An International Approach to Building Commissioning

Educating people with the knowledge they need to improve energy performance to lower operational cost and impact climate change

Steven P. Driver Ph. D Certified Energy Auditor and Manager

iii

Steven P. Driver, PhD Certified Energy Auditor and Manager

International Standard Book Number:

ISBN-13: 978-0-578-46554-8

iv ABSTRACT

An International Approach to Building Commissioning was written purposely by Steven P. Driver, PhD, to educate anyone interested in reducing operational costs in buildings and making a difference in climate change. Through the application of energy conservation techniques, whether in your home or at your workplace, this book can help you reduce energy consumption. This book was written to educate homeowners, building managers, real estate developers, university and campus facility maintenance personnel, employees, and anyone else with an interest in helping our environment. This publication offers an understanding of some of the technologies available for mitigating energy waste. This unique publication overcomes proprietary barriers that restricted full understanding of how to combine artificial and human intelligence with respect to building commissioning. After completing several years of post-doctoral research to understand the differences between ongoing and retroactive commissioning, we now have a much better vision of what is required to make our buildings sustainable with respect to energy consumed. This publication is based on over 30 years of experience in energy management which formed the basis for a U.S. trademark for Sustainable Commissioning™, a concept explained in this book. The journey continues in researching new energy reduction technologies and piloting them to further confirm the effectiveness of the concept. The content in this book was validated through the deployment of seven case studies applying the Sustainable Commissioning concept. The results from those case studies have validated an average return on investment of 62% with a 75% internal rate of return, resulting in an 18-month simple payback. The case studies demonstrate not only reduced operational cost but also environmental benefits averaging 1,009 metric tons of carbon emissions avoided annually.

INTERNATIONAL SPONSORSHIP

Steven would like to thank his family for their support during the writing of this book. Additional thanks goes to all of his sponsors and people who have helped him make this book possible through their time and donations. It would not have been possible to cover the writing, editing, publication, and copyright costs of this book without them. To all the sponsors who offer technology based solutions, products, and/or services to help reduce carbon emissions, Steven thanks them for their commitment to our environment. At this time, Steven would like to thank those who assisted him with this publication in the following acknowledgments:

James Lee – Cimetrics – [email protected] Geoff Wilkinson, Jr. – The Wilkinson Companies – [email protected] Terence McTigue – Integrity Energy Solutions Group – [email protected] Sean O’Riley – Powerstar – [email protected] Ryan Blair – Opterra Energy – [email protected] Gaetan Noel – Pragmathic – [email protected] Chris Fraga – AEDG – [email protected] David Goodman – DAK Industries – [email protected] Nina Kalanzis – [email protected] Nasir Khan – FMA – [email protected] Christine Greever – University of Colorado – [email protected] Steve DiGiacomo, P.E. – Energy Management Associates – [email protected] David Landman – Eneractive Solutions – [email protected] Nick Hill – Hill Energy Services – [email protected]

vi Steven would like to thank his family for their support during the writing of this book. Additionally, Steven would like to thank the peer reviewers of his book for their time as subject matter experts in energy. Without their input, this e-book would not have been possible. Special thanks goes to the following individuals recognizing their efforts:

PEER REVIEWERS

James Lee - Cimetrics Steve DiGiacomo P.E. - Energy Management Associates Terry McTigue - Integrity Energy Solutions Group

DISCLAIMER

By purchasing this book, you will gain an understanding of the Sustainable Commissioning process to help achieve maximum savings in your building. Although the author and publisher have made every effort to ensure that the information in this book was correct at the time of publication, the author and publisher do not assume any liability to any party for loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause. Please note: Due to proprietary and confidentiality reasons, company and client names are not cited in the case studies. This book is not intended to represent or advertise any one company or service. The mention of any company in this book is for the purpose of demonstrating the value of its services and its commitment to energy conservation.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... viii LIST OF FIGURES ...... x ABOUT THE AUTHOR ...... xii CHAPTER I: UNDERSTANING ENERGY ...... xiii LIST OF TABLES ...... xiii Intent ...... 2 Building Commissioning and its Impact on Climate Change ...... 3 Setting and Defining your Goals ...... 11 Sustainability and Law, What’s the Correlation? ...... 14 Standard Energy Audit Practices ...... 16 Public Understanding on Building Commissioning ...... 19 Basic Systems Design Overview ...... 23 The Physiological Effects of Buildings on Humans ...... 47 Renewable and Off-Grid Technologies ...... 53 CHAPTER II: CONCEPT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF SUSTAINABLE COMMISSIONING ...... 56 Differentiating between Human and Artificial Intelligence ...... 56 The Sustainable Commissioning Approach ...... 58 Energy Audit and Retroactive Commissioning Process...... 63 Basic Tools and Equipment ...... 64 Individual Systems Operations Review ...... 66 Utilities Operations Review ...... 71 Training and Development Review ...... 79 Maintenance Operations Review ...... 80 Laboratory Operations Review ...... 82 Organizational Practices Review ...... 84 Conducting the Operational Audit ...... 85 Water Treatment Review ...... 97 Energy Culture and Awareness Review ...... 105 Building Envelope Review ...... 114 Building Controls and Systems Ventilation Review ...... 116 Air Filtration Review...... 126 Heating Systems Review ...... 131 Cooling Systems Review ...... 135 Water and Plumbing Systems Review ...... 142 Renewable Energy Review ...... 143 Electrical Systems Review ...... 145 Metering System Review ...... 152 Procurement, Utility, and Rebate Review ...... 153 The Functional Audit ...... 156 Financial Qualification of Energy Conservation Measures ...... 186 Hosting the Energy Conservation Measure Workshop ...... 190 Managing the Energy Conservation Measure Portfolio ...... 192 Compressed Air Review ...... 197 Completed Energy Studies and Projects ...... 198 Boiler Burner Technology ...... 198 Ongoing Commissioning Central Plant Study ...... 206 Ongoing Commissioning Manufacturing Study ...... 214 Manufacturing Insulation Project ...... 222

viii CHAPTER III: CONCLUSION ...... 225 Completed Sustainable Commissioning Case Studies ...... 225 Case Study 1: Massachusetts LEED Lab and Office ...... 225 Case Study 2: Washington Multi-Use Pharmaceutical Plant ...... 236 Case Study 3: Massachusetts GMP Pharmaceutical Warehouse ...... 241 Case Study 4: Maryland: Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Plant...... 248 Case Study 5: New Jersey 4 Building Office Park ...... 253 Case Study 6: Belgium Pharmaceutical Manufacturing and Office Facility ...... 258 Case Study 7: France Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Plant ...... 262 Case Study 8: Ireland Air Reduction Study ...... 266 Quantification of Case Studies ...... 271 Integration of the overall Sustainable Commissioning Process ...... 273 APPENDIXES ...... 277 APPENDIX A: Integrity Energy Services ...... 278 APPENDIX B: Pragmathic Pinch Analysis Services ...... 282 APPENDIX C: Research and Development ...... 284 APPENDIX D: Powerstar Services ...... 285 APPENDIX E: DAC HVAC Services ...... 286 APPENDIX F: Cimetrics Services ...... 288 APPENDIX G: Wilkinson Companies Services ...... 290

ix LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Four step carbon goal setting 12 Figure 2. Commissioning survey response by United State 21 Figure 3. Before and after narrow dead band adjustment 45 Figure 4. Comparing fault differences between commissioning technologies 62 Figure 5. Energy measurement tools 64 Figure 6. Steam leaking from failed trap 66 Figure 7. Cimetrics equipment runtime graphic 71 Figure 8. Typical laboratory space 83 Figure 9. Example of E-Quest energy model in progress 96 Figure 10. Toxic dirt accumulation 100 Figure 11. Metal erosion on tower 100 Figure 12. Stages of water quality using sand filters 101 Figure 13. Chiller condenser water tubes 102 Figure 14. Sand filtration unit 103 Figure 15. Wind powered electric turbine and water pumping in the Netherlands 143 Figure 16. Energy map diagram 144 Figure 17. Using IR to find hot spots 146 Figure 18. Typical empty computer room 151 Figure 19. Obstructed direct expansion coil 151 Figure 20. Typical BMS system view of air handler 158 Figure 21. Differential pressure gauge 158 Figure 22. Damper position using Cimetrics 160 Figure 23. Simultaneous heating and cooling in same space 161 Figure 24. Using IR to find stuck valves 163 Figure 25. Visible damper oscillations using Cimetrics 164 Figure 26. Leaking ductwork above ceiling 165 Figure 27. Pump motor vibration 166 Figure 28. Over-humidification in air handler 167 Figure 29. DDC damper actuator 168 Figure 30. Outside chilled water pumps 169 Figure 31. Refrigeration compressor 169 Figure 32. Centrifugal chiller 170 Figure 33. Pumps running in service factor 171 Figure 34. Leaking steam valve 172 Figure 35. Pneumatic valve actuator 173 Figure 36. Standard in-line water meter 174 Figure 37. Suspect space carbon dioxide levels using Cimetrics 175 Figure 38. Signal flat-line detected through Cimetrics 176 Figure 39. Cogeneration plant control and alarm panel 177 Figure 40. Undersized pump motor 180 Figure 41. Automated controlled steam boilers 183 Figure 42. LED lighting in mechanical room 184 Figure 43. Financial risk boundaries 188 Figure 44. Product manufactured, kWh consumption, and program comparison 193 Figure 45. Energy measure cash flow diagram 194 Figure 46. Rolling Energy Trend 195 Figure 47. New Burner 198 Figure 48. Completed Limpsfield burner installation 199 Figure 49. Annual hours and lbs/hr steam 200 Figure 50. Boiler burner comparison 202 Figure 51. Pre-retrofit to develop load profiles 203 Figure 52. Post retrofit profile 204 Figure 53. New and old burners 205

