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Theses on Feuerbach Theses on Feuerbach I after the earthly family is discovered to be the The chief defect of all hitherto existing secret of the holy family, the former must then materialism – that of Feuerbach included – is that itself be destroyed in theory and in practice. the thing, reality, sensuousness, is conceived only in the form of the object or of contemplation, but V not as sensuous human activity, practice, not Feuerbach, not satisfied with abstract thinking, subjectively. Hence, in contradistinction to wants contemplation; but he does not conceive materialism, the active side was developed sensuousness as practical, human-sensuous abstractly by idealism – which, of course, does activity. not know real, sensuous activity as such. Feuerbach wants sensuous objects, really distinct VI from the thought objects, but he does not Feuerbach resolves the religious essence into the conceive human activity itself as objective human essence. But the human essence is no activity. Hence, in The Essence of Christianity, he abstraction inherent in each single individual. regards the theoretical attitude as the only In its reality it is the ensemble of the social genuinely human attitude, while practice is relations. conceived and fixed only in its dirty-judaical Feuerbach, who does not enter upon a criticism of manifestation. Hence he does not grasp the this real essence, is consequently compelled: significance of “revolutionary”, of “practical- 1.To abstract from the historical critical”, activity. process and to fix the religious sentiment as something by itself and II to presuppose an abstract – isolated The question whether objective truth can be – human individual. attributed to human thinking is not a question of 2.Essence, therefore, can be theory but is a practical question. Man must comprehended only as “genus”, as an prove the truth — i.e. the reality and power, the internal, dumb generality which this-sidedness of his thinking in practice. The naturally unites the many individuals. dispute over the reality or non-reality of thinking that is isolated from practice is a purely scholastic VII question. Feuerbach, consequently, does not see that the “religious sentiment” is itself a social product, and III that the abstract individual whom he analyses The materialist doctrine concerning the changing belongs to a particular form of society. of circumstances and upbringing forgets that circumstances are changed by men and that it is VIII essential to educate the educator himself. This All social life is essentially practical. All mysteries doctrine must, therefore, divide society into two which lead theory to mysticism find their rational parts, one of which is superior to society. solution in human practice and in the The coincidence of the changing of circumstances comprehension of this practice. and of human activity or self-changing can be conceived and rationally understood only as IX revolutionary practice. The highest point reached by contemplative materialism, that is, materialism which does not IV comprehend sensuousness as practical activity, is Feuerbach starts out from the fact of religious contemplation of single individuals and of civil self-alienation, of the duplication of the world into society. a religious world and a secular one. His work consists in resolving the religious world into its X secular basis. The standpoint of the old materialism is civil But that the secular basis detaches itself from society; the standpoint of the new is human itself and establishes itself as an independent society, or social humanity. realm in the clouds can only be explained by the cleavages and self-contradictions within this XI secular basis. The latter must, therefore, in itself The philosophers have only interpreted the world, be both understood in its contradiction and in various ways; the point is to change it. revolutionized in practice. Thus, for instance, Ludwig Feuerbach Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–1872) sat through Hegel's Then there is Hegel's unremitting concern with summer semester lectures of 1824 in Logic and abstractions which ignore the concreteness of Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Religion and this sensuous reality. experience, he wrote later, became the turning point All these problems in Hegel, Feuerbach concluded, of his life. are rooted in his assumption of Absolute identity, an The publication in 1841 of The Essence of assumption which is beyond criticism and which he Christianity established him in the minds of his had made from the very beginnings of his contemporaries as an intellectual leader of the Left philosophical career. Idealism is committed to the Hegelians. He had, to paraphrase the words of unity of subject and object, spirit and nature, Engels, “exploded the [Hegelian] System and broken thought and being. And the way idealists handle the its spell.” The book is still regarded as the precursor problem of the objectivity of nature is to appeal to of all projection theories of religion [i.e. theories of an Absolute subject