Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 1 Commonwealth ofthePeople from theEminentPersons Group entitled mark. Ithasendedwithpublication ofareport hasmaturedown Consortium andmadeits Fellowship Planhave beenlaunched; andour for the Commonwealth Scholarshipand Recruitment Protocol andEndowment Fund co-operation; theCommonwealth Teacher major player ininternationaleducational Learning hasconsolidateditsplaceasa a decadeinwhichtheCommonwealth of for Commonwealth member states. Itis CHOGMs that education is a top priority have reiterated somany timesatsuccessive which Commonwealth HeadsofGovernment should re-emerge at the end of a decade in samethreatIt is astonishing thatthevery the current volume, Iwrote: In theForeword tothe2009forerunner to efforts. the extent and value of these collaborative 2009, toawideaudiencewithreminder of would becometoreach outonceagain, asin we it couldnotthenimaginehow important Commonwealth co-operationineducation, reissue thiscollectionof review essays on Education (CCfE) wasdebating whether to When theCommonwealthfor Consortium Foreword Commonwealth Secretariat.” from thefunctions undertaken by the educational co-operationmightdisappear a time it even seemed as if promotion of and akey toitsfuture development. For the Commonwealth associationrests of theprincipalfoundations onwhich overlooked therole ofeducationasone on thefuture oftheCommonwealth Commonwealth’s High-Level Group as when, of this decade, at the start the This lackofawareness canbedangerous, programmes and institutional channels. occur through so many different a widevarietyofforms, and exchanges that fact co-operation ineducationtakes such the reflecting picture: holistic a getting of difficulty the reflect may this and ofwhathasbeenaccomplished. Inpart recognition oftheextentcollaboration has not, however, always been adequate achievement.Commonwealth There Commonwealth relationships andof bothof “Education liesattheheart , atitle inspiring A -1- hardly exaggeratedin describingthisas “the in educationbrings. SirShridathRamphal and breadth ofCommonwealth infrastructure great comparative advantagethatthedepth willremindEducation Directory themofthe pages andinourcompanionCommonwealth action istaken. We hopetheevidence inthese before any irreversible decisionorprecipitate reflection proper for need the on insist will Education Ministersat18CCEMinMauritius earnestly hopesthat The Consortium should underpinsuchafar-reaching proposal. been devoid of the analysis and evidence that called. The initial discussion papers have education for whichwe have consistently of Commonwealth capacity androles in without seriousconsultationorreview from educationisthatithasbeenmade proposal thatthe Secretariat should disengage What issodisappointing aboutthelatest place humandevelopment atitscentre. the hopethatourassociationwasaboutto August 2012 August for Education Chair, Consortium Commonwealth Colin Power James Urwick. for againactingaseditor, ably very assistedby backing andtoPeter financial Williams ourSecretary its for Foundation Commonwealth We alsoacknowledge our debt tothe of centralconcerntoitsmemberstates. and pioneeringprogrammes toaddress issues Secretariat’s role in developing new insights bears testimonyofthe totheimportance work and becausethisarea asmuch asany other influential its on Education in Small states 27 years ago; began Secretariat the 18CCEM inMauritius, theislandstatewhere both becauseMinisterswillbemeetingfor small statesoftheCommonwealth. This is Chapter oneducationalco-operationin and Dame Crossley Pearlette Louisy have enabled us to add a Michael that gratified extraordinarily time. short I am particularly to bring this publication to fruition in an and individualauthorswhohave helped I would like to thank all the organisations Jewel intheCommonwealth Crown”. 09/08/2012 18:23

Foreword Chapter 1 Chapter Chapter 1: COMMONWEALTH CO-OPERATION IN EDUCATION: A PROFILE Peter Williams Introduction or protectorates. Appendix 2 shows the present members by date of joining the Commonwealth Language, law and learning, it is often said, as independent states. are the three main pillars underpinning the Commonwealth association. The third of them, The Commonwealth Secretariat was founded education, is an area where collaboration is in 1965. The five Commonwealth Secretaries- especially well developed on a scale that has General to date have been Arnold Smith (1965- earned educational co-operation the accolade of 75), Shridath Ramphal (1975-90), Emeka Anyaoku “Jewel in the Commonwealth Crown”.1 (1990-2000), Don McKinnon (2000-2008) and Kamalesh Sharma (since 2008). In part, the prominence of Learning in Commonwealth interchange reflects the inter- Starting in 1966, meetings of Commonwealth relationship between the three pillars. For the prime ministers, and later Heads of Government commonalities in English-language use, and in the Meetings (CHOGMs), have taken place regularly, legal/institutional frameworks that are derived normally every two years. These lay down from shared history and traditions, provide Commonwealth policies and priorities. Landmark sound bases for exchanges in education. statements setting out fundamental principles Collaboration in education takes many different came from Singapore in 1971, and Zimbabwe forms. It extends across the spectrum of (the Harare Declaration) in 1991. Following multilateral co-operation, shared regional the CHOGM held in Perth (Australia) in 2011, institutions in some parts of the world, bilateral consideration is being given to enshrining co-operation between individual governments, some of these principles and values in a activities of Commonwealth civil-society “Commonwealth Charter”. associations and professional bodies in education, a host of unregulated movements of individual From time to time governments have called students and teachers going to learn and teach for a review of the Commonwealth’s priorities in a Commonwealth country abroad, and and purposes. For example in 2001 a High- commercial transactions in educational goods Level Group made recommendations to the and services. Brisbane-Coolum CHOGM, and in 2010 an Eminent Persons Group was formed under the This introductory chapter attempts to provide chairmanship of a former Prime Minister of an overview, charting the main elements in Malaysia, Tun Abdullah Badawi, and submitted education co-operation in the Commonwealth. its report, “A Commonwealth of the People”, Given that the question has recently been raised to the Perth CHOGM in 2011. It was this last whether the Commonwealth Secretariat should report, with its call (Recommendation 62) for divest itself of its education functions, and out- the Secretary-General to advise governments source the co-ordination of Commonwealth on areas of work that could be retired, that co-operation in education to others, it becomes has opened up the debate as to whether more relevant than ever to understand the the Secretariat should retain an educational range and depth of the overall resource, and the function. According to the EPG, grounds for capacities of the other major players who might retirement would be that there is no specific be called on to undertake new responsibilities. Commonwealth advantage, that Commonwealth resources are too insignificant relative to those The modern Commonwealth is generally of other organisations, or that the work overall considered to date from 1949 when it was has demonstrated no significant impact. agreed that the republican status of newly independent India and Pakistan should not be In education, the year 1959 is normally regarded barriers to Commonwealth membership. Today’s as the start of the modern era of co-operation, Commonwealth comprises 53 states that vary because that is when the first Commonwealth widely in physical and population size, and Education Conference took place and the which are diverse in ethnic, religious, cultural decision was taken to launch the Commonwealth and linguistic make-up. Almost all (Mozambique Scholarship and Fellowship Plan and to set up and Rwanda are exceptions) have had a historic a central secretariat to facilitate liaison in the connection with Britain as former dependencies education sector between member countries.

1 S. Ramphal, “Education: Jewel in the Commonwealth Crown”, The Round Table 98, no. 405 (2009): 663–678. -2-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 2 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 1 One should note, however, that parts of today’s Box 1.1 Heads of Government infrastructure have much earlier origins. For Statements on Education example the Association of Commonwealth Universities was founded in 1913, and the Abuja, Aso Rock Declaration, 2003 Commonwealth Institute (forerunner of the “Education, whether formal or informal, is central to Commonwealth Education Trust) in 1886. development in any society and is of the highest priority The first of a series of Imperial Education to the Commonwealth. In an increasingly divided and Conferences was held in 1911. insecure world, education must play a crucial role for people, both young and old, for them to optimise their opportunities and to bridge divides.” The multilateral framework in education Valletta Communiqué, 2005 Heads “affirmed the centrality of education to (1) The political level development and democracy, as it provides the foundation for realising broader Commonwealth political, Heads of Government lay down Commonwealth economic and social objectives. They ... encouraged all priorities and these at present highlight governments to allocate the resources necessary to meet democracy and good governance and pursuit the education MDGs ....” of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The MDGs include two education goals – the Kampala Communiqué, 2007 achievement of universal primary education by Heads “reaffirmed the fundamental role played 2015 and the attainment of gender parity in by education in facilitating social and economic school education (see Chapter 5). transformation”

In the past ten years Heads have made important Port of Spain Communiqué, 2009 statements in relation to education (Box 1.1) Heads acknowledged “that education provides a fundamental tool for self-improvement and national At CHOGMs, Heads of Government have development, and is a basic human right. ……..They normally dealt with education under the stressed the need to embrace an integrated and holistic heading of “functional co-operation”. Important vision of education systems…. they acknowledged the education topics with which they have been vital role that education can play in conflict prevention particularly concerned in recent years have and resolution, and requested the Secretariat to explore included the education MDGs; co-operation options to strengthen its education work programme on in distance education and the work of the Respect and Understanding”. Commonwealth of Learning; Commonwealth student mobility and the Commonwealth Perth Communiqué, 2011 Scholarship and Fellowship Plan; Commonwealth Heads “agreed to promote inclusive education and to studies and education about the Commonwealth; accelerate efforts to achieve quality universal primary targeted recruitment by Commonwealth education, in line with the MDGs and Education For All industrialised countries of health and education goals”. personnel from developing countries; education’s role in promoting respect, understanding and and set priorities and approve work plans for the social cohesion; and the changing status and role Commonwealth Secretariat – subject always to of the former Commonwealth Institute. confirmation by Heads of Government.

At the next level down, ‘functional’ government Commonwealth Ministers of Education will ministers in the different sectors also meet have met 18 times following their scheduled regularly. Finance and health ministers convene Conference in Mauritius, (18CCEM) in August annually, while ministers of education, law, and 2012. Chapter 2 is devoted to an extended women’s affairs customarily hold conferences analysis of the structure and content of these every three years. These ministerial gatherings conferences. discuss international issues of concern to member states, review progress and institutional arrangements for co-operation in their sector,

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(2) The Commonwealth Secretariat countries and has an annual budget of a little over £30 million. It works mainly on the basis The Secretariat, based at Marlborough House of south-south co-operation, supplying experts, in London, provides administrative support training and advisory services. Education in to government ministers, services their member countries, and notably the regional conferences and implements their decisions. education institutions that serve small states in A Social Transformation Programmes Division the Caribbean and Pacific, has been prominent (STPD) contains sections for gender, health among beneficiaries. and education. The STPD Director reports to the Deputy Secretary-General for Economic (4) Commonwealth of Learning (COL) and Social Affairs. The Education Section has six professional staff including a Head of Section. COL was founded in 1988 and is based in The Secretariat’s role is defined as that of Vancouver, Canada. Its focus is open and advocate, broker and catalyst. The principal focus distance learning. It is the only one of the of the work of the Education Section in recent three main inter-governmental Commonwealth years has been on basic education, where – as organisations located outside Britain and is the discussed in Chapters 5, 6 and 7 of this volume world’s only inter-governmental organisation – there are serious gaps in Commonwealth solely concerned with promoting open and member countries’ provision. distance learning (ODL).

The Education Section has concentrated The role of COL and the Commonwealth’s work its work on the six Action Areas defined at in ODL is more fully analysed in Chapter 4. 15CCEM: achieving universal primary education; eliminating gender disparities; improving quality; using distance learning to overcome (5) Commonwealth Foundation barriers; supporting education in difficult circumstances; and mitigating the impact of HIV/ The Foundation, like the Secretariat based in AIDS in education. Until about 15 years ago a Marlborough House in London, was created in much more holistic approach to educational 1965 to promote co-operation between, and development was pursued. The team provided involvement in Commonwealth activities by, civil the administrative base for establishment of society organisations. In pursuit of this mandate the Commonwealth of Learning and included a the Foundation has until now given regular higher education unit which helped to pioneer core-budget and project/activities support to the Commonwealth Higher Support Scheme, the a number of pan-Commonwealth professional Commonwealth Higher Education Management associations working in the field of education. Service, and the Commonwealth Universities In 2012 a major review of its role and functions Study Abroad Consortium. was being undertaken which was expected to lead to a re-launch in November 2012. At times The Secretariat has very limited programme in the past the Foundation has itself run sectoral money. The annual budget of the Education programmes of activity, which have included Section, excluding staff salaries, is roughly education of women and girls. £0.5 million p.a., drawn in the main from the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation The Foundation organises and manages the (see below), though significant additional People’s Forums that precede CHOGMs, and at resources are mobilised through partnership 17CCEM and 18CCEM it has taken responsibility arrangements with other agencies. for organising the Stakeholders Forums (see Chapter 2). In this role the Foundation also oversees the drafting and presentation of the (3) Commonwealth Fund for Technical Civil Society statements that are presented Co-operation (CFTC) to Heads of Government at CHOGMs and to Education Ministers at CCEMs. CFTC, founded in 1971, is the Commonwealth’s main assistance instrument. It is financed by voluntary contributions from member

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 4 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 5 2 activities are basedat undergraduate level. held every two years. Most, butnotall, CUSAC all areas oftheCommonwealth. Meetingsare currently aboutfiftymembersdrawn from onareciprocalopportunities basis. There are the Commonwealth toprovide study-abroad a framework for memberuniversities throughout Since itsformation in1993, CUSAC hasprovided Abroad Consortium Universities(8) Commonwealth Study for TechnicalCo-operation. programmes only by theCommonwealth Fund in scaleamongCommonwealth development more fully inChapter 3. Thus CSFPisrivalled programme, whichisdescribedanddiscussed £30 millionp.a. inthemain, bilaterally-operated Individual governments collectively invest around year periodsome£6mwasraised. developing institutions. country Inthefirstthree- modest additional number ofawards tenableat Endowment Fundwascreated a tosupport the Planin2009, asmallmultilaterally-operated Very recently, of tomarkthe50thanniversary the firstCommonwealth EducationConference. framework, following guidelinesestablishedat main operatesbilaterally withinamultilateral Launched atOxford in 1959, theCSFPin Fellowship Plan Scholarship(7) Commonwealth and Institute building. the property containingthe Commonwealth have beenderived from thesaleoflease Education Trust, thebulkofwhoseresources and toreconstitute itselfastheCommonwealth for Commonwealth EducationinCambridge; countries, tobepromoted through aCentre educationinCommonwealth secondary its focus tothedevelopment and ofprimary 14). In2004, theInstitutedecidedtoswitch agency withprimeresponsibility (seeChapter area for whichthere isnow noCommonwealth education abouttheCommonwealth. This isan governing board andconcentrateditsactivityon which operatedunderapan-Commonwealth This beganastheCommonwealth Institute, EducationTrust(6) Commonwealth Commonwealth Universities. The programme isrunfrom the Association of UNESCO, 2011. Report EFA GlobalMonitoring The HiddenCrisis: ConflictandEducation(Paris:Armed UNESCO, 2011), aidtables, 350. -5- slow torecognise. Commonwealth Secretariat appears to have been operation programmes, aphenomenonthatthe South Africa have theirown technicalco- like India, Nigeria, Malaysia, Pakistanand members, many newly emergingcountries As well asindustrialisedCommonwealth for basiceducation. education two thirds ofwhich($1.7billion)was together disbursed$US2.6billioninaidto industrialised countriesandNew Zealand In 2007and2008combined, thesethree (DFID), Canada’s CIDA or Australia’s AusAID. for InternationalDevelopmentDepartment assistance through suchbodiesastheUK’s it iscompletely dwarfed inscaleby bilateral asthemultilateral infrastructureImportant is, for education bilateralCommonwealth aid place atregional level through theCaribbean consultation andco-operationineducationtakes In addition, extensive Commonwealth West Africa andLiberia. Council amongtheCommonwealth countriesof but alsothrough the West African Examinations small statesintheCaribbeanandSouthPacific, examination arrangements, notonly among At otherlevels ofeducationthere are shared the Commonwealth. educational co-operationinthesmallstatesof which many statessupport. Chapter 11discusses of theSouthPacificare regional institutions University ofthe West IndiesandtheUniversity of expensive facilitiesmakes soundsense. The the presence ofgeographical clusters, thesharing Table 11.1) and several small dependencies. Given populations oftwo andahalfmillionorless(see countries includes30 ‘small states’with The Commonwealth’s membershipof53 (9) Regional co-operation ineducation Commonwealth statesform thegreat majority. Regional Co-operation(SAARC), inallofwhich Commission andSouth Asian Association for Development Community (SADC), SouthPacific Community (CARICOM), Southern African 2 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 1 Chapter 1 Chapter

Independent voluntary and International Education), CODE (Canadian professional bodies Organization for Development through Education), CUSO International in Canada: or A characteristic of Commonwealth VSO (Voluntary Service Overseas), ActionAid, infrastructure, particularly in education, is OXFAM, and Save the Children in the UK to the proliferation of non-government bodies name but a few of the larger ones. The last many of them specifically pan-Commonwealth three named UK bodies jointly managed the in character, as is discussed more fully in Commonwealth Education Fund established Chapter 13. The Association of Commonwealth by the British Government in 2002 to support Universities (ACU), with 500 member civil-society coalitions to promote Education for institutions throughout the Commonwealth, All in 17 Commonwealth developing countries, is prominent among them. ACU helps over the period 2002-2008. Faith groups of a members to orchestrate their views and to wide range of religions and denominations are exchange experience of best practice, and also prominent among active international and provides them with advisory, information and national agencies supporting work in education recruitment services. It also administers the and health in Commonwealth countries, and CSFP Endowment Fund, the Commonwealth sponsoring international links between schools Universities Study Abroad Consortium and and other community organisations. for many years housed the highly regarded Commonwealth Higher Education Management In developing countries at national level Service. Under contract with the UK’s DFID it countless voluntary bodies work for education provides the Secretariat for the Commonwealth development, and have fine records to share. Scholarship Commission in the UK (CSCUK). Some, like the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Organisation of the forums for higher education Committee (BRAC) or the Jamaica Foundation leaders at 17CCEM and 18CCEM has been for Lifelong Learning (JAMAL),have achieved ACU’s responsibility. international fame and attracted aid-agency support. There are thousands of smaller ones A Commonwealth Teachers’ Group (CTG), that work on a mainly local basis. enabling representative teachers’ bodies across the Commonwealth to participate more actively Informal individual and in Commonwealth education interchange, was institutional exchanges launched at the Teachers Forum in Cape Town in 2006. CTG has been the Convenor of Teachers’ Much Commonwealth interchange in Forums at 17CCEM and 18CCEM. education is informal and unmanaged. Recorded intra-Commonwealth flows of students are In 2001 several Commonwealth voluntary substantial, about 120,000 in 2006, despite and professional organisations created the the ‘marketisation’ of higher education and Commonwealth Consortium for Education, charging by richer countries of full-cost fees the body that has commissioned and published to international students, which can impede this document. Through this grouping, its access for poor students and those from poor members, presently numbering 18 (see countries. This recorded intra-Commonwealth Appendix 1) concert their efforts on behalf student mobility represents a little under 6 per of Commonwealth education development, cent of the world total, compared with about co-ordinate their approach, and build a more 8 per cent in the year 2000. Commonwealth effective constituency for partnering official student interchange with non-Commonwealth Commonwealth multilateral and bilateral countries, notably the United States, accounts agencies. for a further 12 per cent of total international student mobility. Many of the world’s civil-society organisations, both international and national, that contribute There has traditionally been considerable strongly to education development, are movement of individual teachers between Commonwealth-based. They include well- Commonwealth countries, to the benefit of both known names like AVI (Australian Volunteers individual teachers and the institutions to which International); CBIE (Canadian Bureau for

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 6 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 7 with UNESCOandothers todevelop andsecure future Commonwealth engagement, working areaThis constitutesapotentially important for dimension totheglobalisationofeducation. introducing anew andpotentially controversial schools andcollegesinothercountries, is of privatecompaniesseekingtoinvest in students abroad, and theemergingphenomenon ofcoursesusingnewdelivery technologiesto of off-shore campusesinothercountries, the As discussedinChapter 10, theestablishment been anotherstrong growth area. provision has ofstudyandtrainingopportunities and qualifications, recruitment ofteachers, or likeeducation services consultancy, examinations of thewidespread useofEnglish. Provision of positioned ininternationalmarkets because and educationalsoftware are well- particularly Commonwealth publishersofbooks, materials is agrowing componentofinternationaltrade. computers for classroom andschool-officeuse, equipmentandworkshop machinery,laboratory Supply ofeducation-related goods suchas services educational goodsand Commercial activityin to thepromotion ofsuchlinks(seeChapter 12). 16CCEM, whenMinisterscommittedthemselves society conference inCape Town atthetimeof Commonwealth wasthethemeofamajorcivil- potential ofschoolandcollegelinksinthe educational anddevelopmental objectives. The and understanding, they important canserve well aspromoting Commonwealth friendship acrosspartnerships nationalboundaries. As multiplied isschoollinkingandinstitutional Another area where exchangeshave rapidly recently (2009)beenreviewed. systems. The operationoftheProtocol has its potentially harmfuleffects for vulnerable regulation tosuchtargetedrecruitment, tolimit Protocol tointroduce anelementofvoluntary agreed aCommonwealth Teacher Recruitment countries. At Stoke Rochford in2004, Ministers of specialisedteachersinsomedeveloping countries, threatening todepletecadres based insomemore affluentCommonwealth by employing bodiesandrecruitment agencies however, hasbeentargetedteacherrecruitment they have moved. A recent ministerialconcern, -7- good practiceintheinternationalarena. adherence toprotocols laying down equitable 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 1 Chapter 2 Chapter Chapter 2: CONFERENCES OF COMMONWEALTH EDUCATION MINISTERS Peter Williams

The Conference of Commonwealth Education Box 2.1: Venues and Dates of the CECs Ministers in Mauritius, August 29-31 2012 is and CCEMs the eighteenth in a series that began in Oxford 1. CEC Oxford, UK 15-28/07/1959 in 1959. This chapter explains the function and 2. CEC New Delhi, India 11-25/01/1962 format of the Conferences and draws attention to issues that Ministers need to address in 3. CEC Ottawa, Canada 21/08-04/09/1964 making Commonwealth education co-operation 4. CEC Lagos, Nigeria 26/02-09/03/1968 more effective. 5. CEC Canberra, Australia 3-17/02/1971 6. CEC Kingston, Jamaica 10-22/06/1974 The Commonwealth family has expanded to its 7. CEC Accra, Ghana 9-18/03/1977 present size of 53 members and now spans every continent. The very growth of the association 8. CEC Colombo, Sri Lanka 5-13/08/1980 is one of the factors responsible for changes 9. CCEM Nicosia, Cyprus 23-26/07/1984 in the functioning of the Education Ministers’ 10. CCEM Nairobi, Kenya 20-24/07/1987 Conferences. The possible 53 delegations in 11. CCEM Bridgetown, 29/10-02/11/1990 Mauritius are bound to interact in a different Barbados manner from what was feasible when there were 12. CCEM Islamabad, Pakistan 27/11-01/12/1994 just 15 or 20 member states in the mid-1960s. 13. CCEM Gaborone, 28/07-01/08/1997 Botswana From professional to 14. CCEM Halifax, Canada 26-30/11/2000 ministerial conferences 15. CCEM Edinburgh, UK 27-30/10/2003 1959-2012 16. CCEM Cape Town, South 11-14/12/2006 Africa In education the tradition has been to 17. CCEM Kuala Lumpur, 16-18/06/2009 hold Ministerial Conferences every three Malaysia years. The first Commonwealth Education 18 CCEM Mauritius 29-31/08/2012 Conference was held in Oxford in 1959; the latest 18th Conference is being held in the fewer non-government participants (i.e. those Indian Ocean Republic of Mauritius. In the who were not ministers or officials). interval the conferences have moved round the Commonwealth: five in Africa, four in Asia, two in The principal thrust at the first, Oxford, Canada, two in the Caribbean, two (post-Oxford) Commonwealth Education Conference in in Europe, one in Australia (Box 2.1). Britain and 1959 was the launch of the Commonwealth Canada have each hosted two in the series. Scholarship and Fellowship Plan (CSFP) and the creation of a small secretariat, the As can be inferred from Box 2.1, some major Commonwealth Education Liaison Unit (CELU), changes were made between the eighth and based in Marlborough House, to implement the ninth conferences. The earlier Commonwealth decisions of the Conference. The second (New Education Conferences (CECs) had been more Delhi) and Third (Ottawa) Conferences were in the nature of professional gatherings than organised by the CELU, but by the time the inter-governmental encounters – in fact hardly fourth was held in Lagos the Commonwealth any Ministers were present at the first CEC in Secretariat had been created. The first decade Oxford. It was the custom up to the eighth CEC of Commonwealth education co-operation saw for officials and senior professionals to have a strong enthusiasm to develop new schemes and week-long review of the Conference business programmes of collaboration, some multilateral and themes before Ministers joined them in the and others bilateral. They included, for example, following week, which accounts for the extended a series of Commonwealth Specialist Education period of the Conferences. From the Ninth Conferences and a Commonwealth Bursaries Conference in 1984 the events were restyled Scheme to strengthen teacher education. “Conferences of Commonwealth Education Ministers” (CCEMs). They were shortened to From 1974 onwards the Conferences adopted three or four days, emphasised policy issues and a principal theme for analysis and exchange inter-governmental consultation, and involved of experience, the discussion often being

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 8 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 9 international studentsrose sharply. The seven for homestudents, meantthattuitionfees for students from abroad, while retaining them levelto withdraw from subsidiesattertiary decision ofsometheindustrialisedcountries mobility ofstudentsintheCommonwealth. The did notconcerntheseissues, butratherthe Some ofthesharpestexchanges1980s quality andaccess, therole ofthestate. education thecurriculum andthejobmarket, and financingofeducation, thelinkagebetween such asbetterresource management, economics issues anddebatesineducationaldevelopment, global tended toreflect themaincontemporary 1974 are shown inBox 2.2. Conference themes principal themesofthetwelve Conferences since fornew working opportunities together. The the mechanismsofco-operation, oridentifying ongoing businessofreviewing andimproving main discussiontopicwasadditional tothe introduced by invited keynote speakers. This 2012 2009 2006 2003 2000 1997 1994 1990 1987 1984 1980 1977 1974 Conferences 1974to2012 EducationMinisters’Box 2.2:Themesof 18CCEM 17CCEM 16CCEM 15CCEM 14CCEM 13CCEM 12CCEM 11CCEM 10CCEM 9CCEM 8CEC 7CEC 6CEC Education intheCommonwealth: Agreed Goals towards achieving Internationally closing thegap as we accelerate and targets towards andbeyond globalgoals Education intheCommonwealth: the good ofall Access toqualityeducation: for closing thegap Access inclusionandachievement: for diversity challenges ofequity, opportunities Education inaglobalera: Education andtechnology education Changing role ofthestatein education Improving thequalityofbasic education Vocational orientationof Unemployment (b) Educationand Youth their costeffective use (a) Resources for educationand Human resource development Economics ofeducation Management ofeducation

-9- turn oftheMillenniumandconsultationbetween fell intoabeyanceformal around machinery the London, meetingwiththeSecretariat. Butthis countries through their highcommissionsin composed ofrepresentatives ofallmember Commonwealth EducationLiaisonCommittee, list ofinvited for observers CCEMswasthe securing formal approval ofdates, agendaand before. Customarily themechanismfor (roughly three years) aftertheConference normally fallinginaperiod32to40months Precise datesare thenfixed by consultation, invitation Ministers. by oneoftheparticipating at thepreceding Conference inresponse toan The venue ofthenextCCEMisnormally agreed the Conferences organisationof and Planning aide-mémoire circulated toalldelegates. arrangements are spelledoutinanadministrative and livingcostsfor delegationmembers. All these responsibility includestravel totheConference, its own resources. Delegations’own financial delegates –lunches, dinners, receptions –from provideshost country otherhospitalityto venue andmuch ofthelogistical support. The the Conference sessions, andtoprovide the in conjunctionwiththeSecretariat, tochair The role ofthehostistoplanConference paper hasbeenwaived. willsubmita expectation thatevery country for Conference use; butsince15CCEMthe Commonwealth overview ofthesereports and theSecretariat thencommissionedapan- outlining theirperspective onthemaintheme, countries were asked tosubmitapaper extensively involved. Inthepast, member depends onitswishesandcapacity tobe degree ofengagementby thehostcountry for theagendaanddocumentation, whilethe has normally taken mainexecutive responsibility countries through consultation, theSecretariat Once athemehasbeenagreed by member through more adhocarrangements. the Secretariat andhighcommissionsisnow Ministers. vigorously, and at times acrimoniously, debated by Standing CommitteeonStudentMobilitywere successive reportsoftheCommonwealth 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 2 Chapter 2 Chapter

The Conference in session Ministers “queuing” to make their interventions. Proceedings are presided over by the host Typically 40 or more delegations have attended Minister, formally elected to the Chair. Long CCEMs, most led by Ministers. Some contain prepared speeches are strongly discouraged. A more than one member of ministerial rank, record is taken by Commonwealth and host- especially in countries with multi-jurisdictional country officials, jointly acting as the secretariat responsibility for education, as in federal for the Conference. systems. UK dependencies are invited to be present as part of the British delegation. The business of the conferences has traditionally Delegations vary in size from one or two to been of three main kinds. First, a day or more, a dozen, but the host-country delegation has early in the Conference,is devoted to the main often numbered 20 or 30. Commonly there will theme in plenary and working group sessions, be 150-180 country delegates present, and a with invited plenary speakers introducing the further 20 or 30 members of invited observer subject. The character of this part of proceedings delegations, including international agencies is exchange of experience by countries and and Commonwealth voluntary and professional identification of common issues and interesting bodies with education functions (see Box 2.3). innovations. Conclusions and recommendations are distilled from discussion for report and Box 2.3: Observer Delegations at CCEMs follow-up action. The 40-50 bodies typically invited to observe at the Conferences fall into four main groups: A second major segment of business is concerned with Commonwealth co- a) Commonwealth civil society organisations/ associations in the education sector operation in education and the common b) Intergovernmental organisation institutional infrastructure. The activities of the c) Bilateral and other development agencies Commonwealth of Learning, the Commonwealth d) Other relevant organisations, including host Scholarship and Fellowship Plan, and of the country ones Education Section of the Secretariat are all reviewed, sometimes with the help of Quite commonly only half this number take up the Conference working parties. Progress is noted, invitation. mandates and new directions are agreed and new pledges may be invited or made for COL and Official observers can attend most Ministerial sessions, participating in working groups and break-out sessions, CSFP. Accounts may be given of progress on new but not in Ministerial plenaries. They are included in social joint initiatives like the Commonwealth Teacher events. Recruitment Protocol or the Virtual University for Small States.

On the day before the opening of the Thirdly, close attention is given to the Conference, senior officials meet to review Conference Communiqué, incorporating the Conference business including the agenda, conclusions of the Conference and Ministers’ timetable, procedural issues and documentation decisions concerning future action. At 14CCEM for the Conference and make recommendations in Halifax, Ministers had the additional challenge to Ministers on selected items. of agreeing on a Halifax Statement, “Education: our Common Future”. Every Conference up The ceremonial Conference opening is followed to and including the Twelfth was followed by a by three days of business sessions in plenary, report prepared by the Secretariat. For 13CCEM with occasional break-out into committees or and 14CCEM this useful practice, which helps to ‘round tables’. The Commonwealth’s compact ensure proper accountability and follow-up, fell size means that ministers can sit round one victim to Secretariat economies. But Conference table, enabling more informal exchanges of a reports were reintroduced after 15CCEM and kind denied to UN bodies with 150 or more the practice was repeated at 16CCEM and members. The contemporary value of this once 17CCEM. very real advantage, when the Commonwealth had less than 30 members, should not however Conference business has undergone elaboration be exaggerated: there is still a problem of through introduction of recent innovations.

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 10 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 2 The press was admitted to the proceedings for The Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group the first time at 14CCEM, and from 13CCEM that reported in 2011 singled out Education and onwards the overall programme has included Law as areas where Commonwealth ministerial ‘parallel events’. At Gaborone in 1997 a meetings should continue in future, and their ‘Parallel Symposium’, providing for civil society recommendation was formally accepted by involvement and discussion of the issues before Heads of Government in Perth in October 2011. Ministers, was introduced, a feature repeated The Conferences therefore seem destined to in 2000 and 2003. In Cape Town (2006), Kuala be a continuing feature of the Commonwealth Lumpur (2009) and Mauritius (2012), this event scene in the foreseeable future, even though the has been designated a ‘Stakeholders Forum’. At capacity to organise and service them would be 15CCEM a ‘Youth Summit’ (now Youth Forum) very much impaired if the Secretariat severely was added, and in Cape Town a Teachers Forum. cut back on its own educational role. A fourth Forum for higher education leaders was introduced at 17CCEM in Kuala Lumpur. If, however, the Conferences are to justify fully Conference agendas take account of these the expense of time and money needed to parallel events, enabling Ministers to interact with bring together up to 200 political leaders and the Forums and to hear their conclusions, before professionals in education for a week, and the framing their own. months of preparation required, they must ever adjust to new challenges so that they can At every Conference since 13CCEM in Botswana operate more effectively. in 1997, there has also been an exhibition or, as in Edinburgh, a ‘Showcase of Best Practice’, A first criterion is surely that more imagination normally in the same venue as the Ministers’ is used in selecting the Conference themes. Conference. In recent years there has been a certain dull repetitiveness in the choice of topics, with These various events, which allow interfacing five successive Conferences focused on basic of civil-society participants with Ministers and education and the quest of Education for All. delegations, extend the range of interactions in This challenge is indeed a proper matter of real a welcome way. But they also add considerable concern to the Commonwealth community complexity to Conference schedules, require given that so much of the global deficit in much more meeting space and pose the danger terms of basic level enrolment and gender that playing host to the Conferences may prove inequality is located in member countries. too daunting a prospect for smaller or less But it is questionable whether it should be so affluent Commonwealth member states. constantly and exclusively revisited, especially taking account of the fact that the great majority Charting the future of CCEMs: of Commonwealth countries have achieved the two education Millennium Goals, and have some challenges other pressing preoccupations at secondary and post-secondary levels that the Conferences The efficacy of the Commonwealth as a forum could usefully address. It is time to move on as to address issues affecting the global common seemed to be promised, but not actually realised, interest is well recognised. Commonwealth at 17CCEM. Conferences have particular attractions for participants because of their informality, mutual A certain timidity has prevailed in recent years. respect and equality of members, a sense There has been an apparent unwillingness to of common purpose, and direct exchange tackle controversial issues arising from the of views. This contrasts with the greater globalisation of education. The ‘world education formality, set speeches, and the effect of order’, as it actually operates reflects inequalities listening to simultaneous translation at many of power and influence whose consequences world gatherings. Moreover the extensive need to be addressed. The opening up of intergovernmental infrastructure of institutions ‘markets’ in educational services poses difficult and activities in education requires guidance challenges for developing countries that wish from political leaders representing their to strengthen and develop indigenous languages countries and peoples, the beneficiaries of co- and culture. Control by large multi-national operative activity. corporations over access to knowledge can

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 11 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 2 Chapter

be operated on the one hand to promote, or Regional Conferences in different parts of the conversely to impede, access to knowledge by Commonwealth, as experimentally tried in 2005 the poorest. The Commonwealth could give a between 15CCEM and 16CCEM. lead in developing frameworks and protocols that would promote a fairer sharing of benefits The Consortium’s proposal would be one way and costs involved in international education to help ensure that Conferences confined their relations. decisions and recommendations to what can realistically be implemented. There has been a There are other controversial subjects like brain tendency at past CCEMs to go in for long and drain and the poaching of talent, conditionality in imprecise “wish lists” without specifying the education assistance, and where the boundaries scale and provenance of resources and the locus of free trade and regulation of international trade of responsibility for implementation. This has in education services should lie. These subjects made it difficult to evaluate progress between would spark much livelier debates than those in conferences. which the Ministers have engaged of late. The Consortium has also proposed in Among other suggestions that have previously memoranda to Ministers that there could been made for reform, one is for somewhat be an agreed framework of Commonwealth less frequent CCEMs, perhaps on a four-year co-operative activity in education, centrally cycle. However, a four-year cycle would require co-ordinated but mobilising the efforts of both careful dovetailing of CCEMs with the cycle of official and non-official agencies, to advance work CHOGMs and UNESCO General Conferences. on priority areas identified by Ministers. The These presently take place biennially, both in scope for developing an agreed Commonwealth the last quarter of the same year and frequently Plan of Action in Education, advanced in a clashing with each other. Consortium’s 2005 Report to the Secretariat on the way ahead for the Commonwealth in relation Moreover the workability of any schedule to the six education Action Areas identified involving longer intervals between conferences in Edinburgh, could usefully be resurrected. would depend on ensuring greater continuity Whether or not Governments heed appeals to between CCEMs. Already, with the current three- retain promotion of educational co-operation year interval, the democratic political process as a Commonwealth function, it is clear that results in a comparatively small proportion of partnership among all the agencies engaged in ministers surviving from one Conference to this enterprise is going to be the way of the the next. In consequence each new Conference future. involves a steep learning curve for the majority of ministers and other participants, who only become fully conversant with the issues at the end of three days when it is time to depart and go home.

