excepting the cost within the country for transportation of project supplies and eciuj.praent, which is a counterpart contribution, the Government shall pay to the Special Fund in local currency the equivalent of US $ 108,000 towards local operating cosLs. This amount represents 15 percent of the total estimated cost to the Special Fund of foreign project personnel, including cost cf foreign personnel of subcontractors. 147
The contribution towards local operating e.osts,nie equivalent of US $ 108,000 shall be depesite6. by'611e Governmeat in local currency to the credit of Ghe Fund. kecount with in accordance with1)e Aalowing schedule: Equivalent of US $25,900on signature of Plan of Operation " "" 39,000on ist January 1965 " " " 'v-2,300 on ist January 1966 " lt " 14,300on 1st January 1967
The amount payable in each instalment is determinedon the basis of the United Nations operating rate of exchanEe at the time of payment; payment of the above amoucts, on or before the dates specified, is prerequisite to operaLlon,
C. 0 ,anization:
Overall responsibility for the organization and execution Of the project rests with the Execu-ting Agency, which will plan and direct operations through the Project Manager who will be selected and appointed by the Executing Agency in conslatatlon with the Government.
The Government Cooperatins Agency for the project shall be the Ministry of Agriculture which shall provide the necessary technical and admini- strative support to the project and shall ensure the cooperation of other Government agencies in the project.
The project FThu:n en ii li 1looaed in DaresSalaam.However, duty stabior mighbe established in Moshi Arusha or in ntheJ2 suitable 1.ocp1:71.ties,The Government will also provide accom- modatiw f,11ethe innc 6, -,)ri.kE,, when required for the purposes nC
18., 771..ie, - 'to.; 'on,"1,)]...?io1;lie0::ecittiag
!hge.nc.y U I 1. ancl.riL1. be ,,,,),; .o.onject anct foa. tLeced'tJj 11,rjc1.' the Ciove-5:nment s 1-) alt- hieice.h onn i, -iy.0,iis±ons of ..cho
Y'launj70pr:»7c.-atlr-:,:0:1 H """""% I." )."1":1.4:1". :"lans
19. Co7c i3f1JI,Aq7.:-.1end 1)e,j6,b1cfU1gtimj,ps- and budgeting ,fld ele.ìnel:Le; veporte aad the organization and supervisia 1)rograms,In undertaking these responsibilities th?, V,'.ae3.ero o]oselyFjth the CoManager. -148-
The technical terms of 2efereuce of the Project Manager and of the other members of the Special Fund team are given in Table I.
The Executing Agency shall appoint an Administrativo Officer acceptable to the Government who will work under the supervision of the Project Manager and in close cooperation with the Co-Manager.
The Administrative Officer and other administrative staff provided by the Government shall be responsible for servicing the project on administrative matters such as accounting, storekeeping, purchase of material and supplies, maintenance of equipment, payrolls and servicing of the experts and will perform such other duties as are assigned by the Project Manager.
The dutie., of the project personnel provided by the Government and called for in paragraph 5(a) and Appendix II of the Plan of Operation, will be to carry out whatever duties may be assigned to them in connection with the operation,of the project under the administrative and technical supervision of the Comanager in cooperation with the Project Manager.
Sequence of Operation
The Executing Agency will commence operation of the project upon receipt of written authorization to do so from the Managing Director of the United Nations Special Fund.
The Project Manager will be appointed as soon as possible after 1 January 1964and during the period between his appointment and the project becoming operational shall apply himself to the task of drawing up'lists of urgently needed equipment for ordering and other preparatory work in connection with the project.
The Soil Survey shall start with reconnaissance surveys in both the.Pangani and Wami Basins in the first half of 1964 as soon as the rains are over and the condition of the terrain are suitable for field work. This should be completed both for the reconnaissance and the semi-detailed survey (500,000 acres and 120,000 acres respectively) before the rains at the end of1964. Maps should be prepared and detailed investigation completed before March1965. The detailed survey of the selected 16,000 acres shall be completed before June1965in order to have sufficient time for the completion of the main structures of the 400 to500acre pilot project before the rains at the end of1965. Operation of the farms shall start at the beginning of1966. -149-
The Hydrologist shall join the team in April/May 1964. During the first month of his assignment he will study existing hydrologic material and the existing hydrologic stations and participate in the establishment of additional hydrologic stations, most of them in the Wami basin.
