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ence ci & C S l h im rt a a t E i c SeinnSeinn et al., J Earth Sci Clim Change 2015, 6:2 f o C l h a a n n http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2157-7617.1000258 r g u e o J Earth Science & Climatic Change ISSN: 2157-7617 Research Article Article OpenOpen Access Access Farmers’ Adaptation to Rainfall Variability and Salinity through Agronomic Practices in Lower Ayeyarwady Delta, Myanmar SeinnSeinn MU1*, Ahmad MM1, Thapa GB1 and Shrestha RP2 1Regional and Rural Development Planning, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 4, KlongLuang, PathumThani 1210, Thailand 2Natural Resource Management, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 4, KlongLuang, PathumThani 12120, Thailand Abstract The paper analyses factors influencing the agricultural adaptation practices in embankment and non-embankment areas of lower Ayeyarwady delta based on the information collected through a survey of 240 sampled households mostly practicing rice farming. Farmers in both areas have adopted several agronomic practices to adapt with rainfall variability and soil and water salinization due to sea level rise. A multivariate probit model employed to estimate the simultaneous interdependent decisions by farm households explained the factors influencing the adaptation of rice farmers to respond to the rainfall variability and salinity. Irrespective of correlation signs, the most significant determinants in adaptations of non-embankment area are farm size, farm income, non-farm income, training and lowland followed by educational level, family agricultural labor, land ownership, farming experience and the institutional credit. In the embankment area, five variables out of 12; namely, farm size, farm income, training frequency, credit and lowland are most influential on the adoption of agricultural adaptation practices. The poor linkage of extension and training programs reflected the poor lowland soil condition and cultural practices. Although double cropping of rice in monsoon and summer has provided higher cropping intensity and farm income, it has promoted the soil salinity and environmental unsustainability. Policy instruments are therefore suggested for an effective implementation of soil conservation and integrated farming system in lowland rainfed rice-based cropping system. Keywords: Agricultural adaptation; Rainfall variability; Salinity; Myanmar have a lower adaptive capacity to confront the high impacts Multivariate probit model; Ayeyarwady delta of climate change. Farmers deploy various indigenous ways of coping and adaptive measures to respond to changing climate. However, the Introduction severity of vulnerability is very high due to the low adaptive capacity, Deltas are the hot spots of vulnerability due to high impacts weakness of current coping mechanism, limited technical and of climate change (sea-level rise, changes in waterway, runoff) and institutional support and poor networking among farmers, extension anthropogenic activities (dam construction, use of chemicals in activities and agricultural research. The existing agricultural adaptation modern agriculture, intensive land utilization and flood control works) practices in changing climate condition will threaten the livelihood in catchment areas and delta plain land [1]. In contrast, deltas are sustainability of delta farmers in long term. In order to solve such important for global food security since rice was intensively cultivated possible challenges, it is essential to empower rice farmers to build the in its alluvial fertile land. More than 80% of the world’s total area of strong resilience to adapt to climate change. Specifically, it is necessary rice comes from deltaic lowlands of Asia [2]. Ayeyarwady delta, one to enable them to extend and adopt more effective agricultural of the Asian mega deltas, is famous as the rice bowl of Myanmar as it adaptation measures by implementing appropriate crop, soil and water occupies 26% of total rice growing area (7,706,526 ha) of the country. management programs. In this respect, this study aimed at the analyses Significantly, in recent years, climate change shocks rice production of of the farmers’ ongoing adaptation measures towards changing or Ayeyarwady delta due to the alterations of rainfall pattern, intensity of modifying agronomic management practices (i.e. crop, water and rainfall and sea level rise. The most prominent changes were the late soil management practices -variety, water use, cropping period, soil onset and early withdrawn of monsoon which shorten the duration conservation etc.,) and to explore the factors (farmers’ socio-economic of monsoon relative to the regular period. In combination with heavy