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On Long-Term Maintenance and Cultivation of Hermatypic Corals Under Artificial Conditions

On Long-Term Maintenance and Cultivation of Hermatypic Corals Under Artificial Conditions

On long-term maintenance and cultivation of hermatypic under artificial conditions

Item Type Journal Contribution

Authors Titlyanov, E. A.; Vo, Si Tuan; Titlyanova, E. A.

Download date 30/09/2021 10:24:04

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/9269

Collection of Marine Research Works, 2002, XII: 215-232

ON LONG-TERM MAINTENANCE AND CULTIVATION OF HERMATYPIC CORALS UNDER ARTIFICIAL CONDITIONS

E.A. Titlyanov1, Vo Si Tuan2, T.V. Titlyanova1 1Institute of Marine Biology, Far East Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences 2Institute of Oceanography (Nha Trang)

ABSTRACT Long term maintenance and cultivation of hermatypic corals have been newly practiced in the world for different purposes. Based on published researches and the experiences from studies and experiments, the papers introduced principles and methodic approaches to long-term maintenance and cultivation of corals under artificial conditions. Methods and aquaria structures for long- term maintenance and cultivation of corals are suggested. Results of experiments on study of physiological state of corals under change of environmental factors such as light intensity, ammonium concentration and food additions with zooplankton under continuous maintenance and cultivation in aquaria are also presented.

VEÀ VIEÄC NUOÂI GIÖÕ SAN HOÂ TAÏO RAÏN TRONG MOÂI TRÖÔØNG NHAÂN TAÏO

E. A. Titlyanov1, Voõ Só Tuaán2, T. V. Titlyanova1 1Vieän Sinh Hoïc Bieån, Chi Nhaùnh Vieãn Ñoâng Vieän Haøn Laâm Khoa Hoïc Nga 2 Vieän Haûi Döông Hoïc (Nha Trang)

TOÙM TAÉT Nuoâi giöõ san hoâ trong ñieàu kieän nhaân taïo laø moät lónh vöïc coøn töông ñoái môùi meû treân theá giôùi vaø ñaõ ñöôïc tieán haønh theo caùc muïc ñích khaùc nhau nhö nghieân cöùu khoa hoïc, taïo taäp ñoaøn treû cho phuïc hoài heä sinh thaùi, phuïc vuï cho caùc aquarium, cung caáp san hoâ cho thöông maïi san hoâ soáng vaø baûo toàn ña daïng sinh hoïc. Döïa treân caùc taøi lieäu ñaõ coâng boá treân theá giôùi vaø nhöõng kinh nghieäm coù ñöôïc qua nghieân cöùu vaø thöû nghieäm, baøi baùo moâ taû nhöõng nguyeân taéc lieân quan ñeán tính töï nhieân, choïn loaøi nuoâi giöõ, kieåm soaùt ñieàu kieän moâi tröôøng vaø caùc phöông phaùp tieáp caän trong kyõ thuaät nuoâi giöõ. Ñoøi hoûi veà caùc nhaân toá moâi tröôøng trong ñieàu kieän nhaân taïo nhö aùnh saùng, nhieät ñoä, ñoä muoái, muoái dinh döôõng, löôïng traàm tích, cung caáp khí, thöùc aên cho san hoâ, neàn ñaùy vaø veà löïa choïn kích thöôùc san hoâ nuoâi giöõ cuõng ñöôïc thaûo luaän

I. INTRODUCTION world and especially in public aquaria, oceanaria and private aquaria (e.g. Attempts of long-term main- Stepanov, 1994; Carlson, 1999; Becker tenance and cultivation of corals under and Mueller, 2001; Titlyanov et al., artificial conditions have been 2001a). However, maintenance of corals undertaken in many laboratories of the under artificial conditions often led to a

