Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85

ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP, AND YOU ARE SOKOL!

Jože Podpečnik

National Museum of , , Slovenia

Original article Abstract

The public appearances of Sokol companies in uniform at first awakened and later strengthened Slovenian national consciousness and united the Slovenians in and later across all Slovenian ethnic territory. The provincial government in Ljubljana and its German majority were largely opposed to the Slovenian gymnastics clubs. They blamed the Sokol clubs for encouraging ethnic intolerance with their excursions in uniform. In principle, practicing gymnastics was the first objective of the Slovenian gymnasts, followed in second place by various forms of social ‘entertainment,’ where they could demonstrate dignity, good manners, and moderation. Unform consisted of »surka« (jacket), red shirt, black shoes and »čikoš« (hat). The Southern Sokol Club chose for its headwear a low, round, wide-brimmed hat, to which a tricolor ‘national’ cockade and a Sokol feather were attached. The Sokol uniform with its red shirt became the symbol of a self-confident and nationally conscious Slovenian, a fighter for national emancipation, and a supporter of Slavic solidarity.

Keywords: Sokol, Uniforms, Dress, Cap, National Colours.

INTRODUCTION

Along with the awakening of conscious Slovenian bourgeoisie.2 Although Slovenian national consciousness in the they became an element of the Sokol mid-nineteenth century, dressing styles uniform worn by the members of the became a category of national affiliation Southern Sokol Club, founded in October beyond the previously firmly established 1863, the role of the symbols of the Sokol classbased differences in dress in Slovenia. gymnastics movement went to the red shirt. Janez Trdina reports that in 1848 nationally The uniformed Southern conscious students and some Ljubljana immediately assumed the leadership of the residents started to wear a surka1 in Slovenian national movement, and by imitation of the Croatian Illyrians, appearing in public in uniform its members demonstrating their Slovenian national appealed to national consciousness. The affiliation and South Slavic solidarity, and Sokol uniform with its red shirt became the the bolder ones added a red cap. In the symbol of a self-confident and nationally reading societies period after 1861, these conscious Slovenian, a fighter for national jackets were often adopted by the nationally emancipation, and a supporter of Slavic solidarity. The popularity of the Sokol red

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 shirt was concurrent with the role of the parent club. In particular, the uniforms of Sokol clubs in the Slovenian national the Upper Carniola Sokols and the Southern movement and of course changed in the Sokols of Trieste differed from those of the course of the movement’s development. Ljubljana Sokols in the color of the shirt To date, research on the Slovenian and details of the headwear. The lack of a national and Sokol movements has not standard uniform in the Slovenian Sokol dedicated any major attention to the clubs would certainly have caused many development of the Sokol uniform, and problems in the long run and weakened even less to its symbolism or the reactions their position in the struggle for the rights of sympathizers or opponents. The first to of the Sokol association and national rights. attempt a more detailed description of the The leadership of the Ljubljana Sokol Club development of the Sokol uniform was therefore acted resolutely when the first Drago Stepišnik,3 who compiled a basic non-standard elements appeared, whether survey of its development. A short but related to the uniform, the gymnastics correct description of the development of system, or Slovenian gymnastics the Sokol uniform in Slovenia up to the terminology. Second World War was written and The Ljubljana Gymnastics Club illustrated by Sergej Vrišer.4 In the archive tackled the issue of the club uniform as sources, the clothes of the members of the early as the preparations for its foundation. Sokol clubs are mostly called kroji At the preparatory meeting in early August (uniforms), and the same was true of 1862, the initiators appointed a temporary Slovenian newspapers of the time. Here and five-member board, in which the there, the names of the individual parts of a Slovenians had the majority. The board’s Sokol uniform were mentioned, when they efforts to heal the rift between the were the subject of discussions in the clubs Slovenian majority and German minority or among the public. The archive of the were in vain. Moreover, the disagreements Ljubljana Sokol Club also reflects the caused the German minority to found their attitudes of its leadership and members to own gymnastics club, the Laibacher the Sokol uniform, and the discussions were Turnverein, the same year. The Slovenian quite heated in the early period. Gymnastics Club thus had a competitor at This article addresses only the both the club and national levels even development of the men’s Sokol uniform in before it was founded. This rift, which was Slovenia before the First World War; the also reflected in the choice of the club development of women’s and youths’ Sokol uniform, had an important impact on the uniforms was specific and deserves special operation of the two town and national attention due to special historical and social gymnastics associations. The German conditions. I intentionally use the seemingly Gymnastics Club adopted a standard club questionable term ‘Slovenian’ Sokol uniform,5 whereas the Southern Sokols costume, especially considering the imitated the Sokol Club. The assumption that the Slovenian Sokols archive material contains no evidence of imitated the uniform of the Czech Sokols. contact between the Slovenian and Czech For the first thirty years, the Slovenian Sokols before the formal foundation of the Sokol uniform had some specific Slovenian characteristics, in particular the headwear. In spite of the uniformity of the Sokol movement in principle, the uniform of the Ljubljana Sokol Club differed from that of the Prague Sokols, as did the uniforms of some Sokol filials from the uniform of their

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85

Slovenian club, but a telegram with mid March. Because the board had received greetings that the Slovenians sent from their no answer from Prague by 13 March, it founding meeting, as well as the name and decided to have at least a temporary uniform they chose for the club confirm the uniform made in our own way.9 Spring was assumption that the Southern Sokol Club close and with it the first season of outdoor imitated the Prague Sokols in its initial events and public performances, and the phase of operation. members were still without uniforms. The first club rules of the Southern Pressed for time, the board members again Sokol Club contained no provisions decided to adopt the Czech Sokol uniform, regarding the Sokol uniform. It is indirectly including the red shirt worn by the mentioned in the first section of the supporters of Giuseppe Garibaldi in the gymnastics system, in which Article 5 states struggle for a united Italy. Underneath the that the gymnasts have to take off their red shirt the Sokols were to wear a white ‘body clothes’ before training.6 The shirt or vest and over it the thenpopular members of the Southern Sokol Club grey-brown surka with five interlacing laces discussed the Sokol uniform at the founding and hooks instead of buttons with meeting, which took place on 1 October buttonholes. The members were to wear 1863 at the Ljubljana Reading Society. ordinary trousers with a short strap, also They unanimously agreed not to imitate the made of grey-brown Russian cloth. uniform of the German gymnasts. They Regarding the headwear, to which a adopted a decision in principle to copy the cockade with a monogram and a falcon’s Czech Sokol uniform but without its hat. feather were to be attached, the board again Unlike the Czech Sokols, they would not failed to reach an agreement. Of the ten wear boots, but shoes. The Southern Sokol board members, four voted for the čikoš, Club chose for its headwear a low, round, four for a modern hat, and two for a wide-brimmed hat called a čikoš,7 to which ‘Slavic’ hat.10 a tricolor ‘national’ cockade and a Sokol Two days later, an extraordinary feather were attached. The club’s archive general meeting was held in the club’s contains no document indicating why the gymnasium with a single item on the general meeting did not adopt the footwear agenda: the Sokol uniform. Following a and headwear of the Czech model and why motion by President Costa, the board’s it chose a hat that was quite similar to the proposals were adopted by a slight majority. German uniform. The Ljubljana Sokols With the exception of the headwear, the were greatly encouraged when they Czech Sokol uniform was adopted. Instead received a surprise package containing 60 of the proposed hat, the majority voted for a badges of the Prague Sokol Club in late semi-round, gray čikoš. The writer of the 1863. The club’s president Etbin Henrik minutes of the general meeting disagreed Costa ceremoniously distributed them with the majority opinion and denounced among the members at the New Year’s the decision adopted. He considered the party at the Ljubljana Reading Society.8 proposed hat to be childish, ‘unnational’ A group of dissatisfied Sokols again and impracticable, and, in short, unworthy brought up the issue of the Sokol uniform in of a Slovenian gymnast. In his opinion, the early 1864. The embarrassed club’s board headwear should be strictly modeled after wrote to the leadership of the Prague Sokol the Prague Sokol Club just like the uniform. Club in late January 1864, asking for a He rightly feared that the decision adopted detailed description of the Sokol uniform by would soon lead to different Sokol uniforms from club to club. As an example of uniformity, he pointed out that the German