The two Irrigation Engineers shall join in April/May 1964 together with the Engineering Surveyor. They should participate in the reconnaissance surveys and in the selection of the pilot areas and start with actual design as soon as the areas have been selected and the topographic maps prepared.
Before the selection is made, both Irrigation Engineers'should study dam sites and prepare a design for storage dams and reservoirs and flood protection work, together with preliminary design for irrigation systems for a general plan for irrigation development in the two basins. The Survey Engineer shall join in May 1964. The Survey Engineer, together with the counterpart survey technicians and draftsmSn shall assist the Irrigation Engineers with the preparation of contour maps.
The Chief Draftsman should join in mid-1964 to assist the engineers in the preparation of dam designs and irrigation systems and all other works.
The Agronomists shall join in July 1964 and should use the first period of their assignment in the study of existing irrigation farms, including experimental stations.
The Irrigations Technician (distribution and control of water on the fields) shall join at the end of 1965.
33, The Rural Sociologist shou2d join in November 1964 to assist the Project Manager and the Agricultural Economist in planning the extensional woi-k of the project.
The Agricultural Economist; should join the team in November 1964 for a six month assignment and should return to the Project in early 1966 to participate in the feasibility studies.
The joining dates of the consultants have to be decided later in accordance with the progress of work in the various fields. -150
III. :OUT:GET
36. The estimated cost of the services and facilibies to be provided for the project is detailed in the Plans of Expenditure appended to this Plan of Operation. Funds will be provided by the Special Fund and the Government as indicated below:
1. Allocation by the Special Fund (Appendix I) ...... $ 1,225,300 Consisting of:
Special Fund contribution 17,300 Government contribution to- wards local operating costs $ 108,000
Counterpart contribution in kind by the Government 00 0 00 921,000
IV, REPORTS
37. The Government and Executing Agency will exchange financial and progress reports. The form, content and frequency of these reports will be agreed upon from time to time between the Government and the Executing Agency.
38, The Government and the Executing Agency shall àt the end of each calendar year submit a joint certified inventory of.project equipment purchased from the Special Fund allocation and for which title remains with the Special Fund,
390 Within 6 months following the conclusion of project operations the Executing Agency uill submit a final comprehensive repori, on the project to the Managins Director of the Special :Fund for presentation to the Government.
V.
40. The Project will be subject to periooq.ic 7,ythe Epocial Fund. .i!ny substantial deviation fJ2oril tho Plan of. Operaa Ii2e(iulire a uarcfill evaluation of the nrobleml-; zuouuated by the: thee paities to the project in order to determine theflItlecourse of action. 151
VI, STEP8 TO BE TAKEN PT THE COMPLETION OF SPECIAL FUE D ASSISTANCE TO THE PROJECT
The Government intends to continue irrigation development within thetwo river basins, based on the information and experience gained in the pilot schemes. This development would be along the lines recommended by the team, which would be expected to set up a 10year program.
At the successful concluzion of the project, the Government, the Executing Agency and the Special Fund will consult with a view to transferring the title to part or all of the equipment provided by the Special Fund in whose name it has been held by the Executing Agency, to the Government or to an Agency nominated by the Government.
VII. SIOYATT
Agreed, on behalf of the parties, by the undersigned:
P. Boman k.L. Adu Government of the Republic of Tanganyika United NaVionsSpeciafiTiind
Date: 1 AD o64 Date: 1' 64
Pierre Terver
Food and Agriculture 0rgasz,tion of the United Nations
Date: 10 -152 -
No No .1
UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJECT IN THE REPUBLIC OF TANGANYIKA
Survey and Plan for Ir a ion Develomento inhe
Pangani and Wami River Basins
The formation of the United Republic of Tanzania and Zanzibar on 26.4.1964 and the subsequent change of the Co-operating government agency, has necessitated adjustments in the existing title and text of the Plan of Operation.