215 gradual dying of polyps and thereafter the process needs constant factors and to death of entire colony due to known controlling changes in aquaria under and unknown reasons. Growth and the continuous maintenance. The same viability of corals under the entire problems arise in experiments on re- artificial conditions are -specific. acclimation of corals to changed Some species easily withstand seawater temperature, on the study of transfer from natural to artificial coral growth, reproduction and etc. conditions and acclimate to new Thus, scientific experiment is one of conditions (e.g. fragments of the the main aims of continuous pistillata) maintenance under artificial conditions. (Titlyanov et al., 2000a, 2001a, b, c). For this aim we need installations with Others do not adapt to such changes many changed and controlled and die. The investigators have parameters, especially such as quantity different methods of maintenance and and spectral composition of light, cultivation of corals. Based on temperature, the rates of exchange and worldwide publications and personal seawater flow, concentration of mineral experiences, we herein provide an nutrition, food and mineral overview on the issues concerning with sediments in the water. Installation of maintenance and cultivation of corals such aquaria is the most complicate in artificial conditions. task. However, hobbyists and some scientists have persevered and II. RESULTS developed aquarium systems and techniques capable of maintaining 1. Purposes of continuous corals in apparently healthy and maintenance and cultivation of controlled conditions for many years corals under artificial conditions (Stepanov, 1994; Atkinson et al., 1995; Aim 1: Cultivation of corals for Carlson, 1999). scientific investigations: Aim 2: Cultivation of planting stock of Study of productional capacities, young colonies for rehabilitation of reproduction and other physiological coral : indicators of some coral species and Catastrophic reduction in live their assemblages were traditionally coral coverage in coastal and barrier conducted under field conditions (e.g. reefs, and biodiversity of coral reefs Falkowski and Dubinsky, 1981; worldwide occurred during the last 20 Titlyanov et al., 1981; Hoegh-Guldberg years (ICLARM, 2000). Local changes et al., 1997) or under laboratory depend mainly on anthropogenic action conditions in short-term experiments on (Connell, 1997). Human on colony fragments taken from reefs impacts composed of sediment stress (e.g. Leletkin et al., 1996; Nakano et due to construction of ports and other al., 1997). However, not all structures, deforestation, agriculture, physiological questions may be discharge of toxic pollutants, damage understood. For example, reacclimation from grounding and ship removal of corals from one light regime to other activities, underwater explosions, takes some months (Titlyanov et al., overfishing, eutrophication, use of 2001c, d) and the study on dynamics of corals for lime, damage of reef

216 community by anchors and by the sites of damaged reef is difficult and vessels hulls, sampling corals and depends on many circumstances. In mollusks for souvenirs and etc. nature, survival, attachment and (Counell, 1997; ICLARM, 2000; continuous growth of coral fragments Bruckner and Bruckner, 2001). are limited by the substrate type where Negative changes on coral reefs occur dislodged fragments land (Fong and by global warming causing bleaching Lirman, 1995; Bruckner and Bruckner, and death of corals and also by 2001). Fragments deposited in sand are hurricanes causing extensive damage to at risk of being abraded or smothered the reefs (Ware, 1997; ICLARM, 2001). and have no solid substrate for Coral farming for reef rehabilitation attachment. The timely, stabilization of and ecotourism development could fragments to the substrate could model the way for a new approach to enhance coral survivorship and serve the people and the reefs (Heeger expedite the recovery process. Under and Sotto, 2000). Rehabilitation is a different methods of fragments fixation relatively new science that soon may to the substrate (stainless steel wire, need to be applied on a larger scale to portland cement or two-part marine mitigate effects of local damage on epoxy) successful coral fusion to the coral reefs (Precht, 1998). substrate is from 10 to 40% (Lirman Current research is focusing on and Fong, 1997a, b; Bruckner & methods to enhance coral recruitment Bruckner, 2001). In nature, fragmented to maintain coral nurseries to rescue corals at damaged reef sites are and rehabilitate fragments generated affected by partial colony mortality due by physical disturbances for use as to various factors. Lirman and Fong transplantants for degraded areas (1997a, b) observed tissue loss in many (Tunnicliffe, 1981; Bruckner and (73%) of their tagged fragments. Bruckner, 2001). Recently, there are Bruckner and Bruckner (2001) observed three main trends in restoration of tissue loss in surviving fragments of coral reefs. palmata on approximately The first trend in restoration of half of their upper branch surfaces coral reefs is carried out by stabilizing after 2 years. This investigation fragments of resident coral colonies showed a higher rate of mortality directly at the sites of damage among those fragments placed in (Gittings et al., 1994; Backer and contact with the invasive sponge Mueller 1999; Jaap, 1999; Quirolo, Cliona spp. that was found commonly 1999; Bruckner and Bruckner, 2001). overgrowing elkhorn skeletons. Chronic Such works are more often conducted at partial mortality from natural stressors sites where the coral reef was partially like white-band disease (WBD), damaged by such events as dynamite predation, overgrowth by and blasting, hurricanes, and ship other factors may be largely groundings, anchoring. In this case, responsible for the inability of enormous numbers of fragments are fragments to successfully fuse to their generated without permanently attachment sites that, unfortunately, altering water quality. However, coral led to detachment of fragments from recruits, supplying recruits or the substrate and led to the coral’s fragmentation of donor colonies in the death (Bruckner and Bruckner, 2001).

