Contents

Preface xxxvii The Constitution of the United States xxxix

I.

Judicial Review 1

Problem: The Historic Preservation Act 1 A. Marbury and “The Power to Say What the Law Is” 2 Marbury v. Madison 3 Food for Thought 7 Enforcement of Judicial Decrees and Practical Constraints on Judicial Authority 7 Problems: Judicial Review 8 Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee 9 The Relationship Between the Federal Constitution and State Constitutions 10 Cooper v. Aaron 10 Note: Brown, Cooper, and Judicial Legitimacy 12 The Supreme Court and Life Tenure 13 B. Restraints on Judicial Authority 13 1. Practical Limitations on Judicial Authority 14 2. Congressional Control over Federal Court Jurisdiction 14 Ex Parte McCardle 15 Notes: Klein and Plaut 16 McCardle’s Precedential Value 18 Notes and Questions: Congressional Regulation of Judicial Power 18 3. The Political Question Doctrine 21 Baker v. Carr 21 Rucho v. Common Cause 24 Notes: The Political Question Doctrine 34 Problems & Questions: The Political Question Doctrine 36 C. The Case or Controversy Requirement 37 1. The Prohibition Against Advisory Opinions 37 Food for Thought: Advisory Opinions 38

xi xii Contents

2. Ripeness 39 Susan B. Anthony List v. Driehaus 39 Notes and Questions: Ripeness 44 Problems: Ripeness 45 3. Mootness 46 DeFunis v. Odegaard 46 Notes and Questions: Mootness 48 Problems: Mootness 50 4. Standing 50 a. Taxpayer and Citizen Standing 51 Food for Thought 51 DaimlerChrysler Corp. v. Cuno 52 Notes and Questions: Standing 57 Problems: Frothingham, Taxpayer Standing, and Citizen Standing 58 Clapper v. Amnesty International USA 59 Note: Lance v. Coffman 67 Note: Legislator Standing 67 Problems: Citizen Standing to Challenge Constitutional Amendments 68 Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation, Inc. 69 Note: Flast and the Commerce Clause 77 Note: Standing in Gerrymandering Cases 78 Flast and Tax Credits 78 Food for Thought 79 Problems 79 b. Causation 80 Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife 80 Notes and Questions: Causation 85 Food for Thought 88 Problems: Causation 89 Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency 89 Food for Thought 95 c. Congressionally Authorized Standing 95 Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife 96 Notes: More on Congressional Authorization 98 Summers v. Earth Island Institute 99 Notes: More on Congressional Authorization 104 Problems: Standing and Congressional Authorization 105 Monsanto Co. v. Geerston Seed Farms 106 d. Jus Tertii (Third-​Party) Standing 110 Problems: Exceptions to Jus Tertii 112 Contents xiii

II.

National Legislative Power 115

Problem: The Education for a Better America Act 116 A. The Necessary and Proper Clause 118 McCulloch v. Maryland 119 Food for Thought 122 United States v. Comstock 124 Note: National Federation v. Sebelius 131 Food for Thought: More on the Education for a Better America Act 132 B. The Commerce Clause 132 1. Early Cases 133 Gibbons v. Ogden 133 Notes: The Nineteenth-​Century Commerce Clause 137 Problem: More on the Education for a Better America Act 138 2. Early Twentieth-​Century Cases 139 Champion v. Ames 139 Problem: More on the Education for a Better America Act 142 Houston, East & West Texas Railway Co. v. United States 142 Note 144 Hammer v. Dagenhart 145 Problem: More on the Education for a Better America Act 148 3. The Constitutional Crisis 148 Carter v. Carter Coal Co. 149 Notes: The Constitutional Crisis 152 Problem: More on the Education for a Better America Act 153 NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. 153 Notes 156 Problem: More on the Education for a Better America Act 157 4. Post-​Switch Expansion of Federal Power: A Half-​Century of Deference 157 United States v. Darby 157 Question 159 Wickard v. Filburn 160 Notes 162 Problem: More on the Education for a Better America Act 163 Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States 163 Notes 165 Problems 167 Note: Growth of the Modern Administrative State 168 5. Revolution and Retreat? 169 United States v. Lopez 169 Problems 174 xiv Contents