Some proposals

The Commonwealth Consortium for Education has repeatedly proposed to Ministers that greater continuity might be provided by establishing a small representative group of four to six ministers to monitor implementation between conferences and to assist the Secretariat’s education staff in carrying out ministerial mandates. An informed, committed, group of Ministers could provide leadership and impart greater substance to CCEM deliberations. That would seem to be a more effective and less expensive approach than the holding of mid-term

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 12 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 13 postgraduate study, butthisisnotarequirement. the majorityofawards are for conventional There isnocentraladministration. Inpractice any), andtowhichcountries they willbeoffered. how manycountry awards itwillcontribute(if member states. Itisentirely uptoeachindividual offer educationalawards tocitizensofother governments inCommonwealth countriescan The Planprovides aframework through which What istheCSFP? will continue to rest withnationalauthorities. recognising thatleadershipinpolicyandfunding theCSFPasawhole,that cansupport whilst Endowment Fundmightevolve intoastructure Committee establishedtomanagethenew CSFP Universities proposes thattheManagement paper from the Association ofCommonwealth among thosethatdo. Inthesecircumstances, a to participate, ordisseminateinformation mechanism existstoencouragegovernments lack ofany centralorganisationfor theCSFP, no asks Ministerstonotethat, given thecontinuing and standingofthePlan. At the sametime, it Scholars andapplicants confirming thepopularity evidence from surveys ofalumni, current steady growth over thelastdecade. Itpresents awards increased, hasbeenfurther reflecting launched, andalsothatthenumber ofCSFP the Endowment Fundhasbeensuccessfully A reportto18CCEMinMauritiusshows that awards toawiderrangeofmembercountries. Endowment Fund, toextendthelocationof Ministers embarked onanew initiative, aCSFP of thePlanin2009, Commonwealth Education New Zealand. To markthefiftiethanniversary notably theUnitedKingdom, Canada, Indiaand and educationalresources tohostthem, most Commonwealth countrieswiththefinancial in richerandmore educationally developed Historically, award offers have been concentrated point sincethePlanbecameoperationalin1960. have beenheldintwenty-five countriesatsome every Commonwealth country, whilstawards benefited from awards. Scholarshave comefrom collaboration. Almost 30,000individualshave enduring and successful forms of Commonwealth Plan (CSFP)hasproved tobeoneofthemost The Commonwealth ScholarshipandFellowship Introduction 3: Chapter

John Kirkland AND FELLOWSHIP PLAN COMMONWEALTH SCHOLARSHIP -13- on award eachyear settledataround 1,000. during the1970s, asthenumber ofindividuals developing-country institutions. Growth slowed postgraduateworkcountries undertook in students from developed Commonwealth saw theestablishmentofatraditionwhereby numbers ofapplicants hopedfor, thisperiod frustration thattheiroffers didnotattractthe Although somedeveloping countriesexpressed of countrieshostingawards atany onetime –14. in 1967. That year alsosaw thehighestnumber individual award-holders at any one time was met years ofoperation, andarevised targetof1,000 Plan. Numbersgrew rapidly duringthefirst few have recorded trends inthedevelopment ofthe Commonwealth EducationMinisters(CCEMs) presentedReports tosuccessive Conferences of Historical context • • follows: principles were establishedtogovern thePlan, as throughout membercountries. Five general of educationalresources andexperiences by enablingcitizenstoshare thewiderange manifestation ofCommonwealth collaboration, Oxford in1959. Itaimedtoprovide apractical Commonwealth EducationConference at The Planwasestablishedatthefirst however, specifictoasingledonor. learning. Someofthesecategories ofaward are, professionals) andscholarshipsby distance fellowshipsshort-term (typically for mid-career undergraduate awards, split-sitedoctorates, Other forms ofaward currently offered include • • •

countries; experience amongallCommonwealth operation andthesharingofeducational The Planshouldbebasedonmutual co- any otherschemes; The CSFPshouldbedistinctandadditional to highest standards ofintellectualachievement. Awards shouldrecognise andpromote the between sendingandhostcountries; based onaseriesofbilateralarrangements The PlanshouldbeCommonwealth-wide, and take accountofchangingneedsover time; The nature ofawards shouldbeflexible, to 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 3 Chapter 3 Chapter

However the early part of the next decade for the Plan. Particular features include the saw further expansion, partly as a means of following: alleviating the effects of the introduction of full- cost tuition fees for postgraduate study in some • An increase in the average number of new countries. More Commonwealth Scholarships awards taken up per year to 961. were included in the ‘Pym Package’ of support for overseas students in the United Kingdom, • A slight fall in the average number of Scholars whilst Canada also pledged increased support. A and Fellows on award during the 2009-12 new and ambitious target level of 1,500 awards period, from 1,787 to 1,723, suggesting that each year was set by Education Ministers at their the increased number of new awards on Cyprus Conference in 1984 (9CCEM), and was offer tend to be shorter in duration than achieved in 1986. In 1993 the Plan reached an in previous periods. The figure of 1,723 is, all-time high in terms of numbers – with 1,704 however, still high in historical terms. The Scholars and 105 Fellows holding awards. The highest-ever total for a single year was 1809 next six years, however, were a period of rapid (in 2008). The average figure for 2003-2006, decline. This partly reflected the withdrawal of reported at 16CCEM in 2006, was 1,420. several countries as donors, and partly a lack of confidence globally in the impact of scholarships • A total of thirteen countries are known to and higher education as a tool for international have instigated new awards during the2009- development. By the time of 14CCEM in 2000, 2012 period. These were Brunei Darussalam, the numbers of new awards and students Canada, India, Kenya*, Malaysia, Mauritius, on award had slipped back to 450 and 1,021 New Zealand, Nigeria*, Samoa*, South Africa, respectively. Ministers agreed a set of proposals Tanzania*, Trinidad and Tobago and the United to reverse this trend. They included: Kingdom. (Countries marked with an asterisk received support towards their awards • A revised target for the number of new from the new CSFP Endowment Fund.) Two awards, and a doubling of the number of further countries – Botswana and Jamaica – countries offering them; also hosted awards at some point during the triennium – in their cases the award-holders • Much stronger analysis of past award-holders’ had first taken up their awards prior to 2009. achievements, through tracer studies; • A slight abatement in 2009-12 in the trend • Increased co-operation between participating of increasing concentration on masters-level countries, through e.g. the establishment of training, but with a continuing overall strong an international website, bringing information emphasis on postgraduate training. Masters- about the full range of CSFP opportunities level awards still accounted for about 63 together for the first time. per cent of Scholarships, compared with 65 per cent in 2006-09. Doctorates remained a Reports to Education Ministers at Edinburgh significant part of the provision, accounting (2003) and Cape Town (2006) showed that these for 26 per cent of Scholarships. Scholarships proposals were having some impact. The average as a whole account for 83 per cent of awards, number of new awards per year had increased and mid-career Fellowships for the remaining from 412 to 460 by 2003, and subsequently 17 per cent (up from 15 per cent in 2009). increased to 677 and 886 in 2006 and 2009 respectively. The period was also marked by • A marked increase in the proportion of new increases in the number of countries offering awards going to Africa during the past decade. awards and evidence of increased diversity in the The 2009 report stated that Africa’s share types of awards on offer. had passed the 50 per cent mark for the first time ever, whilst by 2012 it had settled at 55 Current situation per cent. This does not appear to be at the expense of South Asia, whose proportion Results of the 2012 survey to be presented at of awards has been a fairly constant 28-30 18CCEM show continued growth and support per cent in recent years. Instead, it marks a decline in the relative proportion awarded to

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 14 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 15 • • • • •

to theeffect thatCSFPoperates alongside countries, however, struck anoteofcaution for theprogramme tobeexpanded. Several impact intheirown countries, andcalling with several respondents reporting strong suggests thatinterest inthePlanremains high, Overall, thesurvey ofnationalagencies to extendthistrend further. CSFP Endowment Fundoffers thepotential 2009 to295in2012. As describedbelow, the outside theUKhasrisenrapidly from 195in in 2009-2012. The number ofawards tenable 78 percentreported in2009to71percent CSFP awards hasslightly fallenfrom alevel of contributor of awards, although its share of all The UnitedKingdomremains thelargest do take genderintoaccount. nominated, suggestingthatselectionpanels selected significantly exceedstheproportion encouraging thattheproportion ofwomen in thetwo previous triennia. Itis, however, 2012 period, compared with44percent per cent, averaging 45percentinthe2009- up awards remains stubbornly below 50 The proportion offemale Scholarstaking being arts. four percentlisttheirsubjectofstudyas (16 percent)andhealth(14cent). Only Other maindisciplineswere socialsciences and engineering(28percentto33cent). increases intheproportions studyingscience Within this, thepastthree years have seen that relate directly todevelopment objectives. for awards, ashiftisevident towards topics Whilst allsubjectsofstudyremain eligible holders. 21 percent, thelatterbeingmainly Fellowship over theageof40risingfrom 19per centto from 16percentto13cent, andthose of award-holders aged24orlessdeclining in the2009-2012period, withtheproportion the triennium2006-2009trend resumed older award-holders. After aslightreversal in A generaltrend inthepastdecadetowards awards overall. in thecontextofincreasing number of percentage shares should, however, beseen the CaribbeanandEast Asia. The changing Australia, Britain, CanadaandNew Zealand, -15- contributions inearly 2012–includinga an initialFellowship in Nigeria. More substantial – inKenya, Mauritius, Samoaand, Tanzania, and itsfirst four Scholarships Fund hadsupported mostly alumnioftheprogramme. By2011, the governments andalmosttwo hundred others, comprising donationsfrom tenCommonwealth generated afundofalmost£6million, By early 2012, theEndowment appeal had added significantnew impetustothisaim. of funding–theCSFPEndowment Fund–has 17CCEM in2009toestablishanew source proved hard toachieve. The decisionofthe but aftertheinitialprogress ofthe1960sthis number ofcountriesoffering awards toincrease, Education Ministers have frequently called for the diversityRelevance and doctoral Fellows andundergraduate exchanges. the rangeofawards onoffer by adding Post- Scholarships. Since2006, Canadahasincreased and adoptingtheideaofdistance-learning introducing mid-career Professional Fellowships, 2002-03, theUKtookthisprocess by further split-site doctorates.of theUKtosupport In distance learningtoCaribbeancountries, and the decisionofCanadatooffer Scholarshipsby diversity and access. Early indicationsofthis were offered infuture, withaview toincreasing donor countriesreview thetypeofaward Conference (14CCEM)wastheproposal that outcome ofthe2000EducationMinisters’ on offer, aswell astheirlocation. A significant Diversity hascharacterisedthenature ofawards the work ofthePlan. degree ofpermanenceandcentraldirection to Moreover, theFundwillprovide awelcome high offourteen, attainedaslongago as1967. 2013, asubstantialincrease ontheprevious as hostseachyear willrisetoover twenty by is expectedthatthenumber ofcountries acting ofexistinghostcountries,continuing support it awards peryear. As aresult ofthis, andthe atleastthirty the Fundwillbeabletosupport beyond. Itisexpectedthatby theendof2013 allow for significantexpansionin2013and contribution of$1millionfrom Australia –will maintained. that thedistinctive nature oftheCSFPis toensure important so makingitparticularly other internationalscholarshipprogrammes, 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 3 Chapter 3 Chapter

These initiatives have now had a significant evaluation of its contribution, which produced impact. More UK award-holders study by its first reports in 2008. Taken together, these distance learning than by any other mode, and initiatives provide a strong base from which the majority of these never visit their “host” both to measure impact and to promote greater country as part of their study-course. The networking between alumni. The 15CCEM in Professional Fellowships programme is smaller, Edinburgh set a target of establishing a database but doubled from the initial intake of thirty containing at least 5,000 former award-holders; in 2003 and has been targeted by the UK for by 2009 the number had extended to some further expansion in the current funding round 5,700. The number now approaches 8,000. to 2015. Taken together, these innovations have been influential in the increased orientation of Initial analysis of impact can be seen from a the scheme to Africa, and to the rising average 2008 survey, which attracted a response rate of age of award-holders referred to above. some 40 per cent – or 2,226 individual alumni. The proportion of award-holders returning The CSFP authorities in the UK are currently to work in their home countries is thought to reviewing the effectiveness of these initiatives, be higher than for overseas students generally; and it will be some years before final conclusions with the recent UK survey finding that 85-90 are reached. The initial indications, however, per cent of recipients were working in their are positive. The distance-learning Scholarships, own countries. This ratio may increase further which achieved their first graduates in 2005, now as the introduction of distance-learning and have almost 200 masters graduates, and report short-term professional awards takes effect. A drop-out rates of less than 10 per cent. This high proportion works in the public sector, with is only slightly higher than for “conventional” higher education the largest single occupation. masters degrees, although the figure may rise Out of the 2,226 respondents to the UK alumni slightly in future. The time taken to obtain the survey, 90 per cent reported maintaining some award is longer, but this is partly compensated form of link with their former host country; 45 for by the ability to apply newly acquired skills per cent claimed in some way to have influenced even before graduation. Professional Fellowships, government thinking in their country, between which have involved a wide range of public, them citing 2,841 specific examples. Alumni had voluntary and private sector organisations also gone on to reach very senior levels. Even as hosts, are thought to provide a direct and though the total figure traced to date represents cost-effective way of transferring skills, and in only a minority of the total number, and is heavily some cases they act as a catalyst for new and biased towards recent alumni who have not long-term international partnerships between yet reached the peak of their careers, examples institutions. have already been found of about 50 alumni who have served at cabinet level, 22 as Permanent Alumni and long-term impact Secretaries, 20 federal or supreme court judges, 11 ambassadors and no less than 75 university In common with many other international vice-chancellors. Utilisation of this resource scholarship programmes, during the first decades presents a significant opportunity for the of its operation the CSFP made little attempt Commonwealth. In addition to a regular hard- to assess the impact of its awards. With the copy magazine, electronic networks are being exception of one international survey in the developed for alumni with common professional late 1980s, little attempt was made to trace interests. The nine “live” ones cover education, former award-holders; still less to evaluate public health, governance, environment, their contribution or harness the expertise and agriculture, gender, science and technology, inter- goodwill generated. Much has changed in recent faith understanding, law and human rights. years. The year 2009 saw the publication of the second Directory of Commonwealth Scholars and Evaluation of the scheme is, however, an Fellows, jointly supported by the authorities in ongoing activity. The British Department for Canada and the United Kingdom. This gives International Development has encouraged the career profiles of almost 4,000 alumni, and UK Commonwealth Scholarships Commission lists the names of some 26,000. The UK has (CSCUK) to devote some one per cent of its also embarked on a long-term programme of (increased) budget to this purpose during the

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 16 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 17 reintroduction ofoccasionalmeetingsbetween co-ordination inrecent years have included the not yet beenactedupon. Attempts toimprove elsewhere –toprovide centralfacilitation, have based attheCommonwealth Secretariat or Longstanding callsfor asmallcentralunit– charged withthistaskonaregular basis. inthe absenceofacentralagency – particularly Overall Planprogress isalsodifficulttomonitor being filtered by theauthorities. transparency, withcandidates’applications all could result inselectionprocedures thatlack small number ofawards. Insomecountries, it off statesthatwere thinkingofoffering a of thetwo-stage selectionsystemmightput for candidatestounderstand. The complexity process canlackco-ordination, andbedifficult The systemalsohasdrawbacks, however. The bear thecostsofadvertising. thatoffers theawardcountry doesnothave to nominations reflect any nationalpriorities. The governmentssending-country should ensure that the riskofcorruption. The involvement of country, helpsensure quality, andminimises one athomeandtheotherinawarding candidates go through two selectionprocesses, represents agenuine partnership. The factthat The above process hasseveral advantages. It awards tenableinitsown country. is alsoresponsible for issuingtheoffers ofany nominating candidatestoothercountries. It The agencyisresponsible, where invited, for normally, butnotalways, anarmofgovernment. appoints itsown nominatingagency. This is management oftheCSFP. Instead, eachcountry Management Committee, there isnocentral Fund, whoseaffairsare overseen by aseparate With theexceptionofnew Endowment theCSFP Administration of scholarship agenciesinMarch 2012. end itconvened aninternationalconference of agreed inthefield, methodology andtothis evaluation techniques, recognising thelackof on to engagewithotherinternationalexperts survey data. The UKCommissionisalsokeen to ensure theregular updatingofthe2008 studies, andaprogramme ofrolling evaluation yielded aseriesofregional andsubject-based 2011-15 fundingperiod. This initiative hasalready -17- 17 CCEM, now offers aroute todiversify CSFP Fund, successfully expanded after itslaunchat unsuccessful applicants. The new Endowment governments, award-holders, alumniandeven remains asstrong asever, amongstmember andrecognitionsuggests thatthissupport to beartheCommonwealth name. Evidence most popularandwell recognised programmes After fifty years, theCSFP remains oneofthe recommendations Prospects and increase thenumber ofawards available. Plan inrecent years by callingfor governments to buildonthesuccess ofthe that Ministersfurther implementation. Finally, thepaper recommends maintaining thekey role ofnationalagenciesin an overview ofthePlan asawhole, whilst It proposes thatthisrole beextendedtoprovide Fund, amechanismnow existsfor centralactivity. of aCommitteetomanagethenew Endowment 18CCEM notesthat, following theestablishment The progress report onCSFPpresented to exchange ofviews between nationalagencies. become more coherent ifany systemexistedfor for encouragingthis; andthatthePlancould persuaded tooffer awards ifany systemexisted asked todoso; thatmore governments couldbe more withtheCommonwealth ifthey were award holdersandalumniwould engagemuch its potential. There isevidence, for example, that ordination may prevent thePlanfrom fulfilling the lackofany centraladministrationandco- founders andthathasworked well. However level –asystemthatwastheintentionof The mainactivityoftheFundremains atnational activities even further. and theUnitedKingdom. directory, between asajointundertaking Canada metwiththepublicationofalumni partly for more collaborationover alumniactivity, was preceding 16CCEM. The final recommendation, for StellenboschinSouth Africa, immediately in July 2001, andafollow-up wasscheduled One suchmeetingwasconvened inLondon principles ofthePlanandoperationalissues. host countries, todiscussboththegeneral 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 3 Chapter 4 Chapter Chapter 4: Working together in Distance Learning Commonwealth of Learning

A precondition for human, social or economic computer and Internet-mediated learning development is an education and training system technologies. accessible to all—as recognised by the United Nations’ eight Millennium Development Goals Alongside such “single-mode” distance learning (MDGs) and the six Education for All (EFA, institutions, more and more traditional education Dakar) targets. institutions have been offering distance learning alternatives and technology-enhanced The basic development agenda of improving programming, converting to fully-fledged “dual health and reducing poverty and hunger calls mode” facilities. for learning on a massive scale, with the focus on improving livelihoods and fostering a healthy Establishment and role of the population. Recruiting and training teachers is a major obstacle to the achievement of Commonwealth of Learning the vital “universal primary education” MDG: Sub-Saharan Africa alone still needs to raise its In 1987, Commonwealth Heads of Government current stock of teachers, 2.9 million, by more received a report entitled, Towards a

than two-thirds to five million by 2015 to reach Commonwealth of Learning: A proposal to create that goal. These estimates in proportional terms the University of the Commonwealth for Co- 2 are little different from those of 2006, when it operation in Distance Learning. Based on the was reckoned that the stock then of 2.4 million findings of that report and a subsequent one teachers would need to reach 4 million by 2015.1 from a working group chaired by John Daniel, leaders agreed to establish a Commonwealth Open and distance learning (ODL) can help institution to encourage the development and enable people to learn or train at the location, sharing of open learning and distance education time and pace of their choice, for less money knowledge, resources and technologies – the and, in some circumstances, with improved Commonwealth of Learning (COL). Their vision results. Over the past decades, governments and was that this agency should be in the vanguard of learning institutions have recognised that the using ODL and ICT developments to meet the financial resources available for conventional Commonwealth’s education and training needs, schooling cannot increase commensurately with helping member states optimise their potential population growth, or adequately cope with the and develop their human capital through need to train human capital through face-to-face extending quality education access to remote education methods alone. Some three million regions, and to people with limited or no face-to- Commonwealth citizens are already engaged in face learning options. some form of distance learning today and these numbers are rapidly rising. COL became operational in 1989. From the beginning, it has received a significant overall Historically, the Commonwealth is a pioneer level of funding, co-operation and support from in the development and growth of ODL. In developing countries. More than two decades the 1970s and 1980s, large and successful since COL’s inception, Commonwealth Heads Commonwealth institutions such as the UK of Government and Ministers of Education Open University, India’s Indira Gandhi National recognise that it is in part due to the efforts Open University, the University of South Africa of COL and a wide international network of (UNISA) and Canada’s Athabasca University partners that distance education is now part of transformed the old-style “correspondence the mainstream of education and training. Today course” into quality education and training there is at least one distance-learning operation systems, using a learner-centred and learner- in each of the Commonwealth’s member states, supported approach to instructional design. including middle and lower-income countries. These and other Commonwealth institutions utilised information and communications While much has been achieved, there is still technology (ICT) such as radio, television and tremendous need. As defined in the EFA and recorded media for education and training, MDG declarations, education is one of the best and today remain early adopters of the latest development strategies to break the human cycle

1 UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), Information Sheet No. 6. The Global Demand for Primary Teachers – 2011 Update (Montreal: UIS, 2011), http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/IS6-2011-Teachers-EN6.pdf. 2 Report of the Expert Group on Commonwealth Co-operation in Distance Education and Open Learning, Chaired by Lord Briggs (London: Commonwealth Secretariat). -18-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 18 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 19 cultural development. gender equity, andoverall economic, social and to benefitfrom improved livelihoods, greater distance andeLearning, thereby enablingthem to qualityeducationandtrainingthrough open, give theCommonwealth’s citizensmore access COL’s to greatest efforts impactisinsupporting democracy, equalityandgood governance. well astheCommonwealth objectives ofpeace, environmental protection andcivilrights; as such asgenderequity, sustainabledevelopment, associated withtheUN’s MDGandEFA targets the key learninganddevelopment challenges benefit from COL’s work, whichaddresses All 53Commonwealth membercountries Programming Its missionandcore goals are shown inBox 4.1. distance educationandappropriate technologies. countries increase theiraccesstolearningusing learning. COLhelpsdeveloping Commonwealth development ofdistanceeducationandopen solely concernedwiththepromotion and the world’s only intergovernmental organisation headquartered in Vancouver, Canada, COLis Hosted by theGovernment ofCanadaand tools for amore productive future. to all, andinproviding themwiththenecessary central role indelivering educationatevery level with thestrategicapplication ofICT, canplay a of poverty, andviolence. misery ODL, coupled opportunities. formal andnon-formal openanddistancelearning skills for leading productive andhealthy lives, through Commonwealth citizensacquiringtheknowledge and A substantialandequitableincrease inthenumber of Impact Statement Strategic Goals: open anddistancelearning(ODL). appropriate technologies, thosethatsupport particularly expand the scale efficiency and qualityoflearning by using The Commonwealth ofLearning helpsgovernments Mission Statement Box 4.1:COLGoals Missionand • • •

development goals Harnessing ODLandtechnologiestoachieve Human resource development intheCommonwealth Quality educationfor allCommonwealth citizens -19- aligned itsprogramme withthisagendaby levels. Initsseconddecade, COLprogressively for theexpansionofeducationandtrainingatall World Forum onEducationfor All setnew goals In 2000theMillenniumDeclarationand • • • • • • • of: catalyst for initiatives suchastheestablishment improving highereducation. COLwasthe the 1990s, itsmainfocus wasexpandingand COL’s impacthasevolved intwo phases. In expanding corpusofevaluation data. about COL’s impactcannow bebacked by an adept atresults-based management. Assertions Since 2000, COLhasalsobecome increasingly entrepreneurship. more prosperous by tapping intotheirspiritof model thatempowers poorpeopletobecome for Farmersinseveral countrieshasyieldeda decade ofactionresearch onLifelong Learning even greater emphasis inthefuture. Similarly, a permeates COL’s programme andwill receive increasing preoccupation of governments, already expanding openschooling. Skillsdevelopment, an of gettingallchildren intoschoolwithout for Educationcouldever achieve theirgoal initiatives suchastheGlobalPartnership because itseemsunlikely thatmulti-national on openschooling. This isavitaldevelopment, COL theworld’s leadingsource ofexpertise A decadeofrefining itsknow-how hasmade to reflect feedback. issuccessful. Thisstrategy continuity offocus withregular adjustments self-replicating takes time, soCOLemphasises For development tobecome sustainableand “Learning for Development”. better health. The programme wasrenamed topromoteopportunities higherincomesand education whilealsoexpandinginformal learning focusing onthekey challengesinformal

Centre for inNew Delhi. Asia (CEMCA) The Commonwealth EducationalMedia University ofMauritius, and The Centre for DistanceLearningatthe University oftheSouthPacific, Restructured extensionstudiesatthe Gandhi NationalOpenUniversity (IGNOU), A teleconferencing network attheIndira The OpenUniversity of Tanzania, A medicaleducationnetwork inMalaysia, Education Centre (UWIDEC), The University ofthe West IndiesDistance 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 4 Chapter 4 Chapter

While often drawing upon the experience and COL helps countries develop policies and expertise of the Commonwealth’s industrialised systems that extend the benefits of education to countries, COL strives to develop South-South more of their citizens. It works with institutional co-operation. Its streamlined core staffing allows and individual partners to give policy advice it to target resources and activities efficiently and to implement programme activities in to the needs of individual countries, using consultation with governments, and provides collaborative networking to foster regional co- best practice examples that demonstrate how operation and exchanges. Box 4.2 illustrates the ODL can help education opportunities expand wide scope of COL’s work. more rapidly.

Box 4.2: Examples of COL’s Work, 2009-2012

Open Schooling • Providing support for the establishment of new open schools in Cameroon, Ghana, Kiribati, Nigeria, Pakistan, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Trinidad & Tobago. • Leading the establishment of the Commonwealth Open Schooling Association (COMOSA). • Improving and extending the capacity of the National Teachers Institute (NTI) in Nigeria and the National Institute for Open Schooling (NIOS) in India, and mobilising NIOS as a resource for the development of open schooling systems in other countries. Establishing a national Open School in Trinidad & Tobago.

Technical and Vocational Skills Development • Helping extend the reach of flexible skills development among technical and vocational education and training (TVET) institutions in Africa, working in many instances with the Commonwealth Association of Polytechnics in Africa (CAPA). • Supporting expansion of TVET in the Pacific through literacy and basic trades programmes.

Advocacy • Advocating the creation, sharing and use of open educational resources (OER). • Building capacity in ODL through online and face-to-face workshops about learner support, instructional design, materials development, OER, leadership and research. • Sponsoring a biennial Pan-Commonwealth Forum on Open Learning.

Teacher Education • Developing ICT capacity among teachers through the Commonwealth Certificate for Teacher ICT Integration. • Introducing UNICEF’s Child-Friendly Schools approach to pre- and in-service teacher education curricula in 10 countries, including training of 1,800 teacher educators. • Increasing access to quality teacher training through the use of ODL and ICT in both pre- and in-service teacher development.

Community Health • Leading expanding of community radio in India from 13 stations in 2007 to 125 in 2011. • Working with community groups, media organisations, health agencies and governments to create participatory community learning programmes that address health issues such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, maternal and child health, and nutrition.

Higher Education • Supporting quality assurance in higher education institutions through the COL Review and Improvement Model (COL RIM) for effective quality audits. • Establishing the Virtual University for Small States of the Commonwealth, a collaborative network for creating open educational resources for work-related learning created at the request of Commonwealth Ministers of Education.

Lifelong Learning for Farming • Helping improve rural economies through Lifelong Learning for Farmers (L3 Farmers), a programme that combines the social mobilisation of villagers, use of commercial ICT kiosks, organisation of consortia of information providers and integration of commercial banks.

Training for International Organisations • Assisting a growing number of major international organisations to solve training challenges through COL eLearning for International Organisations programmes.

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 20 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 4 COL is not itself a funding body. In the area for distance education such as the Regional of knowledge provision, COL strives to “level Training and Research Institute for Distance the playing field” by developing and running and Open Learning (RETRIDOL) serving West systems that enable policy-makers, educators Africa and the SADC Distance Education Centre and learners in the world’s poorest countries (SADC-CDE) for Southern Africa. It sustains to access information and knowledge on par links with NGOs in many countries and has an with that available to people in the wealthy G8 important relationship with the William and countries. COL produces research publications, Flora Hewlett Foundation for developing open start-up guides and online resources for educational resources (see Box 4.3). governments, institutions and practitioners. Structure Partners COL is governed by an international Board of COL works in close association with Governors chaired by H.E., the Hon. Burchell Commonwealth governments in a spirit of Whiteman, O.J., retired Senator and former equality and participation, and operates though Minister of Information and former Minister a wide range of partnerships. It seeks to create of Education and Culture, Jamaica. Six major mutually beneficial linkages, especially of a voluntary contributors, currently Canada, South-South character, between Commonwealth India, New Zealand, Nigeria, South Africa and countries. the United Kingdom, have representatives on COL’s Board of Governors. There are also Key Commonwealth partners include the representatives from all four regions of the Commonwealth Secretariat and UNESCO as Commonwealth – Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and well as regional governmental organisations the Pacific. Australia has just recently re-joined such as the Caribbean Community Secretariat COL as a major funder. (CARICOM), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and Southern African The current President and Chief Executive Development Community (SADC). Officer is Professor Asha Kanwar, one of the world’s leading advocates of learning for COL and the Commonwealth Secretariat’s Social development. Prior to joining COL in 2003, Dr. Transformation Programmes Division work Kanwar’s experience includes serving as Pro-Vice together closely to ensure that requests from Chancellor of Indira Gandhi National Open governments for assistance are addressed in a University (IGNOU) and promoting ODL in prompt and effective manner. They also maintain Africa as a consultant with UNESCO’s Regional effective links with Commonwealth associations Office for Education in Africa (BREDA) in Dakar, (e.g., the Association of Commonwealth Senegal. Universities) and non-governmental organisations (such as the Commonwealth Consortium for With some 45 employees distributed between Education) for the same purpose. COL and its headquarters in Vancouver, Canada and the the Secretariat are specifically harmonising Commonwealth Educational Media Centre their work in teacher education, health, respect for Asia (CEMCA) in New Delhi, India, COL and understanding (Civil Paths to Peace) and reflects the cultural diversity and breadth of the Virtual University for Small States of the the Commonwealth. Senior staff members, who Commonwealth (VUSSC), more fully described serve on rotation, are recruited from around in Box 4.5. COL’s expertise and experience in the Commonwealth in a wide range of distance distance education and educational technologies education and administrative fields. is particularly useful. COL is also assisting the Commonwealth Foundation to update its At approximately Cdn$11 million per year, knowledge management systems. COL’s annual budget remains modest for a Commonwealth institution tasked with its COL also has strong networks of partners in broad mandate. COL obtains resources for its its various areas of activity. In education, these work in various ways. Its core financing comes include the Commonwealth’s distance-teaching in the form of voluntary contributions from universities, open schools, and regional centres Commonwealth governments. COL augments

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Box 4.3: COL’s Work with Open All (EFA) goals and the Commonwealth priorities Educational Resources (OER) of peace, democracy, equality and the rule of law COL has been at the forefront of the OER movement, as its framework for action. The Plan has three which promotes the creation, sharing and adaptation of strategic goals: learning materials that anyone can freely use for teaching, learning, development and research. Most recently, COL • Quality education for all spearheaded an initiative to get governments worldwide Commonwealth citizens: Increased to recognise officially the importance of sharing OER. access to affordable primary, secondary and ‘Fostering Governmental Support for OER Internationally’ tertiary education, especially for girls, women involved consultation workshops in every region of the and the marginalised. Commonwealth and a survey of governments worldwide, culminating in the presentation of the Paris Declaration at UNESCO’s World OER Congress in June 2012. The • Human resources development Paris Declaration is a commitment to making educational in the Commonwealth: Sustainable resources developed with public funds freely available for and replicable learning systems in place for re-use and re-purposing under open licences. farming, health and skills development in the formal and informal sectors. A previous COL-UNESCO collaboration, ‘Taking OER beyond the OER Community’ spread awareness of the • Harnessing ODL and technologies to value of open content, particularly among policy makers achieve development goals: Improved and institutional managers. This led to the publication of numerous resources, including A Basic Guide to Open capacity of governments and civil society to Educational Resources and Guidelines for OER in Higher provide quality learning for achieving MDG Education.3 and EFA goals.

COL led a pan-Commonwealth collaboration, ‘OER for COL’s work is focused on seven initiatives in Open Schools’, which involved extensive training in ODL two programme sectors. The Education Section course materials development. Six open schools took includes Open Schooling, Teacher Education, part in the initiative, which resulted in the development of Higher Education and the Virtual University for course materials in 20 subjects at the Grade 10 level. The Small States of the Commonwealth (VUSSC). materials are freely available as OER, providing both open schools and conventional schools with open access to Under Livelihoods and Health, there are quality learning materials. three initiatives: Technical and Vocational Skills Development, Lifelong Learning for Farmers and COL also supports the OER University (OERu), a network Healthy Communities. Gender and eLearning of colleges, polytechnics and universities from Africa, Asia, are cross-cutting themes that underpin and North America and the Pacific who are collaborating complement all seven initiatives. An overview of to provide free learning opportunities for students current priorities is provided by Box 4.4. worldwide using courses based solely on OER. While nearly all of COL’s past initiatives will continue to be pursued under this plan for this major part of its budget with income from 2012-2015, COL will focus more closely on other sources such as grants received from other the outcome and impact of these initiatives. intergovernmental organisations and foundations The emphasis in this Three-Year Plan is on skills in support of programme initiatives, fees received development, the education of girls and women, for professional services and interest on bank and promoting the use of open educational balances. There is also significant ‘in kind’ support resources (OER). Further details about VUSCC from COL’s partners. are shown in Box 4.5.

Three-Year Plan, 2012-2015 Each sector pursues its aims through five core strategies: partnerships, models, policies, capacity The theme of COL’s new Three-Year Plan and materials. In practice, most COL activities remains ‘Learning for Development’.4 This plan incorporate more than one of these strategies extends to 2015, the target date set for the and, in some cases, all five. achievement of a number of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). COL uses the internationally agreed MDGs, the Education for

3 N. Butcher, A Basic Guide to Open Educational Resources (Vancouver and Paris: COL and UNESCO, 2011); COL, Guidelines for Open Educational Resources (OER) in Higher Education (Vancouver: COL, 2012). 4 http://www.col.org/resources/publications/Pages/detail.aspx?PID=388. -22-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 22 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 23 • for three reasons: countries tomaximisetheimpactoftheirefforts COL willbeapreferred inhelpingthese partner that they willstillface. challenges ofexpandingschoolingandlearning on theirown inaddressing theconsiderable Developing countries are likely tobelargely development aidresources torevised goals. the MillenniumDeclarationandallocatenew is mostunlikely thatworld bodieswillupdate scorecard for thosegoals may thenappear, it Development Goals. Nomatterhow patchy the the achievement ofmosttheMillennium plan takes COLto2015, thetargetdatefor paradigm ofdevelopment aidobsolete. This countries have rendered thetraditional rapid emergenceofChinaandotherdeveloping economic difficultiesinrichercountriesandthe greater impactinanew environment. Persistent In itsthird decade, COLmust achieve even Looking forward 5

See http://www.vussc.org. reach 100,000learners. improve thequalityanddiversity oftheirprovision to institutions infour regions oftheCommonwealth Performance indicator: andpost-secondary 60secondary through theuseofODL. and qualityoftheirformal educationsystemsatalllevels Outcome: Target institutionsimprove theaccessibility the Commonwealth (VUSSC). Education andthe University Virtual for SmallStatesof Initiatives: OpenSchooling, Teacher Education, Higher 1. Education COL Performance IndicatorsOutcomes and of Box 4.4:Programme-level Intermediate skills andknowledge toenhancetheirincomeandhealth. Performance indicator: 80,000citizensacquire better improve theirlivelihoods through theuseofODL. to women, youth andresource-poor communities to better andmore non-formal learningopportunities Outcome: anddevelopment Partners organisationsoffer Lifelong Learningfor FarmersandHealthy Communities. Initiatives: Technical and Vocational SkillsDevelopment, Health 2. Livelihoods and feasible way ofachieving this, willcomeinto based approaches, whichare themost at low cost. Open, distanceandtechnology- be toachieve scalewithqualityandequity The key imperative for educationsystemswill -23- • •

engaged inmakingthe VUSSC areality. countries from allCommonwealth regions are actively from small statesinallregions oftheCommonwealth. led by aManagementCommitteewithrepresentation legitimacy oftheseeLearningprogrammes. VUSSC isnow between countriesandgive students confidenceinthe Framework facilitatesthetransfer ofcoursesandcredits other courses. The VUSSC Transnational Qualifications access totheseuniversity-level courses, alongwith many as OERthrough COL’s website, whichprovides free Newly developed VUSSC coursematerialsare available home. materials, continuing theircollaborationafterreturning attheworkshopsParticipants begantocreate course information (ICT)skills. andcommunication technology have hosted VUSSC workshops totraineducatorsin Samoa, theSeychelles, Singapore, and Trinidad and Tobago Since 2006, theBahamas, Lesotho, theMaldives, Mauritius, of pan-Commonwealth workshops facilitatedby COL. VUSSC coursematerialshave beendeveloped ataseries bridge across thedigitaldivide. the innovative useofICT. The VUSSC isthrowing awide development andleadersineducationalreform through Small statesthusbecomeactive contributors toglobal educational capacity andoutreach. institutions,countries’ postsecondary strengthening their used intheoffering ofcredit-bearing qualificationsinthe be adapted tothespecificcontextofeachcountry, are electronically-held coursematerials, whichcanreadily technical andvocational subjects. These non-proprietary, disaster management, and a range of the fisheries industry tourism, entrepreneurship, professional development, post-secondary, skills-related coursesinareas suchas VUSSC countrieshave chosentofocus oncreating Commonwealth MinistersofEducation. States oftheCommonwealth (VUSSC)onbehalfof COL launchedthe University Virtual for Small theCommonwealth States of Box 4.5:Virtual University forSmall informal learning. proven modelsfor expandingbothformal and investment by adapting tolocalcontextsits can helpthemachieve impactfor their development countries, inparticular COL are ready toinvest ineducationandskills Where externalbodies, privateorpublic, and institutionalleaders. local peopleandthedynamismofcommunity that tap intotheentrepreneurial spiritof upwards by refining modelsofdevelopment COL hasalways worked from thegrassroots for theseapproaches.expertise their own. COLisaworld-class source of 5 Thirty-three 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 4 Chapter 4 5 Chapter Chapter 5: THE COMMONWEALTH AND EDUCATION FOR ALL Steve Packer The Commonwealth accelerate efforts to achieve quality universal commitment primary education, in line with the MDGs and Education for All goals”. They further agreed In modern times, the concept of Education for All “to help children attain basic levels of literacy (EFA) has its basis in the Universal Declaration and numeracy by strengthening international of Human Rights (1948). Articulated as an mechanisms and co-operation, including through expanded vision of basic education at the World new technologies”. They called for a “successful Conference on Education in Jomtien (1990), six completion of the first replenishment of the EFA goals were agreed at the World Education Global Partnership for Education in Copenhagen 4 Forum in Dakar (April 2000). Later in 2000, the in November 2011”. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were endorsed, including specific targets for universal From Jomtien to Dakar and primary education (UPE), and gender parity in New York and to the Global schooling. Partnership for Education The Commonwealth has made its own broad political commitment to EFA on a regular basis. At Jomtien, The World Declaration on Education Following Jomtien, the 1991 Harare Declaration for All was adopted along with its Framework 5 pledged “provision of universal access to for Action. The Declaration focused on basic education for the population of our countries”.1 learning needs and the goals of universalising Post-Dakar, in the Halifax Statement on Education access and promoting equity. It is widely in the Commonwealth (2000), Commonwealth agreed that Jomtien put basic education back Ministers of Education reiterated their belief in on national and international policy agendas. “the right of everyone to education”.2 However, progress on access and quality was relatively modest during the 1990s, as the 2000 6 At the 17th Conference of Commonwealth EFA Assessment demonstrated clearly. While Education Ministers (CCEM) in Malaysia 2009, in the Dakar Forum of 2000 re-affirmed Jomtien’s what has become something of a CCEM ritual, objectives, it was agreed that more specific goals Ministers: and targets should be set.