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The second trend for coral reef colonies to degraded reefs (Atkinson et restoration is transplantation of al., 1995; Titlyanov et al., 2001a). fragmented donor colonies from Moreover, the experiment on healthy reef sites to degraded reef sites elucidation of influence of new (Birkeland, 1977; Gittings et al., 1988; (changed) surrounding conditions on Clark and Edwards, 1995; Raymundo, transplant and their competition 2001). The method may be applicable between aboriginal corals could be for restoration of degraded coral reefs conducted under artificial conditions in with lowered diversity following outdoor, indoor and semi-open aquaria. changes in quality of water and Aim 3: Planting corals in public substrate. Such changes occur as a aquaria and oceanaria: result of pollution, sewage, oil, high Many corals in oceanaria and concentrations of nutrients, soil runoff, home aquaria live for a short period. coastal constructions, episodic fresh Aquarium staff or hobbyists need to water flows, repeating bleaching events replace dead corals by living ones and etc. This method of coral reef taken from nature. Unfortunately, only rehabilitation is complicated by many painted skeletons of dead hermatypic problems. First of all, there are corals (artificial coral reef) are necessary thorough investigation of demonstrated in some oceanaria environmental conditions at the (Stepanov, 1994). Demands of rehabilitation sites and at donor reef, establishing living coral reefs in study of species composition, coral oceanaria are obvious. However, this distribution and their associated task is more difficult compared with organisms if necessary. Study of the aquaria for scientific investigations and physiology of transplanted coral species solution of the task is complicated at in mono- and polyculture should be also least by two circumstances: implemented (Raymundo, 2001). Mass - Needs of maintenance of large transplantation of coral fragments to coral numbers in aquaria. degraded sites is more expensive than - Maintenance of corals with other fixation of local fragments to the reef marine inhabitants such as fish, substrates on the original coral reef. mollusks, algae and other associated The mass transplantation needs coral reef organisms in the same preliminary large-scale experiments. aquarium. The third trend of rehabilitation of coral reef is transplantation of young Aim 4: Planting corals for trade: colonies growing under artificial Problem of planting corals for conditions to the rehabilitation site. production of souvenirs for tourists is Little is known about planting young arising in some tropical countries. This coral colonies from a single , business faces difficulties because of group of polyps or from planulae (e.g. reduction in coral stock or new Atkinson et al., 1995; Titlyanov et al., legislation prohibiting coral sampling. 2001a, d). Artificial cultivation of Methods of coral planting for the trade planting material for rehabilitation of could be developed in aquaria as in coral reef may allow young, healthy nature. colonies to fuse to substrates within 4-6 Cultivation of corals for trade months with subsequent removal of the under artificial conditions is a possible