United States v. Morrison 175 Notes and Questions 181 Problems 182 National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius 183 Problem: Sebelius and the Education for a Better America Act 194 C. The Taxing Power 195 Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co. 195 Notes and Questions 197 United States v. Sanchez 197 Notes and Questions 199 National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius 199 Note: More on the ACA 206 Problem: Private Schools and the Education for a Better America Act 206 D. Power to Spend for the General Welfare 206 National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius 208 Problems 216 E. The War Power and Treaty Power 217 1. The War Power 217 Woods v. Cloyd W. Miller Co. 217 Note: The War Power and Domestic Regulation 219 Problem: A Peacetime Draft? 220 2. The Treaty Power 220 Missouri v. Holland 220 Note: The Impact of Treaties on Local Law 222 Problem: Restricting Citizen Rights 222 Whitney v. Robertson 223 Notes 224 Problems 226 F. Congressional Power to Enforce Civil Rights 226 Problem: Second Floor 227 Problem: Critical Confinement 227 1. Early Developments 229 Problem: Public Service 229 The Civil Rights Cases 229 Problem: Ollie’s BBQ Ranch 232 2. Modern Civil Rights Cases 232 Problems 234 3. Congressional Enforcement of the Right to Vote 235 Katzenbach v. Morgan 235 Note 237 City of Rome v. United States 238 Problem: Preclearance 239 4. Religious Freedom and Congressional Fourteenth Amendment Enforcement Power 239 City of Boerne v. Flores 239 Problems 243 Contents xv

III.

The Federal Executive Powers 245

Problem: No Drilling Zones 246 A. Implied Presidential Powers 248 Problems 250 B. The Volatile Boundary Between Executive and Legislative Powers: Separation of Powers Issues 251 Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer 253 Problems 260 C. Additional Separation of Powers Issues 261 1. The “Nondelegation” of Powers Doctrine 262 Problems 265 2. The Veto Power 265 a. The Legislative Veto 266 Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha 266 Problems 269 b. The “Line Item Veto” 270 Clinton v. New York 271 Problems 275 3. The President’s Signing Statements 276 4. Executive Orders and Actions 279 Note 280 5. Executive Power in the Pandemic Era 280 Problems 281 Problem: No Drilling Zones II 281 6. The President and Immigration 281 a. The Constitution 281 b. Trump v. Hawai’i 281 Trump v. Hawai’i 282 Notes 296 Dept. of Homeland Security v. Regents of California 297 D. The President’s Appointment and Removal Powers 312 Buckley v. Valeo 314 Notes 317 Problems 318 Morrison v. Olson 318 Problems 323 Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board 324 1. The President’s Recess Appointment Power 330 National Labor Relation Board v. Canning 331 Problem: Recess? 342 xvi Contents

2. Removal Powers 342 Bowsher v. Synar 343 Problem: The President’s Power to Fire a Special Counsel 347 Problem: The Audit 347 E. Foreign Affairs, and Commander-​in-​Chief Powers 348 1. Foreign Affairs Powers 348 United States v. Curtiss Wright Export Corporation 348 Problems 350 Zivotofsky v. Kerry 351 Problems 357 Notes 357 Problem 358 2. War and the Commander-​in-​Chief Power —​ Formalism Versus Functionalism 358 Problems 359 F. The President’s Power to Fight Terrorism 361 1. The President’s Powers to Detain Alleged Terrorists 362 2. Detention of U.S. Citizens as Alleged Terrorists 363 Ex Parte Quirin 364 Notes 366 Hamdi v. Rumsfeld 367 Notes 376 Problems 376 Notes 378 Problem: No Terrorism Zones 379 3. The War on Terror’s Impact on Privacy 379 4. Use of Drones 380 G. The Treaty Power 380 Missouri v. Holland 381 Note 382 Problem: Alien Inheritance Laws 383 H. Executive Agreements 383 Dames & Moore v. Regan 384 Problem: Nullify 388 I. Executive Privilege and Immunity from Suit 388 1. Executive Privilege 388 United States v. Nixon 389 Note: A Privilege for the Vice President? 393 Problems 393 2. Immunity from Suit 394 Clinton v. Jones 394 J. The Pardon Power 397 1. Commutation of Sentences 397 Note: More on the Pardon Power 398 Contents xvii

IV.

The Relationship Between the States and the Federal Government 401

Problem: The Education for a Better America (EBA) Act, Continued 401 A. State Power to Tax the Federal Government 403 McCulloch v. Maryland 403 Problems 405 Dawson v. Steager 405 B. Federal Power to Tax the States 407 Massachusetts v. United States 408 A Related Case: New York v. United States 412 Problems 413 C. State Immunity from Federal Regulation 413 National League of Cities v. Usery 414 Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority 417 Problems 425 D. Federal Commandeering of State Resources 426 New York v. United States 426 Problem: The Education for a Better America Act Reprised —​ There’s Got to Be a Better Way 433 Printz v. United States 434 Note: Commandeering State Legislatures 440 Problem: School Safety Agents 441 E. The Federal-​State Relationship in the Area of Voting Rights 441 Shelby County v. Holder 442 F. Other Federalism Issues 445 1. The Federal Marijuana Policy 445 2. The Sovereignty of Puerto Rico 446 Commonwealth of Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle et al. 446 3. Sex Offenders’ Registration 449 4. Federal and State Prosecutions for the Same Conduct 451 Problems 452 Review Problems 453

V.

