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A Brief Historical Survey on Individual and Collective APPENDIX A A BRIEF HISTORICAL SURVEY ON INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE CONTRIBUTORS A-I The Definitions and Acceleration of US Thrust-Vectored Aircraft Programs The US programs during the period 1973-1980 are well-covered by the combined compre­ hensive review of Richey (from the USAF), Berrier (from NASA) and Palcza (from the Navy) [73]. These authors stress that the contributions of USAF, NASA, and Navy and industry have demonstrated that advanced, nonaxisymmetric nozzles, integrated with tactical fighter aircraft configuration, have the potential for; • increasing maneuverability and agility at high lift and/or low dynamic pressure conditions by thrust vectoring with supercirculation, • reducing subsonic/transonic cruise drag compared to close coupled axisymmetric nozzles through better nozzle/airframe integration, • improving longitudinal agility for air combat, and increased accuracy and survivability in air­ to-ground weapons delivery due to steeper dive angles and higher weapon release altitude by incorporating an in-flight thrust reverser, • reducing IR and RCS signatures due to nozzle configuration influence; also, the IR and RCS observables tend to be highly directional, thereby having the potential of greatly increased air­ craft survivability against seeker missiles by maneuvers and application of thrust vectoring, • improving take-off and landing performance and ground handling of high-thrust aircraft, • reduced life cycle costs through projected lower fabrication costs (fewer moving parts), reduced fuel costs to perform the same mission (due to lower cruise and acceleration drag), • reduced fleet size, as a result of improved survivability and combat effectiveness. These authors also stress that the proper utilization of this emerging technology in future air­ craft systems depends on; • a coordinated attack on nonaxisymmetric nozzle technology to improve the data base on the disciplines of propulsion, aerodynamics, structures and vehicle integration, • definition and implementation of a meaningful. timely. flight research program to increase confidence in the technology for transition to systems applications, to define and demonstrate advanced fighter flight characteristics, to utilize design criteria for nonaxisymmetric nozzles with thrust vectoring features, and to define full-scale performance and survivability characteristics. Accordingly, the authors describe a series of R&D programs, which, beginning in 1977, are designed to substantiate the need for flight research programs, define their specific objectives, evaluate candidate test aircraft against these objectives, and acquire data to find the cost­ effective approach to a 2D nozzle flight research program. 189 190 A Brief Historical Survey VectOfed ,1VuS, RALS , / ,, I (CJ~~ I I ~ Lift-Fan or Di rect-Life EIlS;..1.!!.£.L Fig. I. The evolution of a few power lift concepts, including some early vectored thrust control designs. For STOVL concepts see Figs. 7 and 8 in this Appendix. A-2 Reduction in Intederence Transonic and Supersonic Wave Drag The authors of this timely overview stress a number of additional points: 1) Exhaust nozzles have traditionally been circular in cross section to facilitate good integration with the core engine, thereby neglecting the performance penalties associated with the airframe. 2) A large part of "rounded" nozzle installation penalty for twin-engine fighters is due to the poor integration of "round" nozzles into a "rectangular" afterbody, and the very neglection of supercirculation potentials. 3) These "rounded" configurations generally have boattailed "gutter" interfairings, or base regions on the afterbody, which result in interference drag at transonic flow conditions, and wave drag at supersonic operaton. Thus, the installation of 2D nozzles reduces external flow nozzle penalties by eliminating the separated interfairing and base regions. Appendix A 191 I - -·- ~:>.~ c-~- - --~ --- ----- - Fig. 2. The evolution of a few "jetwing" design concepts. upper left: Dividing engine cold and hot streams for separate lift enhancement sectors involving cold and hot materials, respecti vely. upper right: Core (hot) exhaust gas remains unchanged, but fan (cold) air IS used to enhance lift and maneuverability. lower Ie.ft: Internal ducts are used for inboard and outboard blowing, utilizing the Coanda Effect [156]. A-3 Individual Contributions Many names are associated with the subject matter of this book. Their collective and individual contributions are well-reflected in the references given at the end of this book. What has been described in the text is, therefore, only an introduction from this author's point of view. For a full appreciation of the individual efforts one must turn to the original referencb. By closely examining these references one can distinguish the collective contributions of such bodies as USAF (and especially that of Bowers, Glidewell, Laughrey, Richey and Surber at the Flight Dynamics Laboratory of WPAFB), NASA (and especially that of Banks, Berrier, Capone, Leavitt, Mason, and Pendergraft), the US Navy, industry (especially that of Herbst and McAtee) and the professional leadership demonstrated by other individuals. Among the individuals who have significantly widened the scope and aims of this technology, one may pay a particular attention to the valuable contributions of: Banks [29, 148), Berndt [63, 142, 198, 205), Berrier [1, 6, 18,44,52,55,73,208,209,210), Bowers 192 A Brief Historical Survey AXISYMMETRIC C·O NOZZLE C. E. ALBEN. Drt"'-'. M" - 0.