218 solution. However, slow growth of during upwelling saved a lot of corals many coral species means that coral due to reducing the length of period of colonies reach the trade size only after high temperature in the area. 4 - 5 years of cultivation. In this Following this direction, transplan- connection, the method of the tation of uncommon or rare coral cultivation of corals for the trade must species to upwelling areas should be be simple and cheap. At present, trialled. It is also thought that projects on coral cultivation for trade transplantation of corals to lower are developed, but so far without temperature regions of subtropical estimation of their economic latitudes will be considered. Cultivation effectiveness. of corals under artificial conditions is useful for these experiments. Aim 5: Conservation of coral reef biodiversity under artificial conditions: 2. Main principles for maintaining and cultivation of corals under Over the last 20 years, repeating artificial conditions events have caused mass mortality of corals and their Corals should be maintained under associated organisms (ICLARM, 2000). conditions close to natural conditions: Extensive coral bleaching will continue It is known that different corals because of continuous global warming can live in a wide range of variation in in this century, as long - term environmental conditions. The majority predictions for the period to the year of coral species of the Indo-Pacific 2100 indicate that seawater inhabit tropic and subtropical zones temperature in the World Ocean will (Veron, 1986; Latypov and Dautova, increase and average monthly 1998). In some areas of the Indo-Pacific temperature will increase to 31-32°C coral reefs (for instance, reefs in the during hot seasons (Ware, 1997). South China Sea), the most species of Elevated seawater temperature corals (to 80% of species) lives at wide disrupts a complicated and unstable light range from 90 to 10% of incident interrelation between photosynthetically active radiation and their coral host and can cause (PAR0) or at depths ranging from 2 to death of the symbiotic organism. In the 18 m (Titlyanov and Latypov, 1991). future, it is difficult to predict if Such a wide habitat distribution of adaptation of corals to global warming corals in the tropics and subtropics and will occur. The most negative depth distribution depend on high predictions says that in the coming acclimative capabilities either century corals, as symbiotic organisms, genotypic and/or phenotypic of will die forever (Ware, 1997; Hoegh- symbiotic organisms to environmental Guldberg, 2000). In our opinion, an factors. The acclimative capabilities option is to do biodiversity conser- depend on a variety of feeding ways; vation of coral reefs in the areas with various composition of different types low temperature in summer. The of symbionts and hosts; acclimative surveys in Vietnam (Vo Si Tuan, in features between symbionts and hosts print) showed good recovery of corals (Sorokin, 1990; Muller-Parker and after bleaching event in 1998 at Cu Lao D’Elia, 1997; Titlyanov, 1999; Cau Island. Decreased temperature Titlyanov and Titlyanova, 2002b).

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Hobbyists or scientists knowing growth, photosynthesis, respiration and the principles of cultivation should not other physiological parameters. In achieve the same conditions of nature experimental samples, zooxanthellae in a given locality. It is necessary to could be easily and purely released (the maintain some average conditions of condition for work with healthy living coral reef on the main zooxanthellae), surface of the coral environmental abiotic and biotic factors living tissue must be flat (the best for including light, temperature, hydro- calculation of the rates of physiological chemical water parameters, autotrophic processes per surface unit of the coral and heterotrophic feeding to prevent colony). However, the world scientific corals from diseases, predators, experiences have some coral species competitors. Such conditions in aquaria convenient for ecophysiological and oceanaria allow the survival of experiments. First of all, it is corals with an average growth rate. If (Falkowski and it is necessary (for instance, Dubinsky, 1981; Titlyanov et al., commercial farming corals for trade) it 2001b), species of the genus Pocillopora is possible to try to increase the growth (Titlyanov et al., 1988b; Patton et al., rate of corals by changing parameters 1977), caliendrum (Bil’ et of medium (e.g. to elevate the level of al., 1992; Titlyanov et al., 2001d), heterotrophic feeding) (Witting and species of the genus Montastrea Sebens, in print). (Porter, 1974; Dustan, 1979; Graus and Macintyre, 1982) and species of the Selection of appropriate species for genera Porites, , Echinopora different aim of cultivation: and the hydroid polyp Millepora To achieve success in long-term (Titlyanov et al., 2001d). cultivation, species and methods should Most often, coral branch be rightly chosen for certain aim of the fragments or individual polyps (e.g. cultivation. For instance, under the corallites of Galaxea fascicularis) are long-term maintenance for study of the used for investigation. Outer branches dynamics of acclimation to environ- and pieces, evenly lighted and mental factors, eurybiotic, widespread streamlined are broken off colonies. and mass species should be chosen. Branch tips (2 - 5 cm length) are used Such species are less conservative and in experiments. It was shown on some it is most likely they have the greatest coral species that smaller pieces of set of adaptive reactions and they more coral have better starting growth rates defended from an influence of and less suffers from lesions (Becker unpleasant factors such as a temporary and Mueller, 2001). temperature rise or decline, a shortage The only criteria in coral of animal food and etc. (Titlyanov and selection for planting for the souvenir Titlyanova, 2002b). It is important that trade are colonies with attractive coral species used in scientific appearance for buyers and faster experiments could be easily identified growth (branching species). The objects and could not be confused with other for such planting are Stylophora species. Moreover, planting objects pistillata (Loya, in print) or the fast could be “convenient” for fulfillment of growing species such as Acropora the experiments on the study of (Bruckner and Bruckner, 2001). Stony