The title had to be amended to state the Government Counterpart as the Government of the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar.
The Government Co-operating Agency for the project would be the Ministry of Land, Settlement and Water, and not the Ministry of Agriculture which would provide the necessary technical and administrative support to the project and would ensure the Co-operation of other Government Agencies in the project. Therefore, this necessitated an adjustment in the Organization of the Project. 153
AMENDMENT No.1 TO THE PLAN OF OPERATION
TED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJECT IR THE REPuBLIC OF TANGMTY
Survey and Plan for Irrigation Developments in the
Pangani and Wami River Basins
The Plan of Operation signed by the Government of the Republic of Tanganyika on 17 April, 1964, by the Uhited Nations Special Fund on 17 April, 1964, and by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationson 10 April, 1964, has been amended as per the attached.
Agreed on behalf of the Parties by the undersigned:
Government of the United United Nations Special Food and Agriculture Republic of Tanganyika Fund Organization of the and Zanzibar United Nations
Date: Dates 000090014 Date:0000000000"000 -154
.AMEND1.1117 No. 1
PLAN OF OPERATION
UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJECT IN THE REPUBLIC OF TANGANYIKA
Surver and Plan for Irrigation Developments in the
Pangani and Wami River Basins
In pursuance of the Plan of Operation signed by the Government of the Republic of Tanganyika on17April,1964,by the United Nations Soecial Fund on17April,1964,and by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the Uhited Nations as the Executing Agency on 10 April,1964.
Whereas it is considered necessary, due to the formation of the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar and due to the subsequent change of the Cooperating Governnent Agency, to amend the above Plan of Operation, the following modifications are made:
Page 1:
The title is amended as follows:
PLAN OF OPERATIONS
=TED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJECT IN TRE
UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANGANYIKA AND ZANZIBAR
0009000000e Ministry of Land, Settlement Cooperating Government Agency and Water
0060000000
Page6:
C. Organization: seeelmeee
16. The Government Cooperating Agency for the project shall be the Ministry of Land, Settlement and Water which shall provide the necessary technical and administrative support to the project and shall ensure the cooperation of other Government agencies in the project. 155
APPENDIX II
ST OF STF EIGAGED AT \IAHIOUS PE: ODS ON THE PROJECT El
Headquarters;
Project Manager D. Dolfi FAO) Project CoManager W. Swinson Government Counterpart) Administrativo Officer C. Esposito FAO Administrative Officer A.N. Ozkan FAO Secretary Mrs. M.A.I. Fernandes FAO Office Supervisor S.S. Rashid Government Counterpart) Accounts Assistant J. Shimba do. Clerical Officer L.S.Z. Sarumbo do, Typist/Stenographer Mrs. C. DISouza do. Typist/Stenographer Miss J. Walli do. Typist/Stenographer Miss K.A. Bhimani do, Typist/Stenographer MVE0 A.Poole do. Typist/SLonographor Mvco Z.K. Hassam do. Accounts Assistant B. August do, Accounts Assistant S. Singh do, Office Supervisor S. do, Higher Clerical Officer P. KangombeChad do. Clerical Assistant M. Nv..ira,y do. Clerical Assintan N.B.M do, Clerical Assis-canl; C. Bede do. Executive Offlcor J. Shimba do. Clerical Officer M. Mkisi do, Clerhee,1 0Cfloer Pe 1i:.1!n6:, do, M.T. Cleri% R.J.Lasra do, A6sisan t Stores Officer J.H.0 AlfFplcr do, Stores Assistant W. Mazemba do. Stores Assistant F.K.Kyamell do. Stores Assistant R.A. Malis do. - 156 -
Headquarters (Conted)
Stores Assistant - E. Isoc. (Government Counterpart) Stores Assistant C. Mlingi. do. Stores Assistant Jonas do. Site Clerk - R.M. Nsangi do. Site Clerk C. Poliani do.