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 gymnastics clubs wore the same uniforms Uniformed Sokols made their first and that gymnasts from Frankfurt or Berlin public appearance at the funeral of the were dressed identically. The outvoted mayor of Ljubljana and first chairman of minority vehemently raised doubts about the Ljubljana Reading Society, Mihael the regularity of the decisions adopted and Ambrož, on 28 April 1864. Wearing the full continued to press for the complete Czech uniform and carrying the club’s new flag, uniform, refusing to wear the type of hat 40 uniformed Sokols accompanied the adopted. The minority rightly feared that funeral procession of this deserving national the disputed decision would cause a lack of activist and placed a wreath on his grave. uniformity in the Sokol organization. The As reported by Fran Drenik, individual meeting also discussed the threat of the Sokols feared to walk the streets in full provincial government to prohibit the uniform because of possible insults, and Sokols from wearing red shirts in public. they therefore put on the čikoš and falcon’s Costa gathered and submitted evidence that feather only shortly before arriving at the the Prague Sokol Club was permitted to cemetery. On his way to the gathering wear such shirts, and managed to convince point, Drenik passed by the commander of the Carniolan provincial deputy not to the military hospital, Captain Schramek, implement the threatened ban.11 who was standing on the porch of the At the meeting of the expanded board Casino Club’s café. The captain was so on 10 April 1864, the rules on outdoor startled by Drenik’s red shirt, čikoš, and events were adopted and subsequently surka that he cried out loud, thinking he distributed to the members in printed form. saw a jumping jack. After the funeral, Dr The preamble of the rules defined the Keesbacher, a highly regarded member of purposes of outdoor events and continued the Turnverein, approached the with the provision that only members demonstrator of the Sokols, Pavel Draksler, wearing the Sokol symbol and full uniform and, obviously impressed by the uniformed were allowed to take part in them. The Sokol company, proposed that the two leader of an outdoor event was to wear a gymnastics clubs of Ljubljana merge. shirt decorated with embroidery and stripes Draksler resolutely rejected the offer and on the sleeves of his surka, indicating his confidently responded that the Turnverein position or function. Sokols wearing could not join the Southern Sokol Club, but ordinary clothes and invited guests were that its members were free do so allowed to join a Sokol event in no individually.13 particular order. The final article of the In early July 1864, Novice published rules appealed to the members to respect the the first newspaper description of the law and public order, to show moderation, uniform of the Southern Sokols. A social and to conduct themselves properly. event at the Kranj Reading Club held on 29 Violations of the rules were considered June 1864 was attended by 80 Sokols in unacceptable shaming of the club. ‘formal uniforms’. The Sokol uniform was Inappropriate conduct of members in described by Novice as Trousers and jacket uniform was admonished by the leader of made of Russian cloth, red shirt, round grey the outdoor event on the spot, and in hat with a falcon’s feather; in these elegant extreme cases such misbehavior was uniforms the Sokols are a pleasure to the sanctioned with dishonorable expulsion eye. Their red shirts stood out because they from the club.12 In the initial period some wore their jackets over their left shoulders.14 Sokols occasionally wore ordinary black The Sokol uniform was also the theme of trousers or performed in ordinary clothes the host’s speech at the joint lunch at the Pri wearing Sokol hats. Stari Pošti inn, but the speaker erred in his

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 description and Costa senior had to correct would order 100 new čikoš hats from the him. The ceremonial program was followed Prague Sokol Club and 150 Sokol by a ball where one could see Carniolan monograms. The hats and monograms beauties whirl around with Sokols in their arrived in Ljubljana in early March 1865.18 fine uniforms.15 The Sokol uniform, which A group of 72 Sokol gymnasts in made its first and successful appearance on uniform and carrying the Sokol flag posed the dance floor, obviously found much for the first photograph of Sokols for the favor with the female public. Ljubljana photographer Ernest Pogorelec on In 1864, uniformed Sokols attended a Sunday, 17 September 1865. According to reading society event in Ilirska Bistrica, the the club’s secretary, Fran Ravnikar, the opening of the Planina Reading Society, photographer did a fine job. The remaining and an evening torchlight procession in 35 Sokols separately visited the honor of the newly elected mayor of photographer on 8 October 1865 to have Ljubljana, . Novice him make a fine souvenir of unforgettable reported that a ceremonial social event at times.19 Photographs, especially of groups, the Celovec (Klagenfurt) Reading Club on had become affordable because of advances 30 October 1864 was attended by a member in photography. The Southern Sokol Club of the Southern Sokol Club whose uniform made use of photography for souvenirs and attracted considerable attention: They were to represent themselves, and today these all watching him in his fine uniform and photographs are first-rate documents of the many voices were heard calling for more period and primary sources for research. ‘Sokols’ to be seen in Celovec.”16 Group portraits in uniform and with the Excursions, visits to national societies and club’s flag were occasional gifts from the their events, the election of their president, Southern Sokol Club as tokens of gratitude Costa, as mayor of Ljubljana, and to deserving clubs and individuals. The promotional accounts in the press photographs clearly show the uniforms, the contributed to ideas about founding Sokol flag, and the faces of the members of the clubs or its chapters in other Slovenian Southern Sokol Club. Most of them wore places (Kranj, Vipava, Planina, and Ilirska beards, which a decade earlier symbolized Bistrica). Among the conditions the sympathy for the ideas of liberalism and the Southern Sokol Club set for the chapters March Revolution and attested to a person’s were payment of a membership fee, support for democracy. For this very equipped club premises, and orderly reason, as early as 1852 Austria’s finances. The parent club made no special conservative authorities had prohibited civil mention of the issue of uniforms in the servants from wearing facial hair below the chapters, but it was self-evident that they mouth, and according to Janez Trdina, should be standard uniforms.17 several types of hats, long hair, and At the general meeting of 29 December ‘unusual’ clothes were equally forbidden.20 1864, the gathered Sokols once more On 29 December 1866, the general addressed the issue of the uniform in item 6 meeting of the Southern Sokol Club of the agenda. After a heated debate, the unanimously adopted a proposal from meeting adopted a decision by majority ‘demonstrator’ Pavel Draksler to have vote that the čikoš as worn by the Czech winter coats made for the winter activities.21 Sokols was to replace the semi-round hat, The season of the club’s public activities whereas the rest of the uniform was to lasted from early May to late October, and remain unchanged. The board of the club the club’s leadership wanted to extend them decided on 3 February 1865 that the club to the inactive winter season. The winter