220 corals of the genera , was accelerated by elevated ammonium Goniopora, , Trachy- on an annual basis, but significant phyllia, Plerogyra and Pocillopora are reductions occurred in some seasons also used for exhibition of coral reef in (Bucher and Harrison, in print) public aquaria and oceanaria. These For rehabilitation of degraded corals are well suited to transfer, but reefs by coral fragment trans- they are slow growing (with the plantation, it is necessary to choose exception of Pocillopora). These coral donor sites with high natural species are annually exported by abundance of corals, and without Indonesia and Fiji (more than 700 t damage by fishes and other predators. and more than 1.5 million items) Donor colonies are without any signs of mostly for aquaria in United States coral diseases such as well-known (Bruckner and Daves, in print). black-band disease (BBD), white-band Coral farming for reef disease (WBD), tissue bleaching (TBL), rehabilitation also needs selection of shut-down-reaction (SDR) (Antonius, in object. For instance, if the coral reef is print) degraded partly or completely and Biological studies of cultured species: rehabilitation will be attempted on It is not possible to maintain and silted substrate or turbid water, culture coral species under artificial selected corals should tolerate sediment conditions without knowledge on their rich environments. Corals such colonies biology and physiology. However, these as Porites spp. with good self-cleaning knowledges have been limited for many systems are often dominant in silt rich coral species. Aquarists or researchers areas with poor water exchange. The should try the best to consider fast-growing and/or more aggressive following questions before coral Galaxea, Goniopora, Acropora take cultivation: advantage in favorable conditions (Dautova et al., 2000). - What are possibilities of Degraded reef hardly may be distribution of certain species? recovered to its original state. That is (Biogeographical zones and ecological why a selection of suitable coral species niches, vertical distribution, light for rehabilitation depends on changed conditions, eutrophication, water environmental conditions and on turbidity). acclimation of these species to new - The main biological indicators: conditions (Todd at al., in print). For genetic diversity of cultivated colonies example, it was shown that growth (species, types, clones), reproductive responses of some Acropora corals to models, and frequency of spawning and elevated nutrients are different to release of planulae, main feeding those of other coral taxa. Colonies of features and kind of food. the coral Acropora longicyathus well - The main ecophysiological withstood elevated concentrations of characteristics: the ranges of tolerance ammonium and/or phosphate in to light, temperature, salinity, adaptive experimental treatments. Linear capabilities to environmental factors, extension was accelerated in phosphate the main acclimative reactions and treatments and depressed by elevated their dynamics; maximum and an ammonium. Buoyant weight growth average rates of photosynthesis,

221 respiration and growth; light and The test measures of normal temperature correlation of photo- physiological state of corals are synthesis and growth. Rhythm of the measurement of the rates of photo- main physiological processes: photo- synthesis, dark respiration, growth, synthesis, growth, cell (zooxanthellae) reparation, zooxanthellae division, the division and their degradation. ratio of proliferating zooxanthellae Competition among colonies of the frequency (PZF) to degrading same species and among various zooxanthellae frequency (DZF) species. Mechanisms of interaction of (Titlyanov et al., 1996). At the certain species and their associated beginning of coral planting (initial organisms: aggression, predation, state) and during maintenance, grazing and susceptibility to diseases. analyses should be conducted to - The main characteristics of measure some hydrochemical and symbiotic interactions of animal polyp hydrobiological characteristics of and algae-symbionts in coral: genotypic seawater: salinity dissolved organic symbiont composition, normal, substances (DOS), nitrogen, minimum and maximum densities of phosphorus, sediments, quality and zooxanthellae in polyp tissue, composition of zoo- and phytoplankton. distribution of zooxanthellae in the 3. Methodical approaches to long- polyp tissue. These issues have been term maintenance and cultivation mentioned in some publications (e.g. of hermatypic corals Sorokin, 1990; Muller-Parker and D’Elia, 1997; Titlyanov et al., 1999...). The approaches described in this paper are mainly based on own Control of the physiological state of experience on study and cultivation of corals and environmental factors hermatypic corals (Titlyanov and during their maintenance: Latypov, 1991; Vo and Hodson, 1997; Under maintenance of corals in Vo Si Tuan, in print; Titlyanov et al., aquaria, control should be conducted to 2001a, b, c, d) and also on some check their physiological state as literature data (Atkinson et al., 1995; visually as by consecutive measure- Carlson, 1999; Osinga et al., 1999; ments. It is necessary to notice in time Reynaud-Vaganay et al., 1999; Becker sickly state of corals and to prevent and Mueller, 2001). coral mortality by changing the The most natural and simple environmental factors or by method of continuous maintenance and medication. Visual tests for normal cultivation is planting corals under physiological state of corals are natural light conditions, seawater with extension of tentacles and active natural autotrophic and heterotrophic predation (hunting) of polyps at night feeding of corals (Fig. 1). This approach and early morning hours, tentacles and allows cultivation of corals in outdoor polyps are retracted by touch with aquaria with light intensity close to hand, equally colored living tissue nature from 90 to 10% PAR0 with (from yellowish to dark-brown) running seawater pumped from the excepting growing tips, no fouling adjacent (e.g. Atkinson et organisms or predators. al., 1995; Titlyanov et al., 2001d). Aquaria are supplied with seawater