x Figure 54. Cimetrics process flow diagram 206 Figure 55. Opportunities diagram 207 Figure 56. Typical 750 ton York YK Chiller 209 Figure 57. Chilled water demand reduction 211 Figure 58. Air handler process and identification diagram 214 Figure 59. Typical air handler sequence of operation 215 Figure 60. Air handler fault diagnostics graph using Cimetrics 215 Figure 61. Air handler performance graph using Cimetrics 217 Figure 62. Enthalpy comparison graph using Cimetrics 217 Figure 63. Air handler zone temperature performance using Cimetrics 218 Figure 64. Air handler terminal reheat valve signal using Cimetrics 219 Figure 65. Typical cost savings calculation using Cimetrics 220 Figure 66. Uninsulated steam skid 222 Figure 67. Skid start-up and shutdown operational algorithm 222 Figure 68. Infrared scan of skid valve 223 Figure 69. Example BTU surface area mapping 223 Figure 70. Before and after piping insulation 224 Figure 71. E-quest energy model of office and laboratory 225 Figure 72. Electric, gas, electricity profile 227 Figure 73. Temperature and dew point algorithm using Cimetrics 229 Figure 74. Fume hood arrangement 230 Figure 75. Steam humidifier wasted heat identified with infrared 233 Figure 76. Steam plume calculator 234 Figure 77. Snow in air intake chamber 234 Figure 78. Energy model of facility 236 Figure 79. KwH Energy usage profile 237 Figure 80. Uninsulated condensate receiver in air conditioned room 238 Figure 81. Fume hood horizontal sash 239 Figure 82. High bay cGMP warehouse 241 Figure 83. Natural gas and electric profile for warehouse 242 Figure 84. Stack pressurization formula 243 Figure 85. Faulty discharge air sensor example using Cimetrics 245 Figure 86. Re-setting discharge air to save zone reheating using Cimetrics 245 Figure 87. Narrow dead band setting using Cimetrics 247 Figure 88. Equest energy model of existing pharmaceutical manufacturing plant 248 Figure 89. Energy usage profile for pharmaceutical manufacturing plant 249 Figure 90. Heating degree days 249 Figure 91. Empty packaging suite 251 Figure 92. Aerial view of office park 253 Figure 93. Electric demand profile 254 Figure 94. Annual electric and gas trending 254 Figure 95. Horizontal chilled water pumps 256 Figure 96. Gas and electricity consumption profile 258 Figure 97. Pie chart of energy opportunities 261 Figure 98. Electric and steam consumption trend for pharma manufacturing 262 Figure 99. Centrifugal chiller example 264 Figure 100. Clean mechanical space 265 Figure 101. Site utility breakdown 266 Figure 102. Typical risk assessment index 267 Figure 103. Savings by building 272

xi ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Steven P. Driver’s 30 years of experience includes engineering of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC), industrial ventilation systems, mechanical system diagnostics, building systems commissioning, project management, and indoor air quality mitigation. Steve has worked as a Clean room design engineer, as a mechanical HVAC consultant, and, most recently, as a global energy program director in the pharmaceutical industry. Educational Background Steve is an alumnus of Northcentral University, where he earned his PhD in Engineering and Technology in 2010 with a concentration in building commissioning. Steve is a board-certified energy manager (CEM) and auditor (CEA). He has two copyrights, one publication, and a U.S. patent associated with sustainable building commissioning technology. Having completed numerous International energy audits, he continues his mission to reduce industry operational cost and environmental impact through the use of innovative technologies. Steve currently speaks internationally at energy conferences and organizations to promote his years of research and experience with energy efficiency. These include the World Energy Congress Conference (WECC), the Energy Utilities Efficiency Conference (EUEC), Energy Efficiency Europe (enerCon), the Facility Sustainability Summit (FMA), Building Energy Efficiency Managers (BEEM), the International Institute for Sustainable Laboratories (I2SL), and the Massachusetts Biotech Council (MBC). Steven Driver’s 30 years of experience includes engineering of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC), industrial ventilation systems, mechanical system diagnostics, building systems commissioning, project management, and indoor air quality mitigation. Steve has worked as a clean room design engineer, mechanical HVAC consultant, and most recently a global energy program director in the pharmaceutical industry.

xii CHAPTER I: UNDERSTANING ENERGY

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Ongoing and retroactive commissioning fault percentage deviations 60 Table 2 Sample energy audit procedure 87 Table 3 Sample pre-site survey questionnaire from workbook 90 Table 4 Diagnostic 32 building fault matrix 94 Table 5 Limits in particle counts per grade 122 Table 6 Air filter pressure drop table 128 Table 7 Filter performance testing table 129 Table 8 Standards comparison table 129 Table 9 Integral and local values table 130 Table 10 Typical 32 re-occurring building faults 157 Table 11 Summary of air flow and set points 162 Table 12 Typical energy audit opportunity matrix sheet 185 Table 13 Internal rate of return and net present value excel calculation 187 Table 14 Energy measure ranking sheet 191 Table 15 Energy consumption sheet 192 Table 16 Coefficient of performance map 196 Table 17 Savings analysis 201 Table 18 Annual energy savings comparison 219 Table 19 Heat loss calculations for skids 224 Table 20 Annual energy consumption profile 226 Table 21 Energy conservation measure summary for lab office building 227 Table 22 Ongoing commissioning fault diagnostics table using Cimetrics 228 Table 23 Energy measure sheet for multi- use pharmaceutical plan 237 Table 24 Energy measure sheet for cGMP warehouse 242 Table 25 Ongoing commissioning items identified in warehouse using Cimetrics 246 Table 26 Ongoing commissioning items identified for pharmaceutical manufacturing plant 250 Table 27 Sustainable commissioning 32 fault detection matrix 252 Table 28 Energy measures identified in office complex 255 Table 29 Energy measures identified for pharmaceutical manufacturing facility 259 Table 30 Energy measures for pharmaceutical manufacturing facility 263 Table 31 Operations description table 268 Table 32 Cost and carbon savings table 269 Table 33 Pre and post modification criteria 269 Table 34 Pre and post electrical consumption readings 270 Table 35 Summary of case studies 271

xiii Intent

The intent of this book is to educate people on how to find energy initiatives that lead directly to both savings and the reduction of carbon emissions. Whether it is for your home, your business, or your workplace, there is something in this book for everyone. With an understanding of how building infrastructure systems operate, we have the chance to significantly reduce the amount of energy we consume. The principles and practices presented in this book provide you with ideas for the sustainable operation of a typical building (maintaining continuous energy efficiency); however, many people still don’t believe the savings are large enough to outweigh the investment. By giving you the right ideas to help identify measures to lower costs for your home or business, this book will help you visualize a plan. Although there are ideas in this book that will require further engineering, my intent is to give you the necessary quick-win ideas that will lead you directly to savings. This book provides you with some ideas on how to become an energy investigator through communication with your facility personnel and the use of low-cost testing equipment. In conclusion, this book provides resources that help promote energy and water efficiency. The innovative technology providers mentioned in this book, whether they specialize in energy engineering services or products, can help us support the global warming reduction effort. This book exclusively introduces the Sustainable Commissioning process, a patented methodology that I give you the rights to practice through your purchase of this book. The intent is not only to save you money but also to help save our environment for future generations.

2 Building Commissioning and its Impact on Climate Change

So what is building commissioning, and how does it relate to our changing environment? Building commissioning is the systematic process of ensuring that building support infrastructure systems are operating as intended by the engineer who designed them. The commissioning process should begin during the facility’s initial programming stage or as early as possible. As the phases of the project reach design development, an energy plan should be integrated at the start of each phase to clearly establish the requirements. From the pre-design phase to construction, it is important to continue with increasing intensity to confirm that all energy ideas are actually implemented. Due to rushed schedules and financial constraints, I often see building commissioning cut from the capital project budget. Understanding the value of commissioning is essentially the focus of this book along with establishing the levels of human and artificial intelligence required to make the process sustainable over time. The Sustainable Commissioning methodology combines traditional operational and functional energy audit practices with the retroactive commissioning process (RCx), which corrects system problems identified during the energy audit. Meanwhile, the ongoing commissioning process (OCx) uses fault diagnostics and artificial intelligence to further identify system issues and make the process sustainable. Even when energy measures are implemented, efficiency always declines over time as equipment ages. The Sustainable Commissioning process assists in mitigating energy efficiency deterioration. Understanding how to apply this process is critical in the operation of today’s complex building systems, especially for green buildings. I believe that, if practiced correctly, the Sustainable Commissioning process will result in lower operating costs and carbon emissions, as has been demonstrated in several case studies.