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 activities included not only an annual uniform, which had remained unresolved commemoration visit to the graves of since October 1863. The meeting deceased members and sponsors on 1 unanimously decided that the uniform was November, but also private and public to remain unchanged. Regarding the surka, events such as costume parties, New Year’s they decided in favor of the ‘Prague parties, a Valentin Vodnik memorial uniform’ with the same back stripe as worn evening, and Sokol winter evenings. The by the Czech Sokols. The new rules did not club was aware of its important role in define the uniform in detail. The only Slovenian social life, and especially in the reference to the uniform was in the winter it gladly accepted invitations to provision that the members had the right to support the activities of national (i.e., wear the Sokol uniform, but only on the Slovenian) clubs in various towns and club’s excursions and at its festivals.25 At places around Slovenia by attending them the board’s first meeting on 9 March 1868, in uniform. Until 1882 there are no reports the unsolved issue of the headwear was in the archive records on outdoor events in again tackled. Because the board could not winter coats, and one may therefore assume reach an agreement, the decision was that Draksler’s proposal was not postponed to a later occasion. To resolve implemented. When the flag of the Trieste this unpleasant issue as soon as possible, Slavic Workers’ Club was blessed on 24 Draksler, who was a member of the board, September 1882, the attending Ljubljana committed himself to having a model čikoš Sokols were so chilled by the autumn burja made and presenting it to the board at one winds that the idea of purchasing winter of the next meetings. Further discussions uniforms was revived. The board from then and quarrels were resolutely terminated by on invited its members to serenades and an intervention from President Peter parties in winter, where they gathered in Grasselli. On 15 April 1868, the board winter outfit, wearing the Sokol hat and adopted Grasselli’s proposal to have the feather.22 They also attended funerals in the same uniform as the Prague Sokol Club winter; for example, that of Štefan Kočevar with the exception of the surka. The board on February 1883, in full Sokol uniform adopted the proposal only after Grasselli with hat, feather, and winter coat.23 assured it that a surka with a chain stripe A street brawl between a group of would not increase expenses for the Sokols and German gymnasts after the Sokols.26 funeral of Henrik Germek, a member of the In 1869, initiatives to found Sokol Southern Sokol Club, on the night of 24 clubs were launched in Kranj, Postojna, July 1867 caused the provincial deputy to Cerknica, Celje, and Trieste. The initiating ban the Southern Sokols. On 20 February committees of clubs and chapters turned to 1868, around 70 former Sokols gathered in the leadership of the Ljubljana Sokol Club the club’s gymnasium with the intention of for copies of the club rules. They had founding a new gymnastics club. After a uniforms and flags made following the heated debate, the Sokols confirmed the model of the parent club. The district and existing Sokol uniform with the exception provincial authorities not only did not help of the surka, to which a stripe was added.24 them in any way, but through stalling and The founding meeting of the Ljubljana obstruction tried to make life as unpleasant Sokol Gymnastics Club was held at the as possible for the activities of the Sokol Reading Club on 28 April 1868, and once clubs. The district administration in more addressed the issue of the Sokol Postojna, for instance, rejected the application of the Sokols to attend the high mass on the emperor’s birthday in uniform

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 before the official foundation of the Sokol club the choirs borrowed the uniforms chapter.27 from. Furthermore, it is also unusual that no The Slovenians of Trieste encountered one criticized the fact that the Littoral even greater difficulties in founding their Sokols and the singers wore different gymnastics club when they announced that uniforms.29 the founding ceremony would be held on 6 The Upper Carniola Sokol Club, May 1869. The imperial deputy’s office of founded in early January 1870, chose a blue Trieste rejected the application for approval shirt for its uniform instead of a red one. of the club rules of the Southern Sokol Club The differences in uniform between the on 3 June 1869 on the grounds that the Ljubljana and Kranj Sokols were Sokol Club and its flag and uniforms were particularly obvious at their joint excursion likely to endanger public order and safety in to Sveta Katarina in mid May 1871. In his the town. The leadership’s direct complaint critical report, the new gymnastics to the Ministry of Internal Affairs in Vienna instructor of the Ljubljana Sokols, the was unsuccessful. The Trieste Sokols Czech Jan Z. Veselý, blamed the Upper wanted to model themselves after the Carniola Sokols for training only half a former Ljubljana Sokol Club by choosing year, poor administration and technical the name ‘Southern Sokol Club’. It is all the leadership, ignorance of gymnastics theory, more unusual then that they did not do so in and lack of Sokol ideas.30 The vice the case of the uniform, for which they president, Peter Grasselli, was even more chose a blue shirt instead of a red one, and detailed in his criticism at the joint party in added a red neck scarf. The archives of the Medvode on 14 May 1871, when he club offer no explanation why the Trieste expressed in his toast the wish for the Kranj Sokols did not model their uniform after the Sokols to have the same uniforms as the Ljubljana or Prague Sokols. I assume that Ljubljana Sokols as soon as possible. In the decision was based on local clothing addition to the blue shirt, the Kranj Sokols traditions. They were even less precise in also wore wide-brimmed peasant hats, to the choice of headwear, allowing gray cloth which they attached redand-blue tassels.31 hats as well as a black čikoš, to which a Grasselli publicly appealed to the Upper Sokol feather and monogram were attached. Carniola Sokols to bring the uniform in line They also wore trousers made of gray cloth with ‘the other Slavic gymnastics clubs’ and shoes (rather than boots). and wear a red shirt as the symbol of the The political rally held in Sežana on 3 liberal principles every gymnast must June 1870 was attended by numerous nurture.32 The Upper Carniola Sokols Slovenian societies as well as the ‘Littoral obstinately persisted with their own variant Sokol Club’ – that is, the Trieste Southern of Sokol uniform, undermining the unity of Sokols, which were never formally the Slovenian Sokol movement from its founded. Novice reported that the Rojan28 very beginnings. After several years of Sokol flag was worn by a Sokol in a blue obstinacy, their resistance ended when the shirt accompanied by two Sokols in red Upper Carniola Sokol Club ceased shirts as guards. The Trieste Sokols operation. In the meantime, the Ljubljana Sokol obviously occasionally wore their Sokol Club continued its efforts to standardize the uniforms at local events to enhance folk uniform and purchases of uniforms within events. The rally was attended by a choir the club and its chapters. In spring 1870, the from Tolmin, dressed for the occasion in board called upon members that intended to Sokol uniforms and red shirts. The have a new uniform made to do so before newspaper does not mention which Sokol

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 the first excursions of the year. The argument that was strongly supported by Ljubljana tailors were to make the new the club’s gymnastics instructor Jan Z. surkas and trousers from better-quality Veselý. By insisting on a standard Sokol cloth, ordered by the club from the Prague uniform, the board also fought phenomena Sokols, instead of ordinary cloth. The fabric of stratification and ‘aristocratic’ behavior was available at Anton Jentl’s shop on in the club. At the general meeting of 29 Špital Street and, according to the board, at December 1872, Fran Drenik again a favorable price. At the fourth meeting of proposed changing the uniform. His the board on 25 April 1870, Peter Grasselli contention that the uniform was the reason addressed the question how to support for poor participation in the club’s young Sokols so that they could afford the excursions was not supported by the Sokol uniform. The club had struggled with majority. Kadilnik raised the question of the the high prices of cloth and tailoring hat for practical reasons and proposed services without any success from its changing it. After a heated debate, the foundation. Young Sokols, who were general meeting adopted a Solomon-like mainly from the ranks of shop assistants decision: the proposals for changes to the and journeymen in the crafts, found it uniform were to be dealt with by the newly difficult to raise the money required for elected board. The general meeting also having a uniform made, and the meager assigned the new board the task of means of the club’s treasury could not help immediately contacting the leaderships of them. At the fifth meeting of the board on 6 the chapters and reaching an agreement ‘to July 1870, the members once more modify their uniforms so that all Slovenian discussed the headwear and adopted an Sokol clubs will wear the same uniform.’34 unusual, but unanimous decision. During The economic crisis and increased summer excursions, the Sokols were to political and police pressures exerted by the wear straw hats to better protect them from governments in Vienna from 1872 to 1882 the scorching sun. Around 50 uniformed placed heavy restrictions on the operation Sokols were to attend the rally in Vipava on of the Ljubljana Sokol Club and its 29 July 1870 wearing straw hats. However, chapters. Membership in a Sokol club or because of the poor weather they had no publicly wearing a red shirt was reason chance to see how effective the new enough to be dismissed from the civil headwear was. The rally was postponed to service. Consequently, the activities of the 14 August 1870 and was attended by club were reduced as well as its presence around 120 Sokols in uniform, from the among the public. Within a few years the parent club and the Planina, Postojna, and membership dropped by half and chapters Vipava chapters. The available sources fail stopped operating one by one. Novice to mention whether straw hats were also reported in May 1872 on the conditions in worn by the members of the Sokol the Planina Sokol chapter, where the club’s chapters.33 activities were coming to a sad end. It Dissatisfied Sokols again raised the blamed these conditions on internal issue of the uniform at the general meeting divisions and the haughtiness of its leaders, in December 1870, but the meeting voted who loved to show off in public wearing the against their proposals. The board once Sokol uniform but completely neglected more rejected proposals by frustrated gymnastics.35 members to change the uniform at its In spring 1873, the municipal meeting of 19 March 1871. Among the authorities tightened the conditions for the reasons for its decision, the board drew public operation of the Ljubljana Sokol attention to the introduction of ‘real’ Club with a provision that made it nearly democracy to the life of the club, an