Reaffirmed their commitment to achieving Six ambitious EFA goals – both quantitative and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) qualitative – were agreed and set out in the 7 and Education for All (EFA) goals by the Dakar Framework for Action : 2015 deadline. However, they noted that one-third of Commonwealth countries have 1. Expanding and improving comprehensive yet to achieve universal primary education early childhood care and education, especially and gender parity. They agreed to prioritise for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged the challenge of reaching some 27 million children; Commonwealth children, who do not currently receive schooling, and those who do 2. Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly not complete primary education successfully, girls, children in difficult circumstances and to make universal primary education a reality.3 those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete, free and compulsory More recently, Commonwealth Heads of primary education of good quality; Government (meeting in Perth, Australia, 2011) agreed to “promote inclusive education and to 3. Ensuring that the learning needs of all young

1 Commonwealth Heads of Government, Harare Commonwealth Declaration 1991 (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 1991). 2 http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/181889/34293/35232/191279/35248/14th_conference_of_commonwealth_education_ minister.htm. 317th Conference of Commonwealth Education Ministers – Kuala Lumpur Communiqué. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/ document/208198/17ccem_communique.htm. 4 Commonwealth Heads of Government, Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 Communiqué (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2011), http://www.thecommonwealth.org/subhomepage/33247. 5 UNESCO, World Declaration on Education for All and Framework for Action to Meet Basic Learning Needs (Paris: UNESCO, 1990). 6 http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/efa_2000_assess/index.shtml. 7 The Dakar Framework for Action. Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments (Paris: UNESCO, 2000) http://www.unesco.org/ education/wef/en-conf/dakfram.shtm. -24-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 24 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 25 by 2015. reduce significantly allmajoraspectsofpoverty agreed. Itincludedeightgoals designedto later in2000, theMillenniumDeclarationwas At theUNMillenniumSummitinNew York resources”. in theirachievement ofthisgoal by alackof committed toeducationfor allwill bethwarted It affirmedtoothat “nocountriesseriously (c) aninternationalEFA monitoringreport. convened by UNESCO’s Director-General and the creation ofahigh-level EFA group tobe their collaborative momentumincludingthrough in co-ordinating EFA andmaintaining partners (b) UNESCO’s continuation ofitsmandatedrole to provide effective tonationalefforts; support strategies andmobilisingtheresources needed for (a)aglobalinitiative aimedatdeveloping the The DakarFramework for Action alsocalled 6. 5. 4. Leader ofEducationfor All (EFA) (Paris: UNESCO, 2011). targets are broadly intheir complementary While theEFA goals andtheMDGgoals and all levels by 2015”. educationpreferablysecondary by 2005, andat and “to eliminategenderdisparityinprimary and empower women, includesthetarget The fifth goal, topromote genderequality schooling”.complete afullcourseofprimary second goal isto “ensure that allboys andgirls good basiceducationfor reducing poverty, the 11 10 9 8 http://www.educationfasttrack.org http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-all/international-cooperation/high-level-group/ UNESCO, Executive by theDirectorGeneral BoardReports onEducationfor All: ontheRolefor UNESCOasGlobalCoordinatorand Report literacy, numeracy andessentiallife skills. outcomes are achieved by all, especially in that recognised andmeasurablelearning education andensuringexcellenceofallso Improving allaspectsofthequality good quality; to andachievement inbasiceducationof focus onensuringgirls’fullandequalaccess gender equalityineducationby 2015, witha educationby 2005,secondary andachieving and Eliminating genderdisparitiesinprimary continuing educationfor alladults; women, andequitableaccesstobasic levels ofadultliteracyby 2015, especially for Achieving a50percentimprovement in programmes; access toappropriate learningandlife-skills people andadultsare metthrough equitable 8 Inrecognition of a oftheimportance -25- to meettheEFA andMDGgoals madein international response tothecommitment GPE represents thesinglemostimportant additional 25millionchildren intoschool. The for theperiod2012-2014inorder toputan Campaign waslaunchedfor US$1.5billion UNESCO’s EFA co-ordination role reviewed. limited profile andimpact. Yet only in2011was Leone, Uganda, andZambia). Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Sierra Gambia, Ghana, Guyana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, members oftheCommonwealth (Cameroon, the fromtechnical andfinancialsupport GPE, 13are 2000. Ofthe47countriesthathave received and 2011. EFA High-Level Group meetings between 2001 the UNESCODirector-General convened ten In response torecommendations from Dakar, Co-ordination monitoring and for allchildren”. new commitmenttoprovide qualityeducation for Education(GPE)with Global Partnership “a MDGs. In2011, FTIwasre-launched asthe low-income countriesachieve theeducation designedtohelp launched asaglobalpartnership In 2002, theEFA Fast Track Initiative (FTI)was sector andpoverty-reduction planning. have given risetosometensionineducation- international agencies, thesedifferent emphases reduction. Insomecountries, andinsome MDGs are driven strongly by thegoal ofpoverty education rightsandneedsofallagegroups. The rights approach toeducation, recognising the on schooling. Itisgrounded inastrong human than theeducationMDGswhichfocus entirely intentions, theEFA agendaisagood dealbroader immediately post-Dakar. approach would have UNESCOwell served Education for All. This typeofcampagning international figures toachieve toboostefforts Graça Macheltowork withagroup of influential, panel, convened jointly by Gordon Brown and for Education(GCE)hasestablishedahigh-level Outside theUNmachinery, theGlobalCampaign the presence ofpoliticalleaders”. Nations General Assembly, “to take advantage of a majorhigh-level meeting, suchastheUnited annually: itistobeorganisedonthesidelinesof Now anEFA High-Level Forum istobeheld 10 These gatheringshave hadvery 9 A GPEReplenishment 11

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ChapterForeword 5 Chapter 4 5 Chapter

An editorially independent EFA Global in 1990), of whom 53 per cent are girls (58 per Monitoring Report (GMR) was established in cent in 2000).18 This figure includes children 2002, based at UNESCO in Paris. The GMR who have never enrolled in school (47 per cent), will publish its tenth annual report in 2012 on those who have dropped out (26 per cent) and the theme of EFA and skills development.12 The those are expected to enter school in the future report monitors and analyses progress towards (27 per cent). While the overall trend is positive, the EFA goals, and assesses the level and the most impressively in South and West Asia, there quality of international aid for EFA. It explores have been no significant improvements in the last significant EFA themes: gender equality (2003/04); three years (2008-2010); indeed, in sub-Saharan quality (2005); literacy (2006); early childhood Africa the total figure of out-of-school children development and education (2007); governance has risen from 29 million in 2008 to 31 million in (2009); reaching the marginalised (2010); and 2010. education and conflict (2011). It works closely with the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), As Figure 5.1 shows, seven Commonwealth which has an international mandate to collect, countries had more than 500,000 children out of quality-assure and analyse education data.13 school in 2010. It is estimated that Nigeria has 17 per cent of the world’s out-of-school children,19 Progress towards the MDGs is also monitored while India and Pakistan together have 12 per by the UN Statistics Division though the work cent. of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group (IAEG) on MDG Indicators.14 The World Bank too issues Patterns of the enrolment of primary school its own Global Monitoring Report15 each year to age children vary across the Commonwealth chart progress on the MDGs. (see Table 5.1). For 43 countries for which net enrolment data are available for 2008, 16 have Progress and prospects16 net enrolment rates (NERs) of 95 per cent and above.20 Many of these countries have a The 53 full member countries of the long tradition of free and compulsory primary Commonwealth17 are diverse in terms of education but some, such as Tanzania and population, size, income levels and their Zambia, have shown recent and rapid increases in place on the ladder of progress towards EFA. levels of enrolment as the result of major policy Approximately, 55 per cent of the peoples of the reforms and increased levels of investment in Commonwealth live in India, while 19 countries basic education. (36 per cent) have a population below 500,000 (2011 estimates). Eleven Commonwealth Further down the continuum, 19 countries countries are high-income (as classified by the have primary NERs between 61 per cent and World Bank), 28 middle-income and 12 low- 90 per cent; 12 of these being in sub-Saharan income. On UNDP’s Human Development Index Africa. Eight countries have NERs of 75 per cent (HDI) rankings, 22 Commonwealth countries or lower – i.e. more than 25 per cent of their have a very high or high HDI, 12 a medium school age children out of school (Dominica, the ranking and 16 countries (almost entirely in Sub- Gambia, Lesotho, Nauru, Nigeria, Pakistan and 21 Saharan Africa) a low HDI (2011 estimates). the Solomon Islands).

It is estimated (2010 data) that 61 million children are out of school worldwide at the primary and junior secondary levels (105 million

12 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/efareport/reports/2012-skills. 13 http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Pages/default.aspx 14 http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Host.aspx?Content=IAEG.htm 15 http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTDECPROSPECTS/0,,contentMDK:22876426~menuPK:7859331~pagePK:6416 5401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:476883,00.html 16 This section is restricted to brief consideration of the EFA goals of UPE, gender parity and literacy. 17 Fiji is currently suspended from the Commonwealth. Nominally it is the 54th member. 18 Data for this section are derived from UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), Reaching Out of School Children is Crucial for Development:Fact Sheet No. 18. (Montreal, UIS, 2012). 19 This figure must be interpreted with some caution, given that millions of Nigerian children attend Islamic schools. 20 UNESCO, EFA Global Monitoring Report 2011. The Hidden Crisis: Armed Conflict and Education (Paris: UNESCO, 2011). 21 The inclusion of Dominica is almost certainly due to a data error in the statistics. -26-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 26 09/08/2012 18:23 Foreword Chapter 5 FIGURE 5.1: COUNTRIES WITH MORE THAN 500,000 CHILDREN OUT OF SCHOOL, 2010

Source: UIS, Fact Sheet No. 18 (Note 18). Notes: (a) Data for 2011; (b) Data for 2009; (c) Data for 2008. Figure presents selected countries with available data.

The MDG and EFA gender parity target-date Although data are unreliable and difficult to of 2005 for primary and secondary education compare across countries, it is estimated that, was passed with mixed success. Had the world globally, 17 per cent of the world’s population achieved gender parity at the primary level lack basic literacy skills. Women make up nearly in 2005, in 2008 there would have been an two-thirds of this total. The majority of these additional 3.4 million girls in primary school.22 disadvantaged peoples live in ten countries, Based on 2008 data, globally, two-thirds of 181 three of which are Commonwealth countries in countries had achieved gender parity in primary South Asia (India 283 million; Pakistan 51 million; education and one-third of 177 countries had Bangladesh 49 million). With Nigeria (35 million), achieved parity at the secondary level. these four countries are home to over 50 per cent of the world total. Adult literacy is, relatively As Table 5.1 (page 28) shows, 27 Commonwealth speaking, the poor EFA relation in terms of countries for which data are available are within the national and international attention that it two decimal points of the Gender Parity Index of receives; accordingly, the prospects for short- 1 at the primary level. The majority of this group term improvements appear limited. The absolute achieved parity at the primary level decades numbers of people without literacy continue to ago, but the very significant progress that many rise. (See also the discussion in Chapter 7.) Lack African countries have made has come in the last of literacy skills, however, is not a challenge in ten years (e.g. Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda). In developing countries alone: recent data from the some countries there is still a significant gap to United Kingdom, for example, suggests that up to close (e.g. Cameroon, Nigeria, and Pakistan); in five million of its adults cannot read effectively. others, disparities are now in favour of girls (e.g. Bangladesh).

22 UNESCO (Note 20). -27-

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TABLE 5.1: Primary Net Enrolment Rates and Gender Parity Indices in Commonwealth countries, 2008, by Region COUNTRY PRIMARY PRIMARY COUNTRY PRIMARY PRIMARY EDUCATION GENDER EDUCATION GENDER NER PARITY NER PARITY INDEX INDEX

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA EUROPE & NORTH AMERICA Botswana 87.0 1.02 Canada n.a n.a. Cameroon 88.0 0.87 Cyprus 99.0 0.99 The Gambia 69.0 1.07 Malta 91.0 1.01 Ghana 77.0 1.01 United 100.0 1.00 Kingdom Kenya 82.0 1.01 Lesotho 73.0 1.04 CARIBBEAN Malawi 88.0 1.06 Antigua & 88.0 0.94. Barbuda Mauritius 94.0 1.01 Bahamas 91.0 1.02 Mozambique 80.0 0.94 Barbados n.a. n.a. Namibia 89.0 1.05 Belize 98.0 1.00 Nigeria 61.0 0.90 Dominica 72.0 1.09 Rwanda 96.0 1.03 Grenada 93.0 0.98 Seychelles n.a. n.a. Guyana 95.0 1.00 Sierra Leone n.a n.a. Jamaica 80.0 0.97 South Africa 87.0 1.00 St Kitts & Nevis n.a. n.a. Swaziland 83.0 1.02 St Lucia 91.0 0.99 Tanzania 99.0 1.03 St Vincent 95.0 0.94 Uganda 96.0 1.00 Trinidad and 92.0 0.99 Tobago Zambia 95.0 1.01 PACIFIC ASIA Australia 97.0 1.01 Bangladesh 85.0 1.02 Kiribati n.a. n.a. Brunei 93.0 1.00 Nauru 72.0 1.01 Darussalam India 90.0 0.96 New Zealand 99.0 1.01 Malaysia 96.0 1.00 Papua New n.a. n.a. Guinea Maldives 96.0 0.98 Samoa 93.0 1.00 Pakistan 66.0 0.83 Solomon 67.0 1.00 Islands Singapore n.a. n.a. Tonga 99.0 n.a. Sri Lanka 99.0 1.01 Tuvalu n.a. n.a. Vanuatu n.a n.a.

Source: UNESCO (Note 20).

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 28 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 29 Council (WAEC). Educational Quality(SACMEQ) for andthe Monitoring Consortium Trends MathematicsandScienceStudy(TIMMS);. inInternational 28 27 26 25 24 23 Challenges improve efficiencyandquality. matched withanequally strong determinationto significant gainsinaccessandequityhave tobe MDGs through majorpolicyreforms. But faster towards theEFA goals andtheeducation demonstrated thatitispossibletomove much A number ofCommonwealth countrieshave decade willbedilutedoratworst lost. danger thattheeducationaldividendsofpast is notpromising (seebelow). There isasevere likelihood ofaidfillingwidening resource gaps and conditionalcashtransfer programmes. The the needieststudentsthrough schoolfeeding have madeinabolishingschoolfees andtargeting progress thatmany Commonwealth countries spending in2009. This trend isthreatening the countries withavailable datacuteducation 40percentoflow income Monitoring Report constrained. According totheEFA Global the educationcostsofcrisisisseverely The abilityofgovernments tocounteract school attendanceandlearning. school becauseofthecrisis. Malnutrition limits additional 350,000willfailtocompleteprimary from school. The World Banksuggeststhatan Zambia show thatchildren are beingwithdrawn importance. Studiesfrom Bangladesh, Kenya and downturn. The riseinfood pricesisofparticular charges isexacerbatedby theglobaleconomic The challengeofmeetingschoolfees andother violent conflict. areas ofcosts, educationalquality, HIV/AIDSand sector. This discussionwillfocus onthefour extend beyond theboundariesofeducation programmes have todealwithchallengesthat of access, equityandquality. Increasingly, these education andhow toimprove the “triumvirate” programmes thatgive weight toEFA andbasic strategies andeducationsectorplans countries have developed poverty reduction alllow-incomeVirtually Commonwealth Literacy (DurhamNC: RTI International, 2011). The Caribbean ExaminationsCouncil(CXC),The Caribbean theSouthPacific Board for Educational Assessment (SPBEA)andthe West Examinations African ReadingLiteracy Study(PIRLS);The ProgressonInternational theProgrammeStudent for International Assessment (PISA); theSouthern African See https://www.eddataglobal.org/math/index.cfm. See, for example, A. Gove and A. Wetterberg (eds), Grade Reading The Early Assessment: toImprove Basic Applications andInterventions Ibid. http://www.globalpartnership.org/our-work/areas-of-focus/early-grade-reading.

-29- arithmetic. youth indeveloping countriescannotdobasic Furthermore, it is estimated that three out of ten undertaking Early GradeReading undertaking Assessments 2005, includingmany intheCommonwealth) are A growing number ofcountries(over 50since engage infour different internationalassessment that twenty-three Commonwealth countries Concern aboutqualityisreflected inthefact programmes, numeracy. there are alsocomparableassessmentsfor would beinsufficienttoattainUPEinUganda, per annum. Pastratesofteacherrecruitment is increasing itsteacherstockby 8percent a pupil-teacherratioof40:1, even thoughit teachingforceprimary toachieve UPEwith For example, Mozambiqueneedstodoubleits of considerableCommonwealth discussion. more andbetterteachershasbeenamatter of learningoutcomes. theneedfor Inparticular considerable causefor concernover low levels professionals. Proxy measures ofqualitysuggest exercises allgovernments andeducation Conferences demonstrate, theissueofquality As recent Commonwealth Education Africa in theCaribbean, theSouthPacificand West to schooling. The GPEestimatesthat: has laggedbehindprogress inimproving access progress towards improved learningoutcomes Commonwealth isthin. Butitseemsclearthat of education, comparative evidence across the On thesecondchallenge, thatofthequality them hopelessly drop outfrom school. students struggletocatchupandsomeof other typesofknowledge. Poorly performing is progressively usedasatoolfor acquiring each schoolyear, whenthereading ability behind in theearly gradeswillfallfurther even basicwords…children whofailtoread developing countriesare strugglingtoread schoolchildren in 200 millionprimary 26 facilitateregional overviews ofstandards. 28 24

25 whileregional examinationbodies 23

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Bangladesh, Kenya, Pakistan and Malawi. The latest expectations of retention and loss due levels of qualifications for primary teachers vary to HIV/AIDS.30 considerably across the Commonwealth, from Tonga whose teachers are all tertiary qualified, to The fourth challenge, violent conflict, is taking Mozambique where 60 per cent of teachers have an enormous toll on education and the ability no more than lower secondary level education. of states to advance towards EFA. At least 35 countries suffered from conflict from 1999 to A third major challenge is the HIV/AIDS 2008 (including a number of Commonwealth pandemic, which over the last 20 years has countries). Forty-two per cent of the children destroyed much of what education has tried out of school live in these countries. The EFA to achieve in many Commonwealth countries. GMR of 2011 describes this situation as the Although the rates of prevalence are falling in Hidden Crisis. It argues that education must be many countries, it is estimated that 34 million given a much more central role in post-conflict people of all ages lived with HIV in 2009 (30 reconstruction agendas, including making million in developing countries; over 16 million in education a force for peace. East and Southern Africa alone).29 The estimated number of children living with HIV is 3.4 million, Aid for EFA of whom 3.1 million live in Africa. There are over 17 million children who are AIDS orphans (15 Figure 5.2 shows that, between 2002 and 2009, million in Africa). aid to education increased from US$6.8 billion to US$13.4 billion (at constant 2009 values). The The relationship of HIV/AIDS to education is figure for basic education increased from US$2.7 multi-faceted. On the one hand there is the billion to US5.6 billion, staying at about 40 per need to safeguard education: to protect teachers cent of the total aid to education over the past suffering from HIV; to prevent sexual harassment decade. Of this sum approximately US$3billion and abuse in schools; to meet shortfalls in went to the poorest countries whereas the teacher supply resulting from death and illness; EFA GMR of 2011 estimates that this group and to ensure that all children are able to go of countries requires US$16 billion a year to to school. On the other hand, education must achieve the EFA goals by 2015. In the current play a lead role in limiting the spread of AIDS situation of austerity, there are clear signs of a through formal and non-formal interventions. squeeze on aid budgets which puts this level of These objectives may be enshrined in national assistance out of sight. AIDS and education strategies, the success of which depends on open communication about The four main donors to education in the AIDS and the activities that put people at risk of Commonwealth are Australia, Canada, New infection, on strong political leadership, and on Zealand and the United Kingdom. Together they programmes and activities that are tailored to provided a total of US$1.23 billion in 2008 (less specific education and community needs. than 10 per cent of total aid to education), of which U$765 billion went to basic education (62 Ministers of Education from Commonwealth per cent). Australia and the UK remained on an Small States recognised their responsibilities in upward trajectory in their support for education; these regards in the Stoke Rochford Statement Canada, on the other hand, has reduced its aid of 2004. The commitment is made that: budget, with nearly a 15 per cent fall in its ODA for education between 2008 and 2009.31 We intend that all our future education sector plans and policies shall take full In 2008, 43 Commonwealth countries were account of the impact of the HIV/AIDS in receipt of aid for education. In total, this epidemic and the necessity to mobilise amounted to approximately US$2.7 billion of education programmes to combat it. This bilateral and multilateral aid. Commonwealth includes preparing projections of learner countries of Sub-Saharan Africa received enrolment and teacher supply that reflect the US$1.65 billion and India, the single largest

29 Data from UNICEF 2012 The State of the Word’s Chidren 2012. 30 Commonwealth Secretariat, Education for a World without AIDS. Stoke Rochford Statement on HIV/AIDS and Education (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2004). 31 These aid data refer to OECD-DAC countries, but increasingly aid is provided by new aid-giving states including India. The data are from: UNESCO (Note 20). -30-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 30 09/08/2012 18:23 Figure 5.2: Total Aid to Education (disbursements) 2002-2009 machinery is limited in its ability to have a significant impact. It is challenged constantly to demonstrate very specific sorts of expertise and initiative in areas of comparative advantage, such as its work for small states and in open learning. Here a brief overview is given of the activities of three Commonwealth bodies in relation to EFA: the Commonwealth Secretariat, the Source: UNESCO, Beyond Busan: Strengthening Aid to Improve Outcomes, EFA Global Monitoring Report Commonwealth of Policy Paper 02 (Paris: UNESCO, 2011), http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002144/214454E.pdf, Learning and the 3. Commonwealth recipient, US$508 million. Just over 50 per Foundation. cent (US$1.45 billion) went to basic education; US$775 million to sub-Saharan Africa. The Commonwealth Secretariat, the primary executive organ of the Commonwealth, states If aid to education in Commonwealth countries that it helps “member countries to provide and in 2008 is assessed in terms of expenditure manage equitable access to quality education per student of primary school age, there through opportunities in line with the two were relatively high levels of aid for many education-related Millennium Development small Commonwealth states with a small Goals (MDGs) and Education for All (EFA.”32 student population (Nauru, US$329; St Kitts It is currently mandated by Commonwealth and Nevis, US$216). Of the larger countries, Ministers of Education and Commonwealth Mozambique received the equivalent of US$36 Heads of Government to focus its work on (i) and Tanzania US$12. Aid for education is likely the achievement of Universal Primary Education; to remain important for a significant number (ii) elimination of gender disparities in education; of Commonwealth countries, especially those (iii) improvement of quality in education; (iv) use confronted by conflict and fragility (such as of Distance Learning to overcome barriers; (v) Pakistan), but also for those whose prospects support to education in difficult circumstances; for economic growth are limited in the medium and (vi) the mitigation of the impact of HIV & term, a reality that is putting a break on AIDS on education. This is a very broad agenda. investment in education. Given its very limited financial and core human The Commonwealth response resource capacity, the Secretariat defines its role as advocate, broker and catalyst: The official institutions of the Commonwealth are not able to play a major financial or Promoting the need for expansion of access technical role in supporting EFA. The and improvement in retention and completion Commonwealth cannot mount the level and of education for all learners. ...we focus range of interventions and support for EFA that specially on disadvantaged groups, such as characterise the work of the World Bank, the girls, children in rural and urban poor areas, UN system and bilateral agencies. While official the disabled, those that are nomadic and political statements of the Commonwealth have those who may be learning in environments always been supportive of EFA, its development suffering conflicts, natural disasters and other emergencies.33

32 See http://www.thecommonwealth.org/subhomepage/190663/ for details of the Secretariat’s work programme and its publications33 Data from UNICEF 2012 The State of the Word’s Chidren 2012. 33 Ibid. -31-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 31 09/08/2012 18:23 For each of the last two CCEMs, the Secretariat Looking forward has published a report on the progress which Commonwealth countries are making in realising There are some doubts both about the future of the MDG and EFA education goals and targets. the EFA movement itself and about that of the The third in this series will be issued in Mauritius Commonwealth Secretariat’s work in education. for the forthcoming CCEM. EFA has made significant gains over the past 20 years, but as the world looks beyond 2015, the 34 The Commonwealth of Learning (COL), which perceived centrality of an agenda that focuses works closely with the Secretariat, is based in on basic education is going to be challenged. Vancouver, Canada and has the core mission Attention to higher order skills and knowledge of helping governments and institutions to will receive renewed focus as the imperatives of expand the scope, scale and quality of learning economic growth, rising unemployment, food and by using new approaches and technologies, water shortages, and sustainable development especially those subsumed under the general take centre stage. The importance of a quality term of “open and distance learning”. Its basic education will not and should not go away: main programme initiatives in the education but EFA – if it is to continue as a movement or sector have considerable relevance to EFA and campaign – will have to rework its messages and focus on four areas: meeting the demand for its ability to relate to a changing world. secondary education through open schooling; the training and upgrading of teachers; facilitating Since Dakar, the Commonwealth has linked itself the expansion of quality higher education; strongly to the education MDGs and to EFA. and the development of the Virtual University Useful discrete pieces of technical work have for the Small States of the Commonwealth. been done by the Commonwealth Secretariat Its livelihoods and health programmes also over the past 10 years, but the organisation’s contribute to a more integrated approach education programme has been far too broad to EFA. Further details of the activities and for its level of resources. If – as the Secretariat achievements of COL are given in Chapter 4. states – it is an advocate, broker and catalyst for better education, the evidence of the benefits Also relevant is the Commonwealth of this work is difficult to find, especially if the 35 Foundation , an inter-governmental organisation work is to be evaluated in terms of international designed to strengthen and give voice to civil impact. If education is to retain a presence in society around the Commonwealth. It has no Commonwealth Secretariat’s work programmes, specific education programme strand, but is the organisation will need to take a hard look active, for example, in preparing for the 18CCEM at the type and level of advocacy, brokerage Stakeholders’ Forum in Mauritius. It will help and catalytic skills which can make a difference to bring together, on that occasion, education in a world full of competing international representatives from business, government, organisations. A fairly fundamental re-appraisal academia, civil society, and the development is required to determine whether the education and donor communities to discuss and debate programme has a future and, if so, in what form. practical measures to transform education delivery around the Commonwealth. It is active too in providing small grants to civil society organisations that promote and monitor girls’ education.

34 http://www.col.org/Pages/default.aspx 35 http://www.commonwealthfoundation.com/Aboutus -32-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 32 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 33 • • • women oftheCommonwealth through: are totheonebillion alsocommittedinparticular social, ethnic, linguisticoreconomicgroups. They capacity for through provision ofentitlement, and opportunity achieving genderequalityandparityineducation Commonwealth Governments are committed to societies inwhichthey live. prosper; andwhere women suffer, sotoodothe things tocome. Where women prosper, societies societies theclearest forecasts ofgood orbad internal pressure levels, cangive andtheirfortunes the barometers ofsociety: they measure its than halfoftheattentionandsupport. They are challenges, even thoughthey receive much less to dealwithmuch more thanhalfoftheworld’s make uphalfofthepeopleinworld andhave lives andtothelives ofothers. Women andgirls who canmake apositive difference totheirown grow upandbecomehealthy, educatedwomen Of these, fartoomany donotgetthechanceto 26 milliongirlsare bornintheCommonwealth. and women isstillimportant. year Every over towomenpertaining andwhy educatinggirls ‘Women as Agents ofChange’highlightedissues In 2011, theCommonwealth Day themeof for girls’educationare greater it willbearguedhere thattheneedandbenefits education for allboys aswell asfor girls; however, 3 with menandboys. achievement shouldbeundertaken inpartnership to advancinggenderequality, advocating thatits within whichtheCommonwealth willcontribute Equality 2005-2015provides theframework Commonwealth Planof Action for Gender principles oftheCommonwealth. The Gender equalityisoneofthefundamental Introduction 6: Chapter 2 1

UNESCO, 2011. Report EFA GlobalMonitoring The HiddenCrisis: ConflictandEducation(Paris:Armed UNESCO, 2011). Speech of the Commonwealth Secretary-General onCommonwealthDay,Speech oftheCommonwealthSecretary-General 2011. Commonwealth Secretariat, The CommonwealthPlanof Action for Gender Equality2005-2015(London: CommonwealthSecretariat). impacts ofeconomicandfinancial policies; and and non-government onthegender partners building awareness amongstfinanceministers rights standards; and practicesinkeeping withacceptedhuman responsive laws, judicialprocesses, customs promoting thedevelopment ofgender- leadership anddecision-making; representation indemocraticprocesses, promoting women’s and participation both girlsandboys 1 It is important tofocus on Itisimportant

Casmir Chanda COMMONWEALTH GENDER ANDEDUCATION INTHE 2

belongingtodiverse -33- the key impedimenttoprogress for menand Recent studiesindicatethatpoverty isnotalways gender equalityandwomen’s empowerment. Education isoneofthekey sectorsfor advancing process information, andincreased earningpower. their abilitiesandrights, anability toacquire and equips girlsandwomen withabasicconfidence in In thefaceofpersistentdiscrimination, education of themgirls. children school, donotgo toprimary themajority school. IntheCommonwealth about30million school are farlesslikely thanboys ever toattend of thoseoutschoolandgirlsnotinprimary many countries, girlsstillaccountfor 54percent made inclosingthegendergap ineducation are notinschool. of 2011, schoolage 72millionchildren ofprimary According totheEFA GlobalMonitoringReport girlswomen and education of the 1. Theimportanceof end played by theCommonwealth Secretariat; equality inschools, andthevariousroles tothat to work towards attainingtheMDGongender women. It examinesCommonwealth interventions ofeducatinggirlsand emphasis ontheimportance education intheCommonwealth withparticular This chapter highlightsissuesofgenderand (MDG) targetby 2015. MillenniumDevelopmentthis particular Goal and Sub-Saharan Africa, are notlikely toachieve several Commonwealth countriesinSouth Asia significant number ofmemberstates, amongthem education. Itisevident by now, however, thata this oneofthekey objectives ofitsactivitiesin Commonwealth Secretariat hasaccordingly made Edinburgh Action Planfor Education, andthe areas setoutinthe2003Commonwealth educationisoneofthesixaction secondary and Eliminating genderdisparitiesinprimary • Education Fund. (ACU); andtheCommonwealth CountriesLeague the Association ofCommonwealth Universities Commonwealth ScholarshipandFellowship Plan; the Commonwealth ofLearning(COL); the

information dissemination. throughinterventions advocacy, research and enhancing integrationofgenderissuesinHIV 3 Although progress hasbeen 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 6 Chapter 4 6 Chapter

women or girls and boys. Discrimination against • girls’ net attendance rate at primary school women is the impediment. Women can be “agents • girls’ survival rate over five years in primary of change” when they are genuinely empowered, school valued as equal citizens and equipped to play a • girls’ secondary net enrolment ratio full part in the nations and communities – the • the country’s gender development index. Commonwealth – of which they are members.4 A study of Commonwealth countries in Africa There is now empirical evidence that female indicated some correlation between the gender education has a particularly important role to equity score and the wealth of a country play in promoting economic development in (expressed here by GDP per capita); this is to be a broad sense. It does so directly by allowing expected, since universal public education is only educated females to become part of the possible in a healthy economic environment, and work force, to increase their productivity and the same factors (for example conflict) that inhibit contribute to economic growth. A number of economic growth are also likely to inhibit the studies have shown that countries with a large provision of education for girls. Yet GDP does not gender imbalance in their education have ended tell the whole story. Impoverished countries like up growing more slowly than those that have Tanzania and Zambia perform significantly better better balance since they are not drawing on their than the richer Cameroon; and South Africa is best talents, but are neglecting one half of their some way from top place in the GEEI. population.5 The Gender, Equality and Education Report Card It is important to note, however, that education is for South Asia includes other indicators such not a silver bullet for eliminating gender disparity, as political will, transparency and accountability, and several studies suggest that the potential access to basic education, infrastructure, quality, of education to transform can be overstated. incentives, equality and barriers to education. Women, even those who do get an education, The indicator for equality of access to basic face embedded disadvantages in labour markets, education shows that Sri Lanka is leading the property ownership and sexual and reproductive Commonwealth South Asian countries. choices. Bolder action is needed on all of these Table 6.1: Female access indicators in South Asia fronts. Country Female net enrolment rates (%) in: Percentage Pre-primary Primary Secondary of adult 2. Commonwealth education education education women with basic performance against the MDG literacy on gender equality in schools Bangladesh 9 86 43 48 India 48 88 52 54 Various attempts have been made to measure performance on gender equality,. All of them Pakistan 36 60 29 40 recognise that the complex processes that take Sri Lanka 90 100 88 89 place in education, especially with regard to gender dynamics, are not particularly amenable to Note: Adapted from Narayan et al. (Note 7). analysis through ‘simple’ measures based on inputs and outputs to the system. The Commonwealth In Africa and other parts of the world the Secretariat through its “Beyond Access” project6, combination of debt, decline in social-sector has contributed in developing a new instrument provision, war, and repressive governments has in the form of the Gender Equality in Education had devastating effects on gender equality in Index (GEEI) which is a composite of some of the education. Violent conflict, for example, is one of main areas of importance with regard to gender the greatest development challenges facing the equity and girls’ education, namely: international community. Beyond the immediate human suffering it causes, it is a source of poverty, inequality and economic stagnation. Children and

4 Plan UK and the Royal Commonwealth Society (RCS), Because You’re a Girl: Growing up in the Commonwealth London: RCS and Plan UK,2011), http://plan-international.org/girls/static/docs/because-youre-a-girl.pdf 5 UNICEF, Gender Achievements and Prospects in Education: the GAP Report (Part One), New York: UNICEF, 2005). 6 E. Unterhalter, C. Challender and R. Rajagopalan, “Measuring Gender Equality in Education”, in Beyond Access: Transforming Policy and Practice for Gender Equality in Education, ed. S. Aikmanand and E. Unterhalter, 60-79 (Oxford: Oxfam Publications, 2005). 7 S. Narayan, N. Rao and M.L.A. Khan, Gender, Equality and Education: a Report Card on South Asia (Kathmandu: Digiscan Pre-press Pvt. Ltd., 2010). -34-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 34 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 35 education. andhigherlevels dwindle atthesecondary of levels,childhood andprimary yet thesenumbers proportion offemale teachers attheearly profession indicates thatthere isasignificant Kelleher’s studyonwomen andtheteaching of theclassroom and otherschoolactivities. ethos thatpromotes gender equalityinallaspects transforming education, implying creation ofan gender-responsive schoolsasaway forward in 12 11 10 9 8 can beprevented. gender stereotypes andinvestigates how this the Bias and TrinidadTobago,Seychelles, in India, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Samoa, the Through seven schools casestudiesofsecondary institutions ratherpromoting thestatusquo. classrooms sothatschools actastransformative focussing onimpactinggender-related practicesin In thearea ofeducationtheSecretariat is Education and Secretariat’s Work onGender 3. TheCommonwealth education. civil-society mobilisationfor genderequalityin in Ugandawasthere hugegovernment and the Commonwealth countriesin Africa. Only A considerabletaskstillremains for mostof Education For All externalfinancinggap. by aiddonorswould closetheUS$16billion humanitarian aid, yet sixdays spending ofmilitary parity. Educationaccountsfor just2percentof prevent conflictandaddress genderequalityand ones amongthem, tomobiliseresources to There isaneedfor governments, Commonwealth schools andotherabuses. to widespread sexualviolence, targetedattackson million children ofaneducationby exposingthem of violentconflict. Armedconflictis28 robbing education systemsare oftenonthefront line and tertiary education.and tertiary to theteachingprofession, especially insecondary that countriesfindways toattractmore women Commonwealth countries. Itisrecommended and theachievement ofgenderparityinsome schoolingfor girls affect accesstosecondary E. Page andJ. Jha, theBias: Schools(London: Exploring Gender andStereotypinginSecondary CommonwealthSecretariat, 2009); UNESCO (Note2). F. Kelleher, School Primary Teacher Deployment(London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2008). F. Kelleher, Women andthe Teaching Profession (London: CommonwealthSecretariat, 2011). J. JhaandF. Kelleher, Boys’Underachievement inEducation (London: CommonwealthSecretariat, 2007). analyses whetherschoolsperpetuate 10 This disparityinnumbers seemsto 9 The studyrecommends 8 Exploring Exploring -35- study recommends afocused approach tothe Orphans andotherchildren affected by HIV/AIDS may have never seentheinsideofaclassroom. immeasurable; onaccountofHIV/AIDS, they epidemic’s completetollon Africa’s children is decimation ofnationaleducationsystems. The brought onby HIV/AIDS hascontributedtothe a result ofHIV-related illness. Highabsenteeism seen pupil-teacherratiosballooningto961as in hospitalsandhealthclinics. Some schoolshave or theirfamily memberscanaccessmedicalcare teachers oftenrelocate tourbanareas where they in ruralareas are especially hard hitbecause administrators toillnessanddeath. Schools been devastated by the lossofteachersand HIV/AIDS pandemic. Educationsystemshave girls, have inmanyby the placesbeenthwarted toreachEfforts school-agechildren, especially school levels. to respond togenderneedsatthedistrictand recruitment ofteachersalsoneedstobeable on female teachers. At thebureaucratic level, the understanding ofthedesired effect they willhave Teacher incentives withan must bearticulated female teachersintotheteachingprofession. education initiatives whichencouragemore young coupled withcorresponding targetedteacher- education andrecruitment offemale teachers, re-structuring oftheireducationsystems. thoseundergoingparticularly expansionand deployment isachallengefor mostcountries, and Tanzania –reveals thatqualityteacher countries –Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea A comparative studyoffour Commonwealth greaterdeserves attentionandanalysis. against girls, isbecomingmore evident and indisparities though stillnotassharpobserved such asearly labour-force participation. The trend, countries isoftenattributabletoeconomiccauses male attendanceatschoolinlow-income mainly tounderperformance inlanguage. Low underachievement ofboys tendstobeconfined middle-income countries, where therelative among theCommonwealth’s high-and Underachievement by boys isfocused primarily cross-national studyonboys’ underachievement. Commonwealth ofLearning, itcommissioneda in somecountries. Incollaborationwiththe aware oftheproblem ofboys’ underachievement The Secretariat isalsobecomingincreasingly 12 The The 11