3 The first step to saving energy is to understand the first and second laws of thermodynamics: First Law: “The total energy of an isolated system is constant; energy can be transformed from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed” ∆U=Q-W Second Law: “In all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state." Compliments of Estrella Mountain College Global warming and climate change are terms most of us are now familiar with and hear on a regular basis. While many still debate whether climate change is real or not, others rely on scientific facts. This debate will continue on for many decades to come. President Barack Obama (broadcast, August 3, 2015) stated that there is no challenge posing a greater threat to our future than climate change. Additionally, Obama stated that carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are higher today than they have ever been in the past 800,000 years and that 14 of the 15 warmest years on record have occurred in this century. This trend is increasing every year and is constantly breaking records. The Pentagon has stated that global warming poses an immediate risk to our national security. During his presidency, Obama noted senators’ comments addressing the fact that we are the first generation to feel the impact of climate change and the last generation that can do something about it. Over the past 15 years, I have had the opportunity to better understand climate change. Is it real or not? After extensive debate on the subject, my question now is, how much time do we actually have to reverse its detrimental effects? Not enough people seem to believe that a problem even exists. The U.S. government now recognizes climate change as a national security threat—and with good reason. The main dangers climate change poses include widespread power outages and flooding in coastal areas, threatening lives and the security of our nation.

4 In millions of buildings around the world, we have opportunities to reduce energy consumption, cost, and the volatile carbon emissions responsible for climate change. At this point in time, global warming is viewed as a fundamental threat to public health. Furthermore, our dependence on oil poses an ongoing risk to national security. Some things have changed over the decades, but the same question always seems to arise: Why should we measure greenhouse gases (GHGs)? Many companies want to communicate to their shareholders that they are green by having the necessary environmental performance indicators in place to prove that they are making progress toward a solution. When adopting green reporting, it is important to determine how to accurately measure and report on GHGs. The best tools are those that are in compliance with the Kyoto Protocol, an international treaty that extends the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This agreement commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and is based on the premise that global warming has been caused by anthropogenic CO2 emissions. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997 and became effective in 2005. The first step in figuring out what should be tracked is to understand the three different categories of emissions. Scope 1 emissions are those that result directly from a business’s own operations (heating, cooling, electrical consumption, etc.). Scope 2 emissions are indirect, meaning that they are generated not by the business’s assets but rather by the utility that provides its energy. Finally, scope 3 emissions are those related to activities that are essentially beyond the business’s control. An example of these would be emissions generated by automobiles driven to and from the workplace. Reporting emissions can be done in a few different ways. Publicly reporting emissions normally involves using a non-profit organization that is recognized for its expertise and credibility.

5 In the United States, utility companies whose emissions exceed the limits set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are required to report them; however, emissions reporting in the United States is a voluntary process. Managing GHGs is essential in combating the climate change challenges facing us today. Whether or not you choose to apply the principles of Sustainable Commissioning outlined in this book, as long as you are working to reduce energy waste, you are on the right track. After identifying potential opportunities for energy savings, you should create a mitigation plan that allows you to keep track of your goals. To assist in mitigating carbon emissions, you can use energy savings projects or clean sources of energy (solar, wind, hydro, etc.). Energy service companies (ESCOs) offer many financing alternatives, such as contracts that guarantee reduced energy costs over a period of time with no capital investment. Power purchase agreements (PPAs) are also commonly used, and the option to purchase green power from your local energy provider may be available. Some companies rely on green power to communicate to their shareholders that they have made a commitment to invest in the environment. In the United States, there are basically two CO2 offset options: the renewable energy credit (REC) and the carbon credit (representing one metric ton of CO2). The measurements for these are usually made in kilowatt hours (kWh). The cost of green power will vary depending upon where you are located. Typically, green power is more expensive than alternative options like wind. In any event, just knowing your options can help you supplement the energy and carbon reduction plan for your home or business. Global warming is a massive problem, but with the many emerging technologies and tools being developed to address it, advanced technical solutions are becoming more and more available and affordable. As the government and the public join forces in this new world of environmental challenges, we must be able to think holistically and operate as one to communicate and construct a clean energy economy.

6 As happened during the Industrial Revolution, we are now beginning to experience a paradigm shift in the way we think about energy. When the cost of energy is high, there is more of a focus on how to reduce it. For the first time, photovoltaic power is becoming competitive with conventional sources of energy (oil, coal, nuclear). The Department of Energy (DOE) has stated that the cost of photovoltaic power has dropped by half, and it is aiming to reduce the cost of power to 6 cents per kWh by 2020. There is no longer a debate over the use of compact fluorescent light bulbs versus light-emitting diode (LED) technology. According to the DOE, companies are making clean vehicles more affordable by cutting the cost of batteries by 70%. The DOE has stated that the cost of residential and industrial energy in the United States amounts to $400 billion. Clean energy and efficiency projects could potentially reduce these costs substantially. Through the DOE and the EPA, programs such as the Better Plants initiative and Energy Star now provide tools and proven ways to reduce energy that are directly linked to U.S. economic growth. Through the development of a skilled energy workforce, we will continue to strengthen awareness of the importance of energy and carbon reduction. Educational programs like the Certified Energy Manager (CEM) program offered by the Association of Energy Engineers (AEE), which is recognized by the DOE’s Better Buildings Workforce Guidelines (BBWG), are creating new energy leaders around the world, and it is estimated that there are now over 15,000 CEMs internationally. A progress report issued last year indicated that 21 new organizations partnered with the DOE to achieve ambitious goals over the next 10 years, representing 160 participants with over 11% of them coming from the U.S. manufacturing industry. The Better Buildings Workforce Guidelines provide us with opportunities to reduce energy in the manufacturing sector. At least 25% of all energy consumption could be saved by redirecting our focus to new technologies.

7 New technologies originating from solar, LED lighting, wind, and hydro will have a significant impact on energy consumption over the next decade. Variable air volume (VAV) ventilation systems with customized air flow can significantly reduce energy in labs and offices. Most industrial facilities are now setting 10- year energy and carbon reduction goals at 20% to 25%, and they are focusing on reducing not only energy but also water and waste. The DOE is expanding its agencies in all sectors of the U.S. economy in an effort to assist companies in meeting their targets and improving the bottom line. The debate about climate change is so large that many people feel they cannot make a difference. The U.S. generates five billion tons of carbon dioxide in one year, while China generates around ten billion. As the population continues to grow exponentially, there will be more demand for food, and businesses will grow to meet that demand. This means more buildings and more industry. Earth’s natural resources are being pushed to the limit, and the oceans are being overfished. Are we close to the environmental breaking point, or have we gone beyond it? Additionally, due to the increasing population, the pollution being released into the atmosphere will continue to rise, and water scarcity and contamination issues will worsen. Scientists have proven that Greenland’s ice is now melting at an accelerated rate of 250 km3 per year and that the ocean’s pH level is falling. The ocean has become more acidic because there is now more carbon in the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels to generate electricity, heat and cool buildings, and operate motor vehicles. This should be a serious wake-up call. The moral of the story is that as the population continues to increase, we must offset the demand for natural resources with recycled materials and renewable energy. We will need a lot of net-zero buildings (buildings with no energy draw from the grid) to accommodate our increasing energy needs. An aggressive promotional strategy, one that involves the enactment of new laws, is now required to help us solve this critical environmental problem.

8 For many years, I have known that the deployment of building commissioning services is essential for optimizing and reducing the energy used in commercial buildings around the world. By improving system performance through building commissioning, energy consumption goes down, saving money on energy costs. Furthermore, well-maintained systems decrease maintenance costs such as those resulting from repairs and upkeep. Statistically, despite its benefits, building commissioning is carried out in only 20% of all new buildings, and there has been no effort to make the process sustainable. Like your automobile, a building will keep running without a tune-up, though it will be burning a lot more fuel. While automobiles have engine lights to indicate when there are problems, buildings don’t. It is not unreasonable to suggest that deterioration in building systems has contributed to excessive energy waste around the world. The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) has stated that while sophisticated technologies and increasingly complex methodologies may seem like silver bullets, we will not achieve real benefits without disavowing the so- called consumer evaluation standard and shifting our focus from standard of living to quality of life. The USGBC focuses on quality of life in the area of building commissioning by encouraging owners to include water systems and building envelope systems in overall commissioning plans. The USGBC recognizes the building envelope as an important component of any facility, one that affects energy consumption, occupant comfort, and indoor air quality. It is estimated that each year in the United States about five billion square feet (s.f.) of new construction and five billion s.f. of renovations take place. The resources and materials necessary to build these structures include tremendous amounts of fossil fuel. Together with existing buildings that are operating inefficiently, these new structures place a tremendous burden on our environment. According to the DOE, only about 1% of all buildings (new and old) are commissioned because most building owners are concerned with the costs of commissioning and of fixing the problems the process identifies.