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 impossible to organize excursions. (the čikoš). The board unanimously adopted Uniformed Sokols were forbidden to gather Ravnikar’s proposal for the type of hat as in large groups in the town before worn by the Zagreb Sokols, and they were excursions, and after the excursion they had ordered from the local hatter Krejči. The to disperse when returning to town. This led new hat with a feather and cockade cost 2 to a joke in Ljubljana and its environs that guldens, 45 kreuzers per piece. Thanks to was quite telling of the double standards the mediation by the Sokol member Tratnik, the authorities applied to the two gymnastics trouser belts were supplied by the belt- clubs in Ljubljana: the difference between maker Schreiner of Ljubljana. However, the Turner and the Sokols was that the this seemingly innocuous decision annoyed former did not dare visit the countryside, one of the members, T. A. Zupančič. In a and the latter were not allowed to visit it.36 letter to President Ravnikar dated 21 March After the Slovenians lost the majority in the 1881, he criticized the board for ordering provincial diet in 1877, pressures on the the hats from someone that had not even Ljubljana Sokols mounted to the been a member until recently, and of whom degree that the Sokols were forced to it was not known whether he really was a participate in the club’s excursions in Slovenian patriot. Zupančič’s ‘patriotic ordinary clothes. When the Ljubljana feelings’ were offended by the board’s Sokols organized an excursion in ordinary failure to assign the order to an older, clothes to Zalog on 15 June 1879, the local steadfast merchant, and choosing a people welcomed them enthusiastically and newcomer from abroad instead. At its demonstrated their sympathy for the meeting of 19 January 1882, the board national activists, even when they are adopted another Solomon-like decision: the dressed like gentlemen.37 Because of caps were now ordered from the craftsmen constant harassment by the authorities, the Tille and Zevnikar.39 board even considered the option that the The Ljubljana Sokols wore their old Sokols would no longer wear red shirts. On hats for the last time on Thursday, 5 May 21 September 1879, the general meeting 1881, when they gathered at the Reading chaired by the newly elected president Club in full Sokol uniform with čikoš and Franjo Ravnikar adopted the decision to no feather at 6 pm and walked to the house of longer wear red shirts. A frustrated the late Josip Jurčič, a long-time member of minority could not reconcile itself with the the club. The board had decided that it decision and appealed for the matter to be would not be appropriate to wear the new reconsidered. At the extraordinary general hats for the first time at a funeral, and meeting of 27 December 1879, the Sokols therefore called upon the members to attend unanimously agreed to continue to wear red the funeral in the old uniform.40 The shirts.38 However, the meeting’s decision in Ljubljana Sokols first wore their new hats favor of the red shirt lost much of its on Monday, 27 June 1881, at the Ljubljana importance because of the internal railway station, where they met a train with instruction that the decision was not to be 800 Slavic pilgrims traveling to Rome for made public. the declaration of the feast-day of the Slavic When the Croatian Sokols visited apostles Sts Cyril and Methodius.41 Ljubljana on 28 June 1880, the Ljubljana In 1882, the isolated Ljubljana Sokol Sokols were once more motivated to Club was joined by clubs from Trieste and address the issue of the Sokol uniform. At Mozirje, and by the end of the decade the fourth meeting of the board on 14 further Sokol clubs were founded in Novo March 1881, President Fran Ravnikar Mesto, Gorizia, and Prvačina. The proposed that they stop wearing the old hats

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Ljubljana Sokol Club helped the new clubs Sokol Club in uniform and with the club’s prepare rules and the purchase of uniforms. flag, who traveled to Prague at their own At its founding meeting in Trieste on 8 May expense. In its invitation, the organizer 1882, the Trieste Sokol Club confirmed its reminded the Slovenian Sokols not to travel uniform, which was identical to that of the to Prague in excursion clothes, high boots, Ljubljana Sokols: trousers and surka made or wide trousers, and for the gymnastics of ‘grey fabric’ or Russian cloth, and a red performance they were to wear white vests shirt worn underneath. The headwear with red trim and cloth trousers. The spirit consisted of a grey, soft, wide-brimmed felt of the Prague Sokols stimulated the hat with a falcon’s feather and monogram Slovenian Sokols to engage in renovating on a white, blue, and red silk ribbon. their club and to conform to the Czech Because of the club’s meager means, they Sokol clubs. The attitude toward the had great difficulties in purchasing the uniform was the clearest indicator of the material for the uniforms, and until fall club’s spirit. In view of what was practiced 1885 they regularly applied for financial by some Ljubljana Sokols, who did not support to the Ljubljana Sokols, and wear the Sokol symbol on their hats, their occasionally borrowed uniforms from the attitude was not really up to standard. This club.42 improper habit of some members was In spring 1882, the leadership of the discussed at the general meeting of 4 Savinja Sokol Club sent the teacher Levstik January 1884, which again tackled the issue to Ljubljana to gather detailed information of the hats and adopted the unanimous because they wanted to purchase the same stance that the members should wear the uniforms as the Ljubljana Sokols. Within Sokol symbol on their hats.44 one year, the Savinja Sokols had their own The participation of fifteen Slovenian uniforms made. They wore them at several Sokols at the Second Pan-Sokol Rally in local events and presented themselves for Prague in June 1891 turned into a landmark the first time in Ljubljana on 3 July 1883. event for the Slovenian Sokol movement The Upper Carniola and because of its long-term consequences. The Sokol clubs, founded in 1887, also chose to president of the Celje Sokol Club, Josip have the same uniforms as the Ljubljana Vrečko, wrote a letter to the board of the Sokols. Supported by the Ljubljana Sokol Ljubljana Sokols on 11 February 1892, Club, new clubs were founded in drawing their attention to the conditions in Ajdovščina and Prvačina by the end of the cradle of the Sokol movement. He 1890, and they both opted for the standard proposed joint, immediate, and resolute uniform. Both clubs had great difficulties action to standardize the uniform, Sokol because the Trieste authorities prohibited symbols and awards, gymnastics them from wearing the Sokol uniforms in instructions, and greetings in the Slovenian public. The Gorizia club therefore soon Sokol clubs; in short, to eliminate all stopped its operation, while the Sokols of deviations in the Slovenian Sokol clubs. Prvačina survived thanks to their well- Vrečko proposed an organizational and equipped gymnasium.43 general standardization of the Slovenian For the celebration of the twentieth Sokol clubs and called upon the leadership anniversary of the foundation of the Prague of the Ljubljana Sokols to head this very Sokol Club, the Czech Sokols organized a demanding project. The board of the Pan-Sokol rally on 18 June 1882, the first Ljubljana Sokol Club welcomed the big international event of the Sokol initiative of the Celje Sokols on 26 March movement. The festival was attended by a 1892 and proposed that the gymnastics fivemember delegation from the Ljubljana teacher Franjo Mulaček and the secretary of the Celje Sokols, Dragotin Treo, prepare a

