The Journal of School & Society 55 ISSN 2575-9922 6(1) 55–68 ©Author(s) 2019 ey’s Chinese students, Hu Shih was perhaps The Influence of John the most influential representative of Dewey’s pragmatism during the Chinese Republican Dewey on the Chinese Lit- period (1912-1949). One of the key contribu- erary Revolution: Hu tors to Chinese literary reform, Hu Shih claimed that, starting in 1915, Dewey’s prag- Shih’s Synthesis of Confu- matism became the guide of his life and think- ing, as well as the foundation of his philoso- cian Learning and John phy. He furthermore asserted that his idea of Chinese literary revolution was a reflection of Dewey’s Pragmatism pragmatist thought.2 The May Fourth Movement period intro- James Z. Yang duced Western learning (i.e., the ideas of sci- ence and democracy) while attacking Confu- Beijing Normal University-Hong Kong Bap- cian tradition. As a student of Dewey and of tist University, United International College pragmatism, Hu Shih supported the group of Chinese Language and Cultural Center Chinese iconoclasts who advocated the slogan “Down with Confucius and sons.”3 In 1919, in his lecture titled, “Dewey’s Experimentalism One of the most fascinating and least publi- (Pragmatism),” Hu Shih publicly criticized the Confucian principles of “Three Cardinal cized aspects of John Dewey’s scholarly work 4 is his influence on Chinese society. Dewey’s Bonds and Five Constant Virtues,” which he claimed obstructed China’s transformation to sojourn to China from 1919 to 1921 provided 5 modern Chinese intellectuals with an unparal- democracy and modern civilization. leled opportunity to disseminate Dewey’s From Hu Shih’s perspective, Dewey’s phi- pragmatism throughout Chinese society. losophy contradicted Confucianism. Never- Throughout the May Fourth/New Cultur- theless, before studying in the United States, 1 al Movement period, a group of Chinese edu- cators, most of whom had studied with Dew- 2 Hu Shih, “Self-Introduction,” in Hu Shih’s Diary of ey at Columbia University, strived to apply Studying Abroad (), (Beijing, China: Tong Dewey’s pragmatic philosophy to Chinese so- Xin Press, 2012). cial and cultural reformations. Among Dew- 3 Tse-tsung Chow, The May Fourth Movement: Intellectual Revolution in Modern China, (Cam- bridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), 307. 1 The May Fourth Movement was an anti-imperialist and 4 In Confucianism, the “Three Cardinal Bonds” are as political movement growing out of student protests in follows: “the emperor was the master of his subjects, Beijing on May 4, 1919, against the Treaty of Versailles, the father the master of his sons, and the husband and which allowed Japan to receive territories in Shan- master of his wife.” “The Five Constant Virtues” in- dong from Germany after World War I. Although the clude benevolence, righteousness, propriety, knowledge, movement generated strong political appeal by sparking and sincerity. the sense of a modern nation-state across China, its in- fluence greatly expanded from a mere political appeal to 5 Hu Shih, “Dewey’s Experimentalism a cultural reformation. Thus, by extension, the May (),” in Ou-Yang Zhesheng (Ed.), in Col- Fourth Movement is also called the New Cultural lected Works of Hu Shih, 2, (Beijing: Beijing Universi- Movement, which refers to the period 1919-1928. ty Press, 1998), 223. The Journal of School & Society 56 ISSN 2575-9922 6(1) 55–68 ©Author(s) 2019 Hu Shih’s education had been steeped in the This philosophy evolved from orthodox Confucian tradition. It therefore seems unlike- Confucianism, which was developed during the ly that Confucian thought would remain en- periods of the Spring and Autumn (770 BCE- tirely absent from Hu Shih’s later work (after 476 BCE) and the Warring States (476 BCE- his time at Columbia). After all, as Dewey’s 221 BCE). During the Song dynasty (960-1279), philosophy suggests that educational experi- Buddhism and Taoism challenged Confucian- ences embody the characteristics of continuity, ism’s privilege, and Neo-Confucianism can be which run through all stages of a person’s life.6 seen as an evolutionary response to this con- In this paper, I illuminate the cross- flict. When elaborating on Confucian ideas, cultural philosophical dynamics that took Neo-Confucians chose to change their scholarly place during the May Fourth period by explor- rhetoric by introducing Buddhist and Taoist ing the ways in which Hu Shih’s literary revo- elements. Historically, the leading figures of lution synthesizes his Confucian educational Neo-Confucianism treated Confucius’s thought experience with Dewey’s pragmatism. In other as the root of their philosophies. As a philo- words, this work seeks to answer a crucial sophical school, Neo-Confucianism is thus a question: How did Hu Shih fuse his Confucian product of the reformation of orthodox Confu- education and his Deweyan learning to bring cianism