in which the predicates “nature” religion as a projection onto imaginary beings, gods, and “spirit” are simply attributes of the same thing, etc. of conflicts in real human life]. the Absolute. Hegelian philosophy is really a “rational mysticism”, which both attracts and repels Feuerbach then wrote two philosophical us. manifestos,Preliminary Theses on the Reform of Philosophy (1842) and Principles of the Philosophy of The entire enterprise completely ignores the system the Future (1843). The manifestoes were filled with of secondary causes that constitutes what we call bold and radical ideas but Feuerbach never nature and which can only be grasped empirically. systematically developed them. Nature is the proper concern of human knowledge and all speculation that seeks to go beyond nature is In 1848 and at the height of his influence, he futile. became enthusiastic about the revolutions in France and its inevitable impact on Europe... [But by 1860] The criticism of Hegel has been embodied in a in poverty and forced to move to Rechenberg near manifesto, Principles of the Philosophy of the Future, Nürnberg, he was financially supported by friends which was aimed at nothing less than the overthrow and by donations from the Social Democratic of speculative philosophy and the establishment of a Workers' Party (of which he had become a member). “new philosophy” based on empiricism and “sensuousness”. By the end of his career in 1871, he regarded himself as an atheist, materialist, and communist. Feuerbach is best known for his book The Essence of Christianity which burst like a bombshell on the The difficulty with Hegel's philosophy, Feuerbach German intellectual scene in the early Forties and argued, is that everything in nature and history is was soon translated into English by the English seen from the standpoint of development and in novelist, George Eliot. It quickly became like a Bible such a way that the last stage of this development is to an entire generation of intellectuals who thought regarded as a totality that includes in itself all the of themselves as reformers and revolutionaries, previous stages. The result is a not only a complete including Arnold Ruge, Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, misrepresentation of nature but of culture and Richard Wagner, and David F. Strauss, who wrote religion, because it ignores all their variety and that the book was the “truth for our times.” particularities. It is in this way, for example, that Christianity is determined as the Absolute religion. Superficially, the central thesis is deceptively simple... Man—this is the mystery of religion— The same error is made in philosophy. Hegel's own objectifies his being and then again makes himself philosophy is exempt from the assumption that an object to the objectivized image of himself thus governs the treatment of others; namely, as the converted into a subject … . perspective of one philosopher whose problems are cast up by his immediate predecessors and, hence, The argument is an example of Feuerbach's has its own presuppositions and problems. Rather, “transformative method,” which Karl Marx thought Hegel, by virtue his claim of beginning only with the was Feuerbach's contribution to philosophy. The structure of Reason itself as manifested in his Logic, method states that Hegel's philosophy is based on regards himself as the “speculative Dalai Lama,” the the reification of abstract predicates like “thought” incarnation of Geist itself. But just as Strauss has which are then treated as agents. Since this is the shown that there can be no incarnation in history so clue to understanding Hegel, it follows that what is there can be no perfect manifestation of the valid in Hegel can be appropriated by inverting the universal in one philosophy. Indeed, “incarnation subject and predicate and restoring them to their and history are absolutely incompatible”. proper relationship. For example, instead of construing the predicate “thinking” as an agent, one Another difficulty inherent in Hegel's philosophy is transforms the equation and asserts that thinking is that because his Logic is thought both to describe the activity of existing individuals. Thought comes the structures of reality itself as well as to govern out of being, not being out of thought. the dialectical form which the philosopher uses to explicate it, Hegel confuses the demonstration of his http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ludwig-feuerbach ideas with the substance of philosophy. Background notes on the Theses on Feuerbach The "Theses on Feuerbach" mark Marx's transition They wrote a Feuerbachian communist critique of from being a radical-democratic philosopher to being the left-wing German philosophers, "The Holy a militant communist and a historical materialist. Family"; on that, Marx later commented that "we do not need to be ashamed of [it], although the cult of Marx entered adult life as a student in Bonn (from Feuerbach produces a very humorous effect upon 1835) and then Berlin (from 1836) of law and one now".
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