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 reform plan drawing on the Czech model. uniform to cool down the heated For the uniform, the two proposed a cap discussions. The leaders of the other Sokol with a Slovenian rosette and short falcon’s clubs were equally challenged to solve the feathers, a surka with laces, a red shirt issue of the standard uniform as soon as made of ‘rouge’ cloth, and red buttons on possible because the season of excursions the collar and cuffs. The presidents and and public gymnastics performances started their deputies were to wear a tricolor in May.46 embroidery above the elbow around the left On its thirtieth anniversary, the sleeve, the leaders a wide white sash, and Ljubljana Sokol Club organized a meeting the demonstrators a blue sash, both falling of all Slovenian Sokol clubs, at which it almost to the knees. The leadership of the wanted to lay the foundations for Ljubljana Sokols agreed with the proposal standardizing the Sokol clubs. In a letter to and decided to replace the hats with Czech the organizing committee, dated 19 April caps of the finest quality with a tricolor 1893, Josip Vrečko proposed the themes for cockade, the Sokol monogram, and a short the meeting and especially pointed out the feather, and the trousers with trousers with issue of a standard Sokol uniform. He spats of the same colors. Another proposal continued by proposing standardization of that was adopted provided for the gymnastics terminology, the foundation standardization of the fabric for the of a union of Sokol Clubs and the uniforms and shirts, a standard surka, and elaboration of standard instructions for good-quality, standard laces. A further issue founding new clubs. At the meeting of the addressed were the winter coats, and it was delegates of the Slovenian Sokol clubs, held decided that the existing ones could be used at the Ljubljana Town Hall on 8 July 1893, until further notice. These changes to the the president of the Lower Carniola Sokol Sokol uniform came into force on 1 May Club, Franjo Rosin, proposed the 1892. A three-member commission was to introduction of a standard uniform and the supervise the implementation of the organization of a thereby lower purchase decisions and ensure that the Sokols wore cost of fabric for the uniforms, and the the prescribed uniform. The Ljubljana future union was to ensure standard Sokols sent the decisions of its board to all uniforms and fabrics. A special committee other Slovenian Sokol clubs and called consisting of members of the Ljubljana upon their support in these efforts as soon Sokols was made responsible for as possible.45 implementing the decisions adopted. Franjo The costs of standardizing the Sokol Mulaček described the development of the uniform, which was itself quite expensive, Sokol uniform in Slovenia, with special met with opposition in all the clubs. The emphasis on the headwear, in an extensive leadership of the Celje Sokols attempted to speech.47 He then continued to denounce tacitly implement the standardization but both clubs as well as individuals whose aim failed because the paper Slovenski Narod was to dress up in clothes that fit the human prematurely published the proposed body tighter than working clothes and standard uniform. In mid May 1892, a please the female sex, and resolutely genuine revolt broke out at the Celje Sokol condemned the common conviction that Club. The final straw was the proposal on membership in a Sokol club gave people the standard spats, and frustrated members demanded an extraordinary general meeting. The secretary of the Ljubljana Sokols, Fran Tekavčič, advised the leadership of the Celje Sokol Club to temporarily postpone the reform of the

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 right to show themselves off as wild and festivals, club excursions, and celebrations uncouth while wearing the Sokol uniform.48 where they have the chance to show off The election of Viktor Murnik49 (1874- their uniform but, once they owe several 1964) as secretary on 5 January 1896 installments on their uniform, they write started a reform period in the Ljubljana that they are leaving the club (Orožen Sokol Club that was marked by the 1940). In addition to internal difficulties, introduction of the Tyrš gymnastics system, the Celje Sokol Club had constant problems standardization of Slovenian gymnastics with the municipal authorities, which did terminology and the Sokol uniform, the not allow it to organize public parades in organization of courses and lectures, and club uniform. The Celje municipal authorities consistently rejected the the translation of basic specialist literature. applications of the Sokol Club with the Following the Czech example, Murnik excuse that the appearance of Sokols in founded a board of instructors that soon uniform would only worsen the already became the core of the club’s activities. For heated ethnic tensions in the town, adding public gymnastics performances he selected that uniformed Sokols behaved only well-prepared gymnasts because this provocatively. It took until the funeral of was the only way to promote Sokol Hinko Šuklje (Hinko Šuklje was born in gymnastics. He sent out well-trained Brestanica on 10 July 1866. After studying instructors of gymnastics to assist other medicine in Graz, he found a position in Sokol clubs, and invited gymnasts from Ljubljana. Invited by national activists of other clubs to the gymnasium of the Celje, he moved to the town in 1893 and Ljubljana Sokol Club for additional specialized in gynecology. Šuklje was a training. The reform period concluded with member of the Celje Sokols and a member the Second Slovenian Pan-Sokol Rally in of its board. He founded and directed the Ljubljana in June 1904. The foundation of Sokol tamburice-playing club. He died in the Slovenian Sokol Union (SSU) on 1 Zadar, where he was being treated for October 1905 and the establishment of the tuberculosis, on 29 March 1903. He was organizational structure into districts (Sln. buried in Žalec. (Slovenski biografski župa) in 1909 and 1910 successfully ended leksikon, 3, Ljubljana 1960–1971, 718– 719)) for the Celje Sokols to first march in the structural reorganization, which then led uniform and carry the club flag in the to an exceptional expansion of the streets of Celje. The municipal authorities Slovenian Sokol movement. of Celje initially banned the funeral Towards the end of the century, Sokol procession of the Sokols, but then gave in to clubs in small towns and market towns still public pressure, including from the faced difficulties in purchasing Sokol , and for the first and last time (in uniforms. The secretary of the Celje Sokol the Austro-Hungarian monarchy) allowed Club, Franjo Jošt, complained at the general the Sokols to march in the town’s streets. meeting in 1898 that the club was joined by As reported by the club’s secretary, gentlemen that were interested merely in Ljudevit Stiker, the Germans of Celje50 were particularly annoyed by the red shirts and he ironically added that they will have to get used to them, like it or not.53 An anonymous group of members of the Ljubljana Sokol Club wrote a letter to the board in late 1903, pointing out that

