The Links Between Global Climatic Cycles and the Diversification and Migration of Arctic Shorebirds

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The Links Between Global Climatic Cycles and the Diversification and Migration of Arctic Shorebirds The links between global climatic cycles and the diversification and migration of Arctic shorebirds La relación entre los ciclos climáticos y la diversificación y migración de las aves limícolas árticas Ángel Arcones Segovia Aquesta tesi doctoral està subjecta a la llicència Reconeixement- NoComercial – CompartirIgual 4.0. Espanya de Creative Commons. Esta tesis doctoral está sujeta a la licencia Reconocimiento - NoComercial – CompartirIgual 4.0. España de Creative Commons. This doctoral thesis is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- ShareAlike 4.0. Spain License. 7 Todas las ilustraciones de los capítulos y la contraportada han sido realizadas por María Ángeles Santamaría All the illustrations from the chapters and the back cover have been done by María Ángeles Santamaría 8 Index Agradecimientos ...................................................................................... 11 General introduction ............................................................................... 15 Objectives ................................................................................................ 31 Chapter 1: Pleistocene glacial cycles as drivers of allopatric differentiation in Arctic shorebirds ...................................................................................... 35 Chapter 2: New mitochondrial DNA substitution rates reveal patterns of recent diversification in Arctic shorebirds linked to longer glacial cycles .................. 75 Chapter 3: Stairway to northern haven? Uneven climate change effects in the ranges of Arctic shorebirds between the Nearctic and the Palearctic ....................... 127 Integrative discussion ............................................................................ 157 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 169 Appendix 1 ............................................................................................. 173 Appendix 2 ............................................................................................. 263 Appendix 3 ............................................................................................. 279 Appendix 4 ............................................................................................. 287 Appendix 5 ............................................................................................. 295 Appendix 6 ............................................................................................. 296 9 10 Agradecimientos Llegado a este punto, tengo mucho que agradecer a mucha gente, y no se ni por dónde empezar. Esta tesis lleva mi nombre, pero es la obra de mucha gente que me ha acompañado, ayudado y apoyado durante años. Este es un camino que habría sido imposible hacer sin todos ellos. Mi primer agradecimiento es para mi familia. Para mis padres, Concha y Ángel, que me lo han dado todo, siempre me han apoyado y me han hecho ser quien soy. A ellos les debo todo lo bueno que ha llegado y lo que llegue en el futuro. También a mis hermanas, las doctoras, Almudena y Julia, que siempre me han cuidado y han sido una referencia para mí. A Achim, que ya es uno más de nuestra familia, y a Teo y Pablo, los últimos en llegar y que con sus sonrisas nos llenan de alegría. Estoy muy agradecido también a todos los que han sido mi familia científica estos años. En primer lugar, a David, por haberme dado la oportunidad de iniciarme y desarrollarme como científico, y por enseñarme a no conformarme nunca. También a Xavi, de quien siempre he disfrutado aprendiendo y que siempre ha hecho que, pese a la distancia, siempre nos sintiéramos cerca de Barcelona, que nunca es fácil y menos en los tiempos que corren. Mi familia científica también la conforman todos mis compañeros de estos años. Raquel, con quien he tenido la suerte de compartir este viaje turbulento desde el inicio y cuya ayuda ha sido inestimable hasta el final. Juntos hemos salido adelante pese a las dificultades compi. Marcos, que desde el principio fue una especie de hermano mayor para nosotros en el Museo, y que nunca se ha dejado derrotar por los malos tiempos. Javi, con su siempre sorprendente mezcla de ideas, entre brillantes y locas. Y a los que sus caminos los han llevado en otras direcciones: a Salva, a Guille, a Carlos, a Thijs… Y en esta familia también está toda la gente del Museo, que por suerte es muchísima y maravillosa. En especial quiero acordarme de todos los compañeros y compañeras con los que he compartido espacio y vida en la 1212 estos años: Melinda, Chio, Silvia, Guida, Indra, Calatayud, Sergio, Jaime, Jorge, Fernanda, Chechu, Elisa, Manu, Eva y Mario. Y alguno más que seguro que me olvido y luego me dará rabia. También a la gente del tupper, los compañeros de cubículo a la hora de comer. Sois tantos que a veces no cabemos todos, y tengo también tanto que agradecer que lo haré en persona cuando vayamos a por el café. Queda mucha gente por agradecer, de la 1111, de la “sala triste”, de Pinar… Todos me habéis hecho sentir que el Museo era mi casa, a pesar de todas las circunstancias que parecían querer impedirlo. 