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Dottorato Di Ricerca Titolo Tesi Università degli Studi di Cagliari DOTTORATO DI RICERCA Storia, Istituzioni e Relazioni Internazionali dell’Asia e dell’Africa Moderna e Contemporanea Ciclo XXVIII TITOLO TESI La pirateria marittima negli stretti di Malacca e Singapore in prospettiva storica e attuale Settore/i scientifico disciplinari di afferenza SPS/14 Presentata da: Emilio Paolo Delogu Coordinatore Dottorato Prof.ssa Bianca Maria Carcangiu Tutor Prof.ssa Annamaria Baldussi Esame finale anno accademico 2014 – 2015 Indice Premessa I Parte I Capitolo 1: Da Palembang a Malacca, breve storia di regni, sultanati e imperi marittimi 1 Paragrafo 1.1: Sud-est asiatico, elementi costitutivi 1 Paragrafo 1.2: Il problema delle fonti di ricerca in epoca pre-coloniale 7 Paragrafo 1.3: Costituzione, ascesa e declino di una potenza marittima 21 Capitolo 2: La pirateria marittima in epoca coloniale, profili politici, conseguenze economiche, implicazioni sociali 31 Paragrafo 2.1: Prime misure anti-pirateria (1819-1828) 31 Paragrafo 2.2: Lentezza e malfunzionamento del sistema giuridico britannico negli Stabilimenti degli Stretti 41 Paragrafo 2.3: La commissione Chads-Bonham e il sistema dei pass 55 Paragrafo 2.4: Un caso di studio della pirateria di matrice politica nel XIX secolo 62 Paragrafo 2.5: Scambi epistolari (1863-67) 70 Capitolo 3: Forme e metodi del potere sul mare 102 Paragrafo 3.1: Raja Laut, Bajak Laut, Orang Laut 102 Paragrafo 3.2: Dall’Operation Mudlark alla decolonizzazione, la pirateria si adatta ai tempi 108 Parte II Capitolo 1: Dalla UNCLOS III alle iniziative multilaterali per la lotta alla pirateria (1982-2005) 119 Paragrafo 1.1: L’assetto normativo predisposto dalla Convenzione delle Nazioni Unite sul diritto del mare (1982) 119 Paragrafo 1.2: Diverse tipologie di pirateria e iniziative per contrastare il fenomeno 136 Capitolo 2: Pirateria, terrorismo e criminalità organizzata; specificità e punti di convergenza 155 Paragrafo 2.1: Organizzazioni e sindacati criminali 155 Paragrafo 2.2: Terrorismo internazionale e gruppi separatisti 168 Capitolo 3: La pirateria del nuovo millennio tra concertazione e iniziative individuali (2005-2015)174 Paragrafo 3.1: Pirateria a grappolo e su commissione 174 Paragrafo 3.2: Gli strumenti normativi dell’ASEAN 182 Paragrafo 3.3: Politiche di concertazione a livello locale 193 Capitolo 4: I Crime Treaties e la loro funzione nell’ambito della cooperazione intra-regionale 198 Paragrafo 4.1: Il principio giuridico dell’aut dedere aut judicare 198 Paragrafo 4.2: Disposizioni procedurali per una governance condivisa 203 Parte III Conclusioni, una nuova rotta o la storia si ripete? 210 Paragrafo 1.1: UNCLOS, SUA, Taking of Hostages e Financing of Terrorism Convention, considerazioni finali 210 Paragrafo 1.2: Sicurezza marittima e burden sharing, la UNTOC e la UNCAC 216 Paragrafo 1.3: Will history repeat itself? 221 Appendice 226 Bibliografia 249 “Suvvia, soldati, usatemi tutta la crudeltà che potete, perché questa mia morte non sia mai dimenticata. Molti grandi uomini sono morti per mano di ignobili straccioni. Il soave Tullio fu assassinato da uno spadaccino romano, uno sgherro; la mano bastarda di Bruto pugnalò Giulio Cesare e selvaggi isolani uccisero Pompeo Magno; Suffolk muore per mano di pirati”. W. Shakespeare, Enrico VI, parte II, atto IV, scena II. Nel corso di questa breve premessa tenterò di fare chiarezza su alcuni punti relativi alla metodologia d’indagine utilizzata e alle scuole o correnti di pensiero che hanno contribuito, in larga parte, a ispirare e guidare la ricerca; infine, renderò noti gran parte di quei quesiti in chiave storica e contemporanea che, suscitando il mio interesse e la mia curiosità, si sono dimostrati validi punti di partenza per avviare l’analisi e costruire delle ipotesi. La pirateria marittima costituisce ancora oggi, senza soluzione di continuità alcuna, una fra le manifestazioni dell’attività umana di maggior interesse in quanto presenta, direttamente o indirettamente, una serie di punti di contatto fra diverse problematiche d’ordine sociale, religioso, politico, economico e, naturalmente, storico. Nello specifico, il Sud-est asiatico è un ottimo esempio di come storia, politica e religione siano fortemente compenetrate e gravino, in modo determinante, sulla fenomenologia del brigantaggio marittimo1. «Quando vogliamo spiegare una cosa, dobbiamo diffidare ad ogni istante della eccessiva semplicità delle nostre suddivisioni. Non dimentichiamo che la vita è un tutto unico, che anche la storia deve esserlo e che non bisogna perdere di vista in nessuna occasione, neppure per un attimo, l’intrecciarsi infinito delle cause e delle conseguenze» 2. L’approccio storico di Fernand Braudel, che attinge a piene mani dalla tradizione dei geografi francesi del XIX secolo ad iniziare dalla scuola del possibilismo geografico di Vidal de la Blache3, acquista un senso ancor più spiccato se si fa riferimento alla relazione di lunga durata fra pirateria e commercio marittimo: già un famoso storico cinese del I secolo, Ban Gu, riportava dell’esistenza di attacchi pirata a navi mercantili che percorrevano