&.1, -II", NPR -10 ___---, ..< ..z: 8 v -0.02 -'-=-" ""'''' I:-",--l~. O ( ·0 Mu1d· ell"'tC'd T~ft. A.ld ( -0 ru,potl FlIP Thto.l CO Plug Plul VACS EXIIAUST SYSTEH (lID • TK6PN Fig. 3. The evolution of a few early concepts in thrust-vectoring nozzles. (The "thrust loss coefficient" data were taken from Hiley, Wallace and Booz, Ref. 72. The VACS and CRD+ TRBPN nozzle figures are from Berndt, Glidewell and Bums, Ref. 142.) (4, 11, 13,24), Burley (33, 114, 162), Callahan (158), Capone (10, 17, 18,20,21,22,28,37,42,54, 56, 49, 60, 64, 67, 68, 69, 121), Chu (90, 92, 100), Costes (182), Glidewell (5, 14, 142, 198, 205), Goetz (41, 77), Herbst (154, 188], Hiley (11, 61, 66, 72, 78, 139], Joshi (124, 140, 161], Klafin (220], Kotansky (128), Kucher (63,138], Laughrey (4,13), Leavitt (58,112,162], Mason (38, 39,40,52,57,208,209,215), Maiden 132, 34, 36, 40], McAtee 1196), Mello 1128), Miller 18, 9, 47), Nash 145, 46), Palcza 16, 41, 43, 46, 73, 75), Paulson (15,16,27,29,148, ISS), Pendergraft (62, 234), Petit (40, 42, 68, 77), Re 128), Richey (6, 73, 210), Schneider (218), Sedgwick (164), Stevens (49, 70), Surber (210), Tamrat (185, 213), Thomas 195, 96), Watt (218) and Well 1211). A substantial portion of this book is actually based on the highly significant contributions of these individuals. Appendix A 193 @® GeACUtN ® Gt'OC·D ~ ~.;;:,::~"; M>. P.W~:AS" ~~ loe 0 IR,.,... utl Mci"- Slluwn' '6wI\lMCAln.... Fig. 4. A few early nozzle competitores in the thrust vectoring "race". The GE 2D-CD nozzle on the upper-right is essentially the one shown in Figures I-I and 1-7. The ADEN nozzle is shown on the right during various operating conditions (cf. Fig. 5). ATA and ATFN (See also Appendix B) Beyond the year 2000 the Navy is likely to replace the F-14 with a version of the USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter, known as the ATFN. Under a memorandum of understanding signed in early 1986, both the (ATF) Northrop/McDonnell Douglas YF-23 and the Lockheed/ Boeing/GD YF-22 are being designed so that a navalised version can be developed without excessive modification and the Navy will monitor the USAF program. On the attack side, the Navy is developing the Advanced Tactical Aircraft (AT A), or A-12. AT A appears to be running about two years ahead of ATF, so it may be operational in the mid-90s. It is believed to be a subsonic aircraft powered by two uprated, nonafterburning GE-F404 engine derivatives. It will be a two seater designed for low-level, all-weather, deep­ strike missions. AT A has been defined as a long-range, heavy-pay-Ioad aircraft, using stealth technology. The McDD/General Dynamics team has recently won the ATA/A-12 contract. -- ~~, Z-..... ,.~.. Fig. 5. The ADEN and PWA Plug nozzles. (A particular analysis of ADEN/X-29A integration is given in §YI-2.5.4. Its use on a STOYL aircraft is depicted in Fig. 8, Appendix B). Cf. Fig. 4. APPENDIX B POWERPLANT TECHNOLOGY LIMITS (A portion of this Appendix is based on an updated version of a review published in 1984 in the Intern. J. Turbo and Jet Engines, Ref. 119) "Perfection of means and confusion of goals seem - in my opinion - to characterize our age." Albert Einstein "Who but the Harrier pilot can thrust vector in forward flight and confuse an attacker by killing forward speed, so that the enemy overshoots into a lethal position?" The Editor (JWRT) Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1987-88 p. 43 [1751 B-1 Beyond the year 2000 R&D groups around the world are now shifting attention to a new generation of engine and materials technologies to provide quantum leaps in performance, reliability and survivability beyond those already on the drawing boards. Until recently, much of this effort has been aimed at fighter engines, such as those for the A TF. ATA and EFA. However, since the design definition of these engines has now been completed, and since the various technology limits had been identified and set, advanced R&D and design goals are now beginning to be redefined in terms of the next generation beyond. The payoffs of these new powerplants are expected to come from a number of new technolo­ gies. These include: I) RCC Materials (see below). 2) Vectored Propulsion Systems. 3) Advanced Engine Cores. 4) [FPC Technology. Current-technology engines for the ATF, ATB and AT A are described below. The technology limits ofthese engines are typified by a thrust-to-weight ratio ofaround 10: I to 12: I, while those of the new-generation, beyond-the-year-2000, by a ratio of 20: I.
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