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are kept from school to care for sick relatives, or their business acumen, their contacts and their they join the labour market to bring extra income lives. But there are millions more women who into the household. do not have the opportunity to utilise the many resources that many of us take for granted. At HIV and AIDS impact on women and girls in a book-launching ceremony, held on 19 May various ways. Girls are disproportionately affected 2011 in Mauritius, COL’s President reiterated its and represent the fastest growing segment of new commitment to women’s empowerment. infections. A woman is seven times more likely to catch the disease from a man than vice versa In most countries in the Commonwealth, we and 61 per cent of all adults infected are women. find that it is women who are disadvantaged. Of Education can reduce girls’ vulnerability to HIV, the 796 million illiterate adults in the world, two principally by helping them build their self-esteem thirds are women. In sub-Saharan Africa, women and capacity to act on HIV-prevention messages, produce 80 per cent of the crops but only own by influencing the level of power within sexual one per cent of the land. Almost eight out of ten relations and by leading to better economic farmers who produce staple food in Africa are prospects.13 women but most of them do not own land or resources in their name nor do they have access 4. The Commonwealth of to credit. Studies in Africa show that when women generate income through agriculture, it benefits Learning and gender in not only the families but entire communities. education Countries now realise that women play a crucial role in development and it is important that The President of the Commonwealth of Learning they are empowered. If women are to become (COL) is now a woman – Asha Kanwar. COL empowered, they must have three things: rights, is committed to removing barriers to women’s resources, and a voice. access to education through the delivery of gender-balanced projects and initiatives that are 5. Gender balance in specifically targeted to benefit women and girls. COL is also committed to participating in the Commonwealth Scholarships implementation of the 1995 Commonwealth Plan of Action on Gender and Development. As described in Chapter 3 of this volume, the In awarding its fellowships COL pays special Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship attention to achieving a more equitable gender Plan (CSFP) was instituted in 1959 following balance; even so the percentage awarded to recommendations of the first Commonwealth females was still only 37.5 per cent in 2009. Education Conference and is the flagship scheme of Commonwealth higher education co-operation. Open and distance education, because of its The awards recognise and promote the highest flexibility and accessibility, has the potential level of intellectual achievement. to engage the previously ‘unreached’, such as the disabled, rural poor and girls and women. The United Kingdom has regularly accounted for Distance education thus helps girls and women to a high proportion of the awards made under the overcome many of the barriers they face in trying Plan and it has been UK policy to offer awards to access conventional education systems. to all other Commonwealth states. While not practising positive discrimination in selection, COL enabled and supported the work of the UK Commission seeks to encourage the Women’s International Network (WIN) participation of women and has in recent years, to establish Lifelong Learning for Women’s increasingly highlighted to nominating agencies Empowerment. Some of the earlier studies the need to ensure a fair gender balance in their showed the absence of gender in lifelong learning selections. and how women can use technologies for open and distance learning.14 WIN was founded as a Particular attention will be given to gender place where women can develop their careers, balance, with the proportion of awards to women expected to rise from 41 per cent to over 45 per

13 See R.D. Johnson, Gender, HIV/AIDS and the Status of Teachers: Report of the Third Commonwealth Teachers Research Symposium (London: Commonwealth Secretariat and Education International, 2008). 14 A. Rogers, “Lifelong Learning and the Absence of Gender”, International Journal of Educational Development 26 no. 2 (2006): 189-208. -36-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 36 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 37 15 academic staffin2005. trends intherecruitment andretention of of the ACU, conductedasurvey oninternational The Policy Research Unit, oneofthecore services leadership, research, and mentoringskills. also developed trainingmodulesinmanagement, ceiling’ intotopmanagementpositions. They have women inuniversities tobreak through ‘the glass of universities andenhancingthecapacity of two fronts: changingthemanagementstructures variety ofprojects. They make on interventions have plannedandgiventoawide financialsupport remit ofthe Women’s Programme; andsince1991 Secretariat have worked closely indeveloping the Federation of Women. The ACU andthe Secretariat, UNESCOandtheInternational international partners, such as theCommonwealth education management. Itworks withmany ofwomen enhancing theparticipation inhigher (ACU) beganin1985toaddress theproblem of The Association for Commonwealth Universities women academics professional development of 6. TheACU programmesfor and Academic Fellowships schemes. fromparticularly the Academic StaffScholarships on genderisalsodemonstratedby thefigures, years. However, theneedfor continuing action from previously disadvantagedgroups inrecent to ensure greater accesstoitsprogrammes continue significantmoves by theCommission cent duringthefour-year period2011-14. This will Institute ofEconomicandSocialResearch, 2005). centres. exchange programmes between women’s study women managers; anddeveloping more linkand education; extendingthenetwork ofsenior training for bothmenandwomen inhigher instituting gendersensitisationprogrammes work withthoseinapositiontoeffect change; higher education; extensive undertaking advocacy mainstreaming genderconcernsthroughout Future activitiesofthe ACU are tomove towards: countries suchas Australia, CanadaandtheUSA. more prevalent ineconomically advantaged desirable demographic trend. The trend ismuch increase inthenumber offemale academicsasa M. Hilary, R. Heather, S. Philipand W. Martin, andRetentionof Recruitment Academic StaffinHigherEducation(Nottingham: National 15 Its report sees an Itsreportseesan -37- their secondary schooleducationincaseswhere,their secondary of highpotential, enablingthemtocomplete arm ofCCLformed inthe1960s, sponsorsgirls The CCLEducationFund(CCLEF), thecharitable time. education for girlsisstillviewed asawasteof work inthefieldsormarkets. Sadly, insomecases remain athometohelpcare for thefamily or be especially vulnerableifthey are expectedto uniform, booksandexaminationfees. Girlscan not beabletoafford theassociatedcosts: travel, when basictuitionisprovided free, familiesmay and economicissuescannotalways bemet. Even in countriesstrugglingwithdevelopment, health providing free education anduniversal secondary and empowerment ofwomen. The challengeof (CCL) haspromoted thedevelopment, education Since 1925theCommonwealth CountriesLeague Fund Countries Education League’s 7. Work Commonwealth of Commonwealth associations. fromsupport individuals, organisations andother in theirown countries. The project hasgained one ormore schooling girlsthrough secondary commit themselves toraisingfundssponsor encouraged toenrol inthe TSTG initiative and Commonwealth countries. Schools intheUKare and awareness ofgirls’needfor educationin CCLEF to1,000girlsandbuildunderstanding increase thenumber ofgirlssponsored by the in London. The purposeoftheproject isto (TSTG) initiative intheHousesofParliament Thousand Schoolsfor a Thousand Girls” In May 2011, theCCLEF launchedthe “A especially school. through secondary theeducationofgirlsandwomen,in supporting with eachotheracross theCommonwealth and They, inturn, willbeactive incommunicating previously sponsored by theEducationFund. to strengthen andmaintaincontactwithgirls launched in2003 Abuja, Nigeria. Itishoped A majorCCLinitiative isits Alumnae Association, countries. sponsoring nearly 400girlsin27Commonwealth own countries. The Education Fund iscurrently educationintheir to completetheirsecondary assist disadvantagedgirlsofhighacademicability benefited. Fundsraisedprovide sponsorshipto Over 4,000girlsaround theCommonwealth have without suchhelp, they would beunabletodoso. 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 6 Chapter 4 7 Chapter Chapter 7: COMMONWEALTH CO-OPERATION ON LITERACY John Oxenham Introduction more than males. This phenomenon has given rise to concerns about male perceptions of the Achieving a 50 percent improvement in levels of importance of literacy and education. adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education The target and projected rates of literacy for for all adults is the fourth goal of “Education for 2015 shown in Table 7.2 suggest that all members All” that Heads of Government have laid down as will have made strong progress towards their a Commonwealth priority. This briefing paper first targets, with several exceeding them and only surveys the state of adult – and especially female three falling slightly short. Just six members are - literacy in the Commonwealth and then goes likely to remain below 75 per cent and only two, on to look at the status of Commonwealth co- both emerging from severe civil conflict, are operation in the area. Box 7.1 gives the statistics expected to have overall literacy rates below 50 on literacy, as they appear in the 2009 Global per cent. Monitoring Report (GMR 2009) on progress towards Education for All.1 The GMR 2009 used statistics that were either self-reported – and not tested for accuracy – or Literacy and illiteracy in the based on a simple definition of the ability to read and write, with understanding, a short, simple Commonwealth statement relating to daily life. In contrast, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and According to the GMR 2009, pp.93-96, there Development (OECD) undertook an ‘Adult are just under 776 million non-literate adults Life Skills and Literacy Survey’ (IALS2) in the in the world, of whom nearly 500 million (64 1990s and followed it up with an ‘Adult Literacy per cent) are women. A full third of these men and Life Skills Survey’ (ALL3,) in 2003. Four and women live in India, while a further fifth Commonwealth members participated: Australia, live elsewhere in the Commonwealth. That is Canada, New Zealand and the UK, while a fifth, to say, the Commonwealth accounts for about Malaysia, used the approach to run its own half the number of the world’s non-literate feasibility study. Two points will illustrate the adults, although it accounts for only a third of difference between the GMR statistics and those the world’s total population: it is currently over- of IALS and ALL. represented in the statistics of illiteracy. First, the IALS did not define literacy in terms Table 7.1 sets out the statistics for the rates of of an arbitrary standard of reading performance, adult literacy in 33 of the 53 Commonwealth distinguishing those who completely fail the countries in 2006. No figures are available for test (the ‘illiterates’) from those who reach a the other 20 countries; however, as column 5 minimum threshold (those who are ‘literate’). shows, most of these have high rates of female Rather, it took literacy and numeracy as net primary enrolment and can therefore be continuums of proficiency levels at which adults expected to have relatively high rates of adult use information to function in society and the literacy – indeed, in eight of them the net economy. Second, within the continuum the enrolment ratio (NER) is close to or exceeds 90 OECD measured five levels of difficulty for prose per cent. literacy, document literacy and numeracy. It found that the two lower levels, 1 and 2, which signified For males in the 33 countries, the range of rates basic abilities to read and write, were inadequate lies between a low of 49 per cent and a high for everyday life in those societies: only achieving of 99 per cent, while for females the range is level 3 ensured a suitable minimum for the between a low of 26 per cent and a high of 99 demands of everyday life and work, and that per cent. While this confirms the persistence level was “roughly equal to successful secondary of gender inequity in the Commonwealth, as school completion and college entry.” in the rest of the world, it is worth noting not only that six members have already achieved The study revealed that in all four participating parity between females and males, but also that Commonwealth countries more than 40 per in four countries rates for females are actually cent of their peoples had attained only the first higher, ranging between 1 and 16 per cent 1 UNESCO, 2008, EFA Global Monitoring Report 2009: Overcoming inequality: why governance matters, Paris, UNESCO, Table 2, pp. 268-275 and Table 5, pp. 300-307. 2 OECD, 2000, Literacy in the Information Age: Final Report of the International Adult Literacy Survey, Paris. 3 ALL, 2005, Learning a Living: First results of the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey, Paris, OECD. -38-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 38 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 39 relatively highrates ofadultliteracy. netenrolment andmaybeinferred tohaveorbemovingfemale primary towards member countries. However, concernedhavehighrates most ofthecountries Note: The GMRwas unabletoshow statisticsfor literacy 21of53Commonwealth Zambia Vanuatu Kingdom United Uganda Tuvalu Tobago Trinidad & Tonga Tanzania Swaziland Sri Lanka South Africa Islands Solomon Singapore Sierra Leone Seychelles Samoa St. Vincent St. Lucia Nevis St. Kitts& Guinea Papua New Pakistan Nigeria New Zealand Nauru Namibia Mozambique Mauritius Malta Malaysia Maldives Malawi Lesotho Kiribati Kenya Jamaica India Guyana Grenada Ghana Gambia Dominica Cyprus Canada Cameroon Darussalam Brunei Botswana Belize Barbados Bangladesh Bahamas Australia Barbuda Antigua/ Table 7.1: MEMBER STATE [1]

Net Enrolment Rate, 2006 Net Enrolment Rate, Female and PrimaryAdult Literacy Rates

MALE n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 76 81 99 99 79 81 93 88 95 49 91 98 62 68 79 88 57 90 90 89 97 79 74 78 80 76 71 99 77 92 82 58 LITERACY % [2]

FEMALE n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 60 64 98 99 65 78 89 87 83 26 92 97 53 40 63 87 32 84 93 77 97 63 90 70 91 53 57 96 60 82 82 47 LITERACY % [3]

MALE - 16 - 11 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. - 3 16 17 14 12 23 28 16 25 12 16 23 14 17 10 11 -1 1 0 3 4 1 1 9 1 6 0 8 3 0 ADVANTAGE % [4]

FEMALE PRIMARY 100 100 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 94 86 99 85 94 97 79 88 61 91 88 97 78 57 59 99 79 73 96 91 97 94 74 98 76 90 87 83 71 64 79 99 99 94 85 97 96 90 89 97 NET ENROLMENT RATE % [5] -39- Commonwealth countries andprojected ratesCommonwealth countries for 26Commonwealthcountries. Note: The GMRwas unabletoshow target rates for ofadultliteracy 32 Zambia Vanuatu Kingdom United Uganda Tuvalu Tobago Trinidad & Tonga Tanzania Swaziland Sri Lanka South Africa Islands Solomon Singapore Sierra Leone Seychelles Samoa St. Vincent St. Lucia Nevis St. Kitts& Guinea Papua New Pakistan Nigeria New Zealand Nauru Namibia Mozambique Mauritius Malta Malaysia Maldives Malawi Lesotho Kiribati Kenya Jamaica India Guyana Grenada Ghana Gambia Dominica Cyprus Canada Cameroon Darussalam Brunei Botswana Belize Barbados Bangladesh Bahamas Australia Barbuda Antigua/ Table 7.2: MEMBER STATE [1]

Projected AdultLiteracy Rates 2015 Target 2015 AdultLiteracy Rates:

TARGET MALE n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a 86 84 99 99 85 85 98 96 99 84 89 92 94 95 98 82 81 99 96 83 72 LITERACY % 2015 [2]

PROJECTED n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 85 86 99 99 79 94 92 98 58 99 63 73 85 90 58 92 92 96 97 83 85 81 76 99 98 87 64 MALE LITERACY % 2015 [3] TARGET FEMALE n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 78 73 98 99 85 80 92 94 99 72 87 87 94 89 98 67 67 95 91 85 63 LITERACY % 2015 [4]

PROJECTED n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 82 75 98 99 70 92 91 94 37 99 60 49 74 91 41 89 95 93 97 74 94 62 66 98 93 88 58 FEMALE LITERACY % 2015 [5] 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 7 Chapter 4 7 Chapter

Table 7.3: Projected Youth (ages 15-24 years) two levels of each type of literacy assessed. In Literacy Rates for 2015

terms of the study then, more than 40 per cent of their peoples were unable adequately to meet the demands of everyday life and work. Two conclusions relevant to the theme of 17 CCEM, ‘Towards and beyond global goals and targets’, suggest themselves. MALE % ADVANTAGE 2015 [4] MEMBER STATE [1] MALE YOUTH % 2015 LITERACY [2] FEMALE YOUTH % 2015 LITERACY [3] Antigua/Barbuda n.a. n.a. n.a. Australia n.a. n.a. n.a. One is the real importance of the second Bahamas n.a. n.a. n.a. component of the literacy goal, “equitable access Bangladesh 72 64 63 to basic and continuing education for all adults”. Barbados n.a. n.a. n.a. Without continuing education, few adults who Belize n.a. n.a. n.a. currently operate at Levels 1 and 2 will be able Botswana 83 87 85 to raise their skills to a fully operational level. In Brunei 96 98 91 Darussalam other words, they – and most likely their families Cameroon n.a n.a. n.a. - will remain marginalised and at risk of falling Canada n.a. n.a. n.a. into a disadvantaged underclass. Cyprus 99 99 95 Dominica n.a. n.a. n.a. Second, any country that aspires to be successful Gambia n.a. n.a. n.a. participant in the globalised information age - not Ghana n.a. 76 n.a. only the nine Commonwealth countries with Grenada n.a. n.a. n.a. 4 Guyana n.a. n.a. n.a. annual per capita incomes above $20,000 - will India 81 81 67 need to move well beyond universal literacy Jamaica n.a. 85 n.a. and universal primary completion. Universal Kenya n.a. n.a. n.a. secondary education needs to be a goal, too, Kiribati n.a. n.a. n.a. along with post-secondary and lifelong education Lesotho n.a. n.a. n.a. and training. Malawi 82 83 67 Maldives 98 97 98 Malaysia 95 96 89 Commonwealth collaboration Malta 94 92 94 Mauritius 92 92 87 on literacy Mozambique n.a. 58 n.a. Namibia 89 90 87 The facts shown in the boxes and by the OECD Nauru n.a. n.a. n.a. studies suggest that there should indeed be much New Zealand n.a. n.a. n.a. co-operation between Commonwealth members, Nigeria 84 85 72 particularly as the majority in Sub-Saharan Pakistan n.a. 73 n.a. Africa and Asia do have numbers of literacy Papua New Guinea n.a. 63 n.a. St. Kitts & Nevis n.a. n.a. n.a. programmes run both by the state, often as St. Lucia n.a. n.a. n.a. national programmes, and by non-governmental St. Vincent n.a. n.a. n.a. organisations on more localised bases. Samoa 99 99 99 Seychelles 96 n.a. 94 Bilateral co-operation Sierra Leone n.a. 58 n.a. Singapore 98 98 92 However, on the bilateral level, the Global Solomon Islands n.a. n.a. n.a. Monitoring Report for 2006, “Literacy for Life”, South Africa n.a. 92 n.a. suggests that only three of the Commonwealth’s Sri Lanka n.a. 94 n.a. nine higher-income members include literacy in Swaziland 85 n.a. 80 their bilateral co-operation programmes5. This Tanzania 85 79 85 appears to be in line with the GMR observation, Tonga 99 99 99 Trinidad & Tobago 99 99 98 “From these limited data sets it is clear that Tuvalu n.a. n.a. n.a. literacy in the broad policy sense of literate Uganda 84 86 73 societies is not widely embraced by donor United n.a. n.a. n.a. agencies… Whatever the reason, the fact that Kingdom no agency surveyed could quote with confidence Vanuatu n.a. 85 n.a. Zambia 86 n.a. 78 4 Per capita incomes measured as ‘purchasing power parity’ – GMR 2009, pp.261-267. Note: The GMR is unable to give projected rates of youth literacy for 26 5 UNESCO, 2005, EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006: Literacy Commonwealth countries. In 13 countries, females are expected to have higher rates of literacy than males.. for Life, Paris, p.243 -40-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 40 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 41 literacy for women and toinclude “equitable goalof thefourth isthatit goes ontoemphasise adult literacyby 2015. importance (Thefurther achieving a50percent improvement inlevels of goals EFA anddonotincludethefourth goal of 2015. They reflect only thesecondandfifth EFA gender disparityatalllevels ofeducationby Completionandtheeliminationof Primary Targets 3and4oftheMDGenvisage Universal Dakar DeclarationonEducationfor All (EFA). necessitates alower priorityfor thoseofthe Millennium Development Goals(MDGs). This on helpingtoachieve only thetargetsof operation have constrainedthemtofocus and Commonwealth Fundfor Technical Co- resources oftheCommonwealth Secretariat On themultilateral level, restricted thevery Multilateral co-operation localorganisationsinseveralpartners more. and Ugandaamongothercountries, and now known asREFLECT,strategy inBangladesh ActionAid, whichpioneered thepedagogical localities.in particular A notableexampleis to organiseanddeliver literacyinstruction organisations, bothlocalandinternational, governmentstheir partner ofnon-governmental literacy isthewidespread useby donorsand A feature ofbilateralco-operationinadult Uganda amongthem. countries, India, Kenya, Pakistan, South Africa, and for adultliteracyinseveralstanding support literacy classes. The UKalsocontinues itslong enrolled 501adults, 430ofthemwomen, inadult the Inhambaneprovince ofMozambiquethat with only asmallcapacity-building project in Commonwealth andSenegal, countriesofEgypt appears tohave focused recently onthenon- in otherCommonwealth countries, althoughit has inthepastfinancedseveral literacyprojects oftheirbilateralco-operation.as part Canada and theUKcontinue toincludeadultliteracy As farascanbeascertained, atleastCanada hygiene practices. for example, livelihood skillsorhealthand component inprogrammes aimingtoimprove, work inadultliteracyisthatitoftenjustone reason for thedifficultyinidentifyingspecific that remark, thereportdoesnotethatone in aidbudgets.” (p. 244). Somewhat offsetting indicates thelow priorityassignedtoliteracy a singlefigure toillustrateitslevel of funding -41- towards theEFA goals. is ofcoursetheleadinstitutionfor working International Co-operationorUNESCO, which Education Association through itsInstitutefor Adult Education(ASPBAE), theGerman Adult channels like the Asia South PacificBureau for co-operation tendstobearranged through beofusetoeachother.certainly However, such organising adultliteracyprogrammes andcan or Nigeria, have haddecadesofexperiencein e.g. Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Jamaica, Kenya south’ basisisfrequent, for mostcountries, countries onwhatiscommonly calleda ‘south- Co-operation between Commonwealth South-South co-operation adults”.) access tobasicandcontinuing educationfor all 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 7 Chapter 4 8 Chapter Chapter 8: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) EDUCATION Kabir Shaikh Introduction engagement and participation by everyone in the setting of science agendas and the use of Science, technology, mathematics, and the more findings.2 Education in science and technology recently added component of engineering is fundamental to develop knowledge-action (STEM), are key aspects of education, directly linkage. The local environment provides rich impacting on the economic wellbeing and resources, a well-equipped laboratory and a wealth creation of a nation. The link between valuable stimulus for teaching and learning of the number of technologists and researchers a science. Sophisticated equipment and apparatus country produces per million of its population is not required at the elementary level, but and its economic affluence is well documented teachers need adequate initial training, and by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics.1 These access to in-service training throughout their subjects are also highly relevant to such global working lives for their continued professional issues as food production, environment, HIV/ development to ensure that the environment AIDS and non-communicable diseases, water is judiciously used. The use of this approach in supply, climate change, alternative sources of teaching and learning would develop and enhance energy; and the growing influence of information the natural curiosity of young people about the and communication technology on the lives of world around them and the way science works. ordinary humans. This necessitates a much closer examination of how these curriculum areas The idea that STEM should be an essential part can best be integrated into a holistic learning of the learning of a child in school and that it experience in school education. Reflecting these should be given a high priority in secondary and concerns, STEM education has been a recurring higher education is no longer a contentious issue concern of Commonwealth Ministers of but how best this could be achieved within the Education at their triennial conferences. limitations of human, material, institutional and intellectual resources continues to be a major While STEM education provides countries with a challenge. Within a democratic framework of necessary tool for finding a satisfactory solution governments it is essential that the people at to these problems, it is also the case that large have sufficient understanding of the role ordinary citizens need a minimum basic literacy and importance of STEM in education so that in STEM to conduct their daily lives in a much they can engage in and influence the debate more efficient, responsible, fulfilling and informed around resources for education, and STEM way. STEM education is important both in the education in particular. economic, industrial and social development of the nation and in the sustainability of such The Commonwealth Secretariat, through its development. Commonwealth countries realise education programmes, has been active over that within a global context their capability can the years in initiating and promoting projects only be maintained through a strong cadre of to assist the development of STEM education well qualified, creative and imaginative scientists, in member countries. These included teacher technologists, mathematicians and engineers. education, use of local resources in teaching and learning of STEM, gender equality, popularising Within STEM education science and mathematics science and technology, and scientific and provide fundamental areas of knowledge, while technological literacy. The Commonwealth technology and engineering deal with the Secretariat provided advocacy and advice to application of basic knowledge to solving human member countries on the role of science and and social problems. It is important to consider technology, and also supported curriculum STEM education as an integrated programme of development in these areas. Activity-based study. Learning about the relevance of science, learning of science and technology was technology and mathematics for sustainable another important thematic area on which human development is important for all the Commonwealth Secretariat worked with children, and should be considered basic to their member countries, helping them to incorporate education from the earliest stages of schooling. that strategy in the training of teachers. Sustainable development requires more active The programmes of science and technology

1 UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Science and Technology Statistics, Tables 19 and 22 (data for 2010). 2 V. Goel, “Science and Technology for Sustainable Development”, in Commonwealth Education Partnership 2004, ed. Commonwealth Secretariat, 142-148 (London, The Stationery Office, 2003). -42-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 42 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 8 education in the Commonwealth also focused (3) STEM specialist teachers on the role of out-of-school activities in learning The competence, knowledge base and these subjects, with an emphasis on the role of enthusiasm of teachers remain the most museums, and on promoting awareness of the influential factors in children’s learning generally; science and technology dimension of everyday and shortfalls in the quality, qualifications and activities at home and in the playground. number of specialist teachers is a major obstacle to provision of a STEM curriculum for all, even The challenges at primary school level. In many Commonwealth countries there is a major gap between the Much has been achieved by the Commonwealth number of specialist teachers available and the countries in STEM education individually and numbers required. The STEM curriculum is often collectively both on their own initiative, and being delivered by teachers who are unqualified with the support and involvement of external or under-qualified to teach these subjects. Mass agencies, including the Commonwealth programmes of education and training of STEM Secretariat. However, there are major challenges teachers are needed. to overcome in a number of Commonwealth countries, and small states in particular. These In some countries the supply of STEM teachers challenges include the following: has been adversely affected by the strength of international demand for these skills, and a consequent ‘brain drain’ of qualified and (1) STEM Curriculum Design experienced personnel. Reflecting these This particular problem appears to be global. concerns, in its meeting in April 2012 the Poor curriculum design has been a key factor Commonwealth Advisory Council on Teacher in switching off girls from the STEM curriculum. Mobility, Recruitment and Migration, proposed The STEM curriculum has to be broad enough to that a study should be undertaken of the extent provide access for the many but at the same time to which the global demand for mathematics, should be sufficiently challenging and stimulating science and technology teachers impacts on to those who would pursue it academically to teacher migration flows and what research, higher levels. STEM curriculum with breadth, policies or activities are being undertaken by balance, cohesion and above all a relevance to member countries to protect and encourage the daily lives of the learners means that it has to be supply of such teachers, e.g. through pre- or in- planned and delivered in a localised context by service training, special incentives etc. local educators with locally available resources, materials and equipment. (4) Girls in STEM education In Commonwealth countries in particular, (2) Delivering STEM Curriculum there is a huge gender gap in the field of By its very nature the STEM curriculum requires STEM and consequently a deficit in the wealth a focus on practical aspects of learning. This creation process and a missed opportunity for has major resource implications for materials, capitalising on nearly half of the active, intelligent equipment and laboratories which restrict and creative work force. Gender bias in the possibilities for expansion. The image of science curriculum as well as in the teaching of these as an elite subject accessible only to brighter subjects remains an ongoing challenge. students, and also as a more difficult subject, has discouraged take-up by average students and by Various studies have indicated poor enrolment girls. This has been a major failure on the part and achievement of girls in STEM in many of curriculum designers. It is a misconception Commonwealth countries. Table 8.1 gives some that an effective STEM curriculum at primary general figures for girls’ enrolment in selected or early secondary level can only be delivered countries: the proportion taking STEM courses is with a laboratory or sophisticated scientific much lower. equipment. There are numerous examples within the Commonwealth of creative and imaginative This issue was first raised at the 13th teachers enhancing STEM teaching and learning Conference of Commonwealth Ministers by designing low-cost equipment, by using locally of Education in 1997 in Botswana and available materials and by capitalising on the recommendations were made. Since then, many school’s immediate natural environment. countries have integrated gender issues into

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 43 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 4 8 Chapter

their STEM curricula. More effort is still needed into science and mathematics rather than to draw content from, and relate it to, the lives the other way round. This process should of girls. Women in developing countries are facilitate the understanding and manipulation a repository of knowledge about indigenous of basic ideas, a complete reverse of the technologies and they should be encouraged to process that has been used hitherto. It relate their local knowledge and experiences to requires development of an education science and technology in the school curricula. technology geared to the needs of educators There have been, however, some encouraging and education providers. signs. In Ghana, for example, the Government has adopted the Science and Technology Clinic • The possibility of STEM for ALL and beyond for Girls programme aimed at giving girls more secondary level needs some careful but access to science and technology education serious consideration. and targeted at girls in secondary schools. In Botswana, there has been a Science and It is important to note that STEM for All beyond Technology Road Show for Girls. the secondary level will require a massive increase in the number of STEM-trained teachers Table 8.1: Gender parity indicesa for and their quality. It also follows that, if successful, primary and secondary education this would lead to an increased demand for gross enrolment rates in selected STEM graduate places in higher education Commonwealth countries, 2010 establishments. In that sense this is a desirable but unrealistic objective within the short term. Country Primary Secondary However, making the curriculum more accessible, Cameroon 86 83 and enhancing the effective use of educational India na 92 technology, are goals which can be achieved Malawi 104 91 within a shorter time scale. Mozambique 90 82 STEM education within a traditional framework Nigeria 91 88 of education can be resource-intensive at the Pakistan 82 76 tertiary level. One way to address this issue is for the education sector to consider how best a The gender parity index is measured as a quotient to harness the opportunities created by ICT and with the female gross enrolment rate as the the venture of open and distance learning. All numerator and the male rate as the denominator. other sectors – the media, advertising, industry, Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics data. agriculture, health – have capitalised on the technology revolution, and education should Much work has been undertaken to investigate follow their lead. issues related to STEM education, girls in STEM in particular and the overall enthusiasm for STEM of its potential students and career aspirants. The Commonwealth Day 2010: the conclusions are rather straightforward but the theme of “Science, Technology solutions pose major challenges: and Society”

• To gain the maximum benefits for personal, Recognising the importance of science and social and economic development that technology in socio-economic development, science and technology can bring, a key the Commonwealth Secretariat selected principle is that all children should have “Science, Technology and Society” (a popular access to the STEM curriculum. STEM approach to science curriculum) as the theme education and STEM careers need to be of Commonwealth Day in 2010 with the hope made more attractive and accessible to all that this would help stimulate new partnerships, students, girls in particular. networks, research collaboration and approaches to the teaching of science. • The content, approach and delivery of STEM education has to change radically. As a part of celebration of Commonwealth The application of technology should lead Day in Malta, a survey was conducted about the

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 44 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 45 (CASTME). Technology andMathematicsEducators the Commonwealth Association ofScience, were awarded by ofparticipation acertificate mothers whonever hadasinglecertificate children tolearnscienceandtechnology. The can play role animportant inmotivatingtheir mothers, asignificantdevelopment sincemothers of interest andenthusiasmespecially amongst for children andmothers. This generatedlots handsonactivitiesweretechnology organised the role ofeveryday itemsinlearningscienceand shown inBox 8.2. InBangladesh, todemonstrate of Commonwealthpart Day celebrations, as In Mauritiusfive activities were carried outas are shown inBox 8.1. typical examplesfrom thehundreds ofreplies children. Responsesvariedconsiderably. Two perception amongst ofscienceandtechnology Source: Newsletter (May/June CASTME 2010) 5. 2. level schoolpupilsatupperprimary (StandardsA competitionfor primary V and VI) involved groups offour pupils(two boys 4. 3. A Physics Olympiad Olympiad in conjunctionwithsciencesubjectteachingassociations. andaBiology 1. Box Dayactivities inMauritius, 8.2Commonwealth 2010 Source: Newsletter (May/June, CASTME 2010) future.” destroyed andabetterworld isbeingcreated for our wemodern technology have nowadays allthisisgetting living. Unfortunatelyitalsoprovides pollutionwithallthe All thisgives usgreat benefitsandahigherstandard of provide moderntechnologiesthatmake ourlives better. we canfindouthow the world hasbeenshaped andalso explain theuniverse andtheworld around us. With these Girl (aged14): are“Science andtechnology ways to one day thatwould bebeneficial for thewhole world.” are beingmaderightnow. Iwishcouldinvent something come becausethisissomethingongoing. New inventions buttherethanks toscienceandtechnology ismore to Boy (aged14): “We have madealotofimprovements inMalta technology and Box 8.1Children’s science perceptions of

Production of short films to illustrate science and technology concepts. Production filmstoillustratescience andtechnology ofshort A QuizCompetitionfor StudentsofForm IVonscience, usingmobilephones. mathematics andtechnology • • • • • and two girls)thoroughly investigating aschoolcompoundproblem related toany oneofthefollowing: awards. level schoolteacherswhodemonstratedexceptionalqualitiesinteachingscience ormathematicsatprimary receivedPrimary An Innovative School Primary Teacher (IPST)

Energy-saving measures Drinking water Safety The immediateenvironment –pollution, minimizingwastage Health issues(e.g., hygiene, nutrition, diseases, dentalcare)

-45- through thedevelopment ofproducts and on working outways toaddress humanneeds approach education, totechnology focused itself doesnotsolve problems. A problem solving education iswell understood, butsciencein schoolprogrammes.well asinsecondary Science of thinkingneedstobefostered as inprimary early years ofschooling, andthescientificway Dispositions for learningare developed inthe experiment andtotake riskswiththinking. for learningscience–curiosity, willingnessto curricula whichfoster thekey dispositions of developing broadly-based, activity-centred countries. UNESCOemphasisedtheimportance levelat primary for many Commonwealth consideration ofthewiderSTEMcurriculum education for theirpopulationsoftenoutweighs The challengeofachieving universal basic All” agenda. “Universal BasicEducationfor STEM forallwithina achieving The challengeof primary educationinmany Commonwealthprimary Although limited, theprogress towards universal those countries. scientific research andindustrialdevelopment in This isattributabletolackofinfrastructure for many jobsorcareer progression opportunities. young people, sincethesesubjectsdonotoffer of onthepart learning scienceandtechnology Commonwealth countriesisdeclininginterest in An additional problem beingfacedby some breakthroughs. and ingenuity, and oftenleadstoscientific systems, fosters dispositionsofinventiveness 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 8 Chapter 4 8 Chapter

countries has now created the necessity for in the Commonwealth is the Commonwealth increased progression into secondary education, Scholarship and Fellowship Plan, described in where STEM (or equivalent subjects) is treated Chapter 3. Science and technology subjects have as a specialised curriculum area. The need been prominent in UK awards, which account to meet the added demand for STEM in the for two-thirds of all CSFP awards – about 30 secondary phase is a highly resource-intensive per cent of UK awards have been in science and exercise in terms of both human and material engineering, and another 20 per cent in health resources, and could undermine the success of disciplines. EFA beyond the primary phase. The secondary phase is a necessary step between basic The developmental work which the education and the world of work as well as Commonwealth does in education, including higher education. Weaknesses in the planning STEM education, is mandated by the and resource level for STEM in this phase of Commonwealth Ministers of Education in their education can jeopardise the key objective of triennial Conferences. A review of the role of seeking more scientists and technologists. the Commonwealth in STEM education over 40 years has been provided by Goel.4 He shows Partnerships and links across that teacher education has been continuously identified as one of the key issues for STEM the Commonwealth education in the Commonwealth. This remains true, but the content of and approach to teacher Because science, technology and mathematics are training has to be reviewed on a regular basis to universal subjects with curriculum content that ensure that advantage is taken of the most up-to- is similar in many countries, there is considerable date research findings. Similarly the production scope to establish links and partnerships among of quality learning resource materials and individual schools across the Commonwealth, developing the capability of teachers to produce facilitating joint project work. Several such links contextual materials continue to be important have been established on a north-south, as well in improving the quality of science teaching in as south-south and north-north, basis. schools.