To o a
Engineer Surveyor C. Hwthooto rA0 Engineer Surveyor - F. Tiara FAO Engineer Surveyor - A. Hellstrom FFHC) Photogrammetrist J.G. Rijsdijk FAO) Teohnioal Assistant A.E. Lgamuya Government Counterpart) Teohnioal Assistant S. Kafunya do, Teohnioal Assistant F. Lihundi do. Technical Assistant R. Matanda do. Technical Asaistant Sc Mjwahusi do. Teohnioal Assistant B. Myakibabp, do.
Soil Surve Team:
Soil Chemist K.N. Satyapal Soil Chemist R.G. Xenon FAO Soil Chemist J.W. Dewis IFAO Soil Chemist - T. Oienouski Government Soil Laboratory Assistant Miss H. Hansen D Govt.Counterpartanish Volunteer Laboratory Assistant S.R. Seneilwa Government Counterpart Laboratory Assistant M.M. Mtandala do. Teohnioal Assistant Laboratory 1).T. Xanabar do. Senior Soil Surveyor G.R. Robinsou IFAO Senior Soil Surveyor N. Mi:cenberg FAO Soil Surveyor G.R. tiuggett FAO Soil Surveyor A. Hookstra FAO Associate Expert)
i a ionEn Te
Hydrologist T.H. Mather FAO Irrig tion Engineer J.J. Hoarnshaw FAO Irrigation Engineer Y.H. Djong PAO Irrigation Construotion Engineer - M.R. Abdou (Government Counterpart) 157
Irrigation Enginoering Te Contid)
Irrigation Engineer W.A. van Tuijl FAO Associate Expert) Irrigation Engineer D. Baker U.K. Volunteel Irrigation Engineer P.T. Gilchrist U.K. Volunteer Senior Technical Assistant H.M. De Silva 1GoveLment Counterpart) Drilling Superintendent B. Rainer do. Assistant Inspector (Works) J.J. Reesaul do.
Irrigation Agronomy Team:
Irrigation Agronomist F.B. Brown FAO Irrigation Agronomist R.D. Verma FAO Irrigation Agronomist M.F. El Ebrashy FAO Irrigation Agronomist F.J. Ijserinkhuijsen FAO Assooiate Expert) Senior Agronomist D.K. Lwehabura Government Counterpart) Assistant Field Officer B.F. Lwenyagir do. Field Assistant G. Rutatenekwa do. Field Assistant T. Faraji do. Field Assistant H. Mehala. do.
Drawing Office Staff:
Chief Draughtsman F. Bullaty (FAO) Senior Draughtsman D. Miranda (Government Counterpart) Senior Draughtsman Assistant mop. Jagatia do. Draughtsman Assistant P. Babili do; Draughtsman Assistant C.G. Msowoya do. Junior Draughtsman Assistant S. Gaspar do.