la rotta dalla Cina del sud via Singapore verso lo 1 L’enciclopedia Treccani per definire il brigante parte dal significato celtico di briga (compagnia, forza in arme) nell’accezione di soldato avventuriero che faceva parte di piccole compagnie mercenarie e, per esteso, chi attenta a mano armata alle proprietà altrui e alle persone, per lo più in compagnia d’altri, riuniti in banda sotto l’autorità di un capobrigante; per quanto riguarda l’etimologia di bandito, il dizionario etimologico Zanichelli fa risalire il termine al latino bannum, in germanico bann (potere su un dato territorio, cfr. signoria di banno o signoria bannale) col significato di esiliato per pubblico bando ovvero che fa parte di una banda. Dal momento che l’attività predatoria di briganti e banditi si svolgeva interamente sulla terraferma e ricordando che il mare nel Sud-est asiatico ha costituito da sempre e costituisce tuttora il suolo liquido delle unità politiche locali, d’ora in avanti e per traslato, utilizzerò i due sostantivi in aggiunta a quello di pirata. 2F. Braudel, Storia, misura del mondo, Il Mulino, Bologna 1998, pag. 65. 3Hanno inoltre contribuito a indirizzare L’opera di F. Braudel importanti storici del calibro di Henri Pirenne, Marc Bloch e Lucien Febvre. I Sri Lanka4 e ancora, Shi Fan Xian, monaco buddista del V secolo, documentò l’esistenza della pirateria negli stretti di Malacca e Singapore in una nota di viaggio mentre percorreva la via marittima dall’India alla Cina “the sea is infested with pirates, the passengers who encounter them will lose everything”5. Durante l’epoca delle grandi entità politiche marittime che esercitavano l’imperio lungo le coste malesi e indonesiane, l’attività predatoria assunse carattere di endemicità andando a inserirsi con forza all’interno delle maglie della società, della politica e dell’economia di quei luoghi. Nel Zhu Pan Zhi, i resoconti della dinastia Song riguardo i popoli barbari, si legge a proposito della pirateria nel grande oceano del sud (Nanyang) «the foreign ships were often attacked by pirates. The captives were the favourite of pirates, one captive can sell for 2 liang or 3 liang gold, the piracy prevents the merchants from visiting the ports»6. Di grande interesse inoltre è la descrizione della pirateria praticata nelle acque vicino Singapore (Temasek) e nel sud degli stretti che nel 1349 si presentava in questi termini: «The Dragon-teeth Strait (longyamen) is between the two hills of Temasek barbarians, which look like dragon’s teeth’. Through the centre runs a waterway. The fields are barren and rice harvest is poor. The climate is hot with heavy rain in April and May. The inhabitants are addicted to piracy […] when junks sail to the European Ocean (Indian Ocean), the local barbarians allow them to pass unmolested, but when the junks reach the Auspicious Strait (Jilimen) on their return voyages, some 200-300 pirate prahus (boats) will put out to attack the junks for several days, the crew of junks have to fight with their arms and setting up cloth screen as a protection against arrows. Sometimes, the junks are fortunate enough to escape with a favouring wind; otherwise, the crews are butchered and the merchandise becomes pirates’ booty»7. Come si evince dal testo anche gli elementi fisici (acqua, povertà dei suoli, angustia dei passaggi marittimi, clima monsonico) giocano un ruolo fondamentale nello spiegare il suddetto carattere endemico del fenomeno piratesco: nella sua opera più nota Anthony Reid, sostenitore del metodo braudeliano d’indagine storica, afferma che poche aree del mondo sono state così profondamente marcate dalla natura come il Sud-est asiatico8, andando a sottolineare l’importanza della geografia nello studio delle attività umane. Nel corso della prima parte della mia ricerca, una domanda a cui ho cercato di dare risposta è stata capire in quale misura gli individui che si trovano inseriti in un dato contesto geografico e storico 4 X. Ke, Piracy, Seaborne Trade and the Rivalries of Foreign Sea Powers in East and Southeast Asia, 1511 to 1839: A Chinese Perspective, Institute Of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, 2006, pag. 224. 5 Ibidem. 6 Z. Rukuo, Zhu Fan Zhi (sec. XII), traduzione inglese di F. Hirth e W.W. Rockhill, Chau Ju-Kua: his work on the Chinese and Arab trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries entitled Chu-fan-chi, Paragon book reprint corp., 1966 New York, pag. 61. 7 W. Dayuan, Dao Yi Zhi Lue (sec. XIV), Zhonghua ShuJu, Beijing 1981, traduzione inglese di X. Ke, op. cit. pagg. 213- 214. 8 A. Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450-1680, Yale University Press, Londra 1988, vol. 1 The Lands Below the Winds, pag. 1, [mia la traduzione dall’inglese]. II agiscano in maniera conforme a quel particolare sistema geo-culturale e quanto, elementi esterni a quel sistema possano contribuire a modificare la prospettiva d’azione; in buona sostanza, ho voluto studiare come e in quale misura India, Cina e Europa abbiano inciso sulla storia delle popolazioni autoctone del Sud-est asiatico e degli stretti di Malacca e Singapore nello specifico.
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