An international education programme that aims Goel noted that another area which needs to link individual schools worldwide with each development in the Commonwealth is 3 other directly is “Science across the World”. technology education. A first task is to address Students work in small groups on one of a range the lack of clarity on what technology education of topics such as drinking water, climate change, includes, since different countries use different migration, domestic waste. Topics involve enquiry definitions. There is considerable potential and analysis – but with a minimum of specialist for sharing experiences as a way of helping equipment. There is always discussion and countries to develop their policies on technology debate after the activities have been completed. education. The website and print materials are in various languages, and this aspect has been shown to The major challenge of creating a well qualified be of considerable value in language teaching and competent STEM teaching workforce in especially in those schools working in a bilingual the required numbers and within the necessary context. Foreign language teachers are working time frame cannot be fully addressed without with colleagues teaching science to support the considering the use of open and distance programme. learning, and harnessing the new information and communication technologies (ICTs) for this Education at tertiary and university levels is purpose, as advocated by the Commonwealth expanding rapidly in the developing world. At of Learning (COL). COL has been active in the same time, many scholars and students producing teaching and learning resources for from developing countries choose to study at STEM education as well as facilitating training universities abroad, where they have access to and in-service support for teachers through the latest technologies for investigation, and can open and distance learning. Through its STAMP work in teams involved in cutting-edge research. 2000+ Project, COL has produced 27 teaching An important mechanism for facilitating this and learning modules in science, mathematics

3 http://www.scienceacross.org. 4 V. Goel, “The Road from Oxford to Halifax: Snapshots of Science, Technology and Mathematics Education”, in Education in the Commonwealth: the First 40 Years: From Oxford to Halifax and Beyond, ed. L. Bown, 95-110 (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2003). -46-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 46 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 47 accredited statuswiththeCommonwealth. It the Commonwealth Secretariat andlatergained established in1974asanNGOrecognised by Mathematics Educators(CASTME), whichwas Association ofScience, Technology and A relevant organisationistheCommonwealth Mathematics Educators Technology Science, of and Association Commonwealth education. secondary andjunior for upperprimary and technology 6 5 CASTME’s aims, andthewinningCASTME Papers whichaddress thekey aspectsof other teacherstoemulate theirachievements. the teachingworkforce asawhole, andinspires ofdevelopingteachers underpinstheimportance Celebrating thecreativity andskillofthese the development ofaschoolfarm, inGhana. students tothescienceofagriculture through and aproject tointroduce juniorsecondary students withspecialeducationalneedsinKenya; the risksofHIVAIDS; afish-farmingproject for researched andreported toeachotherabout Caribbean, inwhichyoung women themselves of locallanguages; aninnovative project inthe with sustainabilityissues, andprintedinarange educationtextbooksdealing producing primary awardees have includedateamfrom Malaysia as indeedhasmostofCASTME’s work. Recent grants from theCommonwealth Foundation, prestigious. They have by beensupported These awards are now well establishedand through Journal andwebsite. theCASTME programmes, andpublicisestheirachievements relevant andmathematics sciencetechnology demonstrate engagementwithlocally teachers whodevelop localprojects that annually makesCASTME awards toindividual teaching isuniversally available. context andtoensure thataccesstosuch teaching ofSTEMinasocialandlocally relevant mission intheCommonwealth istopromote the mathematics, especially atschool level. CASTME’s the relationship between science, and technology of STEMtolocalenvironments, andtopromote STEM education, todemonstratetherelevance Europe. Itsaimsare toshare bestpracticesin and hasregional branchesin Africa, Asia and has membersthroughout theCommonwealth http://www.castme.org. http://www.col.org/resources/crsMaterials/Pages/STAMP.aspx. 5 -47- The Commonwealth Secretariat hasplayed a societal anddemocraticwellbeing ofitspeople. and sustainability, sohelpingtoassure thesocial, and environmental challengesofdevelopment canaddressa country theeconomic, industrial, it isthrough itscadre ofSTEMprofessionals that is now bothaneconomicandsocialnecessity, for goes well beyond mere knowledge acquisition. It within theeducationalprovision ofacountry engineering andmathematics(STEM)curriculum Commonwealth. The placeofscience, technology, pre-occupation globally andwithinthe Education continues tobeamajor Conclusion clear. remains tobedoneasthischapter hasmade education intheCommonwealth. Muchstill initiativesand supporting toenhanceSTEM small butsignificant role infacilitating, developing the CASTME website. the CASTME of whichare describedabove, may befound at including itscurrent activitiesandprojects, some the Commonwealth. Information aboutCASTME, the Association andtolibrariesinmany of parts Journal, whichissenttoallindividualmembersof Awards entries, are publishedintheCASTME 6 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 8 Chapter 4 9 Chapter Chapter 9: TEACHER DEVELOPMENT AND MOBILITY Peter Williams Introduction • International mobility of teachers and the opportunities and challenges that The teacher’s role in education is central. After this presents: the subject matter of later the learners, teachers are the most important sections of the chapter. The Secretariat’s actors in the education process. Excellent work on the Teacher Recruitment Protocol teachers do more than teach curriculum content: and on international recognition of teacher they inspire and enthuse their pupils and serve qualifications, and the activities of civil society as role models in terms of attitudes and social bodies, have been prominent in this regard. relationships. If schools, colleges and universities - and non-formal learning programmes - are The Commonwealth has a long record of to achieve their educational aims, there must activity in this area. Teacher exchanges among be effective systems to select, prepare, deploy, Commonwealth countries, formerly through the manage and support teachers, and to help them League for Exchange of Commonwealth Teachers develop their professional skills over a working and now in more attenuated form under the lifetime. auspices of the Commonwealth Youth Exchange Council, have been taking place for a century. The Education for All targets adopted at Staff development for universities was one of Dakar in 2000 recognise that enrolment in the main components of the Commonwealth school does not itself ensure good education. Scholarship and Fellowship Plan (CSFP), There must be adequate quality of provision launched in 1959. For twenty years after the for effective learning to occur. This requires first Commonwealth Education Conference in measures to increase teacher supply and Oxford in 1959, there was a Commonwealth improve the quality and status of the teaching Bursary Scheme, funded by Britain, for education force. The Commonwealth Secretariat, with the and training of teachers: and the number of endorsement of Ministers at 16CCEM, has made awards under this peaked at 500 annually. One the teaching profession a central focus of its of the first of the Commonwealth specialist work on the Millennium Development Goals in education conferences held in the 1960s and education. 1970s was on the theme of Teacher Education in a Changing Society (Nairobi, 1968). Teachers have a high profile in Commonwealth activity. Recent highlights are the adoption of the The Commonwealth has certain natural Commonwealth Teacher Recruitment Protocol advantages in serving as a forum to address in 2004, the inclusion of a Teachers’ Forum at international issues affecting teachers, to facilitate the ministerial conferences in Cape Town, Kuala productive exchanges of experience, and to Lumpur and Mauritius and the formal launch of launch co-operative activity. The shared use of the Commonwealth Teachers’ Group in Cape English and the many commonalities in member Town in 2006. countries’ education systems make dialogue especially easy, and provide a strong basis for The Commonwealth’s focus on teachers fruitful exchange of experience and sharing of reflects a conscious decision to make teacher good practice. Common features include, for development and the mobility of teachers the example, similarities in school organisation and centrepiece of its work on improving education curriculum, structures of teacher employment, quality. There are two main thrusts: qualifications and examination systems, boards of governors and school committees, and the role • Support for strengthening the teacher of inspectorates. profession at national level, addressed in the next three sections of this chapter. Here Teacher development, support the Commonwealth Secretariat, especially as convenor of the ADEA Working Group and management on the Teaching Profession in Africa, and the Commonwealth of Learning have focused on The last half-century has seen impressive growth measures for development and support of in education enrolment in Commonwealth teachers. At tertiary level the Association of countries and the teacher force has had to Commonwealth Universities is particularly expand to keep pace. In some member states active. class sizes have fallen: a change made possible by

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 48 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 49 many more Sub-Saharan African countries, in coverage hasalsobroadened outtoinclude teacher supply andtraining. The geographical gender, copingwithHIV/AIDS, andquestionsof has grown toinclude, for example, questionsof range ofissuestackledby the Working Group continued toperform for thepast20years. The the Teaching Profession, aresponsibility ithas convenor ofthe ADEA Working Group on the Secretariat totake onin1993therole of in Africa (ADEA)wasformed, itshouldfallto Association for theDevelopment ofEducation In thelightofthisitwasnaturalthat, whenthe gradually expanded. countries participating training materialstookplaceandtherangeof study visitsandcollaborative activitytoproduce authorities. workshops,A seriesofcountry-led commissions,teaching service andthepayroll sections, theirregional anddistrictoffices, by ministriesofeducationandtheirstaffing the reform ofteacherrecord systemsoperated teacher managementandsupport, with starting a pioneeringprogramme toaddress issuesof withSouthern partnership African countries, on circumstances by embarkinginthe1980s, in The Secretariat responded tothesecritical social andtechnologicalchange. ofsocietyandbecause schools onthepart and stressful inthefaceofnew expectations of the teacher’s jobhasbecomemore complex to otherprofessionals. Another factoristhat the statusandremuneration ofteachersrelative and best”toteachingcareers, reflecting afallin become more difficultto recruit “thebrightest an attempttoraiseteacheroutputrapidly. Ithas some countriesinresponse tobudgetcutsorin professional preparation hasbeenreduced in commensurately. The prescribed lengthof average qualityofteachershasnotalways risen education. andtertiary secondary Yet the period, reflecting theexpandedprovision of have markedly improved inthis50-year The educationalqualificationsofteachers AIDS. incidence oflife-threatening diseaseslike HIV/ response topoorworking conditionsandthe heavy teachers, wastageofserving reflecting a behind growing requirements andthere hasbeen output from thetrainingcollegeshaslagged teacher-pupil ratiohasworsened considerably: prospering economies. Elsewhere, however, the -49- million more teachers by 2015. The prospects of been calculatedthat Africa alonewillrequire two age population. As notedInChapter 4, ithas school- enrolment ratesto100%oftheprimary keep upwithpopulationgrowth andtoraise massive expansionofenrolments, bothto (MDG) targetsineducationwillrequire a Meeting theMillenniumDevelopment Goals CPD training and approachesNew inteacher Outcomes ofthis ADEA work have beena practically-oriented resource materials. there have beenwritingworkshops toproduce visits,training workshops andobservation for teachers.services Inaddition toseminars, for continuing professional development, support conditions, teachertrainingandopportunities and teacherdeployment, teachersworking of theteachingprofession, staffingofschools reform. Topics addressed includemanagement of practicalmeasures ofimprovement and areas affecting teachers, andfor consideration and procedures ofmembercountriesinkey exchange ofexperienceaboutthepolicies groups, normally atsub-regional level, for the participatory. This involves convening working activities isthatthey andhighly are country-led The essenceofthe ADEA Working Group Commonwealth regions. the fruitsofthiswork withministriesinother the Secretariat hasonitsown initiative shared the Eastand West aswell astheSouth; and selected countries. the feminisation oftheteachingprofession in Commonwealth andmostrecently astudyof policies indifferent memberstatesacross the reviews ofteacherdeployment practicesand Commonwealth Secretariat hascommissioned Separately from its ADEA work, the recently, trainingfor multi-grade teaching. training ofheadteachers, inspectionand, more published resource booksandmanuals on outputs have includedaseriesofwell-regarded professionalsministry dealingwiththem. Specific an increase inthecapacity andconfidenceof teachers,need tonurture andsupport and teachers ineducationdevelopment and ofthe heightened awareness ofthecentralrole of 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 9 Chapter 4 9 Chapter

conventional training colleges being able to meet in Chapter 3 of this volume, has provided this requirement for newly trained teachers, as opportunities to younger men and women to well as the continuing professional development pursue advanced-level studies, normally leading (CPD) needs of those in service, seem remote. to a higher degree. It was always expected that some of the main beneficiaries would be One approach to solving this crisis is to increase the newly developing universities and tertiary the use of distance learning in training teachers. colleges in Commonwealth developing countries If programmes operated wholly or partially that were in urgent need of academic staff. A through the learning-at-a-distance mode, this relatively high proportion of those award holders could contribute to alleviating shortages in who have pursued research degrees have gone two ways: first by eliminating or reducing the on to take up academic careers. time and expense invested in attendance on conventional college-based courses, and second As well as hosting the UK Commonwealth by making trainee teachers available earlier for Scholarship Commission, and administering service in school classrooms. Where distance other awards programmes, the Association learning uses high-quality self-instructional of Commonwealth Universities (ACU) runs a materials and incorporates well-designed number of staff development programmes. These systems of learner support it can potentially include leadership workshops for university make an important contribution to reducing vice-chancellors and gender capacity-building the deficit. Its learner-friendliness is one of its training workshops to assist women academics most attractive features. Trainees can complete to advance their careers (see Chapter 6 on most of the programme at a time, place and gender). The ACU also runs a staff recruitment pace chosen by themselves to suit their personal service for its 500 member institutions. In 2006 circumstances and to fit in with their particular it published a research report, based on a 2005 responsibilities: characteristics that are especially survey of nearly 130 Commonwealth universities, helpful to female aspirants to the teaching on trends in academic recruitment and retention. profession. The systematic approach to teacher and learning that is so necessary in distance The Commonwealth Association of Polytechnics education, if it is effectively implemented, in Africa (CAPA), based in Nairobi, Kenya, has its provides teachers with an example of good own staff development programme. Workshop practice. themes have included “Prevention of HIV/AIDS”, and “Increasing Women’s Participation in TVET The Commonwealth of Learning (COL), the Activities”. Commonwealth agency for distance education co-operation, has been active in assisting Teacher mobility in the development of such approaches. Capacity- building in distance learning has been undertaken Commonwealth in The Gambia, Ghana, Sierra Leone, India, Lesotho, Nigeria and Sri Lanka. Working with International teacher mobility has great value. experts and practitioners from Commonwealth It can benefit individual teachers and the countries in Africa and Asia, COL has produced a education systems to which mobile teachers package of Commonwealth quality indicators and bring international experience. Teacher quality-assurance materials for teacher education. interchange helps to strengthen the bonds It also engages with Commonwealth member between Commonwealth countries. There is the states in devising strategies and policies for using potential to plan such exchange in a better and distance education in teacher training systems, more purposeful way, as a form of professional and helping them to incorporate the use of ICTs development for teachers and as a means of in their programmes. strengthening and enriching education systems. It is also important to ensure that teachers who take assignments in another country are treated Staff development at fairly. This applies to all teachers but especially tertiary level those who have been induced to serve abroad through active recruitment campaigns. The Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan (CSFP), launched in 1959 and discussed

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 50 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 51 4. 3. 2. 1. multi-directional, majorvariantsbeing: Commonwealth teachermobilityisofcourse teacher migration. FormStandard for Reporting collatingdataon Institute for Statistics, basedontheSecretariat’s Commonwealth Secretariat andUNESCO’s the subjectofrecent discussionbetween the analyse anddisseminatesuchdatahasbeen outflow. Thestepsthey mighttake tocollect, by nationalityandoninternationalinflow and data onthecompositionoftheirteachingforce most Commonwealth countrieshave poor the Commonwealth ishowever deficientand mobility. Information onteachermobilitywithin of professional migration, tendtoencourage Commonwealth countries, andlongtraditions The strong family andothertiesbetween and offering themasatisfyingprofessional life. recruiting, retaining andremunerating teachers review theirown domesticarrangements for teacher emigrationhave aresponsibility to Countries thatare concernedaboutlarge-scale absolutely andrelatively towhatexistsabroad. asunfavourable,and conditionsofservice both home country. Teachers may perceive terms poor moraleintheteachingforce oftheir scale out-migrationofteachersoftenreflects between different educationsystems. Large- However ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factorsare alsoatwork higher salariesorbetterconditionsofservice. for professional experience, andthesearch for reasons. These includeadesire totravel, aquest Teachers seekwork abroad for avarietyof 1 CommonwealthEducationMinisters, ofCommonwealth Protocolfor theRecruitment Teachers (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2004).

Jamaicans toUK. ones, e.g. Tongans toNew Zealandor From developing countriestoindustrialised West Africa. operation arrangements, e.g. from Canadato organisationsandtechnicalco- via voluntary From industrialisedtodeveloping countries to Britain. Between industrialisedcountries, e.g. Australia Independence. to Namibiaatthetimeoflatter’s operation arrangements, e.g. from Nigeria flows areoftechnicalandculturalco- parts to Trinidad and Tobago. Sometimesthese to EasternandSouthern Africa, orGuyana Between developing countries, e.g. from India -51- to make good theirown teacher shortages. deliberately targetedby industrialisedcountries, First, somedeveloping countrieswere being It wastriggered by adualsetofconcerns. lengthy process ofdiscussionandnegotiation. and rightsofsource countries. Itistheirduty The Protocol alsosetsouttheresponsibilities practice. system toensure they conform withgood of approved agenciesandaformal recognition recruiting agenciesare enjoined tomaintainalist of those recruiting countriesusing the services in themiddle oftheschoolyear, and etc.) down (fullconsultation, avoiding recruitment for anacceptablerecruitment process are laid harmful impactonthesource country. Principles on mutually acceptablemeasures toavoid together aboutintentionstorecruit andagree recruiting andsource countriesshouldconsult arrangements towork abroad. Itprovides that ‘informal’ flows ofteacherswhomake individual recruitment by countriesandagencies, notthe moralforce.a certain Itaddresses ‘organised’ The Protocol agreement, isavoluntary buthas posts. treatment intheirnewunfair ordiscriminatory specialised recruitment agenciesexperienced that someofthoseemployed abroad through loss suffered. Second, there wasreal concern found ithardparticular tomake good the taxpayers’ expense. Smallislandstatesin who hadbeenexpensively trainedatlocal specialised scienceandmathematicssubjects, This caused ‘brain drain’ofteachers, oftenin The Protocol wassignedin2004, Recruitment Protocol (CTRP) TeacherCommonwealth Commonwealth Teacher RecruitmentProtocol. situations thatprompted thedrawing upofthe international targetslike theMDGs. Itwassuch so intensifythethreat ofmissingnationaland may exacerbateanalready and existingshortage surplus. Elsewhere, however, teacheremigration mayshortage existwithinanoverall situationof salaries backhome. Even thenpockets ofspecific especially ifemigrantteachersremit oftheir part toofferon efforts thememployment abroad, of teachersandtheauthoritiesmay lookbenignly Pacific countries, for example, there isasurplus National circumstances differ. South Incertain 1 following a 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 9 Chapter 4 9 Chapter

to devise strategies that will make teaching The Commonwealth Secretariat has been attractive in their country and to ensure an addressing this issue with the help of the South adequate supply of teachers in areas of strategic African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) which importance. They should make known the commissioned a report for consideration by categories of teachers whose recruitment they Ministers in Cape Town.2 The report makes will not support. The Protocol recognises that a key distinction between the comparability in the last resort, when avenues of discussion of qualifications and their formal equivalence, and negotiation have been exhausted, source and recommends that the Commonwealth countries can withhold permission for organised should focus initially on trying to improve teacher recruitment by international recruiters the recognition and transferability of teacher to take place in its country. qualifications through establishing international comparability. It also distinguishes between Early indications are that the Protocol has been academic recognition of qualifications for entry successful in drawing international attention to into university courses etc., and professional the issue and in mitigating the problem for small recognition giving legal employment status. Commonwealth states somewhat. It has been widely welcomed in the international community The SAQA report suggests that mechanisms in as a model instrument, which could usefully be the form of ‘competent recognition authorities’ adapted and adopted for use elsewhere. are needed at national level in each of these domains. It recommends that an Association of In the latest period since 17CCEM the Commonwealth Qualifications Authorities, and a implementation of the Protocol has been Commonwealth Forum of Professional Teacher overseen by a Commonwealth advisory Councils could usefully be established. It “argues committee of up to a dozen members drawn strongly for a Commonwealth-wide approach from different Commonwealth regions and to the recognition and transferability of teacher including teachers’ representatives. This has met professional registration” and recommends that each year since 2010. a Commonwealth standard for professional registration status be developed. To facilitate agreements between countries, the Commonwealth Secretariat has recently In 2009, at the request of the Commonwealth developed a model Memorandum of Steering Group on Teacher Qualifications, Understanding for the Recruitment of Migrant SAQA completed a further report on the Teachers, which countries can freely adapt to issue of recognition of qualifications.3 More their circumstances. recently, the Commonwealth Secretariat has been exploring the possibility of working with Recognition for migrant COL, IOM, ILO and the UNESCO International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa to adapt teachers COL’s Transitional Qualifications Framework for use in mechanisms which will support the A problem faced by migrant teachers, and by implementation of the African Union’s emerging education systems wishing to employ them, is teacher recruitment protocol for Africa. It has the difficulty of establishing the ‘value’ of the also been working with governments on the qualification they hold in comparative terms. role and status of refugee teachers in education In a globalising world this issue is encountered in emergencies, aiming to reduce the formal in almost every sphere of the international and non-formal institutional barriers faced by employment market for professionals. It has to teachers forced to migrate across a border. be recognised that to the extent the problem can be solved for Commonwealth teachers, the easier migration becomes and the greater is the danger of ‘brain drain’ of qualified teachers. This would make the Protocol described above even more important - even accepting that its provisions are confined to the ‘managed’ element of Commonwealth teacher mobility.

2 SAQA, The recognition of teacher qualifications and professional registration status across Commonwealth member states (Pretoria: SAQA, 2007). 3 SAQA, Recognition of Teacher Qualifications in the Commonwealth (Pretoria: SAQA, 2009). -52-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 52 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 53 The majoractivitieswere asfollows: development withan internationaldimension. providing for teacherprofessional opportunities with theCfBTEducation Trust, wasactive in LECT, founded in1901andmerged2007 TeachersCommonwealth (LECT) fortheExchange(2) TheLeague of ministers. in thewingsoftriennialconferences ofeducation convenor ofthe Teachers’ Forums thatare held and otherCommonwealth bodies. Itactsas education withtheCommonwealth Secretariat aims topromote theinterests ofteachersand professional development activities. Italso teachers, andtodevelop linkssupporting greater contactbetween Commonwealth CTG works withotherbodiestopromote Committee. meetings oftheCommonwealth Advisory Protocol, areview meeting in2009andthe Commonwealth meetingthatadoptedthe Union of Teachers intheUK, hostedthe one ofitsmemberassociations, theNational Teacher Recruitment Protocol tofruitionand a majorrole inbringingtheCommonwealth of whichitwastheconvenor. The CTGplayed Town inDecember2006atthe Teachers’ Forum, International andwasformally launchedinCape CTG operatesundertheauspicesofEducation Group (CTG) Teachers’(1) TheCommonwealth prominent onesare mentionedhere. teacher organisationsatschoollevel, three above. Among Commonwealth civil-society level haveAfrica attertiary beenmentioned Commonwealth Association ofPolytechnics in Association ofCommonwealth Universities and The staffdevelopment activitiesofthe teachers of associations Commonwealth •

Zealand -for aperiodof oneyear. – mainly from Australia, CanadaandNew teachers andCommonwealth colleagues post-to-post exchangebetween UK Teacher ExchangeProgramme, supporting LECT co-ordinated the Commonwealth -53- Chapter 8ofthisvolume. are givendetails oftheactivitiesCASTME In networking educatorsinthesesubjects. Further andmathematicsteachingby technology to advancethesocialrelevance ofscience, throughout theCommonwealth. Itworks Founded in1974, hasmembers CASTME Educators (CASTME) Technology Mathematicsand Science, Associationof (3) TheCommonwealth Exchange Council(CYEC). the managementofCommonwealth Youth Zealand hasnow withdrawn) continues under Teacher ExchangeProgramme (from whichNew was withdrawn. However, theCommonwealth funding for thelastthree oftheseprogrammes when, ofUKbudgetcuts, aspart thegovernment The Leaguehadtobedissolved, however, in2011 • • •

developing countriestospendtwo months professionals from Commonwealth provision. This enabledafew mid-career UK’s Commonwealth Scholarships Fellowships Programme withinthe the Commonwealth Professional in EducationProgramme under LECT co-ordinated theLeadership destinations were offered. group visitsfor UKteacherstooverseas week-longShort themedinternational and raisingachievement. inclusion, involving parents, andsupporting included citizenshipeducation, social of themedstudyvisitsabroad. Themes in alocalauthority-basedprogramme for teachersfrom Englandtoparticipate and Families, LECTprovided 300places forformer Children, Department Schools (TIPD), through acontractfrom theUK’s Professional Development Programme Under the Teachers International in theUK. on professional development attachments 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 9 Chapter 4 10 Chapter Chapter 10: THE COMMONWEALTH, STUDENT MOBILITY AND TRANSNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION James Urwick Introduction Universities Study Abroad Consortium (CUSAC), which was started in 1993, has provided links in During the twentieth century the international 20 countries for the exchange of undergraduate mobility of students played an important students. part in the processes of decolonisation and nation-building that gave rise to the modern In spite of the rapid world-wide growth of higher Commonwealth of Nations. Both the long- education, all of the reasons for supporting distance movement of students from former student mobility that were identified in 1959 colonies to universities in the UK and the continue to have a relevance that is too often Dominions, and more regional movements overlooked. In particular, the disparities in of students to the older universities in other higher education resources, between nations parts of the Commonwealth, were important of different income level, remain very great. elements. Some of the latter universities began as Arguably, the failure to achieve consistent accredited colleges of the University of London, standards for degrees internationally provides providing the vision of an international standard an additional reason for supporting movements for degrees.1 and exchanges of students and academic staff, in that personal experience of higher standards The first Commonwealth Education Conference, can encourage reform where it is needed. As this held at Oxford in 1959, identified four major chapter will show, international student mobility reasons for supporting student mobility in has continued to grow rapidly in recent years, higher education within the Commonwealth. both in the Commonwealth and elsewhere. Firstly, such mobility would enable students to However, current circumstances, both economic achieve professional development in fields not and political, make it challenging for higher available in their own countries. This applied education institutions in the Commonwealth especially to fields of study that had developed to use student mobility for the developmental recently and were not widely available. Secondly, purposes indicated. This chapter provides an mobility would extend the choice of subjects for overview of recent trends in this and alternative students from small countries in particular. The forms of mobility in higher education and sets third reason was that mobility would strengthen out some challenges that the Commonwealth comparative and international studies and faces in this area. disciplines. The fourth reason, partly related to the third, was that the presence of international Recent past developments: students in host countries would broaden the differential fees and outlook of home students. Underpinning the arguments was a desire to promote “equality of Commonwealth responses educational opportunity at the highest level”.2 In the period from 1967 to 1980 higher These considerations resulted in several education in the UK moved from a position important initiatives. The Commonwealth of charging the same fees to international as Scholarship and Fellowship Plan (CSFP, the to home students to one of charging full cost progress of which is discussed in Chapter 3) was fees to students who came from outside the established in 1959. The Council for Education European Community (EC). For these non-EC in the Commonwealth (CEC) was formed in students, the basis of funding was changed from the same year as a voluntary association, with grants and subsidies to user charges. Although support for student mobility as part of its agenda. the “full cost” approach was widely opposed by The Association of Commonwealth Universities academic communities in the UK and elsewhere, (ACU), developed from the Universities Bureau it was not long before other major host of the British Empire, received a royal charter countries within the Commonwealth - Australia, in 1963. More recently the Commonwealth New Zealand and some parts of Canada - also introduced differential fees for international

1 The historical background provided in this section is based to a large extent on: K. Maxey, “Commonwealth Student Mobility”, in Working Together in Education: a Commonwealth Update, ed. P. Williams, pp. 58-66 (London: Commonwealth Consortium for Education, 2009). 2 UK, Commonwealth Relations Office, Report of the Commonwealth Education Conference, (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1959). -54-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 54 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 55 Century (London:Century CEC, 2000); K. Maxey, StudentMobilityintheCommonwealth: International 2006Update(London: CEC, 2006). (Montreal, UNESCOInstituteofStatistics, 2010), 8. project-atlas Slaughter andG. Leslie, Academic Capitalism(BaltimoreMD: Press, JohnsHopkins University 1997). spread ofacademiccapitalism. portrayed asentrepreneurial initiative orthe management ofhighereducation-variously corporate attitudes, valuesandpracticesonthe to studentsandtheintensifiedinfluenceof public budgets, advocacy ofincreased charges education hascoincidedwithpressures on growth, world wide, ofdemand for higher During thepasttwo decadestheexponential of lobbyists hasbeenlessevident. that have enhancedtheircontributions, therole of theCSFP. Inthecaseofothergovernments of theGovernment’s contribution tothefunding also hadtocampaignvigorously for maintenance the relevant hostcountries. Inthe UKthey have Commonwealth studentsfrom governments of concessionsforobtained more thantemporary of thelevel offees, noneofthesebodieshas student mobility. IntheUKPrimeMinister’s equitable goals for theCommonwealth through thepursuitofdevelopmentalimpede further and efficiency insomeinstitutions, have combinedto although they may have increased managerial 7 6 5 4 3 CEC updates. Ministers (CCEM), whichwasfollowed by the Conference ofCommonwealth Education (UKCOSA), produced ajointreport in2000for the UKCouncilfor Overseas Student Affairs bodies. InBritaintheCEC, with inpartnership More recently ithasbeendoneby civilsociety Mobility, appointed by theSecretary-General. Commonwealth StandingCommitteeonStudent The monitoringwasatfirstentrustedtoa categoriesconcessions for ofstudents. certain within theCommonwealth andby seeking monitor theireffects onstudentmobility to thechangesinfee policyby seekingto Commonwealth representatives have responded differential fees for others. from SADCcountriesandhaving relatively low 1997, notchargingfees tointernationalstudents (SADC) Protocol onEducationand Training of the Southern Africa Development Community Africa, however, hasbeennotablefor adheringto of much-needed institutionalrevenue. South students, whichcametobeseenasasource UNESCO, StandardClassification of Education(Paris: International UNESCO, 1997), 34-35. Education, InstituteofInternational Project Atlas: Trends andGlobalData2001. Available at: http://www.iie.org/en/research-and-publications/ Seefor example: B.R. Clarke, Universities: CreatingEntrepreneurial Pathways Organisational to Transformation, (New York: Elsevier, 1998); S. See: CECandUKCOSA, StudentMobilityontheMap: Tertiary EducationInterchangeintheCommonwealthon Threshold ofthe 21st C-L. ChienandF.C. Kot, New Patterns inStudentMobility intheSouthern Development Community:Africa BulletinNo. UISInformation 7 4 However, onthecentralissue 3 5 These trends, These -55- Classification ofEducation(ISCED) in Levels 5and6oftheInternationalStandard 10.1. This presentation islimitedtostudents time seriesare available, isprovided by Figure international students, andfor whichrecent countries thathostsignificant numbers of recent enrolment trends infive Commonwealth between themhostingabout24percentofthe UK were amongtheseven ‘top destinations’, students. In2010 Australia, Canadaandthe globally inthehostingofinternational part The Commonwealth continues toplay alarge Commonwealth major hostcountries the of Recent enrolment trends in world totalofsuchstudents. increase wasslightly greater for studentsfrom affected both. Thirdly, intheUKabsolute in theCommonwealth component, althoughit more rapid inthenon-Commonwealth than increase, inallcasesexceptthat oftheUK, was 15-20 percentintheothercases. Secondly, the in Malaysia, by 50percentin Australia andby increased inallcases: by over 100percent overall enrolment ofinternationalstudents several points. Firstly, intheperiod2005-9 inFigureThe columncharts 10.1illustrate vocational trainingprogrammes. andshort-term considerable numbers alsoenrol inlower programmes. Itshouldbekept inmindthat general terms, thoseindegree orequivalent enrolment ofinternationalstudents. after documentingsomerecent trends inthe shall return totheseandothercurrent issues distance learning, hasbeenincreasing. We and foreign universities, andinternational campuses, programmes jointly offered by local mobility ofstudents, suchas ‘off-shore’ satellite ‘transnational’ alternatives totheinternational or grants. Ontheotherhand, theavailability of intensified marketing andnotthrough subsidies students intohighereducation, butonly through toattractinternational efforts has supported Initiative, launchedin1999andrenewed in2006, 6 An overview of 7 : thatis, in 09/08/2012 18:23

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FIGURE 10.1: ANNUAL ENROLMENTS OF INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS, ISCED LEVELS 5 AND 6, IN SELECTED COMMONWEALTH HOST COUNTRIES Codes: general For all host countries except South Africa, enrolments are sub-divided into the following four categories, by Commonwealth or non-Commonwealth country of origin and by the Human Development Index (HDI) level of the country of origin: COM VH & H = Commonwealth, very high or high HDI level COM M & L = Commonwealth, medium or low HDI level NON-COM VH & H = Non-Commonwealth, very high or high HDI level NON-COM M & L = Non-Commonwealth, medium or low HDI level

Codes used for South Africa only AF COM VH & H = African Commonwealth, very high or high HDI level AF COM M & L = African Commonwealth, medium or low HDI level AF NON-COM M & L = African Non-Commonwealth, medium or low HDI level OTHER UNSPEC = Others, with country of origin not specified

Sources: UNESCO Institute for Statistics; UNDP classification of HDI in 2011.

countries classified as very high or high on the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI), while in Australia, Canada and Malaysia it was greater for students from medium and low HDI countries. Table 10.1 supplements the charts of Figure 10.1 by showing the enrolment statistics for the same host countries and categories of students, in the years 2005 and 2009, together with students of unspecified category and proportions of the total.

A few limitations and assumptions of the data need to be mentioned. In the case of South Africa, details of countries of origin are not available for students from outside Africa and for this reason a general ‘unspecified’ category is included in the chart. In the other countries there were relatively small numbers

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 56 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 57 published by theUNESCOInstitutefor Statistics. c b a Numbers for 2006,Numbers asthosefor 2005are notavailable. Number for 2008, asthatof2009isnotavailable. There are minordifferences betweenthesomeoftotalenrolments shown andthose 2009 SELECTED COMMONWEALTH HOSTCOUNTRIES, 2005AND TABLE 10.1:INTERNATIONAL STUDENTENROLMENTIN Country & 2006 2005 2009 2009 2005 2005 2005 2009 2009 2009 Year c Categories studentshostedby SouthAfrica: of Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment % oftotal % oftotal % oftotal % oftotal % oftotal % oftotal % oftotal % oftotal % oftotal % oftotal Categories ornon- studentshosted(Commonwealth of Commonwealth and HDIlevels and asinFigureCommonwealth 1): 34,554 41,442 34,283 41,881 VH&H VH&H Com., Com., 1,554 4,482 1,156 5,693 249 560 20 16 11 11 6 1 1 3 6 2 United Kingdom

South Africa Australia Malaysia 32,636 15,433 41,039 22,370 48,513 24,704 76,790 11,397 4,943 8,415 Com. Com. Canada M&L M&L 12 21 18 27 16 45 15 12 41 21

158,498 176,210 37,539 11,259 46,413 28,689 35,541 VH&H VH&H Com., Com., 31,58 Non- Non- 37 13 21 20 18 50 42 48 0 0 0 0

102,388 15,356 58,346 28,052 11,170 69,317 26,391 17,823 66,163 33,550 Com., Com., Non- Non- VH& VH& 35 65 33 49 40 22 22 38 29 18

-57- 10,771 13,930 25,353 15,035 17,173 1,578 7,675 1,404 7,773 spec. spec. Un- Un- 11 47 10 30 28 0 8 3 2 2 2

b 177,005 257,635 318,256 368,817 96,952 23,753 56,882 50,129 69,111 60,856 Total Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 a example. The international example. The to theyear 2009asan be mentioned, withreference A few contextualpoints may has mediumstatus. status, whiletherest ofChina unit with high’HDI ‘very China) istreated asaseparate (an autonomousregion within incoming students, HongKong Africa. Intheclassificationof Canada, Malaysia orSouth 2010 are notyet available for of Malaysia, whilethosefor for theyear 2005inthecase statistics are notavailable in Table 10.1. Enrolment charts, butthey are included students are omittedfrom the specified: for simplicitythese couldnotbe of thecountry ortheHDIlevelthe country of studentsfor whomeither students hostedby theUK as homestudents. These EU enrolled onthesame terms of theEuropean Union(EU), students from otherparts The UKhosted118,000 14,000 from Zimbabwe. the Commonwealth), including countries (mostly membersof 39,000 studentsfrom SADC China. South Africa hosted outnumbered by 26,000from the USA, butthesewere Canada included7,000from Malaysia. Those hostedby Macao) and20,000from (including HongKong and included 84,000from China students hostedby Australia 09/08/2012 18:23

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were all non-Commonwealth except for TABLE 10.2: COMMONWEALTH INTERNATIONAL 12,000 from Cyprus, Gibraltar and Malta. STUDENT ENROLMENTS, ISCED LEVELS 5 AND 6, (Figures are rounded to the nearest IN SELECTED HOST COUNTRIES, 2009 8 1,000. ) Host country Students from Commonwealth Total Percentage countries with: of HE The demand for international mobility enrol.b by students from the medium and low VH & H M & L Unknown HDI countries of the Commonwealth HDI HDI HDIa has continued to be constrained by A. Commonwealth financial and immigration barriers in Australia 41,442 42,039 22 83,503 6.96 traditional destinations such as Australia, New Zealand and the UK (a matter Canada 5,693 11,397 0 17,090 na that will be discussed further). An Malaysia 560 15,433 0 15,993 1.60 important issue, therefore, is how easily New Zealand 6,559 7,548 18 14,125 5.37 such students can identify alternative UK 41,881 76,790 3 118,674 4.91 destinations that offer a quality higher B. Non-Commonwealth education at lower cost. When discussing this issue in the mid-1980s, Selvaratnam Finland 532 2,723 0 3,255 1.10 noted the increasing importance of Germany 3,502 11,308 0 14,810 na India and Singapore as host countries.9 (Level 5 only) In recent years significant developments Hong Kong 225 50 0 275 0.11 are the emergence of Malaysia as a (SAR, China) host country and the stronger regional Ireland 4,034 1,173 0 5,207 2.85 role of South Africa. Singapore too has Netherlands 320 441 0 761 0.12 continued to increase in importance as Norway 532 1,585 0 2,117 0.97 a host country: by 2010 it had a total Russian 2,900 7,695 2 10,597 0.11 of over 48,000 international students Federation in higher education, although details of their countries of origin are not available. Sweden 558 5.401 0 5,959 1.41 India’s total in universities (not including USA 64,063 135,929 10 200,002 1.05 professional colleges) seems to have Notes 10 increased from 12,374 in 2006 to 21,778 aNo Human Development Index is available for Nauru or Tuvalu. 11 in 2009, a figure described as disappointing. bTotal as a percentage of all higher education enrolment in the host country. For the groups of small island states in the Caribbean and the South Pacific, the Commonwealth enrolments campuses of the Universities of the West Indies in Commonwealth and other and the South Pacific have always provided a multi-state, regional service and in this sense are host countries special cases. Nevertheless the regional role of these campuses has been strengthened in the The Commonwealth contributes substantially past through the sponsorship, especially by the to the global outflow of international students. governments of Canada and New Zealand, of It accounts for 21 per cent of all the outbound ‘third country training’ for students from the numbers estimated by the UNESCO Institute smaller islands.12 for Statistics for 2009; similarly it accounts for 20 per cent of the numbers estimated for 2005.13 These students have a great variety of destinations.