condition, indigenous knowledge on adaptation, institutional support) monsoon rainfall, rising sea levels create serious waterlogging and influencing the adoption of such management practices. prolonged stagnant floods in the low-lying areas of Ayeyarwady delta damaging the thousand acres of rice field [3,4]. As a result of sea level rise, seawater encroachment increased salinity in soils and converted *Corresponding author: SeinnSeinn Mu, Regional and Rural Development some rice cultivable areas that were no longer viable for rice production Planning, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute into salt farms [5,6], and thus, non-saline arable areas are limited. of Technology, P.O. Box 4, KlongLuang, PathumThani 1210, Thailand, Tel: Therefore, farmers in delta areas are confronting erratic rainfall, floods +660846421439; E-mail: [email protected] and intense rains, increased salinity and coastal erosion. Received January 22, 2015; Accepted February 03, 2015; Published February 12, 2015 Mono cropping of rice is the dominant cropping pattern of Citation: SeinnSeinn MU, Ahmad MM, Thapa GB, Shrestha RP (2015) Farmers’ Ayeyarwady delta which can make farmers extremely vulnerable to Adaptation to Rainfall Variability and Salinity through Agronomic Practices in Lower climate-induced shocks [7-9]. The majority of farmers grow local rice Ayeyarwady Delta, Myanmar. J Earth Sci Clim Change 6: 258. doi:10.4172/2157- varieties, which have photoperiod-sensitive, long life span and low yield. 7617.1000258 Farmers have poor resources to manage the best use of soil, water and Copyright: © 2015 Seinn Seinn MU, et al. This is an open-access article inputs (seeds, fertilizer) for sustainable rice productivity to confront the distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which climate change [8]. Compared to other South Asian farmers, farmers in permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. J Earth Sci Clim Change ISSN:2157-7617 JESCC, an open access journal Volume 6 • Issue 2 • 1000258 Citation: SeinnSeinn MU, Ahmad MM, Thapa GB, Shrestha RP (2015) Farmers’ Adaptation to Rainfall Variability and Salinity through Agronomic Practices in Lower Ayeyarwady Delta, Myanmar. J Earth Sci Clim Change 6: 258. doi:10.4172/2157-7617.1000258 Page 2 of 12 Conceptual Perception on Adoption of Agricultural analysis to understand how earlier technological innovations have Adaptation Practices been targeted to address climatic constraints in specific locations. An investigation of local adaptation practices with a focus on historical Agriculture is the most climate-sensitive sector as the nature of experience and traditional environmental knowledge helps to trace crop production is mainly dependent on weather. Farmers suffered these social dynamics and uncover important loci of innovation [23- from significant yield reduction and major losses in rain-fed agriculture 25]. due to erratic rainfall pattern, increased occurrence of drought, dry spells and shifts of the rainy season [10-12]. Agricultural adaptation is The cooperation and knowledge-sharing between farmers and imperative to protect the livelihoods of the farmers and to ensure the extension workers are the most effective changes evidenced in adaptation food security of the country. Naturally, farmers are trying to cope with resilience to high variability of climate change [26]. Furthermore, in their traditional way based on the resources they have, experience enabling policies and actions to support the implementation of adaptive and exposure to vulnerability under increasing climate change. strategy are much needed in offsetting the negative impacts of climate However, some local coping practices to reduce the vulnerability change and sustainable environmental management [27,28]. However, impact of perceived climate change are not sustainable for future there were also some arguments about the question of how technical climate variability [13]. For example, due to the extreme climate events, practices can be adjusted at the farm level to be more strategic and more small-scale farmers in Tanzania rely more heavily on access to forest effectively. In fact, the integration of new information into agricultural resources for subsistence, and income-generating activities. Their management practices needs technical skill and capital investment, short-term coping practices of firewood-cutting and selling, charcoal- which are constraints for small-scale subsistence agriculture [29]. making, craft and forest products, and hunting which are leading to Study Area deforestation can be maladaptation in the long term [14]. The choice of coping options depends on social and biophysical elements such
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