UNIVERSITY OF Hl".wAI'1 LIBRARY MARSHALLESE NAVIGATION AND VOYAGING: RE-LEARNING AND REVIVING INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE OF THE OCEAN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DMSION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAW AI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANTHROPOLOGY MAY 2008 By Joseph Howard Genz Dissertation Committee: Ben Finney, Chairperson Geoffi"ey White Nina Etkin David Hanlon Mark Merrifield We certify that we have read this dissertation and that, in our opinion, it is satisfactory in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairperson ii © Copyright (2008) By Joseph H. Genz iii DEDICATION Na Ii aje bok in ilo ememej Kilon Takiah im Alton AlbiolJS, /aJlap ro jema im rejiton boro ippa, riikake ro im ewor kea ippaer. I dedicate the dissertation to the memory ofKiIon Takiah and Alton Albious, my adopted Marshallese fathers who were also my thoughtful teachers and caring friends. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The dissertation is part of a collaborative project among University of Haw ai' i­ Manoa (UHM) anthropologists and oceanographers and Marshallese canoe builders, sailors and navigators. 1 would like to first acknowledge Captain Korent Joel, as the entire project centered on his efforts to re-learn and revive navigation and voyaging. Captain Korent had the audacity to envision Marshallese mariners once again sailing their traditional outrigger voyaging canoes and navigating with their indigenous knowledge of the ocean. The initiation of this cultural revitalization required Captain Korent's technical navigational knowledge, considerable sea experience, respected reputation within the maritime community, and motivation to re-learn navigation from his elders. These few remaining stewards of navigational knowledge shared their precious knowledge for the benefit of future generations. They were, in order of their participation, lsao Eknilang, Alton Albious (deceased), Anno Aisaia, Willie Mwekto, Francis Livai, Thomas Bokin, Lijohn Eknllang and Mejon River. 1 am grateful to Iroij/ap/ap (high chief) lmata Kabua. Iroij (chief) Mike Kabua and the Council of Iroij for granting these cultural experts permission to share their knowledge. The local canoe building revival project Waan Ae/oii in Maje/ (WAM; Canoes of the Marshall Islands) played a fundamental role in making Captain Korent's vision a reality. 1 want to thank Dennis Alessio and Alson Kelen for inviting Ben Finney and me to assist in their navigation and voyaging revitalization project, and for their support and encouragement. Dennis introduced me to his adopted Marshallese father, master canoe builder Kilon Takiah, who then became my Marshallese father, teacher and friend. Alson v worked as my local counterpart, helping me to understand local knowledge protocols, gain permission to conduct research, establish rapport with the consultants, transcribe and translate the Marshallese language, and organize the research. I am also indebted to JiII Luciano and Rachel MiIler for their assistance in managing the various grants. WAM also provided my wife and I the most idyllic bungalow on Majuro. I would like to thank the entire WAM family of administrators, trainers and trainees for their kindness, support and friendship. Learning the Marshallese language was essential for my research. I would like to thank UHM linguist Byron Bender for his patience in working with me for several years in Hawai'i prior to my fieldwork. I am also grateful for Lagi John's intensive language lessons in Wahiawa and Monica LaBriola's patience during our weekly language lessons at UHM. With the help of my host family on the atoll of Ailuk, I worked through Peter Rudiak-Gould's Practical MarshoJlese several times, which vastly improved my ability to speak and understand the Marshallese language. I would also like to thank Alfred Capelle for translating the Protection of Human Subjects form and Tom Lundstrom at the College ofthe Marshall Islands for providing me with a template of the Marshallese font /kii1JlOO1'l karprpoolol ri-Ailuk ro kiin aer kar karuwaineneik eo nan iineo iineer im ikii1JlOO1'l karprpoolol baarple eo aO kiin aer karuwaineneik eo nan TflWeo iTflWeer, kiijparok eo im kotakin eo kajin rpqjeJ im rpanit in rpajeJ. I would like to thank the people of Ailuk for welcoming me to their atoll. I would also like to thank my host family for inviting me to their home, taking care of me, teaching me the Marshallese language and introducing me to the Marshallese culture. I am forever indebted to my host father Kilon Takiah and his family for their endless patience, kindness and love. Kilon shared with me his vi family's treasured stories and legends, as well as his knowledge of canoe building and sailing. His family - Kanji, Alimi, Russell, Kajima, Kwatma, Tembo, Tem, Bejun, Rosinda, Panto and Jennifer - welcomed me as one of their own. The members of my committee have been instrumental in helping me develop, implement and write about this research project. The idea of combining voyaging