222 without filtration or settling. influence of extreme environmental Zooplankton, organic remnants and factors and also for farming corals of nutrition in the aquaria were the same rehabilitation of coral reef. This as the reef. The main criterion in such approach assumes the maintenance and method is healthy coral reefs. The cultivation of corals in closed-system turnover rate required for sufficient aquaria with maximum number of animal feeding is approximately 30% controlling and regulating parameters h-1. Compulsory water-cooling is needed (Fig. 3). The conditions required for during hot period (approximately 2°C coral cultivation are smaller variability lower compared to the surface seawater of all parameters of medium with fast temperature). Necessary cleaning of and easy regulation of each of them; aquaria, substrates for coral fragments daily change of seawater in the closed- and basal parts of the fragments from system aquaria or cleaning system of sediments and algal fouling at least particles of animal food and dissolved with week interval are also needed. proteins using biofilters (Stepanov, This methodic approach to coral 1994; Titlyanov et al., 2001d); or planting is more suitable for scientific protein skimmers (Atkinson et al., aims to study physiology of corals 1995). Seawater in the aquaria should under conditions close to nature; for be intensively aerated. Two-closed mass cultivation of coral colonies; for system recirculating aquaria were used coral farming of rehabilitation of at the Waikiki Aquarium, Honolulu, damaged coral reef; and for trade. Hawaii. One of them had a big protein The second methodic approach is skimmer (70-cm high), the other had a based on purification of seawater and small protein skimmer and a 2-liter artificial food provisioning with trickle-filter with bioballs, gravel and zooplankton (Fig. 2). Seawater is activated charcoal. As show by derived from any adjacent sites and maintenance of hermatypic corals cleaned by filtration or settling and (fifty-seven species) from the Pacific then pumped into aquaria. In daytime Ocean, the corals grew (the growth the seawater drains with the turnover rates were near the upper rates rate about 10% h-1. At night and early reported from the field) in all three morning the seawater flow is not tested systems: outdoors tanks, indoor necessary. Food supply is needed at tanks and the two closed-system nighttime. The necessary terms of such aquaria (Atkinson et al., 1995). method are: The approach is rational in  Absence of toxic or inhibitory scientific investigations on study of substances in flowing seawater; action of biotic and abiotic environmental factors on physiological  Appropriate sizes and quality of animal food supplied for corals; state of corals. The method is suitable  Corals should be fed, in accordance for closed public oceanaria and room with natural rhythms. aquaria (Stepanov, 1994) and also for The third methodic approach of fulfillment of more complicated maintenance and cultivation of corals is experiments. The closed - system suitable for sites without adjacent aquaria with recirculating water are healthy coral reef and effective for the used for scientific experiments. study of coral feeding, starving,