State Power to Regulate Commerce 455

Problem: Kentucky’s Prohibition Against Internet Gambling 456 A. Early Cases 458 Gibbons v. Ogden 458 xviii Contents

Notes and Questions 460 Problem: More on the Internet Casino Prohibition Act 461 Cooley v. Board of Wardens of the Port of Philadelphia 461 Notes and Questions 463 Problem: More on the Internet Casino Prohibition Act 464 B. Discrimination Against Interstate Commerce 464 1. Facial Discrimination 464 Granholm v. Heald 464 Notes 471 Problem: More on the Internet Casino Prohibition Act 474 City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey 475 Note: State Quarantine Laws 479 Food for Thought: Distinguishing Baldwin 479 Problem: Other Ways to Skin the Cat? 479 2. Facially Neutral Statutes with Discriminatory Purposes or Effects 480 Dean Milk Co. v. City of Madison 480 Note: Live Baitfish 482 Problem: More on the Internet Casino Prohibition Act 482 Exxon Corp. v. Maryland 482 Notes and Questions 487 C. Nondiscriminatory Burdens on Interstate Commerce 488 1. The Scope of Judicial Review 488 South Carolina State Highway Dept. v. Barnwell Bros. 488 Problem: More on the Internet Casino Prohibition Act 491 Southern Pacific Co. v. Arizona 491 Notes and Questions 495 Problems 497 2. Modern Applications of the Southern Pacific Test 497 Minnesota v. Clover Leaf Creamery Co. 498 West Lynn Creamery, Inc. v. Healy 500 Note: Tolling Statutes 505 Questions 505 American Trucking Associations, Inc. v. Michigan Public Service Commission 506 Problem: More on the Internet Casino Prohibition Act 509 D. The State as a Market Participant 509 Reeves, Inc. v. Stake 509 Note: Fuel Taxes and Market Participation 513 South-​Central Timber Development, Inc. v. Wunnicke 513 Note: Freedom of Information 516 Problem: More on the Internet Casino Prohibition Act 517 E. Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause 517 Baldwin v. Fish and Game Commission of Montana 518 Note: Toomer and Shrimp Fishing 521 Hicklin v. Orbeck 522 Notes 524 Problems 526 Contents xix

McBurney v. Young 527 Problem: Medical Marijuana Laws 531 F. Preemption 531 Pacific Gas and Electric Co. v. State Energy Resources Conservation & Development Commission 531 Notes 536 Gade v. National Solid Wastes Management Association 538 Notes 542 Problems 543 Arizona v. United States 544 Notes: Federal Immigration and Licensing Schemes 554 Problems 555

VI.

State Action 557

Problem: The Town, The Private Utility, and the Club 557 A. Requiring State Action 559 The Civil Rights Cases 559 Notes and Questions 562 Problem: Rewriting the Civil Rights Act 562 B. Government Function 562 1. Company Towns 563 Marsh v. Alabama 563 Notes and Questions 565 Problem: More on the Town, the Private Utility, and the Club 566 2. Party Primaries 566 Terry v. Adams 567 Food for Thought 570 3. Utility Service 570 Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Company 570 Problem: More on the Town, the Private Utility, and the Club 573 4. Schools and School Associations 573 Rendell-​Baker v. Kohn 573 Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Association 577 Notes and Questions 582 5. Public Access Cable Channels 583 Manhattan Community Access Corp. v. Halleck 583 C. State Involvement or Encouragement 588 1. Government Regulation 589 Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority 589 Notes and Questions 591 Moose Lodge v. Irvis 592 xx Contents

Note and Question 594 Problem: More on the Town, the Private Utility, and the Club 595 Reitman v. Mulkey 595 Problem: Constitutional Amendments Permitting Discrimination 598 2. Judicial Involvement 598 Shelley v. Kreamer 599 Notes and Questions 601 Problem: More on the Town, the Private Utility, and the Club 602 Flagg Brothers, Inc. v. Brooks 603 Lugar v. Edmonson Oil Co. 607 Notes and Questions 609 Edmonson v. Leesville Concrete Company, Inc. 610 Note and Question: Physician Contracted to Provide Care for Prison Inmates 614 3. Government Funding 614 Blum v. Yaretsky 614 Problem: Soldier Field 618 4. Quasi-​Governmental Corporations 619 Lebron v. National Railroad Passenger Corporation 619 Notes and Questions 623 Problem: More on the Town, the Private Utility, and the Club 624

VII.