8 The sources are the UNESCO Institute for Statistics and the UK Higher Education Statistics Agency. 9 V. Selvaratnam, “Student Mobility within the Commonwealth: Growing Constraints, New Initiatives”, Higher Education Quarterly, 42, no. 3 (1988): 257. 10 UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 11 For the 2009 statistic and comments, see: Times of India, 27 October 2011, available: http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10-27/ news/30327750_1_international-students-foreign-students-chinese-students. 12 M.K. Bacchus, “Towards a Strategy for Increasing Student Mobility between Less Developed Countries in the ‘Commonwealth’ through Third Country Training”, International Journal of Educational Development, 6, no. 4 (1986): 275-276. 13 These estimates, however, are incomplete. They give a global total of 2.98 million outwardly mobile students in 2009, whereas Project Atlas estimates a total of 3.7 million for the same year. (See Note 6.). -58-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 58 09/08/2012 18:23 b a Notes Total asapercentage ofallhighereducationenrolment inthehostcountry. No HumanDevelopment Indexisavailablefor Nauruor Tuvalu. Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 59 Higher Education International Unit,Higher EducationInternational 2011), 20,22. 17 16 15 14 in theCommonwealth: 40 theFirst Years, ed. L. Bown, 186(London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2003). percentage of the total tertiary enrolment in that country” (UNESCOInstitute for StatisticsGlossary). enrolmentinthatcountry” percentage ofthetotaltertiary issue for thetraditionalhostcountries, which and institutionalmarketing efforts. Butamajor historical links, thepatternsofdevelopment aid and Ireland, asmay beexpectedbecauseof are thosefor Australia, New Zealand, theUK enrolment. The more substantial proportions as aproportion ofthecountry’s level tertiary Commonwealth internationalstudenttotal The lastcolumnofthetableshows the of Commonwealth students. Federation continue to hostsubstantialnumbers language obstacle, Germany andtheRussian or low. The tableshows that, inspiteofthe two categories, highorandmedium very the HDIlevel oforigin, oftheircountry inthe in Figure 10.1, thestudentsare sub-dividedby both withinandoutsidetheCommonwealth. As Commonwealth origininselectedhostcountries overview ofinternationalstudentenrolments of 10.2 provides, for theyear 2009, acomparative medium programmes inselectedfields. Table their competitive positionby offering English- experience afterstudy. for workscholarships andopportunities of resources, useofEnglish, institutional programmes, diversity ofinstitutions, wealth countries becauseofitsrangeandflexibility to internationalstudentsfrom Commonwealth States of America (USA)hashadauniqueappeal For alongperiodhighereducationintheUnited Netherlands, continent, especially inGermany andthe institutions inChinaandontheEuropean they keep fees moderate. Inaddition, some Commonwealth countriestotheextentthat attract studentsfrom mediumandlow HDI and HongKong, have to opportunities outside theCommonwealth, suchasIreland and thoseinotherEnglish-speakingdestinations Both American highereducationinstitutions from Canada. included about102,000from Indiaand29,000 Commonwealth studentsstudyingabroad. They represented oftheglobaltotal one-quarter countries (see Table 10.2), whichmay have about 200,000studentsfrom Commonwealth The outbound mobility ratio is here defined as “the number of students from a given country studying abroad [in tertiary education] asa studyingabroad[intertiary The outboundmobilityratio isheredefinedas“thenumberofstudents fromagivencountry W. Archer andJ. Cheng, Study: Pricing International StudentFees(London: International UK A SnapshotofUKand Key CompetitorCountry See, for example: CECandUKCOSA(Note4), 43, 59; L. Bown, intheCommonwealth: “Buildingbridges IssuesofStudentMobility”, in Education See alsoSelvaratnam, 260 15 have beguntostrengthen 14 In2009theUSAhosted -59- be 5percentormore in2009. Notsurprisingly, those for whichitisavailable andestimatedto Commonwealth countries, but Table 10.4shows is only available from UISfor abouthalfofthe of commercial successinacompetitive market. goals ofhumanresource development andthose in thehostingofinternationalstudents, between issue ofwhetherthere isanacceptablebalance, by the ‘outbound mobilityratio’. the relative level ofdemandisbetterindicated UNESCO Institutefor Statistics(UIS). However, 2009, usingtheestimatesavailable from the students receiving highereducationabroad in Commonwealth countriesthathadatleast5,000 Table 10.3lists, indescendingorder, all relatively largenumbers ofstudentselsewhere. populous Commonwealth countriessend As mightbeexpected, someofthemore demand origin of theirlevel of and countriesCommonwealth representation. HDI Commonwealth countrieshave anadequate publications, iswhetherthemedium-andlow- has alsobeenraisedinprevious Commonwealth Source: UNESCOInstitutefor Statisticsestimates. Bangladesh Cameroon Singapore UK Cyprus Pakistan Nigeria Canada Malaysia Country 2009 COUNTRY WITHAT LEAST5,000,IN STUDENTS BYCOMMONWEALTH TABLE 10.3:OUTWARDLY MOBILE India 18,727 abroad in 16 Students 196,149 19,045 19,639 22,621 24,583 31,584 35,892 46,000 54,656 This relates tothebroader 2009 Zambia Tobago Trinidad & Tanzania Jamaica South Africa Ghana Mauritius Australia Kenya Sri Lanka (continued) Country 17 This statistic This abroad in Students 10,058 13,666 16,079 5,086 5,559 5,633 5,850 6,227 7,706 7,920 2009 09/08/2012 18:23

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TABLE 10.4: COMMONWEALTH The possible ‘pull’ factors, relating to the host COUNTRIES WITH HIGH DEMAND FOR country, include not only the perceived status of OUTWARD STUDENT MOBILITY, 2009 its qualifications and quality of its programmes, Country Outbound Country Outbound but the existence of cultural links, a ‘Diaspora’ mobility (continued) mobility community from the country of origin, and ratio, 2009 ratio, employment opportunities during or after study. 20099 Other factors that may influence the choice of Cyprus 79.33 Singapore 9.89 host country are living costs, the availability of Brunei 49.14 Barbados 9,73 scholarships or financial concessions, language requirements and immigration requirements.20 St. Lucia 44.74 Jamaica 9.51 Cost factors are all the more important because, Guyana 22.30 Grenada 9.15 from the available evidence, most international Belize 12.44 Kenya 8.14 students are self-sponsored. British statistics for Malta 11.00 Malaysia 5.46 the academic year 2008-9, for example, show 66 Cameroon 10.94 per cent of full-time international students in UK higher education as having ‘no award or financial Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimates. backing’ and only in postgraduate research some of these are small island states in which programmes was this group in a minority (one- 21 it is difficult to achieve economies of scale third). in higher education. Others, such as Malaysia and Singapore, are also important globally as A point that deserves emphasis is that this host countries, as indicated above. Barbados kind of private demand is very sensitive to, and Jamaica are also significant hosts in the and to some extent shaped by, the policies and Caribbean context. Such considerations have behaviour of governments both in sending and caused Hans de Wit to use the term, ‘circulation’, in receiving countries. As international students in describing international student mobility:18 in many cases carry higher financial and social but that usage may reflect more of a hope than risks than those studying in the home country, a reality. In most cases a considerable imbalance their level of confidence in the institutions and continues: countries are either mainly senders of environment of the host country is an important students, such as India, Nigeria, Cameroon and factor in mobility. Belize, or mainly hosts, like Australia and South Africa. Criticisms and constraints to mobility The private demand for international student mobility The introduction of differential fees for international students in countries such as A large number of ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors the UK and Australia related to a judgement, which may motivate individuals to seek study not necessarily correct but common among opportunities outside their usual country politicians, that the government could not 22 of residence have been identified by various afford extensive subsidies to such students. writers and summarised by Hans de Wit.19 It was argued that, while the ability of home Among the ‘push’ factors, which relate to the students’ households to bear the cost of higher country of origin, it is likely that there will be education had to be considered on grounds of some positive factors, such as a certain level of equity, there was no such obligation in the case information about the prospective host country of international students—who have therefore and prospects of employment on return, as well been ‘soft targets’ for fees. In the UK such as negative ones such as limited or poor quality attitudes have been hardened since the 1980s, opportunities in the national higher education. firstly by the growth of demand from domestic and European Union (EU) students, whose

18 H. de Wit, “The Changing Dynamics in International Student Circulation” in The Dynamics of International Student Circulation in a Global Context, ed. H. de Wit and others (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers, 2008), 44. 19 Ibid, 28. 20 Archer and Cheng (Note 14), 23. 21 Data from the UK Higher Education Statistics Agency: overall there were 202,665 with no award or financial backing, out of a total of 305,970. (Those in further education are not included here.) 22 Selvaratnam (p. 259) mentions that Canada and New Zealand were also affected. -60-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 60 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 61 the market. provision ofhighereducationalmostentirely to public costcriticismby leaving theinternational some otherhostcountriesnow avoid the general. Government policies intheUKand on thepublicfundingofhighereducationin regulation, andsecondly by increasing pressures tuition fees have beenrestricted by government relevant environment. tothehomecountry skills acquired are intheNorth notsufficiently global South. Oneisthattheknowledge and the perspective ofthesendingcountriesin typesofcriticismareFurther expressed from brain drain, butcanfacilitatetheprocess. mobility isunlikely tobethemaincauseof damage totheirown humanresources. Student countries understandably seektolimit the At thesametime, governments ofthesending present thebraindrainasanabuseofhospitality. some ofthemajorhostcountries, politicianscan of immigrationhasahighpoliticalprofile in international studentsplays apart. As theextent in whichthepermanentemigrationofsome have beenthoserelating tothe ‘brain drain’, Somewhat distinctfrom thepubliccostcriticisms subsidising, ifnecessary, domesticprovision. be exploitedcommercially andameansof (outside theEU)primarily asamarket to or private, tothinkofinternationalprovision higher educationinstitutions, whetherpublic national universities ofhighachieving students. own societiesandthattheirabsencedeprives find itdifficultto re-adjustculturally totheir students, asaresult ofstudyingintheNorth, focus. Othercriticismsare thatthemobile especially inprogrammes withaninternational relevant tostudents’countriesoforigin, andresourcesboth expertise thatare directly haveinstitutions intheglobalNorth acquired But inmitigationitmust besaidthatmany host among the ‘push’ factorsinstudentmobility. oforiginare political instabilityinthecountry effects: poorly delivered programmes and however, couldeasily berepressive intheir Such argumentsfor restricting studentmobility, 27 26 25 24 23 International Education 11,International nos. 3-4(2007): 291. students beremoved fromtheofficialnetmigration statistics: seehttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/ story.asp?storycode=420130. Ministerasking that international andotherprominentfigureswroteto thePrime andbusinessleaders university groupofBritish 2012 alarge on Restrictions Tier 4 Students(Oxford:Visas: ofOverseas Recruitment Implicationsfor University HigherEducationPolicy Institute, 2011). InMay Higher Education(OBHE), onBorderless 15(London:ed. OBHE, Observatory 2011), http://www.obhe.org; E. Acton, Proposed The UKBA’s Seefor example, C. Ziguras, “The Year Started EducationExporters Turning away Students”, 2011: inBorderless Perspectives ontheFuture, On thelatter, seeBacchus(Note 10), 280. Ibid, 262-264. Selvaratnam, 263. On relatedissues, seeP. Altbach and J. Knight, of Higher Education: “TheInternationalization Motivations andRealities”, ofStudiesin Journal 23 These policieshave conditioned 24 26

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-61- university personnelandanalysts. the UKhasprovoked much criticismfrom introduction ofstricter rulesin Australia and financial resources are modest. The recent effectively closethedoortomany whose for internationalstudentsingeneraland of thiskindare therefore amajordisincentive the completionofstudies. Immigrationpolicies for alimitedperiodafter in thehostcountry arguments, insomefields, for work experience their costs. There are alsostrong professional to work inorder tomeetsomeof part-time international, aswell asdomestic, studentsneed of financialdeposits required. However, many and afterstudy, aswell asincreasing thesize students’ work bothduring opportunities increased therestrictions oninternational In addition, someimmigrationpolicieshave have alimitedcapacity tomeetthosecosts. individuals, especially inlow-income countries, high insomehostcountries; governments and policies. Fees andcostsoflivingare relatively in practiceare financialfactorsandimmigration The main, direct constraintsonstudentmobility pressure onuniversities toseekrevenue through cap inthisway.) These actionsincrease the government hassofarchosennottoraisethe £9,000 perannum. (WithintheUK, theScottish on domesticandEUstudentfees from £3,290to grant’) tohighereducationandraisingthe ‘cap’ reducing thelevel ofpublicsubsidy(the ‘teaching recent actionsofthenationalgovernment in circumstanceAn important intheUKis abroad towards higherdegree programmes. programmes, itmay shiftthedemandfor study areas. Where such growth focuses on first degree the privatesector, andabsorbdemandinsome rapidly, through partly increased involvement of some ofthesendingcountrieshave beengrowing be mentioned. Highereducationsystemswithin Some indirect influencesonmobilitymay also countries concerned. loss, aswell asalossofgoodwill, for thehost students andtherefore entailsaneconomic is unhelpfulfor thehostingofinternational that anobsessive concerntorestrict immigration 27 Itisargued 09/08/2012 18:23

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competitive marketing of their programmes, their rankings within some countries (as in whether domestic or international. The new the UK), the policy framework determined by scenario is likely imply that the commercial national governments (and in some countries by motive for recruiting international students state or provincial governments) is the primary continues to be emphasised, although domestic influence on fee levels.29 and EU students will now contribute more to university revenue. The context is that, in 2010- Research reported by the Higher Education 11, there were 130,120 EU students, accounting Policy Institute (HEPI, Oxford) is relevant in for 5 per cent of all higher education enrolment showing the substantial economic advantages to in the UK, while 298,110 other international the UK of hosting international students: both students accounted for 12 per cent of the those from within the European Union (EU) and enrolment.28 Because of the raising of the cap those from elsewhere.30 Taking all major costs on fees, it is likely that the priorities of particular and benefits into consideration, the authors universities will determine the levels of fees, both estimate that, in the academic year 2004-5, domestic and international, to a greater extent there were net cash benefits to the economy of than previously. £9,900 per EU student and £17,900 per non-EU student. The annual contributions to national Financial and economic Gross Domestic Product, however, are estimated as higher for EU students because they were considerations for host more likely to work in the UK after graduation: countries £17,900 per EU student compared with £5,500 per non-EU student. This research suggests that To the extent that the provision of higher the earlier (1980s) cost criticism of international education for international students is seen student mobility may not have served national simply as a competitive commercial activity, host interests at all. It presents a strong argument that, universities and countries will try to set their on economic grounds alone, the government of fees in such a way as to capture viable numbers a host country such as the UK should to some while maintaining or enhancing their international degree subsidise higher education provision for reputations. However, recent comparative international students from outside the region, research on fee levels for international students thereby increasing their enrolment, rather than in major host countries (including six within pressuring universities to maximise their fee the Commonwealth) shows that there are income from this source. substantial cross-national differences in fee levels With regard to Commonwealth countries, In contrast with the ‘full-cost fees’ policy in the this research indicates that host institutions in UK, New Zealand allows international students Australia and the UK tend to charge substantially at the doctoral level to pay fees at the home higher fees (in the range, £10,000-20,000) than rate,31 while South Africa’s fees for non-SADC do those in Canada, New Zealand and Singapore students are only 25 per cent above the home (£5,000-15,000). Those in Malaysia tend to rate. In the light of the HEPI research findings, charge less than £5,000, as do their competitors such policies may well be reasonable for the in China. (These figures were based on simple economies of the host countries as well as currency conversions.) having merit from an equity perspective. It is true that the British Government contributes An interesting case outside the Commonwealth a substantial share of funding for the CSFP: in is Germany, where international students benefit the financial year 2009-10 this amounted to from the same subsidies as home students £18.8 million for 1,455 award holders.32 But this and tuition fees are either minimal or zero for effort, while commendable, is modest in relation all students. It is clear that, although the fee to national economic gains from the export of variations between universities are related to higher education. For example, direct spending

28 Enrolment data from the UK Higher Education Statistics Agency. 29 This is the author’s own interpretation of data presented by Archer and Cheng (Note 14). The approximate price ranges that follow are based on the same study. 30 P. Vickers and B. Bekhradnia, The Economic Costs and Benefits of International Students (Oxford: Higher Education Policy Institute, 2007). 31 Archer and Cheng, 18. 32 Commonwealth Scholarship Commission in the United Kingdom, 51st Annual Report to the Secretary of State for International Development (London: Author, 2011): 8, 45. -62-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 62 09/08/2012 18:23 by international students in the UK in 2004-5 is ‘returned the compliment’ by starting a satellite estimated at £3.74 billion33: a figure which would campus in London, as well as one in Botswana. now be higher in real terms and which does A notable case of an Australian provider is RMIT not include multiplier effects. Other economic University, which offers programmes through gains to host countries are attributable to the partner institutions in six Asian countries alternative forms of mobility that are discussed in including Malaysia, Singapore and Sri Lanka. There the next section. are also many instances of satellite campuses and joint programmes in Commonwealth Alternatives to traditional countries of Africa and South Asia, but they are poorly documented. These developments are student mobility useful for expanding the opportunities that are financially accessible to students in the low- By 2005 the growth and diversification of the income countries. However, there are many international provision of higher education, difficulties with regard to quality assurance in involving the mobility of institutions and these initiatives, both for the providing and for knowledge as well as students, was already a the receiving countries.35 Jane Knight warns subject of much discussion and speculation. that in some instances “diploma mills and rogue In the period since then the growth and providers are selling bogus qualifications”.36 diversity have continued, affecting educational opportunities in most Commonwealth countries. As with traditional student mobility, Australia, Among the alternatives to international student Malaysia, South Africa and the UK are among the mobility of the traditional kind, three main types countries most active in these alternative kinds 34 of strategy may be distinguished : of international delivery of higher education. Table 10.5 shows some comparable statistics • A university or training organisation of the for Australia and the UK in 2010 (the 2009-10 providing country establishes a satellite academic year in the case of the UK). Australia campus in the receiving country. This may be had nearly half as many international students staffed by a combination of expatriate and offshore (i.e. overseas) as it had onshore, while national personnel. Students may be recruited in the case of the UK the offshore number regionally in some cases. had actually overtaken the onshore enrolment. • A partnership is formed between a higher Australia’s rates of growth between 2009 and institution of the providing country and 2010 were 4.2 per cent for all offshore and 4.6 one of the receiving country, in order to provide either a jointly taught and administered degree programme or TABLE 10.5: STUDENTS STUDYING WHOLLY a programme “franchised” to the OFFSHORE FOR AUSTRALIAN AND UK HIGHER second institution. There are many EDUCATION QUALIFICATIONS, 2010 possible variants; in some cases Type of provision Australia 2010 UK 2009-10 No. Percentage No. Percentage degrees are jointly awarded. students students • A distance learning programme is provided internationally, through Studying on campus: 76,446 73.0 293,675 71.9 satellite, overseas on-line facilities. In many instances, partner or other however, this approach is combined with traditional student mobility or Distance, flexible or 28,232 27.0 115,010 28.1 distributed learning with the satellite campus strategy. Total, offshore 104,678 100.0 408,685 100.0 Among initiatives of the first kind, the Total, onshore (for 335,273 405,810 satellite campuses of the University of comparison) Nottingham (UK) in Malaysia and China Sources: Australian Education International, ‘Transnational education in the higher are well known, successful examples. As education sector’, Research Snapshot Series, December, 2011: https://www.aei.gov. reported recently, Malaysia’s Limkokwing au/research/research-snapshots/pages/default.aspx; UK Council for International University of Creative Technology has Student Affairs, http://www.ukcisa.org.uk/ about/statistics_he.php.

33 Vickers and Bekhradnia (Note 29), 10. 34 This classification is influenced by the following sources: B.J.G.Wood, S.M. Tapsall and G.N. Soutar, “Borderless Education: Some Implications for Management”, International Journal of Educational Management 19, nos. 4-5 (2005): 432-435; Altbach and Knight, 291-292. 35 Altbach and Knight, 300-302. 36 Knight, J. (2011), “Has Internationalization Lost its Way?” in Borderless 2011: Perspectives on the Future, ed. OBHE, 10.

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 63 09/08/2012 18:23 per cent for onshore enrolment, but highest for education institutions. Firstly, more effective distance learning enrolment at 12.4 per cent. quality assurance is needed for transnational In the case of the UK, total offshore enrolment (offshore and distance) programmes. Secondly, grew by a remarkable 23 per cent between for research and policy purposes proper records 2009-10 and 2010-11 (to 503,795), most of of these programmes need to be maintained at the increase being attributable to enrolment national and international levels: Commonwealth with overseas partner institutions, while agencies could encourage the UNESCO Institute onshore enrolment grew by 6 per cent.37 In the for Statistics to include them in its regular context of stricter immigration requirements, census of higher education. Thirdly, renewed as discussed above, this shift towards offshore consideration should be given to the public enrolment is likely to continue. benefits of international student mobility.

These statistics imply that much of the This last issue is the one over which Commonwealth (as well as other) demand Commonwealth agencies may face a hard task for Australian and British qualifications is now of advocacy at a time when a number of national being met through offshore provision, with the governments are preoccupied with restraining emphasis on partnership arrangements and public expenditure and reducing national distance programmes. In both the Australian debt. But this is an area in which long-term and British cases distance or mixed-mode considerations should carry more weight. Well- programmes account for more than a quarter of planned public investment in international student the offshore enrolments. The distance element mobility can enhance its cultural, social and in study abroad for UK qualifications owes much economic benefits, both to the host countries to the Open University, which specialises in this and to the students’ countries of origin. form of delivery. The University of South Africa has developed on similar lines and contributes strongly to the role of South African higher education in the Southern African sub-region. Chapter 4 discusses the important role of the Commonwealth of Learning in promoting distance learning, both in higher education and at other levels, across the Commonwealth.

Conclusion

The growth of alternatives to international student mobility plays a very important part in the widening of educational opportunities, in the face of private and public financial constraints. It is to be welcomed on grounds of equity and development goals. Nevertheless the demand for student mobility of the traditional kind continues to grow in absolute terms and it has certain inherent advantages. Study on a partner or satellite campus is unlikely to offer such a rich cultural or academic experience as study on the main university campus in another country. As Kees Maxey observes, such experience is important for Commonwealth interaction at the personal level.38

This situation presents various challenges for Commonwealth governments and higher

37 The sources for the statistics in this paragraph are the same as for Table 5. 38 Maxey (Note 1), 66. -64-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 64 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 11: EDUCATIONAL CO-OPERATION IN COMMONWEALTH SMALL STATES Michael Crossley & Pearlette Louisy Chapter 11 Introduction From the table it can be seen that many Commonwealth small states can be found in The impact and strategic significance of geographical clusters within the Pacific and Commonwealth co-operation in education is Caribbean regions – where they share many demonstrated especially well with reference common challenges relating to scale, isolation to the experience of small states. The and dependence.3 While small states often Commonwealth has pioneered support for have mutual strengths, their shared challenges education in small states since convening and vulnerabilities underpin and help to define the globally influential pan-Commonwealth distinctive development and educational Meeting of Experts in Mauritius in 1985.1 The priorities - and the need for collective action Commonwealth is now widely acknowledged as and strategic Commonwealth co-operation.4 the leading international organisation for work Collaboration can, for example, help to generate in this arena – with a mandate reinforced by the economies of scale and so reduce unit costs, fact that over half of its member nations are and it can help to deal with isolation through classified as small states. resource-sharing and the use of modern communications technologies.5 Box 11.1 Commonwealth Small States “The Secretariat’s definition for Small States is countries Small scale also generates distinctive challenges with a population of 1.5 million or less. These states in the context of the increasingly competitive possess unique special development challenges – limited global economy.6 This is combined with diversification, limited capacity, poverty, susceptibility to dilemmas that arise from the ‘managed intimacy’ natural disasters and environmental change, remoteness that characterises personal and professional and isolation, openness, and income volatility. (For relationships in small states, and the prominent operational purposes, however,) The Secretariat’s place and contribution of migration, including grouping of Small States also includes the larger member what Baldacchino usefully refers to as “brain countries of Botswana, Jamaica, Lesotho, Namibia and rotation”7 and associated remittances from a Papua New Guinea because they share many of the same strategically significant Diaspora. characteristics of small states.”2 (Words in parenthesis added by authors for purposes of Commonwealth small states thus face many clarification). common development issues and challenges, and while the Secretariat has a strong track record Table 11.1 provides selected socio-economic of advocacy on their behalf, it is especially well details relating to Commonwealth small states positioned to do more “to build their resilience and from this it can be seen that they span a and competitiveness so that they can take diversity of contexts, with many having total advantage of the opportunities, and meet the population figures below 250,000. Within this challenges arising from globalisation”.8 In this group, a large proportion can also be classified respect, the nature and potential of support for as small island developing states (SIDS) – a education deserves particular recognition and category that faces increasingly urgent challenges attention. generated by rising sea levels, climate change and frequent environmental shocks and disasters.

1 Commonwealth Secretariat, Educational Development: the Small States of the Commonwealth. Report of a Pan-Commonwealth Experts Meeting, Mauritius (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 1986). 2 http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/180407. 3 C. Brock, Scale, Isolation and Dependence: Educational Development in Island Developing and Other Specially Disadvantaged States (London; Commonwealth Secretariat, 1984; M.K. Bacchus and C. Brock, eds., The Challenge of Scale: Educational Development in Small States of the Commonwealth (London: Commonwealth Secretariat). 4 Commonwealth Secretariat, Vulnerability: Small States in the Global Society. London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 1985. 5 R. Chandra, T. Korovulaono and V. Hazelman, “Leveraging Technology for Tertiary Education in the South Pacific”, in Tertiary Education in Small States: Planning in the Context of Globalisation, ed. M. Martin and M.. Bray (Paris: UNESCO International Institute of Educational Planning, 2011). 6 M. Bacchus, “The Education Challenges Facing Small Nation States in the Increasingly Competitive Global Economy of the Twenty-First Century”, Comparative Education 44, no. 2 (2008): 127-145. 7G. Baldacchino, “Entrepreneuriship in Smaller Jurisdictions: Appraising a Glocal Elite”, Comparative Education 44, no. 2 (2008): 187-201. 8 Commonwealth Secretariat, Commonwealth Secretariat Strategic Plan 2008/09-2011/12, Revised (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2010), 7. -65-

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TABLE 11.1: Commonwealth Small States: Population Indernational Indices, “Islandness” and Aid Statea Total % Population HDIb EDIc Geography: Aid Per Population aged 0-14 Ranking Ranking L= landlocked Capita (2008) (2008) (2007) (2007) I= island Constant MI=multi-island US$ (2007)

Below 100,000 Tuvalu 12,200 n.a. n.a. n.a. MI 1,821 Nauru 13,800 n.a. n.a. n.a. I 2,330 St Kitts & 49,000 n.a. 62 n.a. MI 359 Nevis Dominica 73,000 n.a. 73 n.a. I 442 Antigua & 86,000 n.a. 47 n.a. MI 15 Barbuda Seychelles 86,000 n.a. 57 n.a. MI 40 Kiribati 97,000 n.a. n.a. n.a. MI 317 100,000 - 250,000 Tonga 104,000 37 99 49 MI 400 Grenada 106,000 28 74 n.a. I 159 St Vincent & 109,000 27 91 72 MI 588 Grenadines St. Lucia 170,000 27 69 60 I 122 Samoa 182,000 40 94 n.a. MI 415 Vanuatu 231,000 39 126 n.a. MI 293 250,000 - 1 million Barbados 255,000 18 37 64 I 67 Maldives 310,000 29 95 58 MI 100 Belize 311,000 36 93 80 69 Bahamas 335,000 26 52 73 MI - Brunei 397,000 27 30 44 - Darussalam Malta 411,000 16 38 61 MI - Solomon 507,000 39 135 n.a. MI 536 Islands Guyana 763,000 30 114 n.a. 367 Cyprus 864,000 18 32 13 I - 1 - 1.5 million Swaziland 1,168,000 40 142 93 L 52 Mauritius 1,269,000 23 81 63 I 136 Trinidad & 1,338,000 21 64 57 MI 13 Tobago Above 1.5 million Gambia 1,660,000 42 168 116 32 Botswana 1,905,000 34 125 92 L 135 Lesotho 2,017,000 39 156 103 L 93 Namibia 2,114,000 37 128 74 145 Jamaica 2,689,000 30 100 n.a. I 45 Papua New 6,448,000 40 148 n.a. MI 59 Guinea aThis table excludes Fiji, suspended from membership of the Commonwealth since 2009 and has a population of 837,000. bHDI = Human Development Index. cEDI = Educational Development Index. Sources: UNDP, World Bank and UNESCO.9 9 UNDP, Human Development Report 2009. Overcoming Barriers: Human Mobility and Development (New York: UNDP, 2009); World Bank, World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change (Washington DC: World Bank, 2010); UNESCO, EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010: Reaching the Marginalised (Paris and Oxford: UNESCO and Oxford University Press, 2010). -66-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 66 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 67 systems insmallstates. secondary sector secondary small states”. non-Commonwealth agenciesconcernedwith to promote…more with substantialpartnerships between smallstates, andfrom “increased efforts gained from future collaborationineducation Commonwealth, andthatthere wasmuch tobe small stateshadmuch tocontribute tothewider reviewed in1999, whenitwasalsoarguedthat this Commonwealth programme ofwork were education organisation andmanagementofministries areas thatincluded: thequalityofeducation; the seven core themesandproviding in support activities ranthroughout the1990s, covering small stateprioritiesineducation. These oriented publicationsfocused directly upon workshops, consultanciesandprofessionally- aseriesofregionalin initiatingandsupporting Commonwealth Secretariat played aleadrole the 1985Mauritiusmeeting, for example, the educational needsandconcerns. Following both identifyandattendtotheirdistinctive has donemuch tohelpsmallstates under thesmall state banner, theCommonwealth By working together, andsharingexperience factor” Commonwealth education insmallstates:“the Working togetheron and HumanDevelopment inCommonwealth the Group“Expert ConsultationonEducation pan-Commonwealthfurther meetings, suchas to thepresent day, with impetusmaintainedby and Commonwealth-led initiatives hascontinued The influenceoftheseCommonwealth-inspired (ICT) information andcommunications technology Commonwealth Secretariat, 1996). Secretariat, 1994): L. Steward andE. Thomas, eds., Teacher Education intheCommonwealth: Issues andDevelopments Caribbean (London: 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 no. 2(2008). ed. CommonwealthSecretariat, 126-130(London: Office, 2003). The Stationery Commonwealth Secretariat, 1999): 64. Commonwealth Secretariat, 1998). Secretariat, 1989). Commonwealth Secretariat, 1989); J. Swartland, J., Really How DoMinistries Work: A CaseStudy-Botswana. (London: Commonwealth C. andP. Farrugia Attard, The Multi-Functional Administrator: EducationalDevelopment intheSmallStatesofCommonwealth. (London: UNESCO, 2011. Report EFA GlobalMonitoring The HiddenCrisis: ConflictandEducation(Paris:Armed UNESCO, 2011), statisticaltables. P. Mayo, ed., EducationinSmallStates: Globalimperatives, regional initiatives and localdilemmas. Special IssueofComparative Education, 44, Degazon-Johnson, R., “SchoolImprovement inSmallStates: theRoleofCommonwealth”, 2004, inCommonwealthEducation Partnerships M. CrossleyandK. Holmes, EducationalDevelopment intheSmallStatesof theCommonwealth: Retrospect andProspect(London: M. Bray andL. Steward, eds., ExaminationsSystemsinSmallStates: Comparative Perspectives onPolicies, ModelsandOperations (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, Telecommunications for EducationandDevelopment (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 1997). R. CrocombeandM. Crocombe, EducationintheSouthPacific: Post-Secondary Present andFutureOptions.Patterns (London: Commonwealth 12 ; andexaminationassessment 10 ; teachereducationandthepost- 14

11 ; telecommunications and 13 The achievements of -67- shocks andchallengeswithintheenvironmental, small statescanrespond tomajorexternal priorities are especially concernedwithhow education; and, for them, “contemporary such assecondary, vocational, andtertiary sought different forms ofassistanceinarenas Consequently, inmany instancessmallstates schooling. andsecondary parity inprimary have reached orare closetoreaching gender universal accesstobasiceducation, andmany the University ofMalta. such astheIslandsandSmallStatesInstituteat Global Monitoring Report indicatesthat,Global MonitoringReport of24 basic educationgoals andtargets. The 2011EFA relatively advancedintheirprogress towards and Nauru, Commonwealth smallstatesare for some, suchasSolomonIslands, The Gambia documented how, despitelessencouragingdata Recent research has, for example, clearly made inachieving accesstobasiceducation. small states, much progress hadalready been educational needsandpriorities. For many small statestoattendtheirown distinctive became increasingly inassisting important this volume), theplaceofCommonwealth for basiceducation(seeChaptersupport 5of – increasingly prioritiseddevelopment-agency by theMillenniumDevelopment Goals(MDGs) As internationaleducationagendas–reinforced or better. with 14ofthesehaving reached 90percent netenrolment rate(NER)orbetter,primary were available, 19hadreached an80percent under five million for whichdata(from 2008) Commonwealth countrieswithpopulations worldwide; improvement heldthroughout smallstates year 2000; by follow-up initiatives onschool Small States”, heldintheSeychelles inthe 17 Mostofthemhave achieved almost 15 and by sustained support for and by groups sustained support 16

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ChapterForeword 11 Chapter 4 11 Chapter

economic, cultural and political domains”.18 Looking to the future, there is undoubtedly This responsiveness of the Commonwealth to an urgent need for increased Commonwealth a diversity of member-nation educational needs support for innovative small states co-operation is, therefore, both rare and invaluable in the relating to education for sustainable development contemporary global context of international (ESD) in the post-2015 era. For many SIDS, development co-operation. with the impact of increasingly visible climate change and rise in sea levels, this is emerging The policy-oriented research noted above as perhaps the greatest priority of all. It is also was initiated with Commonwealth support one that demands improved co-operation with in 2008. This was designed to review ongoing other international development bodies and UN developments, and help identify emergent agencies.25 educational policy priorities as held within Commonwealth small states, as a contribution Inter-agency and tertiary education to the 17th Conference of Commonwealth collaboration Education Ministers (17CCEM), held in Kuala Lumpur in 2009. The main outputs and follow-on Collaboration in education between the activities arising from this initiative present a Commonwealth Secretariat, other international strong, and empirically grounded, case for the agencies, and small nation states has, moreover, continued engagement of the Commonwealth long been instrumental in generating productive Secretariat in education “as it strives to build educational initiatives and development upon its deservedly strong international profile partnerships. In this respect, advances in and comparative advantage in work designed to Commonwealth tertiary education deserve support the educational and development goals specific recognition. 1988, for example, saw the of small states throughout the Commonwealth founding of the Commonwealth of Learning and beyond”. 19 (COL) committed to supporting distance and flexible learning throughout member states. COL The Kuala Lumpur Communiqué20 and the has since achieved much success in helping to Commonwealth Secretariat‘s Education Strategic develop the distinctive potential of such teaching Plan 2010-201221 built upon the 2009 initiative and learning strategies for small states (see by identifying the advancement of “education in Chapter 4 of this volume). One such success small states though a variety of capacity-building story in the Caribbean island of Saint Lucia was and research initiatives” as a priority for the COL’s assistance in the adaptation of distance current triennium. The impact of this renewed learning curriculum materials for the fledgling momentum can be seen in the successful outreach programme of the Sir Arthur Lewis implementation of four Commonwealth regional Community College which had begun operations consultation workshops held in small states in 1986. Today, the College’s Southern Extension between 2009 and 2010.22 It is also reflected Centre continues to provide post-secondary in initiatives designed to extend seminal work educational opportunities (including remedial on the Commonwealth Teacher Recruitment and access courses) to persons in the southern Protocol, first inspired by Caribbean small states, districts of the island who would otherwise to the wider Commonwealth community;23 find it extremely challenging to travel regularly in ongoing partnerships with the World Bank to the main Campus in the north. In more through the Joint Task Force on Education in recent times and on the international level, Small States; and, in 2011, through an influential, COL has spearheaded the emergence of the multidisciplinary, Expert Meeting on Growth and Virtual University for the Small States of the Development in Small States held in Malta.24 Commonwealth (VUSSC, see also Chapter 4).

18 M. Crossley, M., Bray and S. Packer, 2011. Education in Small States: Policies and Priorities (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2011), xviii. 19 Ibid, 58. 20 Commonwealth Secretariat, Kuala Lumpur Communiqué. (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2009). 21 Commonwealth Secretariat, Education Strategic Plan 2010-2012: Improve and Promote Quality (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2010). 22 N. Kazmi, 2011. “Educational Priorities in Asian and European Small States”, in Commonwealth Education Partnerships 2011/12, ed. Commonwealth Secretariat (London: Nexus Strategic Partnerships, 2011). 23 J. Penson and A.. Yonemura, eds., Next Step in Managing Teacher Migration, Papers of the Sixth Commonwealth Research Symposium on Teacher Mobility, Recruitment and Migration. London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2012). 24 Commonwealth Secretariat, Experts Meeting on Growth and Development in Small States, Malta, 17-18 November 2011 (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2011), http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/190628/191177/241972/ expertsmeetingongrowthanddevelopmentsmallstates/ 25 Commonwealth Secretariat, Commonwealth Secretariat Strategic Plan 2008/09-2011/12 Revised (Note 9). -68-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 68 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 69 Tertiary EducationinSmallStates. Educational Planning(IIEP)Policy Forum on from the2009InternationalInstitutefor UNESCO canalsobeseeninwork stemming between theCommonwealth Secretariat and The potentialfor future educational co-operation Commonwealth smallstates. educationsectoracross potential for thetertiary This initiative opensupconsiderablefuture Assessment (SPBEA). A studyby Jules and theSouthPacificBoard for Educational Council (CXC), thePacificIslands Forum (PIF), (CARICOM), theCaribbeanExaminations bodies suchastheCaribbeanCommunity with Commonwealth agenciesandotherregional educational co-operation, oftenincollaboration USP, have longpioneered multiple forms of Those two regional universities, UWIand (USP). the West Indies(UWI)andoftheSouthPacific the membershipsofregional Universities of the Commonwealth smallstatesthatmake up decades, by educationalco-operationbetween the considerablecontributionsmade, over many collected Policy Forum papers alsoacknowledge identified excitingpossibilities for thefuture, the inception ofUCSIS, the UNESCOhas supported common challengesofsmallstates. Sincethe dissemination ofinformation relating tothe objective istopromote research, trainingand Pacific, VirginIslandsand West Indies. Itsmain the universities ofMalta, Mauritius, South Small IslandStates(UCSIS). This bringstogether education istheUniversity of Consortium of globalCommonwealth co-operationin Indian Oceanregions example onefurther Extending across theCaribbean, Pacificand recent years. Education (PRIDE), having notable impact in Regional Initiatives forofBasic theDelivery educational co-operation, withthePacific in promoting Commonwealth andsupporting Zealand alsoplay anincreasingly significant role a whole. InthePacific region, AustraliaandNew education andco-operationintheCaribbeanas creative andmore radicalways forward for 29 28 27 26 Networking Programme. Networking for EducationalPlanning, 2011). P. West and J. Daniel, 2009. “The for SmallStates oftheCommonwealth”, University 24(2009):Virtual OpenLearning 85-95. See UNESCO, (Paris: andUNITWINNetworks UNESCOChairs UNESCO, 2009), 402. UNITWINstandsfor University Twinning and D. Jules, “RethinkingEducationfor theCaribbean: A Radical Approach”, Comparative Education44, no. 2(2008): 203-214. M. andM. Martin Bray, eds., Tertiary EducationinSmallStates. Planningin theContext ofGlobalization(Paris: Institute UNESCOInternational 26

27 While this While 28 explores -69- Future assistancefrom theCommonwealth of thesectorbothnationally andregionally. discussion andpolicyonthedevelopment of whichcontinue toinform much ofthe education insmallstates–theresults tertiary work ontheprovision andmanagementof the Conference research by sponsoringfurther built ontheoutcomeandrecommendations of Lewis Community College, theConference host, institutions inthesetwo regions. The Sir Arthur education multi-functional nationaltertiary significance inadvancingthedevelopment of and theSouthPacific, andwasofseminal together nationalinstitutionsfrom theCaribbean Secretariat inSaintLucia1988, brought Small States, organisedby theCommonwealth Conference Educationin onPost-Secondary At theCollegelevel, thePan-Commonwealth network. throughconsortium itsstatusasaUNITWIN inclusive education Vanuatu: project Tonga: study special educationteachersupply, demandanddeployment who are visually impaired; vernacular educationproject; Solomon Islands: inclusive educationfor children withdisabilities Samoa: include thefollowing: addressing language, culture andinclusive education projects thathave focused onmarginalisedgroups by eight whichareoftheCommonwealth. part PRIDE 15smallstatesandterritorieshas served ofthePacific, by theEuropean UnionandNew Zealandaid. The project at theUniversity oftheSouthPacific andjointly funded (2004-2010) implementedby theInstituteofEducation Education (PRIDE)wasdesignedasaseven-year project The PacificRegionalInitiatives ofbasic for theDelivery Education -Recent PRIDEProjects CultureBox Inclusive 11.2Language, and http://www.usp.ac.fj/pride. More information canbefound onthePRIDEwebsite: Development of Tongan inclusive educationpilot Development ofasustainablesystem 29 Support for development Support oflanguagepolicy;

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Secretariat in facilitating further educational collaboration and linkages between these national institutions and the regional universities would both build institutional capacity and strengthen regional higher education systems. One of the recommendations of the research work conducted on behalf of the Sir Arthur Lewis Community College was a call for the establishment of a Commonwealth Higher Education Support System for Small States which would help rationalise the development of the sector across the broad spectrum of small states. While this has yet to be realised in practice, the recommendation remains as relevant today as it was two decades ago.