Sociology Team:
Rural Institutions Officer S.A. El Shishtawy Socioloi.r Assistant Trainee P. Baruti rGA0)overnment Counterpart) Sociology Assistant Trainee W. Sebaya do. Sociology Assistant Trainee J. Maganga do. Sociology Assistant Trainee J. Jastin do. Sociolo Assistant Trainee Miss H. Lema do. Sociology Assistant Trainee A. Mushi 158
Consultants:
N. Allan Ivi'lg7ttlon Development FAO) G. Allbaugh Economis FAO) P. Sohroeter Hydrogeologist FA] J. Silveira Sanitary Engineer '-0
B. Velimirovio Epidemiolo 's' ' 0 N. Bauer EconomistMarketing) FAO J.E. Moos Economist FAO - 159 -
APPENDIX III
MONTHLY AND ANNUAL DISCHARGES IN ACRE FEET
RIVER WAIII AT MARDERA STATIONNc.IO2
* Indicates values wholly or partly estimated
Year Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Annual Total
1953/4 23 783 17 954 10 068 12 145 1954/5 8 271 11 877 10 545 162 345 80 642 232 304*171 890113 452 42 848 27 543 17 084 13 155* 891 956 1955/6 14 204 27 239 62 284 133 696 82 079 264 714 279 453124 159 50 809 42 637 23 235 17 8I0i122 319 1956/7 20 505 29 992 57 133 84 122 52 509 406 731 759 623108 192 56 833 41 804 27 213 20 608 i665 270
1957/8 29 236 59 007 35 520 41 336174 088 315 948 320 728113 764 48 065 31 809 22 350 15 596 1 207 447 1958/9 11 076 28 059 31 144 40 223125 579 116 882 187 346 31 557 24 632 26 225 19 684 17 910 660 317 1959/60 16 036 25 819 48 653 39 016 84 909 539 125 164 646 58 915 38 916 25 407 17 286 14 8131 073 541 1960/1 12 679 7 343 6 264 64 890 62 720 90 132 133 762 32 414 61 806 32 131 31 109 75 452 615 702 1961/2 586 308 335 955.858 534*221 466323 519*291 604 303 680 93 135 66 561 61 950 48 888 33 890 *3 275 490 1962/3 35 657 51 031 97 493 84 376241 114 541 876 280 350 85 610 68 159 47 757 32 577 *24 103 *1 590 153 1963/4 120656 183 779 216 317 162 584277 055- 720 907 315 682111 814 74 427 67 925 47 116 44 5112 342 773
Max. 586 308 385 955 858 534*221 466323 519 720 907 759 623124 159 74 427 67 925 48-383 75 4523 275 490
Min. 8 271 7 343 6 264 39 016 52 509 90 132 138 762 31 557 23 733 17 954 10 068 13 155 615 702 * Mean 85 463 81 015 142 389*103 405 150 421*352 022*292 216 87 301 53 306 40 519 28 655 *27 785 *1 444 497
Mean % Annual. 5.92 5.61 9.86 7.16 10.41 24.35 20.22 6.04 3.69 2.81 2.01 1.92 100.00
* Means calculatea on 10 years only (1954/5 to1963/4) 161 -.
APPENDIX IV
HEANUWER STAFFING KAHE
Management Numbers Maintenance, operation and Numbers repair
General Manager Workshop
Cultivation Manager Superintendent
Assistant Cultivation Manager Foremen fitter/mechanics 3
Agronomy/Soils Manager Fitter/mechanics 10
Agrioultural Engineering Fitter mates 10 Manager
Time keepers/cost clerks 2 Assistant Agricultural
Engineering Manager 1 Storekeepers
Secretary/typist Assistant storekeepers 2
General duty clerks and typists4 Motor transport drivers
Accountant 1 General duty labour pool 20
Assistant accountants 2 Building yard Bookkeepers 4 General foremen 2 Storekeepers 4 Tradesmen 6 Assistant storekeepers 4 Storekeepers 2 Motor transport drivers 3 Time keepers 1 General duty labour pool 15 Motor transport drivers 3
General duty labour pool 20 163
APPENDIX V
PROPOSED STAFFING FOR BLOCKS KAHE
Block Staff 71) (2) (3) (4) (5)
982 2 230 2 069 1 828 1 679 acres acres acres acres acres
Field Management Field Officers 1 1 Assistant Field Officers 1 Crop Supervisors 5 11 10 9 8
A icultu.ral EnD.inee 'n Field Staff
Fitters mechanics i 1 1 J. 1 Assista t fitter/mechanic 1 1 1 1 2ractor operators 14 32 29 26 24 Irrigation supervisors 1 1 1 1 1
Office Staff Clerical 2 3 3 3 3 Motor transport drivers 1 1 1 1 1 Station hands 1 2 2 2 2 Night watchmen 1 1 1 1 1 - 165 -
APPENDIX VI
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES
Sir William Halcrow and Partners The Development of the Pangani River, 1962and Supplement. 1966.
SWECO Stucly of Hydroelectric Power Potential of the Lower Wami. 1966.