research with cultural revival as a dissertation project came from Ben Finney. As my mentor, Ben has guided me through my graduate studies. I feel honored that he has invited me many times to his home to discuss my progress and has shared his office with me so that I could write the dissertation. Ben also visited me for a month in the Marshall Islands when I faced difficulties in initiating the voyaging project. I am very grateful for his unwavering support and helpful insights during this challenging, complicated and interesting project. In several ways, Geoffrey White has been a second advisor to me. Geoff motivated me to explore the cognitive dimensions of navigation and to develop a strong research design. Geoff took the time to read numerous drafts of my research proposals and the dissertation. Although I often entered Geoff's office frustrated and uncertain. I always left with a renewed sense of purpose and restored confidence. When Ben and I began searching for oceanographers interested in investigating the physical basis of wave patterns in Marshallese navigation, Mark Merrifield's enthusiasm immediately captured our attention. Mark has provided a depth of oceanographic knowledge to the problem of navigation, while contributing to every aspect ofthe research, including grant writing and obtaining funds, conducting fieldwork, and providing support for conferences. During one particularly memorable day of gathering wave information near the end of my fieldwork, I returned home with a lack of data due vii to faulty equipment. Distressed, with only a few weeks of fieldwork left, I called Mark in Hawai'i. His reassurance on the phone to commit additional equipment and personnel on a moment's notice exemplified his commitment to the project. The finaI version of the dissertation is strongly influenced by Nina Etkin and David Hanlon. Nina challenged me to make the dissertation more rigorous by explaining my theoretical framework and articulating the research design. The dissertation also reflects my growing sensitivity to issues of representation, reflexivity and historical expression. I am grateful to David Hanlon for engaging me in these and other ideas during his extremely memorable classes on ethnographic history and history in Micronesia. I would like to acknowledge Russell Bernard, Jeffiey Johnson and Susan Weller of the National Science Foundation Summer Institute for Research Design in Cultural Anthropology for their assistance in developing a strong research design. Their insightful comments on my research proposal led to financial support from several funding agencies. This paper is funded in part by a grant/cooperative agreement from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Project #RlEP-27, which is sponsored by the University ofHawai'i Sea Grant College Program, SOEST, under Institutional Grant No. NA050AR4l71 048 from NOAA Office of Sea Grant, Department of Commerce. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views ofNOAA or any of its subagencies. UNIHI­ SEAGRANT-XD-06-01. This project is also funded in part by a Dissertation Improvement Grant (No. 514594) from the National Science Foundation, an Individual Research Grant (No. 7282) from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Inc., and a grant from Mobil Oil Micronesia. viii The project also benefited from the generosity of several Marshallese organizations and individuals. The Rongelap Atoll Local Government provided accommodations on Rongelap. The Bikini Atoll Local Government and the Marshall Islands Marine Resource Authority donated the use of several motorboats to conduct oceanographic wave studies. The Marshall Islands Fisheries and Nautical Training Center provided a classroom for daily instruction with the consultants. The Marshall Islands Environmental Protection Agency shared several satellite images. The Alele Museum made available an audio and video archive oflegends and stories. In particular, I would like to thank James Matayoshi, Eldon Note, Joel Clinton, Caleb McClennan, Clary Makroro and Terry Mote for their support and assistance. I would also like to thank Richard and Chris Barrie aboard Windswept and Eric Nystrom and Priam Kanealii aboard Mali for the generous use of their vessels. Without their assistance, the project would have lacked a practical sea component. I would further like to thank Christian Lehman for arranging my visit to Namu. I would like to thank UHM oceanographers Jerome Aucan and Oliver Vetter for their technical assistance in the Marshall Islands and Hawai'i. In particular, Jerome was instrumental in interpreting the wave data and developing the wave models. The European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) 40 Year Re-analysis data (ERA-40) used in this study have been obtained from the ECMWF Data Server. For their encouragement and advice in the Marshall Islands, I would like to thank Julie Kroeker, Leona Valdez, Keka Kealoha, Irene Taafaki, Carmen Petrosian-Husa, Frank Thomas, Steve Why, Martin Schneider, Michael Graves, Karen Earsnshaw and members ofthe Mieco Beach Yacht Club.