within China’s changing historical and about a Chinese literary revolution? philosophical circumstances. My inquiry begins with the exploration of After the Song period, two intellectual what Hu Shih learned from his Confu- threads emerged from Neo-Confucianism: the cian/New Confucian educational experience. “School of Principle” and the “School of Next, I will turn to the question of how Hu Mind.” Both schools hold that everything in the Shih bridged the gap between his Confucian universe is a manifestation of the concept education and his Deweyan learning. Last, I “principle” (li), an idea that comes from the analyze how he applied Dewey’s pragmatic Confucian view of cosmology. “Principle” re- philosophy to Chinese literary revolution. fers to the underlying reason and order of na- ture as reflected in its organic forms. More im- New Confucian Father Figure portantly, “principle” in Neo-Confucianism denotes a pattern or order to the whole of the Hu Shih was born in 1891, when China was in cosmos, and this pattern serves as the basis of developing Confucianism’s ethical codes re- the very late stages of the imperial period. His father, Hu Chuan, was a lower ranking official garding hierarchical relationships. and a faithful Neo-Confucian scholar. Hu During the Ming and Qing periods (1368- Shih’s educational journey thus began with a 1644 and 1644-1911, respectively), the School of Principle enjoyed a prestigious position in Neo-Confucian education instilled by his fa- ther. Before analyzing Hu Chuan’s influence official ideology. During this time, the School on Hu Shih, it is worth providing a brief dis- of Principle was represented by the Cheng-Zhu cussion of the historical roots of Neo- school, founded by the Neo-Confucian scholars Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi during the Song period Confucianism. (960-1279), which stressed the significance of the “investigation of things and extension of knowledge” in leading students of Confucian- 6 John Dewey, Experience and Education, (New York: Macmillan, 1938). The Journal of School & Society 57 ISSN 2575-9922 6(1) 55–68 ©Author(s) 2019 ism to an understanding of the essence of prin- downplay the role of religion in human life, alt- ciple.7 hough the philosophical thought absorbed Although Confucian civilization was under- some elements from Taoism and Buddhism. going unprecedented challenges from the West For instance, one of the leading figures of during the late imperial period (1840-1911), the Cheng-Zhu school, Zhu Xi (1130-1200), did Cheng-Zhu school of Neo-Confucianism as an not highly promote the worship of spirits or official ideology still exerted a strong influence offerings to images. Neo-Confucian rites gener- on Chinese society and education. The Cheng- ally were secular, linking people to each other Zhu school enjoyed high popularity among lo- rather than to the divine. In other words, to cal residents of Hu Shih’s hometown in Anhui Neo-Confucians, the purpose of ritual practice Province.8 As a dedicated Neo-Confucian was to maintain an ethical code and hierarchical scholar in Anhui Province, Hu Chuan wrote relations within a human society.10 several books to educate Hu Shih. These works’ In the Analects, Confucius himself tended to primary goal was to teach Confucian ethical pay more attention to human problems than to codes and Neo-Confucian cosmology. metaphysical matters: “not yet being able to According to Hu Chuan’s writings, the uni- serve other people, how would you able to verse and world consist of two concepts from serve the spirit . Not yet understanding life, ancient cosmology, qi (vital force) and li (prin- how could you understand death?”11 The secu- ciple), instead of ghosts and devils, as claimed lar confusion people face in the real world is in popular understandings of Buddhist and Ta- always one of the most important concerns in oist teachings. The Neo-Confucian father be- Confucius’s philosophical thought. lieved that all things are brought into being by In their introduction to the Analects, Ames the union qi and li, meaning that it is impossible and Rosemont state that Confucianism’s “ab- for supernatural beings to exist at all. Because sence of an essential religious orientation to life of his firm standpoint on Neo-Confucianism, rendered secular education, as a form of human Hu Chuan not only strongly objected to any effort toward the achievement of the aims of form of religious activities in his family, but al- life, that much more imperative.”12 For in- so formulated strict family regulations to sepa- stance, in the Analects, the Master further said, rate his family from the influence of Buddhism “the expression ‘sacrifices as though present’ is and Taoism.9 taken to mean ‘sacrifice to the spirit as though Hu Chuan’s deeds and writings truly em- the spirits are present’ ... if I myself do not par- bodied Neo-Confucianism’s view of religion.