9 Energy usage is a major factor in the decisions that designers, engineers, and building owners make. Unfortunately, not all construction and renovation projects incorporate reduced energy consumption and CO2 into their plans. If everyone considered these variables, the amount of energy saved would be enormous. Although this sounds like a great idea, the reality is that real estate developers typically don’t take on the additional cost of building commissioning unless they expect a net financial benefit. Many building owners would accept higher energy costs as part of their business operations if the profit margins were adequate. Regardless of how energy costs are distributed, lower energy usage is critical in the battle against global warming. If the promotion of green power becomes more cost-effective, inefficient power generation can be displaced altogether. While writing this book, I frequently observed that old, inefficient buildings could be retrofitted with newer technologies with a quick return on investment (ROI); however, the unfortunate truth is that most existing buildings have never gone through commissioning or an energy audit. In many cases, to perform such upgrades would require inconvenient interruptions in business operations, so the concept is difficult to sell. As a result, many buildings are slugging along and performing inefficiently while their tenants are paying the bills. The impact that commissioning services can have on operating and maintenance costs has been the subject of discussion for many years; however, the potential of commissioning goes beyond the bottom line of reducing energy bills. Despite all of the media coverage and peer-reviewed articles regarding the urgency and causes of global warming, it is widely agreed among scientists and engineers that not enough emphasis is being placed on energy use in commercial buildings. Ten years ago, Evolution Partners, an investing firm, claimed that since November 1978, the arctic atmosphere has warmed seven times faster than the average warming trend over the southern two-thirds of the globe. In 2006, the federal government began its discussion on mandating a cap on CO2 to reduce the effects of global warming.

10 Nonetheless, natural gas and coal have been and continue to be the two dominant sources of energy for generating electricity around the world. Many countries have been trading carbon on the open market for years. In the United States, there is an ongoing discussion about renewable energy, carbon credits, and combinations of laws, incentive programs, and rebates to reduce energy use in commercial buildings. Simply stated, mechanical and electrical systems need to be designed for optimal energy performance with measurable results and then implemented on a global scale. In addition, life cycle costs always need to be considered when deciding between standard and high-efficiency equipment.

Setting and Defining your Goals

Many have asked me, how do we set our corporate sustainability goals? Depending upon your organization and its motives, there are a few different approaches to the subject. If your intent is to reduce cost by a certain amount, you should evaluate not only energy projects but also procurement and hedging strategies. If you are going to implement an energy project for cost savings, there will be a carbon benefit associated with that project. On the other hand, if your goal is to reduce carbon, the first step is to determine your site’s total annual kWh consumption of natural gas and electricity. The second step is to pick a reduction percentage that is reasonable and attainable and then convert it to greenhouse gas emissions. You will want to use your local emissions factors for gas and electric for this. The third step is to take your defined goal and calculate the amount of carbon you want to reduce. The fourth step is to apply some type of cost to the carbon remediation or goal you are trying to meet. Be sure to check with your local energy suppliers, as many times there are rebates available to you. Be sure to check with your local energy suppliers as many times there are rebates available for this type of work.

11 Figure 1. Four step carbon goal setting

Having completed over 300 energy projects in the northeast region of the U.S., I am able to estimate costs based on metric tons of carbon dioxide (MTCO2). I find that the costs average about $500/MTCO2 for general expense projects for repairing mechanical equipment, installing new controls, and changing sequences of operations. The next level, averaging about $750/MTCO2, includes projects that involve both capital and expense. An example might be an LED retrofit, where the lighting is considered capital but the installation may be expensed. Controls upgrades like boiler burners, variable-frequency drives (VFDs), soft starters, and pumps usually fit into this category. The upper level, ranging from $1,000/ MTCO2 to $1,500/MTCO2, includes the replacement of capital assets such as air handlers, boilers, and chillers. It is important to note that these costs may vary depending on your location. These projects are sometimes implemented not only for energy but also for reliability reasons or at the end of a life cycle. You may find that your facility department is already doing projects that you can take carbon or kWh reduction credit for.

12 They may simply be changing out electric motors or lighting somewhere in your building. For this reason, it is important to look at long-range capital and maintenance plans. Many companies take the opportunity to purchase renewable power, which includes solar and wind generation. I also consider hydro a form of renewable energy, but most people don’t recognize that as a source. Although there are companies that claim they are net-zero, meaning all their power comes from renewable sources, that doesn’t mean the power gets used responsibly. Some companies should be working on improving their efficiencies so the valuable resource of renewable power is not wasted. Setting corporate carbon reduction targets is common practice. Carbon-neutral goals typically rely on a methodical plan to reduce corporate emissions. Many carbon goals are based on estimates, and some companies increase their carbon emissions as a result of growth. Carbon goals can also be linked to sales, production, or revenue. Some companies are now putting an internal price on carbon by allocating cost across different departments and applying it to new projects. When setting goals based on revenue, it can be difficult to quantify actual CO2 emissions avoided. I recommend setting an absolute goal and defining a series of projects with kWh savings that will get you to that goal. In closing, with an absolute goal, you will not have the difficulty of adjusting for weather anomalies, increased or decreased production, or other uncontrollable variables avoided.

13 Sustainability and Law, What’s the Correlation?

Law is required to protect the rights of the people in any country, and environmental law is required to keep society functioning properly to protect our environment from negligence. Some question whether there is even a correlation between law and sustainability. Without law, sustainability would be all over the road with no structure behind it. Engineers are driven to design in certain ways by codes enforced by law. The ability to innovate and advance is critical to our society; however, many problems arise over the use of intellectual property. Law provides insight and enables collaboration between architects and engineers in the construction of new buildings. In the past, building automation systems were all separate and proprietary in nature, so information could not be shared. The green movement has become a significant economic sector in industry. If we look at how much more efficient solar cell arrays are now than they were just a few years ago, we see that their efficiency has doubled. Over the past decade, the payback on investment for advanced technology in solar cells has gone from 12 years to 3 years with the proper incentives. Sustainability gives us hope for the future by addressing the depletion of natural resources that cannot be replaced, including natural gas, oil, and coal, which have received much attention recently. The oil crisis of 1973 caused gasoline prices to skyrocket. The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) was put in place to develop renewable energy, promote energy conservation, and optimize the use of energy in public service companies. The problem with PURPA was that not all states complied with the act. Over the last 40 years, there has been new legislation around sustainability, such as the Clean Water Act of 1977, the Kyoto Protocol, and, most recently, the Paris Agreement. The Paris Agreement set a new course for the global climate effort by bringing all nations together to address climate change and adapt to its effects. The Paris Agreement’s central objective is to keep the total rise in global temperature this century below 2°C. Advanced efforts include limiting the total temperature increase even further, to 1.5°C.

14 Additionally, the agreement aims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change. To reach these strategic goals, appropriate financing and leveraging of investments in new technologies are required. The agreement also provides transparency of action and support through a more robust transparency structure in parallel with its objectives. On October 5, 2009, President Obama signed Executive Order 13514 to deploy carbon management initiatives and sustainability goals. The EPA is constantly revising standards for power plants to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The Global Warming Solutions Act (GWSA) directs the Secretary of Energy and Environmental Affairs and the Department of Environmental Protection to take certain steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to set statewide greenhouse gas emissions limits for 2020, 2030, 2040, and 2050. The creation of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) scoring system was really the first step toward getting buildings to be sustainable from an energy efficiency perspective. Much of the legislation behind LEED focuses on incentives rather than legal penalties. Many states offer tax incentives, while utilities provide stretch code incentives. At this time, there are no specific laws mandating that sustainable practices be used in construction. For this reason, when there are green building codes, it is not clear whether they can be legally enforced. Some states have adopted energy codes; however, their basic requirements lack uniformity. In certain cases, local building codes may be superseded by federal laws. Until there is a national building energy code, the debate will continue. While there appears to be a push for stricter carbon restrictions across the globe, controlling carbon emissions and other forms of atmospheric pollution continues to be a challenge. As enforced in parts of Europe, cap and trade has become a standard way of doing business.

15 Cap and trade works by setting an upper limit on the amount of emissions businesses may produce, and if they go over the allotted limit, then they must buy credits from other companies that are under their allowances. Although cap and trade may be effective for driving environmental awareness, we must still get to the root of the problem.

Standard Energy Audit Practices

An energy audit is an organized process for identifying opportunities to increase energy efficiency and performance. Energy audits vary in approach and are dependent on many variables, such as age, overall efficiency, and design. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has developed a standard for energy auditing that defines three progressive levels, or types, of energy audits.