Conclusions

Other examples of Commonwealth educational co-operation in small states can be identified but the place, and future potential, of the Commonwealth Secretariat in stimulating, leading and supporting successful educational collaboration is clearly visible in small state contexts. The Commonwealth plays a global leadership role in this respect – and one that fully reflects the former Secretary-General of the Commonwealth, Sir Shridath Ramphal’s, accolade that education is “the jewel in the Commonwealth’s crown”.30 The small states of Jamaica (in 1977), Cyprus (in 1984) and Barbados (in 1990) have already played host to Conferences of Commonwealth Education Ministers (CCEMs). Louisy has pointed out that there is much that the international community can learn from small states31 and the occasion of the 18th CCEM, being held in the small state of Mauritius, offers further potential for other Commonwealth members to draw lessons and inspiration from the small states’ experience of educational co-operation.

30 S. Ramphal, “Education: jewel in the Commonwealth crown”, The Round Table 98, no. 405 (2009): 663-678. 31 P. Louisy, “Globalisation and Comparative Education: A Caribbean Perspective”, Comparative Education 37, no. 4 (2001): 425-438. -70-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 70 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 12: SCHOOL AND COLLEGE LINKING IN THE COMMONWEALTH Nick Maurice Introduction An invitation to form a partnership should not assume Chapter 12 you are a guest at the table. It should assume that you School partnerships across the Commonwealth, share the table and the right to plan and cook the meal involving teacher and pupil exchange and joint as an equal. curriculum work through new technologies, provide opportunities for: The personal nature of the relationship and empathy or understanding between the partners • A greater awareness of the Commonwealth is crucial. Beyond the value of personal friendships, and the shared values of its members and the sense of solidarity they engender, there • The development of attitudes, knowledge and are valuable educational benefits in broadening skills that young people and teachers require horizons of learners and teachers and through to live and work in a globalised world collaborative curriculum work. Most links now • The knowledge and self-confidence required make the curriculum central to their joint of young people to advocate effectively for a activities, reflecting a general recognition that it better world is only if the partnership has an educational base • The professional development of those that it is likely to be sustainable. involved • Greater social cohesion in the participating At primary and secondary level, joint curriculum communities work tends to be a major element in link activity. Schools are encouraged to embed the link across Over the past twenty years there has been the curriculum and design and envision their considerable interest in educational partnerships projects together with their partner schools, between schools and communities across the basing them around the key concepts of the global Commonwealth and beyond. The analysis that dimension. Working together on these areas follows draws heavily on the experience of what brings a vital dimension to children’s learning and has been happening between one member state, adds to their understanding of the global context the UK, and other Commonwealth countries. in which they are living. This is because the UK has been particularly active in developing a variety of programmes and At primary level such work has included projects organisations for school linking in the past few such as “What I see from my window”, “School years, and information is relatively plentiful. gardens”, “My journey to school” or “People who help me”. In the best practice, sustainability is Much will be gained if other Governments built into the projects so that UK schools link, across the Commonwealth come to recognise for example, their own school goats or chickens the importance of school and higher education with those in their link school, sponsoring some partnerships and mobilise appropriate resources animals in a pump/priming initiative and providing to enable them to flourish. the link school with some real income. Projects such as these move teachers and pupils very School partnerships are about relationships quickly away from the notion that linking is to do between school communities (principally pupils with charity fundraising for their partner school. and teachers, but often including governors) and In the very best practice in secondary schools, in many cases also involving the wider community. whole-school take-up leads to a genuine change Much progress has been made in understanding of ethos in the UK school with joint curricular school partnerships over the past ten years. Good work with the Southern school at the heart of communication is essential. It may take the form of the curriculum. The partnership may also include postal exchanges e.g. ‘pen-pals’; or text messages efforts to mobilise resources for infrastructural via mobile phones and IT where internet access and professional development in the partner is available. If reciprocal visits can be arranged, this schools. dramatically reinforces understanding between pupils and teachers in different countries and Overall the best school partnership programmes keeps the link strong and vibrant by building on are based on an ‘equal voice’, joint and shared established personal and professional relationships. planning, teacher and pupil reciprocal visits, As one South African teacher said: joint curriculum work and mutual learning. They may also be characterised by the availability of

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opportunities for teachers to gain accreditation Jamaican school teacher working in the UK, could for the work they do through their partnerships. be in a good position to facilitate a partnership It is of course important to recognise that the between the school in which she is teaching and funding often comes from the North, and with one in Kingston. strings attached, so that true power-sharing can pose a real challenge. The individual school’s perspective Schools and colleges and their heads are already Issues and challenges often over-stretched, having to meet targets, prepare for examinations and/ or inspections. Why do it in the first place? Resource-starved schools both in the South and An education system or policy perspective on the North may struggle simply to ‘keep going’ with this question would emphasise issues of global inadequate resources, poor infrastructure and lack interdependence, and the need for international of time. For them, international partnerships, while understanding. The challenges of climate change, appealing in theory, may seem to be too much of collapse of financial systems, international trade an extra burden in practice. agreements or genetically modified organisms, and diseases such as bird and swine ‘flu, and The challenge is to gain recognition within schools HIV infection, are recognised as global issues of the importance for children of understanding transcending national boundaries. Global the global context in which they live, so that the education helps young people to put their lives in school partnership becomes deeply embedded the context of the world in which they live and in the life of the schools. If this challenge can be enables them to become active global citizens. met, the rewards in terms of adding an exciting Once they have some understanding of the extra dimension to the life of the school, and to issues, they can be empowered to act. Educational the pupils and teachers, can be immense. There partnerships, and school linking specifically, have are examples in which the whole ethos of the been seen as an important means to ‘bring the school has changed as a result of its international world into the classroom’. Global developments partnerships: in IT and particularly the take-up of 3G mobile phone technology across the world have enabled Despite the huge difference in resources available to our access to all kinds of communication; these partner school in England as compared to what we have combined with the increased mobility of people here in the Transkei, academic standards here are rising across the globe, partially resulting from rising through the solidarity and the exchange of people and incomes in Southern countries, have greatly ideas and the process of reflection we have gone through. enhanced the scope of such partnerships. (Head teacher in a Transkei secondary school, South Africa) In addition, international partnerships can offer considerable opportunities for addressing the Our international dimension is not so much ‘something social cohesion agenda in the diverse communities we do’ as ‘something we have become’ – internationalism in which many of them operate, in the North as is as much part of our school as the students who attend well as in the South. In the UK BUILD (Building it. Global awareness is crucial in preparing students for Understanding through International Links for their lives beyond school. Development), a Commonwealth-accredited (Link officer, Polesworth International School, UK) coalition of 45 agencies committed to encouraging global partnerships across the Commonwealth, is Teachers have been able to use their partnerships running a programme of Building on UK Diaspora for their personal and professional development, International Partnerships (BUKDIP), recognising and in school inspections schools have earned that the African, Asian and Caribbean Diaspora credit for their partnerships. Teachers will often often have strong links back to their home remain in a school rather than moving on because communities. The programme works through of opportunities that international partnerships schools, health care institutions, faith-based groups offer. This enhances stability. etc to provide opportunities for the Diaspora to engage with and facilitate partnerships with The Global Teachers Award, devised by the counterparts in their communities of origin, which Consortium of Development Education Centres can lead to greater social cohesion. For example, a and accredited through Liverpool Hope University,

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 72 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 73 offers school partnerships andaccreditationoffers schoolpartnerships along the skillstowork inaworldwide economy. It responsible globalcitizens, aswell asgivingthem people learnaboutglobalthemesandbecome by BritishCouncil. Itisdesigned tohelpyoung global educationprogramme for schools, managed Connecting Classrooms isjustsuchathree-way area intheUKbefore forming athree-way link. and Ghana-orhave linked withacontrasting -for exampleschoolsinIndia than onecountry inmore withpartners ‘triangular partnerships’ on theotherhand, may seethepartnership classroom’. schoolinthe The partner ‘South’, of globalissuesand ‘bringing the world intothe it offers arealfor raisingawareness opportunity school’ thefocus ofinterest inthelinkmaybe that schools may different. bevery For a ‘Northern also hasitspitfalls. The expectations ofthetwo of therelationship. Butdisparityinresources and Africa, canadd tothelearningatbothends resources, facilities, teaching methods, e.g. inUK between differentPartnerships schoolswithvery Resources get alinkwithpoorfoundations backontrack. takes placeatanearly stage: difficultto itisvery formed, itisessentialthatappropriate training In whatever way thelinkhasbeeninitiatedor with professional development. on Line. school partner-finding website suchasSchools may wishtousealinkingagencyorresort no obviousdirection inwhichtolook, aschool could helptheschooltoform alink. Ifthere is parents, migrantandnewly arrived families that the localauthority, neighbouringbusinesses, through thelocaldiocese, church ormosque, there are othercommunity-based partnerships An obviousfirstmove istoexplore whether local community already have. families andorganisationsorbusinessesinthe to buildonexistingrelationships andcontactsthat themselves andideally ofasimilarsize. Itisuseful working atasimilarlevel andagerangeto withinstitutionsabroadpartnerships thatare Good sensesuggeststhatschoolsshouldform With whomshouldaschoollink? school andbuildsthecapacity for schoollinking. can take withthemwhenthey move toadifferent provides teacherswithaqualificationthatthey 2 1 http://www.ukowla.org.uk/publications http://schoolsonline.britishcouncil.org/ 1 SomeUKschoolshave developed -73- mobilise additional resources andbringin other education authoritymay provide to opportunities Involving thedistrict educationofficeandlocal school. link’s collapse anddisappointment inthepartner move ontoanotherpost, soprecipitating the enthusiasm ofanindividualteacherwhomay later because they have beendependentonthe haveSchool partnerships sometimesfailed authority. UK schoolare deemednottobepersonsof linking ifthoseseentoberunningthelinkin schools willoftenbereluctant toengagewith for alink’s successanditssustainability. Southern the linkintoaschooldevelopment plan, are vital management teamandthegovernors, andwriting The commitmentoftheheadteacher, thesenior Sustainability out thatstrategy, where responsibility for action years, whatresources willberequired tocarry the schoolswanttoachieve over thenextfew and may alsodevelop for what intoastrategy the basictenetsofwhatrelationship isabout, by bothheadteachers. The agreement willcover agreement writing ofapartnership tobesigned an outsidefacilitator, andshouldleadontothe schools isneeded. This may benefitfrom having recognised. Discussionbetween teachersinboth perceptions ofthelinkatbothendsare It istherefore essentialthatthesediffering language andsocialstructures. rich differences inculture, arts, history, economics, for themtolearnfromlimit theopportunities the working togetheronthebasisofequalityandwill this willinevitably standintheway ofschools resources from resource-rich toresource-poor, If thelinkisexclusively basedonthetransfer of needed resources suchasbooksorcomputers. specificallyfor obtaining asanopportunity much the MillenniumDevelopment Goals, andmore more inthecontextofEducationfor All and Archbishop Desmond Tutu.Archbishop by UKOWLA andlaunchedby NobelLaureate given inthe touch uponexitstrategies. Muchgood adviceis and to putatimelimitonthelinkingpartnership checks andbalances. Itmay befound desirable achievements are going tobemeasured, and lies, timescalesfor changeand evaluation, i.e. how Toolkit for Linking 2 , publishedin2007 09/08/2012 18:23

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international networks in the area. Securing the trade and the environment participation of the wider community through • Tended to be more informed about the factors the PTA or the governors can attract additional that contribute towards inequality amongst the human, in-kind and financial resources to the countries in the world. partnerships. It can extend the educational benefits gained by the school more broadly, so The research also found that primary schools had contributing to greater social cohesion. All this will the highest scores on most attitudinal factors, add to the sustainability of the link. while secondary pupils reported more awareness of development issues. Whole clusters of schools, involving several feeder primary schools and a secondary school, School partnerships in the UK may develop a collective counterpart relationship with groups of schools in another part of the Commonwealth. This arrangement broadens the The context ‘stakeholder’ base adding to the likelihood of The UK has a long history of engagement in sustainability and potentially enabling children to community-based partnerships (CBPs), not just in maintain a relationship with particular individual education. As long ago as 1984 the UK One World children abroad over the whole period of their Linking Association (UKOWLA) was formed in education. response to the growing interest in partnerships particularly across the Commonwealth. In Impact assessment many cases partnerships were born out of the Teachers and pupils in schools with international publication in 1980 of the Brandt Report “North partnerships will talk passionately about the South – A Programme for Survival” which impact that the link has had both on their own was one of the first to draw attention to the professional and personal development and growing imbalance between the rich countries on the school and the wider community. The of the North and the poor countries of the evidence for this was largely anecdotal until the South. UKOWLA provides a platform through UK Department for International Development newsletters, publications and conferences to (DFID) funded a study of impact on teachers and discuss the underlying principles, opportunities learners in all four constituent countries of the and challenges that CBPs can provide. UK, in nine African countries, and in Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan.3 The research was managed by In 2002 UKOWLA founded an advocacy Cambridge Education Foundation and UKOWLA offshoot, BUILD (Building Understanding through and carried out by the Institute of Education International Links for Development). This is a (who authored the report) and by Makerere coalition of some 50 international NGOs, devoted University, Kampala. Amongst its findings was to bringing North-South partnerships into the strong evidence that school partnerships provide mainstream. opportunities for learning within and beyond the curriculum; develop students’ understanding; In Britain, community linking is largely based challenge stereotypes; foster global knowledge on voluntary activity backed up by government and awareness; and create student-to-student through political encouragement and provision of collaboration across and within the partnership. financial support. The government departments responsible for education and for international More recent research into school partnerships, co-operation have both been active in this respect. carried out for DFID by the National Foundation The former UK Department for Education and for Educational Research,4 has demonstrated that Skills (DfES) published its International Education pupils in linked schools: Strategy, Putting the World into World Class Education, in 2004, stating that international partnerships • Had a clearer understanding of between schools and higher education institutions interdependence are crucial to its strategy. Its later implementation • Were able to give specific examples of plan for the strategy set an ambitious though instances where actions in UK impact on those somewhat unrealistic target that every UK in poorer countries, for example in areas of school should have an international partnership by 2010. The Global Gateway website was set up 3 K. Edge, K. Fraymanand J. Lawrie, The Influence of North South School Partnerships: Examining the Evidence from Schools in UK, Africa and South Asia (London: University of London Institute of Education, 2009). 4 J. Sizmur, B. Brzyska, L. Cooper, J. Morrison, K. Wilkinson and D. Kerr, Global School Partnerships Programme: Impact Evaluation Report (Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research, 2011). -74-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 74 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 75 programme. BBC World Class replaced by BritishCouncil’s “Schools onLine” for schoolsacross theworld. This hasnow been by DfESandprovided apartner-finding resource Development (intheUK)andwastherefore often of itsprogramme for part ofBuildingSupport the DFID’s Development Awareness Fundas of theUKprogramme isthatitwasfundedfrom language ofeducationintheUK. Onecriticism citizenship’ have becomeestablishedinthe ‘global dimensiontothecurriculum’ and ‘global Such termsas ‘development education’, the for developing new partnerships. Connecting Classrooms butthere isnoprovision underarevampedestablished schoolpartnerships announced anew programme for ofsupport fledged partnerships. In April2012, BritishCouncil 2012 althoughnotalloftheseresulted infully- schools engagingintheprogramme by January extremely successful, resulting in4,800UK Overseas. GSPendedinMarch 2012andwas Association (UKOWLA) and Voluntary Service Education Foundation, UKOne World Linking byby Cambridge BritishCouncilandsupported (GSP)programme,School Partnership managed International Development’s (DFID)Global have beenfundedthrough for theDepartment In theUKmajorityofschoolpartnerships The structure support of withintheirpartnerships. undertaking workthe extraordinary that many schoolsare andpromotes service a schoolspartnering stated that: Development”. InJuly 2006aDFID White Paper of ofitsstrategy part for “Building Support issues andsetaside£25millioninfundingas ofraisingawarenessimportance ofdevelopment Development (DFID) in2006recognised the for International The UKDepartment teachers andlearnersatbothends. which recognises themutuality ofbenefitto develop agreementpartnerships apartnership mutuality. This isdespitethefactthatmostschool thus flyinginthefaceofunderlying ethicof the UK, ratherthanfor theschools intheSouth, interpreted asbeingfor thebenefitofschools in Office ofInformation, 2011). 7 6 5 G. Dominy, R. Goel, S. andH. Larkins Pring, Review ofUsing Aid Fundsinthe UKto Promote Awareness ofGlobalPoverty (London: Central DFID, Eliminating World Poverty: MakingGovernance Work for thePoor (London: DFID, 2006). http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldclass/ 5 alsoprovides -75- parts of theCommonwealth parts of School partnerships inother to Promote Awareness ofGlobal Poverty However the schools initsfive Southerncountriesofoperation. over 250schoolsintheUKandIreland with has beenrunningfor more than14years, linking England andtheUSA. ItsLinkSchools Programme Ghana, Uganda, Malawi, Ethiopia, Scotland, Ireland, Development, whichhasofficesinSouth Africa, A secondinitiative isLinkCommunity 830 institutionsin131countries. chairs and60networks since2007, involving over programme whichhas established715UNESCO partnerships, through particularly itsUNITWIN UNESCO isalsopromoting highereducation around oneormore ofthefour studythemes. Associated SchoolsintheUKinvolved inprojects Learning. There are currently 75UNESCO Peace andHumanRights; andIntercultural Concerns; Educationfor Sustainable Development; key learningobjectives: The UNsystemand World ofanetworkbecome part thatfocuses onfour (ASP) encouragesschoolsacross theglobeto Firstly, theUNESCO Associated SchoolsProject mentioned below. some betterknown initiatives, four ofwhichare are generally lesswell mapped. Butthere are Initiatives oftheCommonwealth inotherparts this stagewhatform itwilltake. is currently beingdesigned, anditisnotknown at funded GlobalLearningProgramme for Schools continue todo–inraisingawareness. The DFID focused NGOsare already doing–andwill theworkto support thattheUK’s development DFID hasalegitimaterole toplay incontinuing contributes toreducing poverty. Itconcludedthat raising awareness intheUKofdevelopment issues only theideathat anecdotalevidence tosupport equivocal line, (pp33-34)thatthere asserting is for DFIDin2011, hastaken amuch more countries. a schemetohelp….. withdeveloping buildpartnerships learn aboutissuesthatshape theirworld [andwill]setup education, aswe seektogive every child…thechanceto The UKwilldoubleourinvestment indevelopment 6 Review ofUsing Aid FundsintheUK 7 prepared 09/08/2012 18:23

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LCD’s linking activity has sought to ensure school It explored ways in which partnerships can improvement impact in the South as well as contribute to member countries’ efforts to development education learning in the North as a reach the MDGs in education, to broadening the result of its partnerships. Whilst most of its linking education experience of learners and teachers activity has involved a European partner, Link has in Commonwealth schools and colleges, and encouraged Southern learning exchanges across to strengthening Commonwealth bonds. In its programme work. particular, the Conference examined opportunities for school exchanges in the South, within and A third initiative is the Hope Development between countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean Volunteers’ Schools Linking/Twinning Programme and Pacific. for African, Canadian, UK, USA and Australian schools. Since 2011 this programme has Reflecting this, amongst the commitments in the supported improvements in African schools. communiqué issued by the Education Ministers in the following week, was their agreement “to Lastly, since 2010 the Canadian International encourage and promote school to school links Development Association has run an International and at other levels of the system as a means of School Twinning Initiative, which aims to engage fostering mutual understanding and to improve Canadian and Southern teachers and students in a the quality of learning outcomes”. shared learning experience. This initiative provides an enriched, interactive learning environment to There is a strong argument that we are failing benefit both Canadian classrooms and those in young people in the Commonwealth if they partner schools. It aims to provide students and do not complete their formal education with a teachers with improved quality of education in clear understanding of, and preparation for, the the targeted subject matter, greater insight into globalised world in which they will live and work. international development, greater appreciation of Pan-Commonwealth school partnerships can their role as global citizens and enhanced ability to provide that understanding and preparation. communicate international development issues. The launch of the Commonwealth Jubilee The key role of the Diamond, an initiative from the 2011 CHOGM in Perth to develop a lasting legacy to the Commonwealth in developing Commonwealth in honour of the Diamond Jubilee school partnerships of the Queen, provides a new opportunity to develop pan-Commonwealth school partnerships, The Commonwealth provides an ideal forum with a proposal expected to be presented to in which school partnerships can flourish: it the Conference of Commonwealth Education encourages learning in a global context and Ministers in Mauritius in August 2012. has much to offer in the drive for international collaboration in education. The Commonwealth Each Conference of Commonwealth Education came about through international mobility and Ministers provides a real opportunity to build migration of peoples and constitutes a natural on the agreement in Cape Town. A target that arena for the formation of school partnerships. might be agreed upon is that in the next ten years: Its shared language, history, traditions, democratic “Every school across the Commonwealth should institutions, and educational structures offer seek to identify and work with a partner school in rich opportunities for creating networks another Commonwealth country!” and partnerships. Indeed the majority of school partnerships are between schools in Commonwealth countries, very frequently including schools in UK.

The Commonwealth Consortium for Education, in association with LCD and other partners, devoted its second Conference in Cape Town in December 2006, prior to the 16CCEM, to school and college partnerships in the Commonwealth.

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 76 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 77 personal onesofkinship, resulting from earlier The tiesthatbindtheCommonwealth are partly best expression. channels through which co-operationfindsits strength oftheCommonwealth andare the relationships andlinkageswhichrepresent the is awidenetwork ofsemi-formal andinformal the façadeofinter-governmental machinery agencies or, say, theEuropean Union. Butbehind in comparisonwiththoseofthelargerUN and theCommonwealth ofLearning, are small budgets oftheSecretariat, theFoundation are infactcomparatively light. The staffsand The Commonwealth’s institutionalstructures links -aradicalinnovation for itstime. same year civil-society toencourageandsupport Commonwealth Foundation wascreated inthe Secretariat thatwasestablishedin1965, the its centre ofgravity lay. Alongside theofficial was clear-sighted enoughtorecognise where From beginningstheCommonwealth itsvery Governments. of thePeople” asthetitleofits2011report to Persons Group whichchose “A Commonwealth Strong affirmationofthiscamefrom theEminent peoples asmuch asofstatesorgovernments. is thatofacommunity. Itisanassociationof an internationalorganisation. Yet itsreal essence The Commonwealth isoftenseenasprimarily peoples of A Commonwealth elements ofacommonculture. heritage ofinstitutionalforms andpractices, belief. they areAnd inpart basedonacommon respect for differences ofbackground and forms ofgovernment, tolerationandmutual for humanrights, commitmenttodemocratic thetiesconsistofsharedPartly valuesofrespect countries oforigin. with linkstomany different Commonwealth countries now have amulti-ethnic population population. Consequently many Commonwealth intermarriage between migrantsandthelocal migration offathers, daughters, cousinsandlater Chapter 13: Chapter

Peter Williams ROLE OFCIVILSOCIETY -77- and, where appropriate, forming partnerships action a longtraditionofencouragingvoluntary in socio-economicdevelopment.part They have where many different groups insocietyplay a along theroad tobecomingpluralisticsocieties Commonwealth countriesare generally moving considered ofcivilsociety. part reliance ongovernment funding, are normally bodies like universities, despitetheirheavy and societies, andthemedia. Semi-autonomous recreational institutions, andsporting clubs youth groups, politicalandprotest movements, organisations, welfare bodies, women’s and professional associations, community organisations, tradeunionsandco-operatives, self-regulating institutionsincludingfaith sector. Itembracesawholespectrumof the state, thearmedforces andthecorporate society thatare situatedbeyond the boundsof Civil societyconsistsofallthosegroups in Commonwealth Civil societyinthe outside thecountry. they are unduly reliant from onfundingsupport Local NGOsmay alsoattract specialcriticismif accountability they preach togovernments. interests anddonotpractisethedemocratic representative oftheirmembers’views and that civil-societybodiesare themselves not can arouse resentment particular ifitisapparent for comfortable theauthorities.particularly It directions they finddesirable, whichisnever policy andthedispositionofstateresources in in advocacy, attemptingtoinfluencepublic thisreflectsPartly theirincreasing engagement the state, they may attractscrutiny andcriticism. influence, balancingtosomeextentthepower of organisations represent sources of countervailing unchallenged. Precisely becausecivil-society recognised, itspositioninsocietymay not go inpluralisticdemocraticstatesis partner Even where civilsociety’s role asavaluable rule. andone-party from military been towards andaway democratic participation political changeinCommonwealth countrieshas political climate. Butthegeneraldirection of has ebbedandflowed, reflecting thechanging of statecentralisationinany country particular provide publicservices. Ofcoursethedegree between government andnon-officialbodiesto 09/08/2012 18:23

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The issue of resources is particularly cultural performances. At 17CCEM in 2009 and troublesome. The reach of the market is steadily 18CCEM in 2012 it has taken responsibility for extending into spheres of life that have until organising the Stakeholders Forum. now been ‘ring-fenced’, enabling civil-society organisations to rely on personal commitment Civil-society engagement with and voluntarism and to avail themselves of the services of staff paid at rates that would education be uncompetitive in the market place. But the growth of consumerism, and the increasing Civil-society organisations get involved in tendency to equate time with money, make it education delivery in several ways. Even where more challenging to attract people to undertake education is entirely state-run, governing boards poorly remunerated work and responsibility. and school committees generally have civil- Recourse to the state for support tends to society representatives drawn from among the undermine civil-society’s independence; reliance leaders of the local community or representing on external sources can undermine an NGO’s teachers’ and parents’ groups. Teachers’ legitimacy; and philanthropists are in short supply. organisations (trades unions and professional associations) play an important role in education On the international scene these trends have improvement and advocacy. In many countries tended to widen the capacity gap between governments look to local people to mobilise large international NGOs that raise millions community effort for construction of facilities of pounds annually from the public in or to supplement state provision of books and industrialised countries for humanitarian relief equipment. and development activities on the one hand; and locally based organisations, often small and At the other end of the spectrum from the operating at ‘grassroots’ level on the other. A state school are independent schools. These complication is that generous (in local terms) may in some cases be businesses belonging to salaries offered by the ‘internationals’ make it individual proprietors and effectively being part more difficult for indigenous bodies to attract of the private sector of the economy. But in good staff. many countries there is civil-society involvement in school provision alongside the state. Not-for- profit faith-based organisations, charitable trusts, The Commonwealth or local communities may operate education Foundation institutions as a recognised part of the national system. The Foundation’s role was briefly summarised in Chapter 1. Its programmes are based on In many more instances arrangements for working with civil-society organisations and partnership between the state and civil-society professional associations in the Commonwealth. bodies are in place, and the functions of It supports civil-society activities that contribute ownership of site and buildings, management, and to the achievement of the UN Millennium financing being treated as separate functions and Development Goals. It funds inter-country the subject of agreed assignment of responsibility. networking (particularly among developing Thus, church or mosque schools may be funded countries), training, capacity-building and by government, or state schools may be managed information exchange. In particular, it targets by civil-society bodies. activities that strengthen the capacity of civil- society organisations in their work on poverty Partnerships with civil society bring certain eradication, good governance and sustainable obvious advantages for Government. Civil-society development. bodies are often closer to the people and the consumers of education and are an important Every two years, at the time of the source of feedback on education requirements Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings, and the impact of state provision. Participation of the Foundation organises civil society events to civil-society bodies in the conduct of education promote the People’s Commonwealth. These can mobilise a wider popular identification include seminars, workshops, exhibitions and with, and support for, public policies. Additional

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 78 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 79 the officialCommonwealth. about civil-societyengagementwith observations 4above).(category Itconcludes withsome the Commonwealth for Education Consortium Commonwealth associationsineducationand agency funding. It thendiscussestherole of large internationalNGOsanddevelopment- local civilsocietyindeveloping countries, an exampleoffruitfulco-operationbetween on theCommonwealth Education Fund, as The remainder ofthischapter focuses first 4. 3. 2. 1. in suchcollaborative activity: categories ofcivil-societyorganisationsengaged gross oversimplification, identify four principal operation ineducationonecan, attheriskof In moving ontoconsiderCommonwealth co- provision. tend towards standardisation ofprocedures and and innovation intostatesystemsthatinevitably Civil societycaninjectvariety, experimentation flexibly than government toemergingneeds. requirements andcanrespond more quickly and society islesstrammelledby bureaucratic effort.to thecommitmentofvoluntary Civil through thetaxsystem: applies thisparticularly that would notbeavailable togovernment resources inmoney orlabourmay betapped

associations intheeducationsector. Commonwealth professional andvoluntary the GlobalCampaignfor Education. engaging inadvocacy. Many are membersof education development, andincreasingly Large internationalcharitiessupporting countries. with schoolsinCommonwealth developing that engageinschoolandcollegelinking countriesorprojectshelp onparticular or industrialised countriesthattargettheir Voluntary andcharitablebodiesin impact are oftensignificant. mapped inmostcountries, butitsreach and work. wellThis sectorisnotparticularly single communities anddoinglocalgrassroots is amyriad ofmuch smallerNGOsbasedin countries, are large-scaleoperations: butthere denominational churches inmany African Bangladesh ortheeducationsecretariat of countries. Someofthese, like BRAC in Locally-based organisationsindeveloping -79- programme operated in16countries: Bangladesh, reached the most marginalised girls andboys. The procedures, andqualityeducationprovision that policies, transparent andaccountablefinancial commitments through good qualityeducation to ensure thatgovernments fulfilledtheir CEF promoted therighttoeducationby trying work effectively for allchildren. priority andtomake public-authorityschools order tomake educationasustaineddomestic ‘Millennium Development Goals’(MDGs), in countries likely tomisstheeducationandgender with civilsocietyinlow-income Commonwealth operated until2008. CEFworked strategically ActionAid, OxfamandSave theChildren andit advocacy project, collaboratively managedby the Commonwealth. Itwasauniqueeducation Golden Jubilee ofQueenElizabethII, Headof Government, andfunded by it, tomark the CEF wassetupin2002by theBritish Fund (CEF)2002-2008 Education The Commonwealth • • • work: Zambia. CEFfocused onthree mainareas of Sierra Leone, SriLanka, Tanzania, Uganda, and Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Pakistan, Cameroon, The Gambia, Ghana, India, Kenya,

particularly girls,particularly intopublicschools. succeeded ingettingexcludedchildren, policy rooted ininnovative work thathad evidence-based influencing of Supporting were mostneeded. effectively targetedandreached where they boys, andthatgovernment budgetswere to make publicschoolswork for allgirlsand Ensuring thesufficiencyofeducationfinance influencing nationallevel policyandpractice. grassroots voices andexperiencesinto andcouldeffectivelythe country channel coalitions thathadactive membershipacross democratically-run nationaleducation Strengthening broad-based and 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 13 Chapter 4 13 Chapter

Commonwealth associations Commonwealth Consortium in education for Education

Among about 80 Commonwealth civil-society The Consortium was founded in 2001 and bodies registered with the Commonwealth formally constituted in 2002 as a group of civil- almost a third are active in education, and many society organisations committed to education in of these are members of the Commonwealth the Commonwealth. It is a voluntary organisation Consortium for Education. More information with no paid staff employees. Membership has on the individual Commonwealth civil-society increased from the original 12 members in bodies in the education sector can be found late 2001 to 18 at present, and in addition the in the Commonwealth Education Directory Commonwealth Secretariat, Commonwealth published by the Consortium. Foundation and Commonwealth of Learning have the status of ‘Special Members’. The These associations vary considerably in form Consortium received formal accreditation to and function. Some, like the Association of the Commonwealth in December 2004 and Commonwealth Universities and Commonwealth was invited to send Observer delegations to Association of Polytechnics in Africa, have the Conferences of Commonwealth Education institutional members only; while others are Ministers in Edinburgh (15CCEM), Cape Town open to individuals. They vary considerably in (16CCEM) Kuala Lumpur (17CCEM) and size of payroll and budget, ranging from those Mauritius (18CCEM). that have 40 or 50 employees to others that work entirely through volunteers. A number of The objectives of the Consortium, are to professional associations receive a contribution promote the development of education to their core budget for overheads from the throughout the Commonwealth by mobilising Commonwealth Foundation, but the Foundation the contribution of education-based civil- is moving away from this as its preferred form of society organisations, and to constitute a forum support. to promote co-operation among member organisations. When mandated by its members, As their Directory entries make clear, it acts as a body representing their views to the functions of the associations vary. All outsiders, and in turn it serves as a channel for have some kind of representative function others to engage in consultation with them. engaging in networking among their members and in advocacy with governments and Membership is open to any pan-Commonwealth the Commonwealth inter-governmental organisation in the fields of education, youth and organisations. Most have information functions culture, with associate membership available to for their members and the outside world. other international or national Commonwealth A number of them engage in training and organisations sharing the Consortium’s capacity-building operations and run seminars objectives. The 2012 membership comprises 14 and workshops. Research and publications are a full Members, four Associate Members and three major part of their work. Special Members as shown in Appendix 1. There is at present no individual membership. The creation of the Commonwealth Teachers’ Group (CTG) in 2006 constituted a major Officers serve on a voluntary basis. The Chair reinforcement for this constituency, representing is elected, and the other posts are filled by millions of Commonwealth teachers through its members of the Consortium who designate own member organisations. one of their members to serve. An Executive Committee meets, presently in London, two or three times a year. Members pay a small annual subscription to meet office expenses.

The Consortium’s activities have spanned the following five areas.

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 80 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 13 Commonwealth Consortium • The inaugural conference in October 2003, for Education: Areas of organised in close co-operation with the embryonic Commonwealth Teachers Group, Activity addressed “Retention and Mobility of Teachers in the Commonwealth”. Its recommendations (1) Advocacy to Ministers helped to pave the way for The Consortium has made submissions to eventual adoption of the Commonwealth CHOGMs and CCEMs arguing inter alia that Teacher Recruitment Protocol. education development and co-operation in the • The 2nd Conference in 2006 in Cape Town Commonwealth should be declared a priority. on “The Power of Partnerships: Strength in This was achieved through the Aso Rock Friends: Exploration of the Potential of School Declaration in December 2003 and the Valletta and College Linking in the Commonwealth”. CHOGM Communiqué in 2005. Now, however, • The 3rd Conference in Bangi, Malaysia in in 2012 the debate has re-opened with the June 2009 was “Learning to Live Together: proposal from the Commonwealth Secretariat Education for Social Cohesion”, responding to that it might close down its own work in the Sen Report, on Civil Paths to Peace. education. • A session on “Networking Commonwealth people for implementing the MDGs in Education”, as part of the Commonwealth (2) Project work People’s Forum in Valletta, November 2005. In April 2005 the Consortium completed a • A session on “Building Institutional major project for the Education Section of Partnerships in Education”, at the the Commonwealth Secretariat on ways to Stakeholders Forum in Cape Town, December make operational the Edinburgh Action Plan 2006. for Education with its six priority action • A session on “Education for Transformation”, areas (achieving universal primary education, at the Commonwealth People’s Forum in eliminating gender disparity in education, Kampala, November 2007. improving quality in education, using open • A session on “Commonwealth Connections in and distance education to overcome barriers, Education”, at the Fifth Pan-Commonwealth supporting education in difficult circumstances, Forum on Open Learning in London 2008. mitigating the impact of HIV/AIDS on education). • A session on “Education for Peacebuilding”, at A series of seven workshops was convened the Commonwealth People’s Forum in Port of by different Consortium members. The final Spain, November 2011. report, Implementing the Edinburgh Action Plan for Education: ways forward, charts the extensive The Consortium is also convening the cluster capacity of the Commonwealth in education, of sessions on “Connecting Commonwealth: explores its comparative advantage, and identifies Education and Cultures” in the Stakeholders themes and issues for future collaboration. Forum at 18CCEM in Mauritius, August 2012.