Balfour Beatty and Co. The Potential of Hydroelectric Power Development, 1964.
Merz and McLellan Report on Market for Electricity. 167
APPENDIX VII
LIST OF SPECIALISTS AND CONSULTANTS REPORTS PRODUCED DURING THE PROJECT OPERATIONS IN THE PANGANI AND WAMI RIVER BASINS
J. J. Hernshaw Irrigation and Power Development Irrigation Engineer
T. H. Mather Climatology, Hydrology and.Water Hydrologist Resources
Project engineering surveyors Topographic surveys
N. Mikenberg Soils G. R. Suggett Soil Surveyors
D. Verma Agricultural Irrigation Agronomist
A. El. Shistawy Social Aspeots Rural Sociologist
Leland G. Allbaugh An Economic Appraisal of the Proposed FAO Consultant Economist Kahe Irrigation Project in the Pangani River Basin, Tanzania 1966.
U. Bauer Marketing Prospects for the Crops Marketing Consultant Grown in the Survey and Plan for Irrigation Development in the Pangani and Wami River Basins Project Area,1967.
J. E. Moes Economic Appraisal of the Kahe and FAO Consultant Economist Miwaleni Project Areas. 1967.
B. Velimirovic and Report on the Health Aspects of the J. Silveira Survey and Plan for Irrigation Develop- WHO Consultants ment in the Pangani and Wami River Basins, Tanzania 1966.
P. Schroeter Hydrogeological Investigations of the Hydrogeologist Miwaleni Spring, near Moshi, Northern Tanzania. TANZANIA Figure I PANGANI - RIVERBASIN LOCATION OF IRRIGATIONAND HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER INVESTIGATIONS
deco'
ea
--grCruAtiroko'oa '7.4 AFRICA Lk, fni
MIWALEHI a° Md.
TANZANIA ARUSHA, Will.0,1'40, 3. 1kliff:Pr' Vol Mombasa
\ Arusha third Lobe pc KAHE "°8ATR"TUVE NYUMBA VA MU GU MOUNTAINS
, O AM H.E.P (COMO! RUCO CO1 30.00' ARWA a°0' \':\ KEN Y A CEIR SOUTH PARt MOUNTAINS SmMx x4L,21.
1010" PERE VELOPmENT 03.6 ersi , Ma,. 0 +6> edarti ==
HEDARU 141)
USAMOARA ÑOUNTAIN Railways BUIKO manka SALAS' 70 Roads ZIMUI SMALL MEP
Rivers - N Catchmentboundaries UENGE A Tanzania LE G E NO ALE EXISTIN (1) HEP 0 POSSIBLE IRRIGATION AREAS (Investigated) o MANDERA POSSIB POSSIBLE HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER SITES ( Investigated )
HT Z Mile% 10 S 4 0 SO Mites SCALE
ey. 00 TANZANII: Figure RIVER 1SJN LOCATIO RRIG .TION AND1=1 TRO-ELE RIC POWER' MiESTiGA-nOil
3:7 CS 3700e 30e CV 9*
MASAI STE PPE
WAMI BASIN
Sad on i
GO POWA
IWAMI ALLUVIAL PLAIN WAHl 11 OWER HE (Not investigated) ft-
!LONG*
G1LOES WVOGORO U UGU GU MOUNTAIN
r i ,r/ Qvlt\ i/I i REFERENC E /i Rai/ways ======eeee Noses MIlaimi erfl i Rivers ...... _,,..---....---- ... Catchmentboundaries...... e. emee eei.e eeee .self Tanzaniaboundaries - ee e e e 1 r LEGEND %-% N Possible irrigation woos -( Investigated ) Mlles IC I 10 20 30 SO SO CO Miles Not Investigated Rivercon rolanlt, dro -electric powerInvesti (tied) 000 30°021' '' H "4, 1 ,'; Jr'ril;ft.; LA,YUL '
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Approx. Catchment Boundary._ _ v Territorial Boundary. + ++ + + + + NYUMBA YA MUNGU DA F4, Detailed Soli Surveys.