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4. Functional loading abiotic and phosphates in aquaria may fluctuate at biotic factors under maintenance the level of changes in nature. Lower and cultivation of corals concentrations of the elements of mineral nutrition are preferable to Light intensity: If you do not plan higher. The highest values of nutrients to study the influence of bright or for natural water, as reported in extremely low light or its spectral reviews (Crossland, 1983; D’Elia and composition on corals, the light Wiebe, 1990) are 3.8 M for NH plus   intensity should be close to natural 4 from 80 to 30% PAR . Recently, it was NO  and 0.56 M for PO  . Increase 0 3 4 shown that corals transferred from any in ammonium concentration higher habitats easily adapted to new light than 10 M can evoke disruption in symbiosis between zooxanthellae and conditions (from 80 to 30% PAR0) (Titlyanov et al., 2001a, b, c, d). In their animal host and cause death of addition, it is known that corals corals (Titlyanov et al., 1999; Leletkin, dwelling at the light range from 90 to 2000). The major impacts of nutrients on coral reefs usually appear to be 30% PAR0 usually had similar level of the primary production (Titlyanov, indirect with overgrowth by filamentous algae, bryozoans and 1991). Coral planting under 100% PAR0 is also possible (Atkinson et al., 1995). , increased bioerosion of Temperature: The water tem- corals (Smith and Buddemeier, 1992; perature in aquaria, required for coral Kiene, 1997; Lapointe et al., 1997). The direct effects of nutrient loading on cultivation, should be kept close (±1- coral growth are less clear although 2°C) to the field seawater temperature reduced calcification has been noted and should be not higher than of 29°C during hot season. Temporary increase (Dubinsky and Jokiel, 1994). By in the average temperature during hot contrast, concentrations of organic nutrients in seawater of the Waikiki season only 1°C caused mass bleaching and death of a lot of corals (Brown, Aquarium were high relative to most 1997). natural reef ecosystems: PO  about 4 0.6 M; NO  about 5 M; NH  about Salinity: The salinity of seawater   usually ranges between from 30 to 3 4 2 M and were successfully used for 36‰. In addition, it was shown that coral maintenance. some coral species were able to Sediments: Under maintenance withstand the increase in salinity to of corals in aquaria, it is preferable to 39‰ (Nakano et al., 1997) and use clean seawater cleaned by settling reductions to 26‰ (Marcus and or filtration. At the same time, it is Thorhang, 1981). High salinity evokes known that all coral species are shrinkage of polyps, gaping mouths of capable of self-cleaning of mineral and polyps, necrosis of the coelenteron and organic sediments (Sorokin, 1990) and bleaching of the colony (Nakano et al., most coral species are capable of 1997). Reduced salinity also caused dwelling in turbid water conditions mass expulsion of zooxanthellae (Back and Meesters, 2000). At the (Titlyanov et al., 2000c). same time, it is known that high Mineral nutrition: Concentrations sedimentation leads to lesions of living of ammonium, nitrates, nitrites and coral tissue (Szmant et al., in print).

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Air supply: Intensive aeration of released into water dissolved protein seawater is compulsory condition of and other high-molecular compounds coral cultivation by any methods. becoming food not only for corals but Aeration enriches the seawater with for bacteria also. Mass forming of oxygen, lead to mixing of the water and bacteria can evoke diseases of the establishes the water current near corals. When corals are supplied with corals. Oxygen cessation for 2-3 hours zooplankton, it is necessary to avoid can lead to coral’s death. The seawater the elevated ammonium concentration aeration may occur in aquaria, or in the medium (Titlyanov et al., 2000a). seawater is aerated through the special Substrate: Quality of substrate for aerator pump and pumped into aquaria coral fixation depends on aims of coral (Atkinson et al., 1995). planting. If corals are farmed as a Artificial feeding of corals with planting material for coral reef zooplankton and other animal food: rehabilitation, the substrate should be Scleractinian corals, even with small- solid and suitable for simple fixation of sized polyps, such as Stylophora coral fragments. The substrate should pistillata and not give corrosion at the proposed are capable of capture and digestion of rehabilitation site. The substrate zooplankton with sizes from some surface should not limit further micrometers to 2 mm length (Sorokin, attachment to the substrate by 1990). The majority of scleractinian formation of stable secondary basal corals hunt at night and early morning discs. Such materials as concrete, (Sorokin, 1990; Titlyanov et al., 2000c). ceramic tiles, shells, limestone slabs That is why artificial food provisioning are suitable for coral attachment. The with zooplankton is recommended at substrate surfaces should be clean with night. As was shown by Sorokin (1990), no fouling with algae, hydroids, coral growth depends on zooplankton sponges and other organisms. concentration in seawater. However, Sizes and numbers of coral the most rational concentration of fragments in aquaria: Size of coral zooplankton in aquaria is established fragments depends on aims of by hobbyists or researchers cultivation. The extent of survival and experimentally and depends on kind of potential for regrowth may be affected zooplankton, their size, coral species by fragment size. Modular organisms and their hunting abilities, aquarium are known to allocate different volume and structure. For artificial proportions of their energy and coral feeding with zooplankton, resources to reproduction, with larger Artemia salina nauplii were mainly colonies of some species investing more used (e.g. Muscatine et al., 1989; energy in reproducing than in growth Titlyanov et al., 2000a). For the first (Jackson and Hughes, 1985). If this is time, Stylophora pistillata corals were the case of artificial cultivation of fed with rotifers (Branchionus plicatilis fragments for rehabilitation of O.F. Muller) (Titlyanov et al., 1999; damaged coral reef, smaller fragments 2001b). Sometimes, under long-term potentially have a better chance of maintenance, corals were fed with survival because they may concentrate small pieces of meet, fish, crab and their ability to re-attach rapidly. Small squid, but such food decayed and fragments are best suitable for further