Procedural Due Process 625

Problem: The Professor and the Amsterdam Trip 625 A. Legislative Determinations 626 Bi-​Metallic Investment Co. v. State Board of Equalization 626 Londoner v. City and County of Denver 627 Problems 629 B. Adjudicative Determinations 630 1. Foundational Principles 630 Goldberg v. Kelly 630 Notes 634 Paul v. Davis 636 Note: Procedural Due Process and Parole 639 Problems 639 2. Procedural Requirements 640 Mathews v. Eldridge 641 Notes: Adequacy of Procedures 647 Problems 648 Goss v. Lopez 649 Contents xxi

Problems 654 Board of Curators of the University of Missouri v. Horowitz 655 Problems 660

VIII.

Substantive Protection of Economic Rights 663

Problem: Save the Beach 663 A. Substantive Due Process: From Allgeyer to Lochner to Nebbia 666 Lochner v. New York 668 Notes 673 Problems 673 Nebbia v. New York 674 Notes and Questions 677 Problems 679 B. The Takings Clause 679 Kelo v. City of New London 679 Note: The Kelo Property 686 Problems 687 Penn Central Transportation Company v. City of New York 688 Notes 694 Problems 696 Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council 697 Problems 706 Tahoe-​Sierra Preservation Council v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency 706 Problems 713 Notes 714 Calculating Regulatory Takings 716 Murr v. Wisconsin 716 Problem: Save the Beach, Continued 724 Notes 724 C. The Contract Clause 725 Home Building & Loan Assn. v. Blaisdell 726 Problems 731 Allied Structural Steel Company v. Spannaus 732 Problems 737 xxii Contents

IX.

Substantive Due Process: Modern Fundamental Rights 739

Problem: Child Custody, Transgender, and Same-​Sex Relationships 739 A. Incorporation 741 Palko v. Connecticut 742 Notes and Questions 744 Problems 745 Adamson v. California 746 Note: More on Incorporation 749 Question: Privileges and Immunities 750 B. The Right of Privacy 751 1. Seminal Developments 751 Skinner v. Oklahoma 752 Note: “Fundamental” Rights 754 Question: Alternative Theories 754 Griswold v. Connecticut 755 Notes and Questions 762 Problems 763 Poe v. Ullman 763 Notes and Questions 765 Problem: Buck and Privacy 765 2. Abortion 766 Roe v. Wade 766 Notes 774 Questions 775 Problems 777 Webster and Doctrinal Turmoil 777 Problems 779 Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey 780 Note: Undue Burdens 796 Problem: The Abortion Form 796 Stenberg v. Carhart 796 Note: New Abortion Laws 803 Problems 805 3. Family Liberty 806 Moore v. City of East Cleveland 807 Notes and Questions 811 Problems 811 4. The Right to Marry 812 Zablocki v. Redhail 812 Notes 815 Problems 815 Contents xxiii

5. Parental Rights 816 Michael H. v. Gerald D. 816 Note: Defining “Liberty” 821 Problems 821 6. Sexual Orientation 821 Lawrence v. Texas 823 Problems: Grooming Restrictions 833 Obergefell v. Hodges 834 Notes 859 Problems 859 7. Transgender Status 861 Notes 861 Problems 861 8. Right to Die 862 Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Dept. of Health 862 Notes and Questions 870 Problems 870 Washington v. Glucksberg 871 Note 880 Problems 881 9. A Constitutional Right to Sexual Gratification? 881 Problems 881 10. A Constitutional Right to Clean Water? 881 Problem: The Flint Michigan Case 881

X.