(3) Advice (5) Publications The Consortium was invited to be an Observer The first precursor of the present volume on the Commonwealth Working Group was as a series of Commonwealth Education on Teacher Recruitment leading to active Briefing Notes, presented at the CCEMs of participation in the Group’s meetings in Lesotho 2003 and 2006. For the CCEM of 2009 these (February 2004) and at Stoke Rochford in the were brought together in a single volume under UK (August/ September 2004 and April 2009). the title, Working Together in Education: a The Consortium’s Secretary continues to serve Commonwealth Update. on the Commonwealth Advisory Group on the Teacher Recruitment Protocol. The Commonwealth Education Directory, also produced by the Consortium is now, in (4) Conferences and meetings 2012, in its third edition. Every quarter the The Consortium has organised and hosted a Consortium issues a Commonwealth Education series of gatherings to examine issues of key Calendar listing forthcoming meetings and other importance to the Commonwealth, as follows: events planned by members and associated organisations. This also appears on the Consortium’s website.

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Engaging the associations As the Commonwealth now examines its in future Commonwealth priorities and future patterns of work as part of the Strategic Review of Commonwealth educational co-operation Secretariat activity and the re-launch of the Commonwealth Foundation, there is an As described throughout this volume, the opportunity for a complete re-examination Commonwealth’s infrastructure in education is of the relationship between the ‘official’ inter- extensive – more so than in any other sector governmental Commonwealth organisations and – and this is true of both the ‘official’ and the their friends and allies in the civil-society sector. ‘unofficial’ Commonwealth. The Secretariat has raised the possibility that The potential for fruitful co-operation is it might disengage from direct involvement in a subject of growing interest, and various education altogether, devolving its responsibilities institutional mechanisms are in place to perhaps to the Commonwealth of Learning develop and extend the opportunities for civil and other partners. The Commonwealth society to make its contribution to collective Consortium for Education and others have Commonwealth endeavours. Examples include argued strenuously against these proposals, the following: claiming that certain key functions can only be performed by the Commonwealth’s central • There has been close co-operation secretariat. The Consortium has long argued that between the Commonwealth Secretariat, a comprehensive examination of Commonwealth Commonwealth of Learning and the educational co-operation, that would chart the Association of Commonwealth Universities capacities and roles of the different players and (ACU), the Commonwealth Teachers’ Group make proposals for better co-ordination, is (CTG) and other professional associations. overdue. The collaboration is especially close with ACU in relation to the Commonwealth A review of this kind now seems all the more Scholarship and Fellowship Plan and with urgent. It would include consideration of the the CTG on the Commonwealth Teacher scope for devolving some of the Secretariat’s Recruitment Protocol. The Secretariat has existing work to others and exploration of new also operated joint programmes with the modalities for consultation and collaboration Council for Education in the Commonwealth by all the partners. Whatever the final decision (CEC) and the Commonwealth Council for about the Commonwealth Secretariat’s own Educational Administration and Management future role, it seems probable that in the (CCEAM). In Africa, COL has worked coming years a new partnership between inter- frequently worked in partnership with the governmental and non-governmental bodies Commonwealth Association of Polytechnics in engaged in Commonwealth educational co- Africa (CAPA). operation will be forged. • The Commonwealth Secretariat and Foundation organise a series of bi-annual consultation meetings for an exchange with civil-society bodies, mainly Commonwealth associations, and the education group within the wider constituency plays an active part.

• The Commonwealth’s education sector pioneered the opening up of Ministerial Conferences to dialogue and participation with civil society, by the holding of parallel forums in conjunction with the ministers’ conference, as discussed in Chapter 2.

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 82 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 14: EDUCATION ABOUT THE COMMONWEALTH Peter Williams Chapter 14 Introduction civil-society Commonwealth voluntary and professional bodies; The earlier chapters in this book have mainly addressed education development in the • Cultural activities, such as the annual Commonwealth and its member states, and co- Commonwealth Writers’ Prize presentation; operative programmes to that end. This chapter has a different orientation, focusing on the theme • Libraries and museums specialising in of education for Commonwealth citizenship Commonwealth materials; – learning about the Commonwealth and its member countries, imbibing Commonwealth • Explicit learning, teaching and research that values and particularly respect for other focuses on the Commonwealth in the schools cultures and societies, and learning to live and colleges of member states. together harmoniously in a diverse international community. Increasingly today information-seekers turn to the worldwide web. Virtually all Commonwealth Education about the Commonwealth, broadly organisations now have their own website, understood, is important for the future of the that of the Commonwealth Secretariat being Commonwealth, for the causes of international www.thecommonwealth.org . The Secretariat peace and development and for the development has recently created a web-based platform of democratic societies across the globe. It - Commonwealth Connects - to enable also helps learners of all ages to find their Commonwealth networks to develop and work compass in a rapidly changing and increasingly together interactively by sharing knowledge and interdependent world. best practice.

A very wide spectrum of activities, programmes All this adds up to a substantial volume of and organisations have a role in projecting activity, but the many pieces of the jigsaw have knowledge about the Commonwealth and its yet to be assembled so as to form an intelligible place in the modern world. Commonwealth picture. For although Commonwealth Heads awareness is nurtured by, for example: of Government and Ministers of Education have frequently identified education about the • Major public events such as the annual Commonwealth as a major concern, they have Christmas Day broadcast by the Queen; and yet to devise collective overall strategies and to Commonwealth Day, observed on the second assign responsibilities and resources for carrying Monday in March; them out.

• Biennial Commonwealth Heads of Education about the Commonwealth thus Government Meetings (the CHOGMs) and currently represents a hole in the association’s associated events such as the Commonwealth education infrastructure that a number of other People’s Forum and Commonwealth Youth organisations strive with only partial success to Forum, and the quadrennial Commonwealth fill. At one time it might have been thought that Games; the Commonwealth Institute in London could, if properly resourced, assume this mantle. Until • Visible expressions of Commonwealth co- 2002 UK Government funding supported the operation in the shape of Commonwealth Institute’s activities, which focused on teaching Fund for Technical Co-operation projects, about the Commonwealth, mainly however in the programmes of the Commonwealth of the UK. After UK financial support and oversight Learning, or the presence in a local university came to an end, the Trustees of the property of Commonwealth Scholars; decided to realise their capital assets and to use the proceeds to support a Centre for • Press releases and information materials Commonwealth Education at the University of published by the Commonwealth Secretariat Cambridge, focusing on primary and secondary and Foundation; education and the training of teachers within the Trust’s remit to advance education in the • Education and information activities of the Commonwealth. Royal Commonwealth Society and other

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In the mid-1990s useful exercises were Commonwealth citizens live, or of its potential conducted, attempting to draw together the relevance to building a better and safer world. strands of Commonwealth information and education activity in two limited areas. In 1997, The Commonwealth was born from the Derek Ingram’s Review of the Commonwealth movement of peoples. Originally the drivers Secretariat’s Information Programme was of this mobility were conquest, settlement and published.1 It followed the 1996 Report of the labour migration - including the slave trade - Commission on Commonwealth Studies chaired during the period of the British Empire. But since by Professor Thomas Symons from Canada. 1945 and the era of Independence, migration has The “Symons Report”2 had a focus on research continued on an even greater scale as people and teaching about the Commonwealth at the have sought better livelihoods and education tertiary-education level. in other Commonwealth countries; or have taken up residence either temporarily under Commonwealth awareness contract with an international employer, or more permanently through marriage or refugee The Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group, status. Consequently many Commonwealth reporting in 2011,3 deplored the lack of countries have large minorities, born in another knowledge about the Commonwealth both Commonwealth country and whose presence among the general public and also among many in their midst owes much to historical ties, and government officials. This knowledge seems to is facilitated by shared language, professional be diminishing. It may well be that only a small practice and institutions. Many Commonwealth minority could name more than a handful of countries have become vibrant multi-cultural Commonwealth countries other than their societies, microcosms of an increasingly own, know what values the Commonwealth globalised world. Some insight into the stands for, or are familiar with the practical Commonwealth’s past and present is necessary development activities that Commonwealth for a person’s understanding of his/her own place agencies undertake. For many of its citizens, the in the world. Commonwealth connection that has shaped their present situation and status seems to be The Commonwealth is highly relevant to the a matter of history. They are conscious of it building of a better international community. as a contemporary phenomenon only when Composed as it is of societies from every a CHOGM or conference of Commonwealth continent that embody diverse races, cultures ministers meets in their country, when the and faiths, and at very different levels of Commonwealth Games are on TV, or if a economic development, the Commonwealth Commonwealth programme benefits them is representative of the wider world to which individually. it belongs. The readiness for compromise and to seek accommodation of differences that Insofar as the modern Commonwealth is has characterised Commonwealth relations equated in the popular mind with the former is a useful asset on the global stage. The British Empire, it is understandable that in newly Commonwealth’s own make-up of rich and independent countries people want to move on. poor countries enables it to identify solutions It has to be recognised too that, unlike the UN, to difficult issues, respecting the common the Commonwealth does not have visible offices interest and serving the common good. It has in Commonwealth capitals, and the resources been a pathfinder in pursuit of agendas of it commands for collective development democracy, good governance, tolerance and programmes are comparatively modest in scale. mutual respect that reflect the principles set out in its 1991 Harare Statement and subsequent Such perceptions, understandable as they documents. Consideration is being given in 2012 may be, do scant justice to the reality of to enshrining these in a new Commonwealth the Commonwealth in terms either of its Charter. significant role in shaping the societies in which

1 D. Ingram, Review of the Commonwealth Secretariat’s Information Programme (London: Commonwealth Secretariat Strategic Planning and Evaluation Unit, 1997). 2 Commission on Commonwealth Studies, Learning from Each Other: Commonwealth studies for the 21st Century Report of the Commission on Commonwealth Studies (London, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1997). 3 Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group, A Commonwealth of the People: Time for Urgent Reform (London, Commonwealth Secretariat, 2011) -84-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 84 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 14 The Commonwealth could pursue a number • Promoting education about the of strategies to keep its profile before the Commonwealth and Commonwealth public and to ensure that the rising generations studies in schools, colleges and universities grow up to be well informed about the throughout the Commonwealth. This is Commonwealth association, and the benefits and addressed more fully below. obligations involved in membership, through, for example: Commonwealth Day

• Striving to ensure that Commonwealth Held on the second Monday of March each institutions and activities are more widely year, Commonwealth Day provides a special spread throughout member countries than opportunity for engaging the interest of the at present, and making strenuous efforts to public in the Commonwealth. Each year a reduce the over-concentration of activity in theme is chosen (see Box 14.1) and this the UK; provides the focus for activities, for the Queen’s Commonwealth Day message and • Giving full attention to public relations for a display poster that is sent to schools and to media-related work of all kinds, and in every Commonwealth country. In many better co-ordination of the media work countries there is a special Commonwealth and messages put out by the Secretariat, Day observance ceremony: in the UK this takes Foundation and civil society organisations; the form of a multi-faith religious service in Westminster Abbey in the presence of the • Using Commonwealth programmes and Queen, the Commonwealth Secretary-General resources to spread the Commonwealth and the British Prime Minister. Many schools and message. Outreach activity aimed at colleges in Commonwealth countries also mark the general public, and at young people in particular, should be part of every Box 14.1 Commonwealth Day Themes Commonwealth conference and workshop. 2007 Respecting difference: promoting understanding Commonwealth experts under CFTC, and 2008 The environment: our future Commonwealth Scholars and Bursars, might 2009 The Commonwealth at 60 – serving a new be encouraged and assisted to become generation informants about, and ambassadors for, the 2010 Science, technology and society Commonwealth; 2011 Women as agents of change 2012 Connecting cultures • Enhancing support from the Commonwealth Foundation and other bodies, including the private sector, for civil-society bodies that the Day with a parade or other ceremony, and engage in Commonwealth outreach-education children are encouraged to undertake projects work, arranging conferences, Youth CHOGMs, on Commonwealth topics. Commonwealth prize competitions, displays and exhibitions. A West African countries have been prominent in few of these organisations and their activities marking the Day by special events. are described in this chapter; Each year the Royal Commonwealth Society, • Focusing on young people who form a on behalf of the Council of Commonwealth key constituency within the audience Societies, prepares a comprehensive for messages and information about the Commonwealth Day Information Pack, which Commonwealth. In recent years a more receives wide distribution. The Commonwealth conscious effort has been made to include Secretariat used to publish an attractive youth activities in Commonwealth Foundation Commonwealth Day Handbook for Schools programmes; Youth Forums have been held to to serve as a resource book with suggestions coincide with CHOGM, and in conjunction and guidance for schools, and sharing ideas and with Conferences of Commonwealth experiences. The last appeared in 1992. Education Ministers;

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Education about the Formal classroom study of curriculum content Commonwealth: what is is only one way in which student awareness of the Commonwealth can be inculcated at involved? school. Student clubs and societies, and school international partnerships, can significantly The evolution of the Commonwealth and influence student perceptions and experience. its contemporary membership, structures One major development has been the growth of and organisation are a worthy subject of voluntary Commonwealth clubs, democratically study in their own right. They may form a run by students in schools. Inspired by Nigeria, discrete topic within a syllabus addressing where more than 120 such clubs have been international organisations or contemporary established, the Commonwealth Policy Studies international current affairs. In what tends to Unit obtained a two-year grant to stimulate clubs be a very crowded curriculum, however, the in secondary schools in England; but it proved Commonwealth will often be studied obliquely difficult to raise further funds for continuation of - via, for example, history, geography, literature, this work after the initial period. In 2006 there politics or citizenship - rather than directly. were 40 clubs in Cameroon, and 20 being set up by the Commonwealth Society of Ghana, and The study of citizenship provides a natural others in Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. bridge to consideration of the Commonwealth with its emphasis on inter-cultural appreciation The Commonwealth clubs programme and tolerance, and mutual respect among has worked closely with those promoting people of diverse faiths and cultures. Education international partnerships and linking for schools. about the Commonwealth naturally overlaps In the UK particularly there are many school- with education for international understanding linking organisations and initiatives, as discussed and global citizenship, with development fully in Chapter 12. education, and at tertiary level with area studies, development studies and comparative studies In looking to engage with people from different more generally. cultures across the world, schools are often oblivious of the make-up of their own local Learning about the communities. Migrant professionals and other Commonwealth at school workers, international students and refugees may be present in considerable numbers. In many As indicated above, there is a place for specific locations learning about the Commonwealth attention to the Commonwealth and its can thus start at home through contact institutions in the school curriculum. In 1997 with individuals and Diaspora communities. in conjunction with 13CCEM in Botswana The student and teacher population of the the Commonwealth Secretariat conducted a school, and the community in its immediate survey on education about the Commonwealth neighbourhood, provide a rich resource for in member countries. As was to be expected, learning about the peoples, societies and cultures in the countries that responded more work that make up the modern Commonwealth. was reported in the area of citizenship and values education than of any explicit study of Commonwealth studies at Commonwealth membership and institutional tertiary level arrangements. Nevertheless some countries did (and do) make specific reference to the There is a wide range of relevant teaching and Commonwealth in their school syllabus. research in universities and other institutions of post-secondary education and this was partially Whether the focus is on formal Commonwealth mapped by the Commission on Commonwealth organisation and membership, or more loosely Studies in its 1996 report.4 The Commission on values and citizenship, specialised resources found there were no complete undergraduate and appropriate in-service training are clearly degree courses in Commonwealth Studies but needed to enable teachers and students to cope at postgraduate level there were a small number well with this part of the curriculum. of programmes leading to higher degrees in

4 Commission on Commonwealth Studies, Learning from Each Other: Commonwealth Studies in the 21st Century (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 1996). -86-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 86 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 87 formed intheaftermath oftheSymonsReport, The Association for Commonwealth Studieswas exhibitions andperformances inthearts. some pan-Commonwealth activity including directed totheUnitedKingdom, there wasalso these educationactivitieswaslocatedinand pupils andteachers. While themainthrustof where programmes were organisedfor school Commonwealth Institute’s Kensington premises an information centre andexhibitionsatthe Commonwealth. Untilsixyears ago there was promoting teachingand learningaboutthe Many different bodiesplay somerole in support actorsMain sources and of 1997 there hasbeennoco-ordinated follow up. although thesewere welcomed by CHOGMin recommendationsnumber ofimportant but from EachOther’. The Commissionmadea component. Itemphasisedthevalueof ‘Learning a Commonwealth contextwasanimportant comparative studyofnationalexperiencein ‘Commonwealth Studies’andstressed that Studies tookawideview ofthenature of The CommissiononCommonwealth decision-makers. is withcurrent issuesfacingCommonwealth Unit -CPSU), athink-tankwhosemainconcern (formerly theCommonwealth Policy Studies autonomous Commonwealth Bureau Advisory development. The Institutehousesthesemi- with humanrightsandsocialeconomic offerings are much more contemporary, dealing focus onCommonwealth history, its present Although theInstituteformerly tendedto collection, hasalways heldapre-eminent place. of research andteachingafinelibrary University ofLondon, withitsconcentration the InstituteofCommonwealth Studiesofthe elsewhere.history Within theCommonwealth, wide interest inCommonwealth literature and place inCommonwealth countries, for there is ‘Commonwealth’ or ‘post-colonial’ labeltake Not alloftheprogrammes bearingthe ‘post-colonial’ ratherthan ‘Commonwealth’. number ofprogrammes carried thedesignation and Commonwealth Literature. Inaddition a Commonwealth Studies, Commonwealth History -87- on RespectandUnderstanding, chaired by appointment ofaCommonwealth Commission prominent themeofdeliberations. It ledtothe of UnderstandingandRespecthasbeena theconcernwithpromotionIn particular its valuesontheassociation’s collective agendas. keep educationabouttheCommonwealth and ‘brand’ oftheCommonwealth seems likely to Government withenhancingtheimageand Concern by Commonwealth Headsof Looking ahead should address thechallenge. Itrunsanannual meetings toexaminehow theCommonwealth active inadvocacy, arranging conferences and for young peopleinavarietyofways. Ithasbeen promoted learningabouttheCommonwealth The Royal Commonwealth Societyhas Museum and atafuture date.. Gallery Art City ofBristolcollectiontodisplay attheCity’s have now decidedtogiftthecollection these planshave fallenthrough andthe Trustees Museum hadintendedtorelocate toLondon, but Commonwealth atitsbuildinginBristol. The exhibitions aboutEmpire anditstransitionto maintained permanentdisplays andtemporary a privately fundedcharitablebody, untilrecently The BritishEmpire andCommonwealth Museum, Commonwealth. chapter: educatingtheCommonwealth aboutthe literature. In2007itsthemewasthatofthis including health, architecture, governance, and of Commonwealth development and culture and hasheldconferences ondifferent aspects values. young peoplewiththeCommonwealth andits promote Commonwealth clubsandtoengage the recipient fundingto ofUKDepartmental education abouttheCommonwealth andwas to above, hasmaintainedacloseinterest in the Commonwealth Policy StudiesUnit), referred The Commonwealth Bureau (formerlyAdvisory international gatherings. assuming therole ofdifferent memberstatesin of ‘Youth CHOGMs’involving young peoplein pupilsorganisesaprogramme secondary-school resources ontheCommonwealth andfor supplies schoolswithteachingandlearning students throughout theCommonwealth. It Commonwealth Essay competitionfor school 09/08/2012 18:23

ChapterForeword 14 Chapter 4 14 Chapter

Professor Amartya Sen the distinguished Nobel The Commonwealth Consortium for Education Prize economist. In 2007 Heads of Government explored these issues in some depth at its in Kampala received the Commission’s Conference in Malaysia in 2009 and made a report, Civil Paths to Peace,5 and endorsed its series of proposals for Commonwealth co- recommendations. operation in this area which education ministers might usefully consider (see Box 14.2). Commonwealth leaders will surely look to their countries’ education systems to play a major role in efforts to address the Understanding and Respect agenda. Indeed, their 2007 Munyonyo Statement singled out “activities in relation to young people, women, education and the media, as the priority fields of action”

Box 14.2 Possible areas of Commonwealth action for development and extension of co- operative programmes, exchange of experience, and support for national capacity-building

1. Promotion of education about the Commonwealth and the values that it espouses. 2. A focus on education for responsible citizenship for children and adults to encourage active participation in political processes and service to the community. 3. Dissemination of information and publications about Commonwealth education policies and good practice in education for respect and understanding, with a particular focus on the inclusion of marginalised groups, and on language policy. 4. Provision of resource kits for curriculum development and assessment in the field of history/social science/civics and human rights education and of case studies for building socially cohesive societies, and facilitating the healing processes after conflicts (‘Kits for TRIPS’ – Teaching Respect, Inclusion, Peace and Solidarity). 5. Development and dissemination of teaching and learning materials, e.g. on ‘Commonwealth heroines and heroes of peace’ (such as Gandhi, Maathai, Mandela, Tutu), identifying role models in sport, the arts and public and community service. 6. Compilation of Commonwealth guides to literature, film and other resources that foster respect and understanding, the resolution of conflicts in different cultures, and the promotion of freedom of expression, critical thinking and responsible action. 7. Use in schools and adult education of the full range of resources – in literature and poetry, art, music, sport, drama - within different cultures, with recourse to museums, libraries and craftsmen. 8. Teacher education and professional development programmes to support teachers and principals facing the challenge of working in multicultural classrooms, confronting difficult environments for education, and tackling controversial issues. 9. Appointment of ‘youth ambassadors for peace’, including especially those from minority groups, and creating awards and prizes for distinctive contributions by teachers and students in this area 10. Encouragement to young people, with their interest and expertise in modern communication technology, to take advantage of these new possibilities to engage in contacts across cultures and other social divides, and to become agents for the exchange of knowledge and skills in the area of respect and understanding. 11. Promotion of a culture of accountability among policy-makers, managers and other leaders in the education system, requiring them to set an example as role models 12. Improvement of data bases at all levels of education on access and inclusion for members of different groups in society, including those defined on an ethnic, linguistic, social, economic and religious basis, so that the overall situation and the impact of intervention measures can be monitored and policies adjusted where necessary6

5 Commonwealth Commission on Respect and Understanding, Civil Paths to Peace (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 2007) 6 Extract from Learning to Live Together, Statement from the Bangi Conference organised by the Commonwealth Consortium for Education and Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia. June 2009. -88-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 88 09/08/2012 18:23 Appendix 1: MEMBERSHIP OF THE COMMONWEALTH CONSORTIUM FOR EDUCATION (CCfE) 2012

An account of the role and functions of the Appendix 1 Commonwealth Consortium for Education, the publisher of this volume, will be found in Chapter 13. Currently the membership, which is institutional only and does not include individuals, comprises:

Full Members The English-Speaking Union of the Commonwealth (ESU) Association for Commonwealth Literature and www.esu.org Language Studies (ACLALS) www.aclals.ulg.ac.be/ Link Community Development (LCD) www.lcdinternational.org Association of Commonwealth Examination and Accreditation Bodies (ACEAB) Associate members Email: [email protected] Commonwealth Business Council (CBC) Association of Commonwealth Universities www.cbcglobal.org (ACU) www.acu.ac.uk Commonwealth Youth Exchange Council (CYEC) BUILD (Building Understanding through www.cyec.org.uk International Links for Development) www.build-online.org.uk Royal Commonwealth Society (RCS) www.thercs.org Commonwealth Association of Museums (CAM) www.maltwood.uvic.ca/cam/ Royal Over-Seas League (ROSL) www.rosl.org.uk Commonwealth Association of Polytechnics in Africa (CAPA) www.capa-sec.org Special Members: Commonwealth Association of Science Technology and Mathematics Educators Commonwealth Secretariat (CASTME) www.thecommonwealth.org www.castme.org.uk Commonwealth Foundation Commonwealth Council for Educational www.commonwealthfoundation.com Administration and Management (CCEAM) www.cceam.org Commonwealth of Learning (COL) www.col.org Commonwealth Countries’ League Education Fund (CCLEF) www.ccl-int.org.uk

Commonwealth Human Ecology Council (CHEC) www.checinternational.org

Commonwealth Teachers’ Group (CTG) Email: [email protected]

Council for Education in the Commonwealth (CEC) www.cecomm.org.uk

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Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 89 09/08/2012 18:23 Chapter 4 2 Chapter Appendix 6 5 2 28 61 62 90 79 97 67 26 52 85 99 72 82 81 31 33 93 47 77 53 36 60 164 125 152 109 161 171 160 122 140 143 134 123 117 142 135 180 168 100 153 166 150 145 156 118 120 146 184 2011 Human countries out of 187 Development Development Index ranking 3 86 38 9.1 1.8 2.5 8.5 944 11.2 13.9 16.9 58.9 36.9 13.7 67.1 37.6 31.8 82.5 46.4 10.7 35.3 23.5 60.4 63.9 11.2 89.2 62.5 22.5 13.6 202.4 802.3 231.5 132.1 760.4 215.9 151.8 383.4 529.7 152.8 239.4 157.9 174.3 122.9 206.8 people 2005-8 Personal Personal per 1,000 computers 2 1 11 5.6 0.2 0.5 6.5 1.5 6.3 1.7 0.3 1.2 0.1 1.8 1.6 0.1 2.9 0.9 0.3 5.3 0.1 3.6 0.1 2.3 1.4 3.1 0.1 0.1 13.5 23.6 25.9 17.8 24.8 13.1 11.5 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 2009 population among adults aged HIV/AIDS prevalence HIV/AIDS prevalence 15+ years per 100,000 15+ years 5 5 9 2 7 3 5 6 5 5 7 4 69 12 50 14 63 58 27 65 24 13 39 55 55 20 14 48 41 25 23 50 12 57 19 17 14 11 15 59 47 84 70 88 36 32 14 29 17 38 92 13 14 114 2010 Infant mortality mortality (per ‘000) 49 71 57 77 80 74 54 54 48 70 72 48 57 73 75 65 52 70 67 76 81 64 47 58 72 72 74 69 55 79 62 81 51 65 78 51 53 81 76 62 77 69 50 73 75 79 82 64* 73* 74* 76* 65* 75* Life 2010 (years) expectancy 82 99 87 99 70.9 72.9 98.4 92.5 73.2 73.7 89.7 98.7 86.9 86.4 90.6 62.8 88.7 94.7 66.6 40.9 91.8 46.5 98.8 97.9 60.1 70.7 55.5 95.3 60.8 84.1 88.5 55.9 55.1 87.9 92.4 Adult rate % rate literacy literacy 2005-10 92 97 96 94 92 91 73 96 83 83 81 95 97 90 99 81 98 76 94 76 98 93 99 92 94 98 96 99 92 66 97 63 87 99 90 89 91 94 92 90 97 91 100 100 Net rate % rate 2007-9 primary primary enrolment enrolment 1 5 1 3 1

-1 0.6 6.8 2.4 4.9 2.1 3.2 3.6 2.2 1.6 1.2 0.3 1.6 0.7 4.1 4.9 1.3 2.5 2.9 3.9 1.1 2.4 1.8 0.1 3.6 1.2 2.2 1.7 2.3 1.9 2.1 0.6 1.7 1.9 3.5 1.9 1.9 0.8 2.1 3.5 4.3 3.5 1.7 2.3 2.6 -0.2 -0.4 % p.a. capita growth growth GDP per 1990-2010 530 500 330 790 340 450 520 700 440 1070 2640 5750 7760 4760 1040 3280 2010 2630 4800 2240 1330 6090 2870 1030 6930 1230 9760 6560 6300 3000 3630 6760 1300 1180 1050 1180 6790 3810 4500 7750 38370 15380 40070 11740 43270 29430 13170 19270 2,802** 43,770* 26,750† 29,695† 15,034** 21,984** 2010 (US$) capita GNI per 10 87 52 68 10 89 240 316 104 100 754 538 104 174 109 183 861 399 312 273 343 417 1341 2171 1186 2741 4368 5086 5868 1728 1104 6858 2007 2283 1299 2010 Total Total 13089 50133 44841 62036 28401 33425 14901 34017 40513 20860 24392 22268 10624 19599 23391 (‘000) 173593 158423 148692 1224614 population 1964 1980 1961 1957 1962 1964 1978 1962 1966 1970 1979 1963 1968 1962 1948 1947 1966 1978 1974 1965 1961 1957 1976 1965 1979 1979 1983 1978 1975 1984 1966 1968 1981 1966 1990 1972 1968 1973 1981 1964 1989) 1997**) Year Joined Year Commonwealth 1961, rejoined 1994) rejoined 1961, 1970 (left 1987, rejoined rejoined 1970 (left 1987, 1947 (left 1972, rejoined rejoined 1947 (left 1972, 1982 (independent 1965) 1970 (independent 1962) 1961 (independent 1960) 1995 (independent 1960) 1995 (independent 1975) 1931 (Statute W’minster*) 1931 (Statute W’minster*) 1931 (Statute W’minster*) 1960 (suspended 1995–99) 1931 (Statute W’minster*, left Commonwealth membership and key indicators on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on the Millennium Development indicators and key Commonwealth membership Zambia Vanuatu United Republic of Tanzania United Republic of Maldives United Kingdom Malaysia Uganda Malawi Tuvalu Trinidad Tobago Trinidad and Lesotho Tonga Kiribati Kenya Swaziland Jamaica Sri Lanka India Africa South Guyana Solomon Islands Grenada Singapore Sierra Leone Sierra Ghana Samoa Seychelles The Gambia St Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines St Fiji Islands Rwanda St Kitts and Nevis Dominica Canada Cyprus Papua New Guinea New Papua Cameroon Pakistan Brunei Darussalam Nigeria New Zealand New Botswana Nauru Belize Barbados Namibia Mozambique Bangladesh Mauritius Australia The Bahamas Country Antigua and Barbuda Malta

* The Statute of Westminster of 1931 gave effective independence to the dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. ** Suspended from the councils of the Commonwealth in December 2006. -90-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 90 09/08/2012 18:23 6 5 2 28 61 62 90 79 97 67 26 52 85 99 72 82 81 31 33 93 47 77 53 36 60 164 125 152 109 161 171 160 122 140 143 134 123 117 142 135 180 168 100 153 166 150 145 156 118 120 146 184 2011 Human countries out of 187 Development Development Index ranking Appendix 2 3 86 38 9.1 1.8 2.5 8.5 944 11.2 13.9 16.9 58.9 36.9 13.7 67.1 37.6 31.8 82.5 46.4 10.7 35.3 23.5 60.4 63.9 11.2 89.2 62.5 22.5 13.6 202.4 802.3 231.5 132.1 760.4 215.9 151.8 383.4 529.7 152.8 239.4 157.9 174.3 122.9 206.8 people 2005-8 Personal Personal per 1,000 computers 2 1 11 5.6 0.2 0.5 6.5 1.5 6.3 1.7 0.3 1.2 0.1 1.8 1.6 0.1 2.9 0.9 0.3 5.3 0.1 3.6 0.1 2.3 1.4 3.1 0.1 0.1 13.5 23.6 25.9 17.8 24.8 13.1 11.5 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 2009 population among adults aged HIV/AIDS prevalence HIV/AIDS prevalence 15+ years per 100,000 15+ years 5 5 9 2 7 3 5 6 5 5 7 4 69 12 50 14 63 58 27 65 24 13 39 55 55 20 14 48 41 25 23 50 12 57 19 17 14 11 15 59 47 84 70 88 36 32 14 29 17 38 92 13 14 114 2010 Infant mortality mortality (per ‘000) 49 71 57 77 80 74 54 54 48 70 72 48 57 73 75 65 52 70 67 76 81 64 47 58 72 72 74 69 55 79 62 81 51 65 78 51 53 81 76 62 77 69 50 73 75 79 82 64* 73* 74* 76* 65* 75* Life 2010 (years) expectancy 82 99 87 99 70.9 72.9 98.4 92.5 73.2 73.7 89.7 98.7 86.9 86.4 90.6 62.8 88.7 94.7 66.6 40.9 91.8 46.5 98.8 97.9 60.1 70.7 55.5 95.3 60.8 84.1 88.5 55.9 55.1 87.9 92.4 Adult rate % rate literacy literacy 2005-10 92 97 96 94 92 91 73 96 83 83 81 95 97 90 99 81 98 76 94 76 98 93 99 92 94 98 96 99 92 66 97 63 87 99 90 89 91 94 92 90 97 91 100 100 Net rate % rate 2007-9 primary primary enrolment enrolment 1 5 1 3 1

-1 0.6 6.8 2.4 4.9 2.1 3.2 3.6 2.2 1.6 1.2 0.3 1.6 0.7 4.1 4.9 1.3 2.5 2.9 3.9 1.1 2.4 1.8 0.1 3.6 1.2 2.2 1.7 2.3 1.9 2.1 0.6 1.7 1.9 3.5 1.9 1.9 0.8 2.1 3.5 4.3 3.5 1.7 2.3 2.6 -0.2 -0.4 % p.a. capita growth growth GDP per 1990-2010 530 500 330 790 340 450 520 700 440 1070 2640 5750 7760 4760 1040 3280 2010 2630 4800 2240 1330 6090 2870 1030 6930 1230 9760 6560 6300 3000 3630 6760 1300 1180 1050 1180 6790 3810 4500 7750 38370 15380 40070 11740 43270 29430 13170 19270 2,802** 43,770* 26,750† 29,695† 15,034** 21,984** 2010 (US$) capita GNI per 10 87 52 68 10 89 240 316 104 100 754 538 104 174 109 183 861 399 312 273 343 417 1341 2171 1186 2741 4368 5086 5868 1728 1104 6858 2007 2283 1299 2010 Total Total 13089 50133 44841 62036 28401 33425 14901 34017 40513 20860 24392 22268 10624 19599 23391 (‘000) 173593 158423 148692 1224614 population 1964 1980 1961 1957 1962 1964 1978 1962 1966 1970 1979 1963 1968 1962 1948 1947 1966 1978 1974 1965 1961 1957 1976 1965 1979 1979 1983 1978 1975 1984 1966 1968 1981 1966 1990 1972 1968 1973 1981 1964 1989) 1997**) Year Joined Year Commonwealth 1961, rejoined 1994) rejoined 1961, 1970 (left 1987, rejoined rejoined 1970 (left 1987, 1947 (left 1972, rejoined rejoined 1947 (left 1972, 1982 (independent 1965) 1970 (independent 1962) 1961 (independent 1960) 1995 (independent 1960) 1995 (independent 1975) 1931 (Statute W’minster*) 1931 (Statute W’minster*) 1931 (Statute W’minster*) 1960 (suspended 1995–99) 1931 (Statute W’minster*, left Commonwealth membership and key indicators on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on the Millennium Development indicators and key Commonwealth membership Zambia Vanuatu United Republic of Tanzania United Republic of Maldives United Kingdom Malaysia Uganda Malawi Tuvalu Trinidad Tobago Trinidad and Lesotho Tonga Kiribati Kenya Swaziland Jamaica Sri Lanka India Africa South Guyana Solomon Islands Grenada Singapore Sierra Leone Sierra Ghana Samoa Seychelles The Gambia St Lucia Vincent and the Grenadines St Fiji Islands Rwanda St Kitts and Nevis Dominica Canada Cyprus Papua New Guinea New Papua Cameroon Pakistan Brunei Darussalam Nigeria New Zealand New Botswana Nauru Belize Barbados Namibia Mozambique Bangladesh Mauritius Australia The Bahamas Country Antigua and Barbuda Malta

< denotes ‘less than’ Source: The Commonwealth Yearbook 2012 courtesy of the publishers, Nexus Strategic Partnerships. -91-

Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 91 09/08/2012 18:23 Commonwealth-booklet-2012-V7.indd 92 Top Inside page: Foreground Right: Foreground Left: Background: coverBack Front cover: Originators theCover photographs of The Commonwealth FoundationThe Commonwealth which they prepared thedocumentfor printing, andto ourprintersfor their excellentservice. Lee Wayland Nexus Strategic Partnerships and helpwithphotographic sources. Secretariat Commonwealth Foundation theCommonwealth and of Staff Chapter 12(Schoolandcollegelinking) Chapter 11(Smallstates) Chapter 10(Studentmobility) Chapter 3(Commonwealth ScholarshipPlan) Bottom Right: Bottom Left: Chapter 8(STEMeducation). Chapter 7(Literacy) Chapter 6(Gender) Chapter 5(Educationfor All) Chapter 4(Distancelearning) Chapter 1(Overview), 2(CCEMs), The Williams andhisco-editorJamesUrwickby thefollowing: to themselves. We acknowledge withgratitudethecontributionsmade, given, andthesupport toPeter organisations whowere ready toassist, atextremely noticeandoftenatconsiderableinconvenience short Consortium, hadwe notbeenabletocallonthegoodwill many andpracticalhelpofvery individualsand Producing thisvolume would have beencompletely beyond thecapacity bodylike ofasmallvoluntary the A : cknowledgements authors 14 (EducationabouttheCommonwealth) 9 (Teachers), 13(Civilsociety) isaphotomontageofthree different photographs by: ...... ofthedifferent chapters asfollows: and ...... Thomas Pashley ...... , Cambridgefor adviceandintroductions toprinters.

...... for agranttowards thecostofprinting. at Commonwealth ScholarshipCommonwealth Commissionin the UK Keith Bernstein LW DesignLtd,Dorking ...... asfollows: D NBaraskar Dame PearletteDame Louisy Peter Williams

Nick Maurice Namini WijedasaNamini Commonwealth ScholarshipCommissionintheUK Michael Crossley Rebecca Nduku -92- Commonwealth CountriesLeagueEducationFund Director ofEducation, Commonwealth Secretariat Kabir Shaikh Kabir CYP / © Commonwealth SecretariatCYP /©Commonwealth Comparative Education, University ofBristol /©Commonwealth Photographic Awards /©Commonwealth Photographic Awards James Urwick James Steve Packer, , oftheConsortium, Secretary former , Founder andfirstDirector ofBUILD Commonwealth of Learning of Commonwealth Commonwealth of Learning Learning of Commonwealth for theskillandspeedwith /©Commonwealth Secretariat

/ ©Commonwealth Secretariat , Former Director ofEducation, , Professor ofInternationaland , Governor GeneralofStLucia UNESCO/UNRWA, Amman John Kirkland , EducationConsultant Educationconsultant Casmir Chanda, John Oxenham for pastadvice Secretary,

09/08/2012 18:23

AcknowledgementsForeword