225 growth. Basing on our experiments, we sites. In this case, maintenance of can say that branches of Stylophora corals in laboratories will support for pistillata, Seriatopora caliendrum and transplantation of them form donor S. hystrix (3-5 cm length branch tips) sites to appropriate areas more attached to substrates within 4-5 effectively. The issues concerning with months of maintenance in outdoor cost – benefit analysis which were not aquaria. They had a high growth rate discussed in this paper require more (about 8 mg of fresh weight per g per attention in all further activities. day). Biomass of cultivated corals Based on the discussed principles depends on aquaria volume and the and methodical approaches, some rate of input of seawater and aeration practices of maintenances and of the water that is established by cultivation of hermatypic corals were researcher. Distance between implemented in H. Steiniz Marine fragments is defined by aggression of Biology Laboratory (Eilat, Israel), coral species. For instance, Galaxea University of Ryukyus (Japan) and species need more distance to other Institute of Oceanography (Nha Trang, colonies because they extend up to 15 Vietnam) with the positive cm long sweeper tentacles and may perspectives. The concrete results will harm other polyps (Heeger and Sotto, be published in forthcoming papers. 2000). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III. CONCLUSION The Russian authors thank the Long term maintenance and Director of the Institute of cultivation of hermatypic corals under Oceanography (Nha Trang, Vietnam), artificial conditions have been carried Professor Nguyen Tac An and the out in recent years with limited results. President of the University of the However, these activities have Ryukyus, Professor Keishin Sunagawa attracted some scientists, managers for the invitations to work at their and businesses and considered as an institutions as visiting foreign option to improve our understanding on researchers. Special thanks are to Dr. biology of corals and restore coral reefs, DeVantier for his comments and which are impacted by human threats English edition. We are also grateful to and natural catastrophes. staff and colleagues of the Institute of The analysis on environment Oceanography and the Sesoko Station factors in maintenance and cultivation for use of facilities, technical help and of hermatypic coral under artificial convenience of research work. conditions suggested an idea on conservation and rehabilitation of coral REFERENCES reefs in the areas without or less temperature increase due to global 1. Antonius A., in print. Biogeography of warming. This suggestion requires old and new coral diseases. Proceeding experiments in order to understand of 9th Int. Coral Reef Symp., Bali, 2000 adaptation and acclimination of corals 2. Atkinson M. J., Carlson B., Crow G.L., with change of seawater temperature 1995. Coral growth in high-nutrient, and environment conditions of new low-pH seawater: a case study of corals

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Fig. 1: Scheme of installation for long-term maintenance and cultivation of corals by the first approach (see text). 1 – Seawater derivation from a depth of 2–3 m above live coral reef; 2 – Water pump; 3 – Cooling room; 4 – Consumption tank; 5 – Light filter; 6 – Aquarium with corals.

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Fig. 2: Scheme of installation for long-term maintenance and cultivation of corals by the second approach. 1 – Seawater derivation from any site of adjacent bay; 2 – Seawater pump; 3 – Sump tank for sediments settling; 4 – Seawater filter; 5 – Cooling room; 6 – Consumption tank; 7 – Light filter; 8 – Valve (for water supply); 9 – Aquarium with corals; 10 – Source of zooplankton supply.

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Fig. 3: Scheme of installation for long-term maintenance and cultivation of corals by the third approach. 1 – Installation for supply with clean seawater; 2 – Seawater thermostat; 3 – light filters; 4 – Source of supply with inorganic nutrition; 5 – Source of zooplankton supply; 6 – Biological filter; 7 – Airlift. Arrows shows direction of seawater flow established by airlift in aquarium.

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