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 many young gymnasts could not afford the and that only members that regularly Sokol uniform. They proposed introducing participated in the training sessions would what was practiced by the Ljubljana be allowed to participate in the ceremonial Turnverein, which solved the purchase of procession. The organizers required all club uniforms for poor new members with Slovenian participants to wear standard favorable loans. They also sharply uniforms, and all the gymnasts to be condemned the motto All you need are a dressed in standard gymnastics uniforms. red shirt and cap, and you’re a Sokol! They called upon the uniformed Sokols to which at the time circulated among the properly conduct themselves, not to add any members, as well as among the public. The trivial pendants to their uniforms, and to group demanded that an extraordinary wear a Sokol cap with a feather, cockade, meeting be called immediately to establish and monogram. The Sokol gymnasts wore a the healthy foundations for the club. In his white singlet with narrow red trim, and a answer to the anonymous letter, Murnik ribbon with the name of their club attached expressed his regret that many young to the center of the chest. They were to Sokols could not perform in public because wear dark blue cotton jersey trousers with a they had no Sokol uniform. He also 3-cm-wide sewn-on blue-and-white belt, regretted that the poor financial situation of and underneath the trousers the organizers the club made it impossible to support recommended blue ‘swimming trunks.’ The young members with favorable internal footwear consisted of black heelless shoes loans to buy a Sokol uniform.51 or black gym shoes with stockings the same The Second Slovenian Pan-Sokol Rally color as the trousers. The organizers further was held in Ljubljana on 16–18 July 1904, recommended that the participants that and together with a ceremonial meeting and intended to participate in the competitions public performance, the rally concluded the and public gymnastics performances bring reform of the Slovenian Sokol movement. two or three gymnastics shirts. The leader Following a proposal by the Ljubljana of the public gymnastics performance was Sokol Club, the other Slovenian Sokol clubs to wear a short white sash around his waist, started to standardize the Sokol uniform in and the leaders of the two gathering places 1903, not only in cut but also in fabric. The a short blue sash.53 The Pan-Sokol Rally Sokols replaced the winter coats with capes was a good opportunity for the leaders of and in addition to laced shoes, boots were the Sokol clubs to verify how the decisions also allowed for the sake of the Mura Sokol on the standard Sokol uniform were Club from Ljutomer. The Mura Sokol Club, implemented. Murnik was satisfied with the founded in 1903, had chosen the Czech degree of standardization of the Sokol ceremonial uniform including boots at the uniform as well as with the organization of initiative of the immigrant Czech physician the Sokol rally. Karel Chloupek; because changing the The foundation of the Slovenian Sokol uniform would be too heavy a financial Union (SSU) on 1 October 1905, which burden for the club and it members, they included twelve clubs with over 2,000 remained with their first choice.52 members, laid the foundations for a uniform At the invitation of the board of organizational structure of the Slovenian instructors of the Ljubljana Sokol Club, the Sokols. The union implemented its program leaders of the Slovenian Sokol clubs by introducing a standard training program gathered in Ljubljana in March 1904. They and methods, organizing meetings, public decided that the freestyle exercises at and competition performances, celebrations performances were to be performed in and excursions, and lectures, publishing gymnastics uniforms, not Sokol uniforms, books, and other activities. Before the union was founded, the Ljubljana Sokol Club had

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 supervised the standard uniform of the While the house rules laid down the Slovenian Sokol clubs, and was then conditions for activities in the club’s replaced by the board of instructors of the premises and gymnasium, the public rules SSU, which through the monthly journal dealt with the conduct of Sokol gymnasts at Slovenski Sokol laid down the standards and public performances, where the Sokol clubs instructions for the clubs. The union’s board appeared in a special, standard uniform and approved the existing Sokol uniform on 8 under the club’s flag. The instructions laid December 1905, including the trousers, down the following symbols to be used with which remained long, but without spats or the Sokol uniform: a falcon’s feather with boots. The leadership of the union from cockade and monogram, a ribbon with the then on supplied the fabric for the Sokol name of the club’s headquarters on the left uniforms and capes and made sure that the side of the chest, and the Sokol monogram fabric was always of the same quality and on the belt. According to the rules of the color.54 union, every member was individually The board of the SSU adopted house responsible for wearing the standard Sokol rules and excursion rules on 8 December uniform and gymnastics uniform at public 1905, provisions concerning public performances. The members were allowed performances, and a report on the Sokol to wear the Sokol uniform and symbols in uniform, symbols, and gymnastics uniform. public only with the permission of the The union’s rules came into force for all the club’s board. Violation of this rule was member clubs of the union from the day sanctioned with expulsion from the club. they were published in Slovenski Sokol; Changing into the Sokol uniform in they included house rules and excursion advance before public performances was rules, an example of club rules, and prohibited, and after the performance the provisions on the Sokol uniform and Sokols were obliged to go home symbols. Article 3 of the house rules immediately and change into ordinary obliged the boards of the clubs to instruct clothes.56 their members on the club rules, the house, The excursion rules stipulated that only public, and excursion rules, and the rules members wearing the mandatory full and decisions of the union. Club members uniform were allowed to take part in club were entitled to a space in the dressing excursions, delegations, and public events. room to change clothes and keep their Uniformed members of other Sokol clubs gymnastics uniforms. The gymnasts were were allowed to participate in club responsible for maintaining and cleaning excursions if they had the permission of their gymnastics uniforms. Barefoot their club’s leader and if the guide accepted gymnasts and gymnasts wearing ordinary them. Excursionists that were included in shoes were not admitted into the the marching ranks were forbidden to carry gymnasium. Members were allowed to walking sticks or umbrellas. Anyone that exercise stripped to the waist only in the left the ranks during an excursion was gymnasium, not outdoors. When they obliged to first remove the Sokol symbols. practiced fencing they had to be adequately The instructions also defined the salutes and protected, replace damaged equipment, and conduct of the Sokols at funerals of repair damage. After the training sessions, deserving members, which the Sokol clubs the gymnasts had to keep their uniforms in occasionally attended in ordinary clothes. the prescribed places in the dressing room. When it fully participated, the club marched The members were also responsible for with its flag wrapped in black cloth ahead personal hygiene and the cleanliness of the of the coffin, while club delegations common spaces.55 marched behind the coffin. During the ceremony in church and the funeral

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 procession, the Sokols took off their caps to the board of the club in question. The on command. The board of the SSU leader of the inspected club had the right to adopted further instructions on the symbols appeal to the union’s board of instructors if to be worn by Sokol officials. These he considered the report biased. This abolished the obligation of the presidents inspection system was primarily aimed at and vice-presidents to wear tricolor bands ensuring a higher degree ‘of uniformity and on the sleeves, as well as the sashes of the training in the clubs.’59 leaders and deputy leaders. The new The SSU’s instructions to the provisions stipulated that the presidents, Slovenian participants at the First Croatian vice-presidents, or their deputies should PanSokol Rally, held in Zagreb on 2–3 wear a tricolor across the right shoulder of September 1906, stipulated in detail the use the surka, and the leaders and instructors a of the standard Sokol and gymnastics light blue badge. In addition to the badge, uniforms. The club leaders were responsible the leaders wore a small horn, and the flag for the implementation of the instructions, bearers a red badge on the right shoulder. including the standard Sokol and The president of the union or his deputy gymnastics uniforms. The first section of wore a tricolor sash from right shoulder to the instructions dealt with transporting and left hip at the performances of the union, storing the Sokol and gymnastics uniforms. and on other occasions a light blue sash.57 The organizers reminded the members in The Slovenian Sokol Union published uniform to attach a slip of paper with their an example of club rules in Slovenski Sokol. name and the name of their club to the In the section dealing with the rights and bottom of their caps, and to mark all obligations of the members, Article 8 individual parts of their uniforms to keep stipulated the right to wear the Sokol them from getting mixed up. The uniform in accordance with the provisions participants were called upon to inspect and of the board. Article 31 stated the right of clean their Sokol and gymnastics uniforms the members to wear the special Sokol before departure. The instructions further uniform and symbols at public described in detail the mandatory Sokol performances with the permission of the uniform. The Slovenian Sokols wore caps board.58 A union supervisor oversaw the with a five-cm black trim. A tricolor implementation of the rules and decisions cockade with the Sokol monogram and of the boards. Until the presidency of SSU feather was affixed to the cap above the left adopted its rules of procedure, which eye. The falcon’s feather with a maximum defined the authorities of the union length of sixteen cm was attached below the supervisors, the clubs were supervised only cockade and at an angel of thirty-six in the technical sense of instruction and degrees. The trousers and surka were made advice. The union’s board of instructors of grey cotton cloth. The front of the surka adopted the rules of procedure for the had thirteen sewn-on buttons with union’s supervisors on 3 June 1906. The buttonholes, and the sleeves four buttons rules of procedure obliged the union with buttonholes. A narrow seven-cm stripe supervisors to inspect the conditions in the with a tricolor top edge was sewn on to the clubs twice a year, or at least once and then left side of the surka and featured the name before a major public performance. of the club’s seat. The trousers had hooks Normally, the clubs were advised in for the black lacquered belt with the round advance of the inspection by the union Sokol monogram made of white metal. The supervisor. The supervisor wrote a report on instructions further specified that the the inspection and sent it to the union’s monogram had to be kept in the proper board of instructors, which then sent a copy position. The red cloth shirt with red bone buttons had an ordinary cut without