ASHRAE Level 1 – Walk-Through Analysis/Preliminary Audit

The level 1 audit is alternatively called a simple audit, screening audit, or walk-through audit, and it is the basic starting point for building energy optimization. This audit involves brief interviews with the site’s operating personnel, a review of the utility bills and other operating data, and a quick walk- through of the building. The level 1 audit is geared toward identifying potential energy improvements, understanding the general building configuration, and defining the type and nature of energy systems. The audit should result in a preliminary energy use analysis for the entire facility along with a short report on efficiency opportunities. The report does not usually provide detailed recommendations except for very visible projects or solutions for operational faults. The level 1 audit is intended to help the energy team understand how the building performs relative to similar buildings, establish a baseline for measuring future improvements, and decide whether further evaluation is warranted. The audit will also outline the range of potential financial incentives available from federal, state, and local sources.

ASHRAE Level 2 – Energy Survey and Analysis

The next step for most facilities is the level 2 audit. The level 2 audit starts with the findings of the level 1 audit and evaluates the building’s energy systems in more detail to identify potential energy efficiency improvements. Areas of focus include the building envelope, lighting, HVAC, domestic hot water (DHW), plug loads, compressed air, and process uses (for manufacturing, service, or processing facilities). The audit starts with a detailed analysis of energy consumption to quantify base loads, seasonal variation, and effective energy costs. From there, the study evaluates lighting, air quality, temperature, ventilation, humidity, and other conditions that may affect energy performance and occupant comfort. The audit process also involves discussions with the building’s ownership, management, and occupants to explore potential problem areas to clarify the financial and non- financial goals of the program. The level 2 audit should result in a simple and easy-to-interpret summary of identified energy conservation measures (ECMs). Modifications to system controls and building automation, operational changes, and potential capital upgrades are usually discussed during the level 2 audit. The findings should include general cost and performance metrics to assist the owner in evaluating and implementing ECMs. Many of the ECMs identified during the level 2 audit can be implemented quickly with rapid or immediate payback for the owner. Other ECMs will require more detailed analysis of benefit and cost. The audit should define next steps to accomplish this analysis, which may include discussions with manufacturers or suppliers. For ECMs involving complex interaction among building systems and potentially large financial investments, it may be necessary to dig deeper into the building’s operations and the human factors influencing performance. This is where the level 3 audit becomes essential.

17 ASHRAE Level 3 – Detailed Analysis of Capital Intensive Modifications

Some of the system upgrades and retrofits identified during the level 2 audit may require significant investments of capital, engineering, personnel, and other resources. Before committing to this level of investment, the owner will want to have a much more thorough and detailed understanding of the benefits, costs, and performance expectations. This is the purpose of the level 3 audit. Investment levels can range significantly depending upon the measure. In most cases, since they cannot be accurately estimated in advance, the scope of the level 3 audit is usually determined by the outcome of the level 2 audit. In the level 3 audit, a whole-building computer simulation is used to model how a conventional building would respond to changes to its energy systems, such as major HVAC retrofits, modifications to the building envelope, etc. The level 3 audit involves detailed data collection over the course of weeks or months. Typically, data loggers will be placed temporarily to monitor the operations of pumps and motors, temperatures of affected spaces, CO2 concentrations, and lighting levels. The data are used to calibrate the computer generated energy model, and the calibration is validated using the past year’s hourly climate conditions and actual energy bills. Once the three-dimensional computer model has been calibrated to respond like the actual building, changes to energy systems can be simulated with very accurate results. Combined with cost estimates, this process helps to support decisions on ECMs. The building simulation software titled eQUEST, now in version 3.65, is available at no charge from the DOE. This program is a powerful tool for ensuring that buildings are properly constructed to perform as efficiently as possible.

18 Public Understanding on Building Commissioning

Although research has proven that building commissioning is highly effective in reducing cost and increasing reliability, some still wonder whether it is worth the time and investment. As part of my research for this book, I conducted a national survey of different industries across the U.S. to obtain a better understanding of what building commissioning means to people in charge of energy. I sent out a total of 2,784 surveys, of which 725, or approximately 26%, were completed. The typical response rate for this type of survey is 3%, so 26% was very good. The survey consisted of 12 questions directed toward real estate owners, facility managers, and other people in charge of energy in the commercial property sector. The survey population also included people working in government buildings, universities, colleges, and the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, food, concrete, and automotive industries. I asked participants if they had ever used a building commissioning process. This question required a yes or no response, and it was intended to filter the respondents so that only those who had experience with building commissioning would complete the survey. A total of 218 respondents (30%) answered yes, and 507 (70%) answered no. The initial participants were also asked whether they were familiar with the process of ongoing commissioning. A total of 76% indicated that they did not understand the technology or how artificial intelligence could be used to identify building faults. Participants were then asked whether they were currently commissioning their buildings and, if so, what service they deployed. Most of the respondents answered that they were using internal labor, with many stating that the reason they were not using commissioning services was that they were unfamiliar with the technology and its capabilities. For a technology that has been promoted in the industry over the past 15 years, this response helped confirm there was a lack of communication about commissioning in general.

19 Approximately 59% of respondents agreed that commissioning was an additional expense, while only 41% believed it added value to their operations. Over 58% of respondents agreed that if they were to use an ongoing commissioning service, the payback on investment would be a critical deciding factor. Further inquiry revealed that only 3% of respondents agreed that commissioning actually lowers energy cost, thereby confirming that the vast majority of people still do not believe that commissioning is worth the time or investment. This survey helped me to understand that 77% of the population did not engage any type of ongoing commissioning and were unfamiliar with the technology. It was evident from the responses that there was a significant lack of knowledge regarding building commissioning and its benefits. As shown in the following diagram, the two states that were most responsive to this survey were California and Texas. This information is useful for targeting populations to promote commissioning technology for anyone concerned with making a difference in our environment.

20 Washington Wisconsin Arkansas 2% 3% .5% Arizona 2% VirginiaVermont Alabama Utah 3% .5% 1% California .5% 10% Colorado 1% Texas Connecticut 11% 1% Tennessee Florida 1% 5% Georgia South Carolina 3% 1% Rhode Island Indiana .5% 2% Pennsylvania Idaho 4% 0.5% Oregon Illinois 1% 6% Oklahoma Ohio Iowa .5 6% 3% % Kansas New York .5% 5% Louisiana Nevada Missouri 1% New Jersey Minnesota Massachusetts .5% 2% 2% 1% 1% North Carolina Maine Maryland New Mexico New Hampshire Nebraska Montana Michigan 2% .5% 2% .5% .5% .5% .5% 5%

Figure 2. Commissioning survey response by United State

As the results of the survey indicate, there remains a lack of interest in investing in building commissioning. This is due in part to proprietary barriers that stand in the way of sharing information. Unless the results of commissioning studies can be shared publicly, the verdict on the subject will not change. Many people are simply unaware of the benefits of building commissioning, and even those who have caught on are hesitant to adopt it and reserve it only for special cases. Many people assume that commissioning is part of building operations or an integral function of the facilities department. Even if facility staff are able to identify and work out most of their problems, they must do so with limited resources and budgets, often without proper documentation.

21 The fact that facility staff lack the time or initiative to implement the commissioning process contributes to inconsistent approaches to building system optimization, denying owners the service and value they would actually receive from the process. Real estate developers are typically more concerned with profitable property than energy savings since the cost of energy is typically passed on to the tenants. Unless there is proof from the start of some type of financial incentive, building owners typically don’t pursue commissioning. A common problem is that commissioning studies often fail to demonstrate that the service constitutes a sufficient ROI. Most of the retroactive commissioning studies I have reviewed lack critical financial terms such as net present value and internal rate of return. Without these terms, a company cannot understand the importance of the investment from a financial perspective. The case study method has been routinely used to quantify the benefits of commissioning; however, most studies still do not get proper attention, resulting in poor education on the subject. Furthermore, an industry comparison of commissioning types and methods has been required for quite some time now. Commissioning services will continue to be a hard sell until the cost of energy goes high or there is a concentrated effort to reduce cost and carbon emissions. As global warming continues to develop from theory to reality, the public is becoming more aware of the need to combat its underlying causes. We now know that the major source of carbon emissions from commercial buildings is the burning of natural gas for space heating. Additionally, power plant line transmission losses and electricity generation have also been identified as sources of carbon emissions. Fortunately, legislatures are passing more laws on emissions, putting the burden back on industry and forcing it to look at cleaner technologies and more efficient equipment. With more companies setting carbon reduction goals and many pledging to become net-zero, building commissioning is now receiving a lot more attention.