Equal Protection 883

Problem: The Diversity Initiative 883 A. State Economic Regulations (and Other Classifications of Minimal Constitutional Concern) 887 Railway Express Agency v. New York 887 Notes and Questions 888 Problems 889 Federal Communications Commission v. Beach Communications, Inc. 890 Problems 892 B. Racial Classifications 893 Dred Scott v. Sandford 894 Notes 896 1. Separate but Equal 898 Plessy v. Ferguson 898 Notes 900 Korematsu v. United States 902 Notes 904 xxiv Contents

2. Desegregation 905 Brown v. Board of Education 905 Notes and Questions 907 Problems 907 Brown v. Board of Education 908 Notes 909 Donald E. Lively, The Constitution and Race 910 Swann v. Charlotte-​Mecklenburg Board of Education 912 Note: Political Realities and Desegregation 914 Problems 914 Board of Education of Oklahoma City Schools v. Dowell 916 Notes 918 Missouri v. Jenkins 919 3. Discriminatory Purpose Requirement 923 Problem: Race in Prisons 923 Loving v. Virginia 923 Note: Discriminatory Purpose and Disproportionate Impact 925 Washington v. Davis 926 Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp. 929 Note: Applying the Discriminatory Motive Requirement 931 Problem: More on the Diversity Initiative 932 4. Affirmative Action 933 Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pena 934 Problem: The Diversity Initiative and Race-​Based Admissions Policies 939 Grutter v. Bollinger 941 Notes 945 Problem: More on the Diversity Initiative 946 5. Diversity 946 Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 947 Note and Question 961 Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin 962 Note: The Validity of Constitutional Amendments Prohibiting Affirmative Action 970 Note: The Trump Guidance 971 Problems 971 C. Gender Classifications 972 1. Early Gender Jurisprudence 972 Problem: Precipitating Social Change 975 2. Doctrinal Turmoil and Evolution 975 Reed v. Reed 975 Frontiero v. Richardson 976 Note and Questions 978 Craig v. Boren 978 Note and Questions 981 Contents xxv

3. Recognition of Differences 981 United States v. Virginia 981 Notes 988 Problems 989 4. Discrimination Against Men 991 Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County 991 Notes 994 Problems 996 Nguyen v. Immigration and Naturalization Service 997 Note 999 Problems 1000 5. Gender Classifications in Context 1000 a. Single-​Sex Schools 1001 Problems 1001 b. Public Benefits 1002 Califano v. Goldfarb 1003 Note: Review Standards in Benefits Cases 1005 Problems 1005 c. The Military 1005 Rostker v. Goldberg 1006 Notes: Gender Ambiguity 1008 Problems 1009 D. The Rights of Aliens 1010 Problem: Standards of Review 1011 1. State Laws Regulating Aliens 1011 Graham v. Richardson 1012 Notes 1013 Problems 1016 2. Political Function Exception 1017 Bernal v. Fainter 1017 Problems 1020 3. Federal Laws Regulating Aliens 1021 Problems 1022 4. State Laws Regulating Undocumented Aliens 1023 Problems 1023 E. The Rights of Unmarried Parents and Their Children 1023 1. Inheritance Rights 1024 Trimble v. Gordon 1024 Notes 1025 Problems 1026 2. Rights to Sue and to Receive Government Benefits 1027 a. Suits for Wrongful Death or Parental Support 1027 Levy v. Louisiana 1027 Note: Wrongful Death Actions 1028 Problems 1028 Clark v. Jeter 1029 Note: Judicially Enforceable Rights and Unmarried Parents 1031 Problems 1031 xxvi Contents

b. Workers’ Compensation, Welfare, and Social Security Survivors’ Benefits 1032 Weber v. Aetna Casualty & Surety Co. 1032 Notes 1033 Problem: Survivorship Benefits 1034 Problems 1035 3. Rights of Unmarried Parents to Retain Custody of Their Children 1036 4. Immigration Preferences 1036 F. The Rights of Persons with Mental Disabilities 1037 City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center 1038 Notes 1042 Problems 1043 G. Sexual Orientation 1044 Problems 1044 H. The Fundamental Rights Strand of Equal Protection 1045 1. Freedom of Speech 1046 2. Access to the Justice System: The Right to Counsel 1046 Bearden v. Georgia 1047 Note 1050 Problems 1050 3. The Right to Travel 1051 Shapiro v. Thompson 1051 Notes 1054 Food for Thought 1056 Problems 1056 Zobel v. Williams 1056 Note 1060 Problems 1061 4. Voting 1061 a. Denial of the Right to Vote 1062 (1) Poll Taxes 1062 Problem: Ensuring an Informed and Literate Electorate 1063 (2) Land Ownership 1063 Problems 1064 (3) Other Restrictions on the Right to Vote 1064 Problem: Reducing Early Voting Periods 1064 b. Dilution of the Right to Vote 1065 (1) Apportionment 1065 Reynolds v. Sims 1065 Note 1071 Problems 1071 (2) Political Gerrymandering 1073 Rucho v. Common Cause 1074 (3) Racial Gerrymandering 1085 Cooper v. Harris 1090 Note: Burden of Proof Issues 1100 Problems 1101 (4) Vote Recording and Counting 1101 Contents xxvii

Bush v. Gore 1101 Problems 1109 c. Access to the Ballot 1110 d. Voting Rights During a Pandemic 1110 5. Education 1110 San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez 1111 Note 1119 Problems 1119 Plyler v. Doe 1120 Note 1125 Problems 1125

XI.