-A 0 Miles. 5 0 10 IS :\I -----26 30Mlles,
1 i i I i 35" 37°00' 37°15' 37°30' 37°451 3°O0' TANZANIA IRRIGATION 'CLASS MAP OF THE MIWALENI SPRING AREA Figure 5
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,/ 5...... A-, . : 35 i 35 2,740 2,940 50 .,..... TA VG, I4 A , 0 2 I 4. 70 Ì 5" , 't Pc.; ' 0';,;vVV" 1 i ,/ FOREST ... .:, * ..i,» , RESt2vE : I Ss 16,1 5 0 10,150 55.7 X::-4 50
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RAILV.-9LIWIS ...... * 6d 06 '''' 5 ... ROA00 . _1-..,-- ./ 100000 ...... Ss 1. ,IPM 101104$850171e5 \ 0511000* VOA. MI, \ _.../6.00 i CaSIL etlIKOARIES. mirmillt , es V r . _ . YENTA:TM 000., ,P1C.,426 ...... \------).., i / 1 11000, /\ , s A,1."...... _....-- 17, 1 FLgure T'ANIZANIt: LOCt2C1I0JI OF SOIL SUM! E H THE MIDDLE PANG/I-IN' 7
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0, Pe? TANZANIA IRRIGATION CLASS MAP OF THE NAURURU AREA Figure
55.
444544
MRIGATION CLASSES
14111.1 3169.18 si9.1.6.1155 1,
*sr 49754. 129999 493 9914*4* 48 79/964439 e xi. ran. ¢rdw,.*1443 doe Class I tend 414999 4tt31,
4,9 Class 2 Ls/.40.4344.7 v... 49 Ssisnati440 34r4.96tss 4*1454 146.99.9,s,55134 31443 96.7996.t.
Class 3 29. 61 1.W. s16.4144 . a 96919. is. 63 .7 196sessmity 166 699441.
954119 6.2.64 MO 5611. LOCATION NAP Class 4 165.74 td, .44449841 043 9.149.9 son 11717 in
C.6129 Zta,r674,G WteZ.311411. tea., 4473446,81.444 9994 ts 61415/199 fs, 6457. 964*.11. 61*.1 9119.14,3044/4,444/1444344, 14 450418444 0 44451 44444444 3518441914 616 419667555.1 6211961113 ...a ...itiens sits.
Class 6 29. avisst 719 is972.9696 .....66.669
SUBCL ASSES
(s) - 991 1169.11.. 2462 944661991. (i) issets.9.7.7
719 (4) 11./nonn. 9
26 SS 2. s So. IrrigationClass tub totals Tata 1 Symbols 14 4409753. 44, Irt alrez 0) 414144 Sub- 61o1555
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7.444. -4444440 Totcl. 10,220 100.
, TANZANIA MEAN ANNUALL .RAINFALL OF PANGANI RiVER BASIN Fjaure10 33 00 34%0 37'00 es° eoo 3130 3110
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1 MIL 311 el ,K 1 0 a ' 01.1/4,4 I POSADDL*7 ' 10 943700 e e 00 4- . a- -4. e00 i 4 i 0 I 4 ..' PahOet ,I ,..40.)., MALEC. 1 4 V
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KI 0 RI 1 20 20 =;----)i134,4403--k=1--40 150 Go Mites ' I 3100 0 De30 37"00 31393 3100 se so se oo Iv' so .setso TANZANIA 20% PROBABILITY ANNUAL RAINFALL OF PANGANI RIVER BASIN FigureII 40.00 36.0 0 3(30 37 00 37°30 33°00 30°!0 )3.00 Jeso
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10 0 10 20 SO 40 SO 40IsIlleo
7. 0 37. 3q00 14' 14' 00 e 00 40rqp F-tnure TANZANIA KANE IRR AT ON 1'4 E 0501,1'4,e; ? .1 Le.-- 00 1, 0t11"et \O " I I/ 1 Metan, 4 01010 ,
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LOCA7 ON MAP a. 3.
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