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 unnecessary folds or embroidered instructions advised the participants in the ornaments. Silk shirts were strictly rally not to wear rings, watch chains, forbidden. The Sokols wore ordinary black bracelets, or any other jewelry. In spite of shoes and a knee-length coat. Lacquered or the provision that the participants were to yellow shoes were forbidden. The president travel to Prague in ordinary clothes, some of the union wore a tricolor sash, and its of them ignored this. The union’s board of leader a light blue sash and a small horn. instructors considered this a violation of The new instructions stipulated that, instead discipline and again warned the members to of the previous white sashes worn around conduct themselves in exemplary fashion in the waist, the club presidents and vice- public.62 presidents had to wear a tricolor badge on In 1910, the Celje Sokol Club the right shoulder, and the leaders and celebrated the twentieth anniversary of its instructors a light blue badge. The flag foundation and invited the other Sokol bearers wore a red badge on the right clubs to the opening of the club’s shoulder and white gloves with wide cuffs. gymnasium in Gabrje. The SSU published a Members were forbidden to wear any other detailed program of the rally and stipulated symbols.60 the same Sokol and gymnastics uniforms as In early 1907 the presidency of the for the Prague rally in 1908. Because of the union entrusted the supply of Sokol fabric new organization into districts, new to the Češnik & Milavec company in symbols were added for their presidents and Ljubljana and informed all Slovenian Sokol vicepresidents: like the club presidents and clubs and individuals to order fabric for vice-presidents, they were to wear tricolor their uniforms from this company in order badges on the right shoulder. The union to gradually achieve identical colors in the drew special attention to the cleanliness of uniforms of individual clubs. The board of the Sokol and gymnastics uniforms. It the union authorized the ‘brothers’ advised the participants in the rally to take a (members) Kostevc and Miklavec on 21 towel, soap, toothbrush, and comb with July 1907 to supply the Sokol clubs with them for personal hygiene. The municipal cloth in accordance with the union’s authorities of Celje tried to prevent the instructions.61 ceremony with a decree, forbidding public Over 300 Slovenian Sokols in uniform wearing of national symbols and Sokol participated in the Fifth Pan-Sokol Rally in uniforms, as well as gatherings of more Prague from 28 June to 1 July 1907. The than five persons in the town’s streets union published instructions on the during the rally. Due to this decree, the mandatory Sokol and gymnastics uniforms Sokols reduced the ceremony from the in Slovenski Sokol. These instructions planned two days to one day, and the event differed only in details from the instructions was held in the environs of the town, where for the First Croatian Pan-Sokol Rally in the Sokols were allowed to perform in Zagreb in 1906. The Sokol cap now had a uniform.63 six-cm-wide black trim instead of five cm. Concerning the shirts, the instructions drew particular attention to the mandatory light- red shade. The instructions for the gymnastics uniform only had a note on the trousers: the gymnasts were to fix them under their shoes with an elastic band. The trousers were drawn over the shoes and fixed under them with these bands. The

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Figure 1. Demonstrators of the Južni Sokol: Koblar, Vidic, Mandič, Coloreto and Draksler, 1864.

Figure 2. Ljubljanski Sokol members, 1867.

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Figure 3. Members of Ljubljana Sokol: Paternoster, Steinmety, Fr. Drenik, Nolli in Varaždin 1874.

Figure 4. Members of Ljubljana Sokol: Žitnik, Legat, Bernard, Nolli in Geba in Prague in 1881.

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Figure 5. Ljubljana Sokol President in 1894.

Figure 6. The first board of instructors of Ljubljana Sokol: Smrtnik, Petrik, Murnik, Škof in Vernik in 1896.

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Figure 7. Slovenia Sokol delegation in Prague in 1901.

Figure 8. Slovene Sokol gymnasts in Luxemburg in 1909 (Fuchs, Thaler, Pristov, Murnik Perdan, Rabič, Vidmar).

Figure 9. Portrait of Graz Sokol Club in 1914.

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Figure 10. Sokol cap »čikoš«.

Figure 11. Uniform of a memebr of the Ljubljana Sokol »surka«.

In January 1911, the SSU cloth for the Sokol uniforms and recommended that clubs and individuals recommended it to the Slovenian Sokols. order belts with the Sokol monogram from Due to numerous incidents and complaints the Anton Škof Company in Ljubljana. from the (Catholic) Orel Gymnastics Clubs, According to the union, these monograms the union forbade the Sokols wearing the were not only cheaper but also more Sokol uniform at public masked balls and attractive than the previous ones. The price dances with an exclusively entertainment of a belt with monogram was 2 crowns, 30 program. The presidency of a district had hellers. The union confirmed the Jesih & the right to allow exceptions to this rule in Windischer company as the supplier of view of the local conditions. The SSU also

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 published a memorandum of the Czech name, and the cloakroom mark. They Sokol Union in Slovenski Sokol, which attached one such slip to their gymnastics instructed the members not to wear Sokol uniform and another to the bottom of their symbols on the street and at political events, cap. The individual clubs packed the bags during demonstrations, or for pre-election or bundles with the gymnastics uniforms in events. The members were called upon to a common bag on which they wrote the take care where and when to wear their name and address of the club. This luggage uniform so as not to disgrace it.67 was then distributed to the proper addresses At the opening of a Sokol center in by the organizers, and on the day of the Domžale on 6 August 1911, the Ljubljana competition they were delivered to the Sokol District organized an excursion, dressing room.65 inviting the Celje and Upper Carniola At the meeting of the union’s board on districts and the Ljubljana First District to 19 January 1913, its secretary drew join in. It published instructions regarding attention to the Sokol bags, which the the Sokol and gymnastics uniforms and members lacked during club excursions. symbols in Slovenski Sokol. The club Such a bag cost between 240 and 250 leaders were responsible for checking the crowns.66 On 23 February 1913, the union’s gymnastics uniforms of the participants, board of instructors determined that the paying particular attention to cleanliness. Sokol gymnastics uniform should include a The leaders were particularly notified of the belt in the colors of the Slovenian flag and ban on silk shirts and the mandatory black instructed the union’s technical section to heelless shoes. The instructions submit its proposal for a ‘tasteful recommended that the gymnasts take with composition of the colors’ by the next them two gymnastics shirts. The gymnasts meeting.67 On the fiftieth anniversary of the bound their uniforms into a bundle or put foundation of the Ljubljana Sokol Club, the them in a bag, attached their names and the union wanted to organize the Third name of the district and club to it, and Slovenian Pan-Sokol Rally, but the handed them over to be put in the club’s provincial government banned the event on bags. For personal hygiene they were to add 13 March 1913. The Ljubljana Sokol Club a towel, soap, brush, comb, etc. After then combined the banned event with the performing they were to go straight to the rally of the union and districts on 10 August dressing room and change clothes.64 1913 in . For this rally, the Similar instructions were issued by the union’s instructions did not differ from the union to the participants of the Second previous ones. The union’s leadership drew Croatian Pan-Sokol Rally in Zagreb on 13– special attention to proper conduct during 15 August 1911. The uniformed the trip, at the railway stations, and, of participants wore the rally badges on the course, at the rally itself.68 left side of the chest as identification marks. The Sokol Union planned to organize On the evening of 12 August 1911, the the Third Slovenian Pan-Sokol Rally in Slovenian Sokols got off the train at the Ljubljana on 15–17 August 1914, but the Zagreb Railway Station with ‘hanging outbreak of the First World War prevented surkas’ (carrying them over their the event. In its invitation to the members, shoulders). Every participant in the rally the union appealed to them to participate, if was to write his name, his municipality, the possible, in a new gymnastics uniform. It name of his district, and his address during called upon the gymnasts to pay particular the rally on a visible place on his luggage. attention to the cleanliness of their uniforms The gymnasts wrapped their uniforms in so as not be subject to criticism or ridicule. paper or kept them in a bag, equipped with a slip of paper with their name, the club’s