Freedom of Speech 1127

Problem: An International Treaty Regulating the Internet 1127 A. Historical Intentions and Underlying Values 1128 1. Framers’ Intent 1128 2. Underlying Values 1129 Thomas I. Emerson, Toward a General Theory of the First Amendment 1130 C. Edwin Baker, Scope of the First Amendment Freedom of Speech 1132 Robert H. Bork, Neutral Principles and Some First Amendment Problems 1134 Alexander Meiklejohn, The First Amendment as an Absolute 1135 Questions 1136 Problems: More on the International Treaty Regulating the Internet 1136 B. Categories of Speech 1137 1. Advocacy of Illegal Action 1137 a. Early Cases 1137 Schenck v. United States 1138 Notes: Early Subversive Advocacy Prosecutions 1139 Problems 1141 b. Justice Holmes’s Abrams Dissent 1142 Abrams v. United States 1143 Notes and Questions 1145 Problems 1146 c. The Criminal Syndicalism Cases of the 1920s 1146 Gitlow v. New York 1146 Whitney v. California 1149 Problems 1152 d. “Clear and Present Danger” Cases from the McCarthy Era 1152 Dennis v. United States 1152 Notes 1158 Problem: Applying Dennis 1159 xxviii Contents

e. Modern Cases 1160 Brandenburg v. Ohio 1160 Notes and Questions 1163 Problems 1165 f. Speech and Terrorism After 9/​11 1167 Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project 1167 Notes 1173 2. Fighting Words and Hostile Audiences 1175 Cantwell v. Connecticut 1175 Problem: The Antiabortion Campaign 1177 Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire 1177 Notes and Questions 1179 Problems 1180 Gooding v. Wilson 1181 Note: The Gooding Dissents 1182 Problems 1183 Feiner v. New York 1184 Notes and Questions 1187 Problems 1189 3. Offensive Speech 1190 Cohen v. California 1190 Food for Thought: The Jurisdictions for Protecting Speech 1194 Notes and Questions 1194 Iancu v. Brunetti 1196 Problems 1198 4. Defamatory Statements 1200 a. The Constitutionalization of Defamation 1200 New York Times Co. v. Sullivan 1200 Notes and Questions 1207 Problems 1212 b. Application of the “Actual Malice” Standard 1212 St. Amant v. Thompson 1213 Notes and Questions 1215 Problems 1217 c. Private Plaintiffs 1217 Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. 1218 Notes and Questions 1224 Food for Thought 1225 More Notes and Questions 1225 Problems 1227 d. Fact Versus Opinion 1229 Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co. 1229 Notes 1230 Problems 1231 5. Privacy 1232 Time, Inc. v. Hill 1232 Notes and Questions 1235 Problems 1238 Contents xxix

6. Emotional Distress 1240 Hustler Magazine, Inc. v. Falwell 1240 Problems 1243 Snyder v. Phelps 1244 Problems 1254 7. Obscenity 1257 a. Defining Obscenity 1257 Roth v. United States 1257 Notes and Questions 1261 Miller v. United States 1263 Notes 1267 Problems 1267 b. “Consenting Adults” and “Adult Possession” 1269 Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton 1269 Stanley v. Georgia 1272 Note: Stanley’s Limits and Impact 1274 c. Special Rule for Minors? 1275 Ginsberg v. New York 1275 Notes 1277 Problems 1277 8. Child Pornography 1278 Ferber v. New York 1279 Notes and Questions 1284 Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition 1286 Notes 1296 Problems 1296 9. Pornography That Degrades Women 1297 American Booksellers Association, Inc. v. Hudnut 1297 Note and Question: A “Feminist Critique” 1303 Problems 1304 10. Near Obscene 1304 Erznoznik v. City of Jacksonville 1305 Problems: Ordinance Drafting 1308 Young v. American Mini Theatres, Inc. 1308 Question: Time, Place, and Manner Analysis 1311 Problems 1311 Schad v. Borough of Mount Ephraim 1312 Problems 1314 City of Erie v. Pap’s A. M. 1315 Question: Reappraisal of the Justifications for Protecting Speech 1319 Problems 1320 11. “Hate” Speech 1320 R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul 1321 Notes and Questions 1329 Problems 1332 12. True Threats 1336 Virginia v. Black 1336 xxx Contents