11 Y este viaje también se ha hecho with a Little help from my friends. Esos que también me han visto crecer, evolucionar, subir y bajar. Para mí son una parte importante no solo de esta tesis, sino de todo lo que soy. Son la gente a la que más admiro, y la que hace que lo malo sea menos malo y lo bueno sea mejor. Y empiezo por Geles. Sin tu apoyo y tus ánimos todo este tiempo, hace mucho que no habría podido conseguir llevar a cabo esta caminata por el desierto. Tú lo has sufrido también, y ahora por fin empieza a salir el sol. Gracias por estar siempre ahí, guapita. Tengo la suerte de tener mucha gente a la que llamar amigos, y a los que estar agradecido. Y aunque aquí no voy a poder expresar plenamente lo agradecido que os estoy (eso será tarea para cuando nos veamos), no quiero dejar de mencionar a mucha de esa gente. A mis camaradas Andrés, Akbar, Juan, Raúl y Rober, vecinos distantes con los que he compartido tantas aventuras, y juntos hemos pasado por los mejores y los peores momentos. A todos mis compañeros de biología, y la gente que ha llegado con ellos durante los años: Kantala, Edu, Dani, Pako, María, Gloria, Sonia, Belén, Marta, Carlos, Chechu, Suja, Horcas, Juanillo, Jose, … Esta historia es tan vuestra como mía. Y a los tetes, que recordaban cada mañana lo que cuesta levantarse, y cada día lo absurdo que es el mundo. A Ana, por darme apoyo y perspectiva, y evitarme crisis máximas. A Pola y a Edu, que siempre han sido una inspiración para luchar por conseguir lo que de verdad quieres. Y a todos los que me he olvidado de nombrar porque, aunque mi cabeza no dé para más, sé que estáis ahí y os lo haré saber. Y por último a Ángel. Es decir, a mí mismo. Porque has sufrido mucho durante estos años, y has estado muy cerca de abandonar unas cuantas veces. Y porque has aprendido a apretar los dientes y dar más de ti mismo. Y por nunca dejar de creer. Ha sido un viaje difícil pero enriquecedor, y pronto estarás orgulloso de ello. No puedo decirte hacia donde irá el viaje ahora, pero independientemente del destino y la ruta, sé que darás lo mejor de ti. Así que, solo me queda decirte: Naammaktsiarit! 12 13 14 General introduction Glacial cycles and diversification Allopatry has been considered the most common mechanism of diversification at the species and population levels (Coyne & Orr, 2004; Price, 2007). This process, by definition, relies on the geographic separation of populations either though the colonization of new territories (dispersal) or the separation as a consequence of an emerging geographical barrier (vicariance). Traditionally, these vicariant events were associated with geological changes, such as continent breakups, mountain ranges or large rivers. But species sometimes display large continuous ranges with clearly differentiated populations despite a lack of apparent barriers between them, which suggests that a previous isolating factor acted between those populations and has since disappeared allowing secondary contacts. One of the first explanations proposed for such situations was the effect of historical climate and habitat changes, especially during large-scale events such as glacial cycles (Rand, 1948). Ever since, the glacial cycles of the Quaternary [from 2.6 million years ago (Mya) to the present] (Fig. 1), and especially the last glacial maximum (LGM) (ca. 21,000 years ago), have received substantial attention as promoters of allopatric diversification (e.g. Mengel, 1964; Avise & Walker, 1998; Hewitt, 1996, 2004; Weir & Schluter, 2004; Lovette, 2005). Figure 1: Changes in the global temperature during the Pleistocene, based on the estimates from EPICA community members (2004) (blue line) and Lisiecki & Raymo (2005) (black line). 15 Glacial cycles deeply altered the global climate (Fig. 2), modifying the distribution of habitats worldwide and in turn the distribution of many species, especially in temperate and cold regions (Webb III & Bartlein, 1992; Dynesius & Jansson, 2000). These species overcame such changes by persisting in areas of refugia during climatically unsuitable periods (Bennett & Provan, 2008; Gavin et al., 2014). Over multiple glacial and interglacial episodes, species would have experienced repeated contractions and expansions of their distribution ranges, leaving a genetic print on the lineages over time (Avise & Walker, 1998; Hewitt, 1999, 2000, 2004). However, molecular studies on bird species in North
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