22 Basic Systems Design Overview

In this section, I review the different types of building support systems you may encounter in your journey to reduce energy consumption. The intent of this section is to give you a general understanding of how HVAC and process support systems operate. Introduction to Cooling Systems: There are many types of cooling systems used in the industry today. The selection of a system really depends on the application and location. In the home, central air conditioning is accomplished using refrigeration coils. Air passes over the coils and is distributed through ductwork to the occupied space. The condenser unit, which decompresses the hot refrigerant gas, usually resides outdoors to reject the heat. Another option for residential applications is an in-window air conditioner, in which the refrigerant is pressurized in a coil. A fan blows air over the coil to cool it, and the condenser rejects the heat outside. For larger industrial systems, an air-cooled chiller is sometimes used. This unit is usually located outside to reject the heat from the decompressed refrigerant. The air-cooled chiller produces chilled water that is circulated through a building to fan coil units or other areas requiring cooling. Fan coil units typically consist of a fan and two coils, one for heating and the other for cooling. Underneath the coils is a condensate pan. As condensation builds up from warm, humid air passing over the cold coil, it must be drained. The condensate water is usually piped to a storm water drain; however, it can also be sustainably used for other purposes such as irrigation or to make up for evaporation in a cooling tower. Industrial chilled water systems typically use a cooling tower, in which water passes over media to cool. Water is typically cooled from 95°F to 85°F as it circulates through the tower. One type of cooling tower is the open-cell tower, which relies on the process of evaporation to reject heat. The evaporated moisture produces a plume over the tower, which is located outside. In some areas, these towers are prohibited because the plume looks like smoke.

23 In sensitive residential areas, a closed-cell cooling tower is typically used. This type of cooling tower has fans that blow over a coil to reject the heat. In a closed-cell tower, the moisture does not evaporate directly into the atmosphere, so there is no plume. For this type of tower, the chiller is usually located inside a building’s mechanical room. There are many different types of chillers available on the market. Centrifugal chillers, screw chillers, gas turbines, reciprocating engines, and steam absorbers are all used to compress or change the state of refrigerant or other chemicals to produce a cooling effect. The most common type of chiller is the centrifugal chiller. This chiller uses the refrigeration cycle to produce chilled water. It is similar to an air-cooled chiller, but instead of using air to reject heat, it uses a cooling tower in the condenser process. Another type of chiller is known as a steam absorber. Instead of refrigerant, this chiller uses steam. The steam enters the unit under a deep vacuum and chemically reacts with a sodium bromide solution to produce low temperatures, cooling the water that is run through tubes in the unit. The steam absorber also uses a cooling tower to reject excess heat from the chemical reaction, and it operates with the same condenser water temperature (85°F to 95°F). Chilled Water Systems: When designing chilled water systems, it is important to understand the cost to generate chilled water ($/ton-hour) along with peak demand cost. One ton of cooling is equivalent to 12,000 British thermal units (BTUs) of energy. For new chillers, the full- and part-load efficiencies should meet or exceed those specified by local energy codes or the latest edition of the ASHRAE 90.1 standard. Different pumping strategies (primary, primary/secondary, variable primary) should also be evaluated, preferably by an engineer, to determine which one will best meet the needs of the application. Proper sizing of equipment is essential when designing for energy efficiency.

24 Systems tend to be oversized because no engineer wants to be legally responsible for installing a system that does not have enough capacity; however, some recent energy codes prohibit system oversizing. In multi-chiller plants, implementing controls to optimize the staging of chillers based on facility loads and chiller efficiencies is highly recommended. By monitoring performance parameters, you will be able to fully understand your plant’s efficiency at all times. Remember that for every degree the chilled water is lowered, a 1% drop in operating efficiency occurs. I have seen an entire campus facility run at a low temperature just to satisfy one small piece of equipment. This situation could have been avoided by installing a small refrigeration unit for that one piece of equipment. I always challenge the use of central chilled water systems for special temperature requirements. Whenever possible, use free-cooling heat exchangers for chilled water systems that will operate continuously. These cooling systems are typically located in geographic areas that have colder climates. In some cases, outdoor air reset can be used with chilled water systems. This enables systems to adjust to changes in the outdoor air temperature to meet the building’s needs. For reciprocating, screw, and scroll chillers with capacities less than 300 tons, you should consider installing high-efficiency, oil-free compressors. Newer technologies include maglev chillers, which use magnets instead of oil to reduce the friction between moving parts. These machines require less maintenance. For centrifugal chillers, consider implementing a VFD on the compressor or a soft starter to reduce startup electrical demand. Whenever possible, older pneumatic controls should be replaced with direct digital controls (DDCs). All chilled water piping must be insulated and should be checked for effectiveness using infrared thermography. Closely evaluate utilization of chilled water as the cooling medium versus installation of a direct-expansion (DX) refrigeration unit. Whenever possible, use two-way control valves instead of three-way valves to reduce the system pressure drop. Utilizing VFDs instead of balancing valves to balance system flow will also minimize the system pressure drop.

25 All chillers should be on a proper preventative maintenance schedule. The tubes in chillers should be inspected annually. If tubes become clogged with debris, the chiller’s efficiency will drop significantly, as heat can’t be effectively transferred. When using air-cooled condensers, be sure there is enough air flow around them to minimize the condensing temperature. For heat exchangers, a cleaning plan should be deployed to ensure that the internal tubes are clean. This applies to anywhere you have a heat exchanger (chillers, boilers, etc.). Be sure to monitor plate-and-frame heat exchanger performance, including temperature, pressure, and flow rate. For new chiller plant designs, you should evaluate chiller sizing against all full- and part-load conditions. Systems inherently perform better when they are sized near full capacity; when running part-load, efficiency is typically much lower. Conduct a life cycle cost analysis of different types of chillers based on energy rates and load profiles. Evaluate whether a VFD chiller or a smaller standard chiller is cost-effective for low-load conditions (longer operating hours, weekends, mild seasons, etc.). Be sure to use proper metering for chilled water systems. Evaluate the input (electricity) versus the output (chilled water) to understand the system’s efficiency at all times (kWh/ton, or power consumption divided by cooling capacity). This can be monitored through the building management system or by using some level of ongoing commissioning or fault diagnostics. Always consider replacing chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) chillers with non-CFC chillers. The refrigerants used in non-CFC chillers are not as effective as older refrigerants, so the units are larger in size, but they are better for the environment. For chiller replacements, consider water-cooled chillers, which are typically more efficient than direct-expansion units. This may help with your CO2 reduction goals. Modular chiller technology has become very popular over the past few years. Modular systems are factory-tested and designed for specific applications, and they come complete with pumps, chillers, electrical units, and controls.

26 They are shipped to your site in modules, which can be linked together depending upon the size of the plant you need. These packages are not much different in cost than a traditionally designed system where the components are selected and installed separately. As with any chiller system, always consider installing premium-efficiency pump motors. If your building has independent chilled water systems, you should consider interconnecting them to optimize operations. Thermal storage is another option if space is available. The most common system is an underground ice storage system. During the evening hours, when the cost of electricity goes down, ice is made using an electric chiller. During the day, when the electric rate goes up, water or glycol (usually plastic balls containing glycol) is distributed over the ice to thermodynamically extract the heat and produce chilled water. These systems are commonly used by large computer corporations, and they serve as a cooling backup in the event of a power loss, as the water pumps run on emergency power. There are now condenser water treatment options that significantly increase system performance by saving water, electricity, and chemicals concurrently. I discuss some of these options later in this book. Condenser Water Systems: Water quality is critical to the operations of chillers, heat exchangers, and process cooling applications. If not treated properly, water can become acidic and aggressive, leading to erosion of the piping system. Water treatment is also essential for preventing scale buildup in cooling towers. I highly recommend side stream filtration using sand, which significantly cuts down on chemical use in the condenser water. Backwashing is required to remove solid deposits that get trapped in the water as it runs over the evaporator. Sand can be backwashed with either condenser or city water. It is a good idea to meter cooling tower make-up water to verify system performance. This can help you understand the evaporation rate. Some municipalities will not charge you for cooling tower water evaporation. I have seen credits for as much as $300,000 per year.

27 For the sake of water conservation, some owners choose to use reverse osmosis reject and condensate water to make up for evaporated condenser water. It is important to install premium-efficiency fan motors on cooling towers to help cool the water. Existing cooling towers that do not already have VFDs installed can be converted. If the towers are old, you should consider replacing them with new, more efficient towers. Be sure to check for rebates that your utility or state may offer. Another important aspect of cooling towers is their evaporative technology. Cooling towers typically use plates or media, and evaporative coolers spray water onto the condenser to cool it down. Engineers will often oversize cooling towers to produce lower condenser water temperatures. The towers and fans should be synchronized through a BMS system to obtain peak operating efficiency. It is a good idea to use a condenser water reset control strategy that maintains a lower temperature reduction when the chiller is operating at part load. Air Handling HVAC Systems: When designing for air flows in internal spaces, be sure to design for minimal flows required to maintain space temperature and humidity specifications. Spaces should be evaluated for compliance with ASHRAE standard 55 (thermal comfort for human occupancy). Additionally, the air quality standard ASHRAE standard 62 (indoor air quality) should be applied when designing systems in the U.S. Areas that have to be conditioned, such as boiler rooms and mechanical spaces, should be minimized and ventilated with ambient filtered air if possible. Spaces in the building are likely to have very different requirements for conditions and will not be fed from the same HVAC system. Air change rates for clean spaces should be challenged to see how low they can go. Many laboratories are now operating at 4 air changes per hour (ACH) at night and 6-8 ACH during the daytime with demand CO2 control. Demand CO2 control works by using carbon dioxide sensors within the occupied space of a building.