Notes and Questions 1345 Food for Thought 1348 Problems 1348 13. Possible Additional Categories for Exclusion of Speech Protection 1351 United States v. Stevens 1351 Notes and Questions: Rewriting the Crush Video Statute 1357 Note: Violent Video Games 1357 United States v. Alvarez 1358 Note: Truth, Lies, and History 1372 Food for Thought: Prohibitions Against False Campaign Speech 1372 Problems 1373 14. Commercial Speech 1374 Lorillard Tobacco Co. v. Reilly 1375 Notes 1382 Barr v. American Association of Political Consultants, Inc. 1388 Problems 1394 C. Symbolic Speech 1396 United States v. O’Brien 1396 Note: The O’Brien Test 1401 Problems 1402 Clark v. Community for Creative Non-​Violence 1402 Note: The “Gateway” Element 1407 Problem: Symbolic Speech Analysis 1407 Texas v. Johnson 1408 Notes 1414 Problems 1415 D. Overbreadth and Vagueness 1416 Board of Airport Commissioners of the City of Los Angeles v. Jews for Jesus, Inc. 1417 Note: Distinguishing Vagueness and Overbreadth 1419 Problems 1420 City of Houston v. Hill 1421 Notes and Questions: Merits Versus Overbreadth Challenges 1425 Problems 1425 United States v. Stevens 1426 E. Prior Restraints 1434 1. Licensing 1434 Lovell v. City of Griffin 1435 Notes 1436 Problems 1437 Freedman v. Maryland 1437 Notes and Questions 1440 Problem: More on the International Treaty Regulating the Internet 1442 2. Injunctions 1442 Near v. Minnesota 1442 Notes and Questions 1448 Contents xxxi

Problem: More on the International Treaty Regulating the Internet 1449 New York Times Co. v. United States 1449 Notes 1454 Problems 1455 Madsen v. Women’s Health Center, Inc. 1457 Problem: Protests at Military Funerals 1463 F. The Press 1464 1. Does the Constitution Grant the Press a Privileged Position? 1464 Note and Question: Is It Possible to Define “the Press”? 1465 2. Does the Press Have Special Immunities? 1465 Branzburg v. Hayes 1466 Notes 1469 Problem: More on the International Treaty Regulating the Internet 1471 3. Press Access 1472 Globe Newspaper Co. v. Superior Court 1472 Notes and Questions 1474 Problems: Protecting Jurors 1476 4. Access to Prisons 1477 5. The Press and Due Process 1480 Sheppard v. Maxwell 1480 Notes 1485 Problems 1486 6. Due Process and Prior Restraints 1487 Nebraska Press Association v. Stuart 1487 Notes and Questions 1491 Problem: More on the International Treaty Regulating the Internet 1492 G. Access to Government Property 1492 International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Inc. v. Lee 1493 Notes 1500 Minnesota Voters Alliance v. Mansky 1504 Problems 1511 Christian Legal Society Chapter of the University of California v. Martinez 1513 Lee v. International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Inc. 1520 Note: Justice O’Connor and ISKCON 1521 Note: Public Access Channels 1522 Problems 1523 1. Content-Based​ Restrictions 1523 Police Department of City of Chicago v. Mosley 1524 Notes 1526 Problems 1528 McCullen v. Coakley 1531 Note: “As Applied” Challenges 1544 Problems 1544 xxxii Contents

Reed v. Town of Gilbert 1546 Problems 1555 H. First Amendment Rights of Public Employees 1556 1. Prohibiting Electioneering 1556 United Public Workers of America (C.I.O.) v. Mitchell 1556 Note: Other Justifications 1560 Problem: More on the International Treaty Regulating the Internet 1560 2. Other Employee Speech 1560 Connick v. Myers 1560 Note: Federal Employees, Private Honoraria 1565 Rankin v. McPherson 1566 Notes 1570 Problems 1571 Garcetti v. Ceballos 1572 Notes 1580 Problems 1582 3. Associational Rights 1583 Elrod v. Burns 1583 Notes 1589 Problem: Protecting Political Affiliation 1590 I. Government Support of Speech 1590 Legal Services Corp. v. Velazquez 1590 Note 1596 Problem: More on the International Treaty Regulating the Internet 1596 United States v. American Library Association 1596 Notes 1603 Problem: Refusal to Unblock Web Sites 1604 Matal v. Tam 1605 Problem: “Wandering Dago” Food Truck 1610 Agency for International Development v. Alliance for Open Society International, Inc. 1611 Notes 1618 J. Government as Educator and Speech Rights of Students 1620 Problems 1622 K. Government as Speaker 1624 Walker v. Texas Division, Sons of Confederate Veterans, Inc. 1624 Notes 1636 Problems 1637 L. Broadcast Regulation 1637 Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC 1637 Notes and Questions 1642 FCC v. Pacifica Foundation 1643 Notes 1650 Problem: Antiabortion Advertising 1653 Contents xxxiii