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Every gymnast was to bring the required was recommended that participants number of shirts. The red trim of the shirt intending to stay in Ljubljana for several was not to be faded, and its white body was days bring ordinary clothes to change into not to show washing spots. The same was immediately after the rally. Participants that expected of the gymnastics trousers, which intended to take part in excursions during were not to be faded or washed out, but the rally were asked to do so in ordinary dark blue. Every Sokol was to buy a new clothes. Finally, the SSU told the trouser belt for this occasion and elastic participants not to wear trivial objects, bands for fixing the trousers to the shoes. valuable objects, rings, bracelets, or The gymnastics vest was to be ‘tight- pendants. The club officials were fitting,’ not too large or too small. The responsible for gathering the Sokols in trousers should not be too tight or taut at the advance of their departure for the rally and waist. The gymnasts were to wear black informing them in detail about the heelless shoes and black stockings. The importance of the rally, the preparations for organizers advised all gymnasts to add it, their conduct in uniform, rights and accessories for personal hygiene to the obligations, the program of the event, and, bundle with their gymnastics uniform: soap, last but not least, all special and individual a towel, and a comb.69 instructions from the organizer. The The organizer called on the Slovenian organizer explicitly advised the participants Sokols to ensure, in a timely fashion, that of the rally not to take wine with them on they had the required Sokol uniform and the trip and not to ‘storm’ station bars pointed out the importance of the Sokols’ during the trip.70 appearance. The participants in uniform Uniformed Sokols, organized as a were urged to remember that they were paramilitary organization, were especially members of the great Sokol family, which admired and respected by the young. Young depended on them in every way, and that men joined the Sokols primarily to socialize they were therefore responsible for raising and train in gymnastics, whereas others the family’s reputation through their acts. were attracted to the clubs by the uniforms, They should therefore behave smartly and which raised their self-confidence and made proudly, like soldiers before their general. them feel proud. A Czech Sokol gymnast Their uniform should be tight-fitting, the wrote in his memoirs that one of his reasons cap straight on the head, the short feather at for joining the Sokols was the uniform. an angle of 45 degrees, the stripes not Describing a Sokol procession he witnessed faded, the surka and trousers ironed, the as a child, he wrote: Up front was a giant shoes clean and black, the hair short, and leader, his head high and his eyes darting the beard shaven or trimmed. It was around daringly, almost wildly. This man forbidden to wear any other symbols and embodied a spirit of invincibility. Behind pendants on the uniform, including flowers. him was a short fellow with catlike The organizer called the Sokols to unity: movements – another famous Sokol who We share the same wish to perform, so let drew no less attention, and there were us have the same appearance and not put several others. The whole gave the anything on our uniforms that others do not impression of frightfully resolute people. have! This was followed by the usual My respect and admiration for these men recommendation to take along everything was endless. Their shining red shirts, wide necessary for washing, shaving, and belts with the monogram, pointed feathers, cleaning one’s uniform. The union muscular legs in high boots, swollen chests, recommended that the Sokols from distant all this was new and moving to me; it places travel in ordinary clothes in order to seemed to me that the ideal of a man’s keep their uniforms clean during the trip. It

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85 power was to be found nowhere else than foundation onward acted as Pan-Slovenian among the Sokols.71 organizations. In their initial period of The public performances in uniform of operation they used every opportunity for the Slovenian Sokol gymnasts played an self-promotion and in every possible way important role in strengthening Slovenian attempted to show themselves the better of national consciousness, promoted Slovenian their competitors in gymnastics and their identity, and made an important ethnic German competitors. The provincial contribution to the development of the government in Ljubljana and its German Slovenian national movement. The Sokol majority were largely opposed to the uniform, worn proudly by the Sokols, had a Slovenian gymnastics clubs. They blamed very significant role in these developments. the Sokol clubs for encouraging ethnic The activities of the Sokol clubs were intolerance with their excursions in closely connected with their performances uniform. in public, and the care dedicated to the In principle, practicing gymnastics was Sokol uniform – first to the ceremonial one, the first objective of the Slovenian and later also to the gymnastics uniform – gymnasts, followed in second place by was a principal factor of club identity. By various forms of social ‘entertainment,’ marching under the Sokol flag, the where they could demonstrate dignity, good companies popularized the club’s activities manners, and moderation. At social events in the towns and villages. Club excursions the Sokols had to take care not to tarnish the and public gymnastics performances turned organization’s reputation with lax behavior. into triumphal events of Slovenian national The democratic nature of the organization consciousness, and participation in Sokol and the equality of its members were events as indisputable evidence of a expressed by the standard uniform as an progressive stance and national essential element of the Sokol spirit, and of consciousness, making the Sokol uniform a the vision of achieving the Sokol ideal in status symbol of every nationally conscious the near future. The equality in uniform was Slovenian. The Slovenian public keenly certainly one of the most important registered when and where a uniformed elements of Sokol ideology, but it took a Sokol company marched. Along the road very long time to catch on in the real world. taken by the company, maypoles were The extraordinary general meeting of the erected, the arrival of the Sokols was Ljubljana Sokol Club on 18 November greeted with brass bands and singing, 1888 finally adopted the provision that the church-bell ringing, and mortar salutes, and members had to address one another as when they returned in the evening lights ‘brothers’ and be on first-name terms when were placed in the windows. in uniform, and thus started introducing genuine democratic relations into the CONCLUSION organization. By the end of the century, the Sokols normally were on first-name terms The public appearances of Sokol at the organization’s premises or when in companies in uniform at first awakened and uniform, and addressed one another as later strengthened Slovenian national ‘brothers’ – and later, following the consciousness and united the Slovenians in introduction of female sections, as ‘sisters’. Carniola and later across all Slovenian Outside the clubs, formal forms of address ethnic territory. These liberally oriented were used in accordance with the period gymnastics clubs of the Slovenian and its etiquette. bourgeoisie were the first to overcome the prevailing provincial mentality with their public activities in uniform, and from their

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Podpečnik J. ALL YOU NEED IS A RED SHIRT AND CAP; AND YOU ARE SOKOL Vol. 6 Issue 3: 61 - 85

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Corresponding author:

Jože Podpečnik Narodni muzej Slovenije Prešernova 20 1000 Ljubljana E-mail: [email protected]

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