28 Usually these sensors are located in return air ducts. As the CO2 rises in the building, the amount of outdoor air is increased to dilute the CO2 down to acceptable levels, usually 800 ppm (parts per million) with an outdoor starting point of 400 ppm. Traditionally laboratory ventilation systems can run anywhere from 8-60 ACH so it is always a good area to investigate what is driving the air change rate. With any HVAC system, consider installation of VFDs to drive all fans or motors adjusting for changing air flow rates and system static pressure requirements as required to meet space conditions. When using belts to drive fans, energy-saving belts should be used. I recommend direct drive fans whenever applicable to eliminate the use of belts with some level of vibration monitoring. Belts have friction which causes energy loss unlike direct drive units. When selecting fans, they should be specified by evaluating the efficiency curves from the manufacturer to obtain maximum operating performance. Whenever possible, outside air should be used for free cooling when the temperature and humidity are suitable. Under normal conditions, a supply air temperature of 55°F is distributed through the building and either heated or cooled to obtain the space set point. Discharge air reset is a good idea; the logic of the BMS system will evaluate which spaces in the building are in heating and which ones are in cooling. Based on the evaluation, the main air handler discharge air temperature can be reset saving significant unnecessary reheating costs at the zone level. Insure that all thermostats are located in the proper locations, not over heaters or on walls that may be too cold or hot. Minimizing humidification if at all possible is a good idea as there are issues with indoor air quality problems originating from molds and other contaminants which depend on humidity for food. If humidification is required for static control purposes or manufacturing, a cold atomizing system should be considered using reverse osmosis water. Operation of the HVAC equipment is an essential part of how much energy will be consumed to maintain the space.

29 Cycling on and off of HVAC equipment caused by running at part load is a repetitive issue we see when systems are overdesigned which causes a lot of energy waste. If the climate is permitting, use evaporative cooling in place of mechanical cooling; this will significantly cut down on the mechanical cooling required. It is important the outdoor air sensor is located in the correct spot and is on a calibrated schedule. I recommend that two outdoor air sensors are installed. I have seen cases where the outdoor air sensor has failed (-50°F) in the middle of summer and turned on all the preheat coils in several HVAC units simultaneously. Given this condition, the system believed it was cold outside when it really was very hot! Although the cooling coils were large enough to overcome the preheat coils load, you would never know there was an issue as the space temperature was comfortable. These types of issues can be identified using fault diagnostics. There should be a controls strategy to shut off equipment based on time and occupancy such as bathrooms, janitor closets, and other spaces with motion sensors. Older systems that are constant air volume should be upgraded to VAV if possible, preferably with a VFD to control the volume of air. Some older air handlers use inlet vane guides to control air flow into the fan chamber. Inlet vane guides are damper plates on the inlet of the fan and are usually connected by a shaft and actuator which allow them to open and close. These units are usually high maintenance as the actuators malfunction along with the vanes. I have seen cases where the vanes have actually failed and disintegrated in the fan housing causing enormous damage to the ventilation system. The vanes can be eliminated by installing a VFD to achieve the same effect. Controlling temperature in certain areas will require dedicated units. By having dedicated units, this will allow the larger spaces to be set back or shut down during non-operating hours. I have seen cases where 90% of an office building could be shut down but can’t because a computer room or IT (integrated technology) closet or critical telephone room is fed cool air from the main system. Existing air handlers should be checked for leakage.

30 Many times I see the gaskets around the doors are missing. I usually catch this using IR thermography. For older systems, pneumatic air used to actuate valves should be replaced with DDC, which is much more efficient and dependable over time. Another important aspect of the energy operating cost of HVAC systems is the type of air filtration selected. Filters can be changed upon differential pressure when they become dirty and load up or on a time basis. I find that selecting a low differential pressure filter is best for energy savings. Depending upon the filter type and cost, sometimes it is more cost effective to let them load with dirt to 0.75 inches of water column (W.C.) before changing them out as the cost of the filter may be more than the energy saved if changed on a time basis. Heat recovery should always be evaluated for both new and existing systems. Heating or cooling can be transferred by using coils, desiccant wheels, or refrigerant piping. Most systems use a run around methodology (simply running water or refrigerant between two coils) to recover energy through heat transfer; however, this method is only 50% efficient because you can transfer sensible heat only (dry heat) not latent (with moisture). Heat recovery systems reduce annual energy costs and the sizing of heating and cooling systems. When cross contamination between air streams (supply/exhaust) is not an issue, a desiccant wheel makes the most sense for transferring latent and sensible heat energy. These systems are typically 55-70% efficient. Depending upon the cost of your energy supply, electric reheat coils should be replaced with hot water coils heated by boilers. These types of conversion projects usually have a 2-3 year payback depending upon your installation and energy costs; however, they are definitely worth investigating. Although the best practice is to eliminate electric reheat coils, upgrades often leave them in as a backup or to avoid the cost of removing them. Be sure that electric reheat coils are locked out when not needed. With the efficiency of solar panels increasing and the cost decreasing, possibly there will be a demand again for electric reheat coils. I always look to see that coils are sealed and there is no leaking ductwork.

31 I have seen many installations that were not properly commissioned. All HVAC systems should be balanced by a National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB) certified contractor. Any ductwork with cooling in it running through an unconditioned space should be insulated. For in-duct coils, there should be access doors upstream so they can be cleaned. I have seen many installations where there were no access doors, and when they were added later, found many of the ductwork shipping labels had let go and collected on the coils, restricting the air flow. For laboratories that have fume hoods, low flow fume hoods should be used and sashes closed when not in use. There are retrofit kits for existing constant volume hoods that can be installed to make the hoods variable volume low flow. In some cases, fume hoods can be changed out for filtered biosafety cabinets which filter out fumes using room air instead of expensive conditioned outdoor air. Compressed Air Systems: When dealing with compressed air systems, the first step is to eliminate inadequate uses of compressed air. Compressed air takes a lot of energy to generate. I have seen compressed air used for cooling equipment that is out of service or leaking due to poor seals around fittings. Understanding the cost of compressed air is the first step in evaluating operational effectiveness. A leak survey is highly recommended to examine piping, fittings, and leaking pneumatics (thermostats, valves, etc.). Many times I see the dew point for the desiccant dryer set too high when a lower set point would meet the end user requirements. Compressed air systems operate better when fully loaded. I see multiple unit staging on and off which causes excessive use of electricity. Location of the air compressors is important as well. Air compressors reject a large amount of heat; in many cases units are located in an air-conditioned space. Depending upon the location of the compressors, if outdoor ambient air is nearby, it should be used for free cooling instead of chilled water. It is good to have someone who specializes in compressed air leaks evaluate your system.

32 To obtain a quick idea of what the leak rate is, when there are no users on the system, you can load test the system by keeping track of the cycle time the compressors run to maintain the system pressure. By taking amperage readings on the compressors, you can figure out electricity cost due to leaks. A system with no leaks should not run but maintain pressure over time. Pure Water Systems: Mainly used within the pharmaceutical industry, pure water needs are very intensive. The first step is to determine how much pure water (ultra-filtered) is required for the process. Understanding initial parameters like flow rates and pressures is critical to the overall system design. Determine how much water is distributed, temperature, quality, flow rate, and operating pressures. This will help you understand performance and energy cost. When dealing with reverse osmosis water (RO) and deionized (DI) water, understand what the reject rate is and if the water can be reused at all for make-up for cooling towers and pre-washing equipment. Sanitization of pure water can be accomplished by means of using steam, hot water, carbon membranes, etc. In some cases, passing water through reverse osmosis twice can increase water recovery. As with any system, variable flow pumping is highly recommended. Steam and Hot Water Systems: Understanding the needs for steam and operating temperature and pressure will help determine operating cost of the system. Steam is usually generated by a boiler which puts a flame through a tube surrounded by water. Once the water reaches 212°F depending upon the elevation you are at, the water boils and creates steam vapor. If we can understand how much the steam is being consumed and what the cost is, usually in cost per million pounds of steam ($/mlb or €/mwh), we can better understand the operational cost. As with any steam system, the routine maintenance and testing of steam traps are essential. Installation of flow meters on the condensate return will help establish loads for each space. Many of the meters today are wireless so they can be brought back to a local building management system and monitored for failures.