M. Advancing Technology 1653 Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC 1654 Notes 1659 Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union 1661 Notes and Questions 1674 Problems 1677 Packingham v. North Carolina 1680 Problems 1684 N. Freedom of Association 1684 1. The Right to Associate 1684 NAACP v. Alabama 1684 Notes 1687 Problems 1688 Roberts v. United States Jaycees 1689 Note: More on Nondiscrimination Ordinances 1696 Problems 1697 2. The Right “Not to Speak” 1697 Hurley v. Irish-​American Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Group of Boston 1698 Notes 1703 Problems 1704 Janus v. American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees 1705 Notes 1714 Problems 1715 Johanns v. Livestock Marketing Association 1716 Problem: Government Speech? 1720 O. Campaign Finance Laws 1720 1. Modern Foundations 1720 2. Corporate Speech 1727 3. Disclosure Requirements 1730 4. Public Financing 1732

XII.

The Religion Clauses 1735

Problem: More on the Education for a Better America Act 1735 A. The Establishment Clause 1736 1. Financial Aid to Religion 1736 a. Early Cases 1736 Everson v. Board of Education 1736 Note: Government Support for Religious Hospitals 1740 Problems 1740 b. The Lemon Test and Doctrinal Turmoil 1741 Lemon v. Kurtzman 1741 xxxiv Contents

Notes 1745 Criticisms of the Lemon Test 1746 Problem: More on the Education for a Better America Act 1747 c. Agostini v. Felton 1747 Agostini v. Felton 1747 Notes 1753 Problems 1755 d. School Vouchers 1756 Zelman v. Simmons-​Harris 1756 Note and Question 1767 Problems 1768 2. School Prayer 1769 Engel v. Vitale 1769 Notes 1772 Problems 1773 Wallace v. Jaffree 1773 Problems 1777 Lee v. Weisman 1777 Notes and Questions 1781 Problems 1782 3. Curricular Issues 1782 School District of Abington Township v. Schempp 1782 Problems 1785 Epperson v. Arkansas 1786 Question: The Choper Analysis 1787 Edwards v. Aguillard 1788 Problems 1791 4. Official Acknowledgment 1792 County of Allegheny v. American Civil Liberties Union 1792 Note: Requiring Swearing or Affirming a Belief in God 1800 Problems 1801 Van Orden v. Perry 1802 Problems 1812 McCreary County v. American Civil Liberties Union of Kentucky 1812 The American Legion v. American Humanist Association 1826 Notes and Questions 1837 Problems 1838 B. The Free Exercise Clause 1838 1. Burdens on Religion 1839 a. Early Cases 1839 b. From Sherbert to Smith 1840 Sherbert v. Verner 1840 Notes and Questions 1843 Problem: The Atheist 1843 Wisconsin v. Yoder 1843 Problems 1849 Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association 1850 Notes 1854 Contents xxxv

c. Modern Cases 1855 Employment Division v. Smith 1855 Notes 1861 Problems 1865 2. Discrimination Against Religion 1867 Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. v. City of Hialeah 1868 Note: The Buddhist Execution 1876 Problems 1877 Masterpiece Cakeshop, Ltd. V. Colorado Civil Rights Commission 1879 Note: Phillips —​ Postscript 1888 Problems 1888 C. Establishment: Free Exercise and Free Speech Tension 1889 Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet 1889 Note: Armed Forces Chaplains 1895 Problems 1895 Rosenberger v. Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia 1896 Notes and Questions 1898 Problems 1900 Locke v. Davey 1900 Problems 1904 Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia, Inc. v. Director 1904 Notes 1911 Problems 1913 Note 1913 Problems 1913

XIII.

The Right to Keep and Bear Arms 1915

A. Introduction: Nature of the Second Amendment 1915 B. Historical Background 1916 C. Modern Case Law 1917 1. Individual Right to Keep and Bear Arms 1917 2. Application to the States 1918 3. Types of Arms Protected 1919 4. Standard of Review of Firearms Regulations 1920 a. Heller’s Limited Guidance 1920 b. Lower Courts’ Standard of Review of Firearms Regulations 1921 5. The Right Outside the Home 1923 6. Commercial Firearms Sales 1925

Table of Cases 1927 Index 1951