33 A steam trap leakage survey is always highly recommended. Steam traps are required to prevent steam from leaking from the system and allowing condensed steam (condensate) to return back to the boiler for reheating. I find that steam traps need to be serviced at least once per year. There are leakless venturi steam traps on the market; however, although the first cost is more, over the life of the system the leakless traps will pay for themselves in maintenance and costly leaks. Always ask if the pressure or temperature can be reduced. In many cases I have seen 125 PSI steam being distributed to equipment that only goes down. Lower temperatures require 15 PSI. Hot water can be made through steam to hot water heat exchangers or a conventional hot water boiler. When investigating hot water systems, you want to understand what the flow and temperature are. Evaluate the sizing of your piping and the arrangement of valves and strainers around the pumps. Investigate if the water temperature can be adjusted. If required, condensing boilers should be used. Condensing boilers operate at a lower temperature than conventional boilers and as a result are typically 94% efficient versus 80% for a standard boiler. Typically standard boilers are most efficient when they run near maximum capacity. Boiler Burner Design, Combustion, and Heat Transfer, with the exception of condensing boilers which operate at 94% efficiency, conventional steam boilers should have a minimum efficiency of 85% and older boilers less than 85% but not lower than 80% when they are running at full capacity. If possible, a smaller boiler system can be designed for summer and reduced loads. If there are varying loads, then oxygen trim should be used; this is highly recommended and in some cases code required. Oxygen trim (O2) allows air to be added or restricted into the burner to optimize the fuel to air ratio. Existing boilers can be retrofitted with O2 trim increasing the efficiency from typically the 50% range into the 80% range for large boilers that are part-loaded.

34 When using multiple boilers, one boiler can be used for trimming while others have a full load on them. Installation of a flue gas analyzer and using the data to trim boiler excess air (maximum 10% air; 2% O2 equivalent) are highly recommended. Optimization of the stoichiometric process is critical and some options to existing boiler systems are discussed later in this book. At a minimum, the use of monitoring equipment and periodic checks on the stack temperature, excess air, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx), and carbon dioxide (CO2) are recommended. All hot water and steam piping should be insulated. I have seen many cases in boiler rooms where heat exchangers and valves have been left uninsulated in air-conditioned spaces (above ceilings, in boiler rooms, in basements, and in return air chases). Valves should be wrapped with accessible zippered jackets to avoid simultaneous heating and cooling in air-conditioned spaces. All steam lines, including condensate lines, should be fully insulated. It is important that all condensate is returned to the condensate receiver tank and not discharged. With steam systems, a feed water de-aerator should be installed to insure removal of any dissolved gases from the feed water. When possible, take in through a duct untreated outdoor air to make up for combustion instead of pulling air from the space. It is common practice in un-air- conditioned mechanical rooms to transfer high heat down to the burner area using a fan. A higher temperature at the burner will increase the efficiency by a few percent. Blowdown of water from the boiler should be minimized by installing an automatic blowdown unit. Blowdown is a certain amount of water that is removed from the system to maintain proper resistivity levels. If the resistivity is not correct, it will damage the boiler, pipes, and pumps. Heat can be recovered from hot boiler blowdown water by installing an energy recovery heat exchanger which could be used to preheat the make-up water to the boiler. The use of steam pressure pumps is an option for transferring feed water instead of using electric pumps. As with all infrastructure equipment, everything should be on a maintenance schedule.

35 Boilers should be metered so the efficiency of the system can be calculated at all times. Constant monitoring of the combustion and output of the boiler along with return of hot water or condensate for steam systems is recommended. Boilers used for heating should have outdoor air reset on them so when the temperature outside rises, the boiler water temperature can be reduced, requiring less energy. The use of smaller condensing boilers for part- load use during summer months is highly recommended. With all boilers, chemical treatment is critical to both their operation and life span. Proper water treatment to minimize scale buildup is required to prevent scaling of the boiler heat exchange surfaces. When dealing with domestic hot water boilers and water heaters, controls to setback supply temperature during unoccupied hours are required. Just as important as the boilers, the distribution system for steam and hot water should be designed with a VFD on pumps and low pressure drop in the piping. By eliminating three-way and triple-duty valves (acting as a check valve, shut-off, and balancing valve all in one), much pressure drop can be avoided. It is recommended to keep the balancing valves at a minimum as they add excess pressure drop to the system. As mentioned earlier, pumps should be selected in their maximum efficiency range. Heat Losses: As previously discussed, when dealing with steam and hot water systems, it is especially important to eliminate any radiated losses from uncovered surfaces including boiler jackets, pipe surfaces, valve bodies, bonnets, strainers, and heat exchangers. Using the correct R-value insulation will significantly improve the efficiency of the overall system. Insulation should be removable jacket types for all serviceable items like strainers and fittings. I see many times insulation not being replaced after a piece of equipment is serviced. In mechanical rooms that are air-conditioned, especially ones that have steam boilers in them, it is critical that all chilled water and steam piping be insulated. For boiler systems, the system efficiency will drop if there are pipes radiating heat into the space. In these cases, this is where infrared can help.

36 Infrared allows us to see heat loss in areas that are not always accessible without a ladder or lift. The same applies to chilled water systems; if the mechanical space is hot due to uninsulated hot water piping, the cooling system will have to work harder to satisfy the set point conditions. Metering: The subject of metering is important when measuring energy. I have been told if you don’t meter it, you can’t measure it. Documentation is required to understand the system design, meter locations, specifications, and one line and tenant sub-metering arrangements if they exist. As with any data, a building management system or software allows you to collect and analyze the data, which is important. It is suggested that building management systems be open protocol in nature and do not lock you out from making changes due to proprietary boundaries. Whatever system you choose to collect your data, you should be able to trend at least 24 months if possible. If you have an existing system that is collecting metered data, it may need to be recommissioned if it has been in place for a few years. Sub-meters require calibration and should capture therms of gas used and kilowatt hours, and if at all possible, they should be able to differentiate between standard power and demand. When dealing with meters for water systems (domestic, chilled, hot, steam), understand what technology they are (venturi, gear-driven, etc.), and if they are not fully automated with some type of data collection system, investigate the installation of smart meters. Smart meters are meters that wirelessly communicate to a front end computer which can be used for data analysis. Utility meters should be calibrated frequently. I just recently experienced a case where a gas meter had not been calibrated in a few years. The utility decided to change the meter out for a new one. Once the new meter was installed, there was a 30% rise in gas consumption and cost. After investigation, what I found was when meters get old and are out of calibration, they will turn slower giving you a faulty reading. It is important to understand if feeder breakers at the main switch gear are metered.

37 Having meters in place at this level will help isolate building loads and help troubleshoot problems when unexplained excessive energy is being consumed. Examples of this may be a poorly grounded transformer, heat trace for melting ice that has been left on in the summer, or simply an electric reheating coil that is stuck in the on position. In conclusion, the more meters you have, the better ability you will have to monitor loads from different systems and analyze your energy consumption. It is a good idea to have meters with displays; this way you can capture the data visually and confirm that the same information is being communicated back to your data collection system. When excessive loads are present (chillers, boilers, and other significant users), it is important they are metered. Some engineers will design meters to be installed in systems with a certain threshold of power or energy consumption. Electrical Systems: Understanding Power Quality: When evaluating existing electrical systems or installing a new one, there are a few key items to keep in mind. It is a good idea, especially if you have expensive electric equipment in your building, to have a harmonic study completed. The power delivered to your house or facility can have issues in cycles and power factor which affect the overall quality. Not all of the electricity delivered to you is actually usable; however, many of my friends have a good way of helping me understand this analogy. For example, if you order a beer and you get ¼ foam at the top of the glass, you have paid for a full glass of beer, but the foam is really kind of useless when evaluating the fact that it is not a full glass. Power works the same way. Due to the fluctuation in frequency, some of the power is not actually usable, but you pay for it anyway. This is something we call power factor. For facilities with sensitive equipment that cannot tolerate poor power factor conditions, sometimes a harmonic filter must be added. Harmonic problems are frequently an issue with facilities or buildings on hydroelectric generation. For some, power factor is not an issue; however, for others, it can become a very costly problem, not only for the power but also for replacement of sensitive equipment.

38 Utility Incentives: As with any improvements made to electrical and natural gas systems, utility incentives and rebates should be investigated. Some of the present-day rebates pay up to 100% for new installations. If you upgrade to a higher efficiency motor, you may be eligible for the difference in kilowatt savings. All alternatives should be investigated at both the state and federal levels. Some countries outside the U.S. have a mandate to keep energy consumption in buildings at a certain level. In these cases, planned improvements must be made every year to avoid paying a tariff or tax for being non-compliant. While the energy codes are becoming stricter, there are some fundamental things you can do as a building manager. Insuring that the phase of electricity in your building is balanced within 30% of the current and 3% for voltage is a standard measure. As per the beer conversation earlier, confirm that the power factor at the service entrance to your building is at least 0.85 and does not subject you to additional charges on demand when you are getting shortchanged anyway. There are companies like Powerstar and a few others that can install harmonic filters allowing you to save money and better utilize the power delivered to your building or site. Electrical System Testing and Understanding Demand Response: Most facilities undergo an infrared thermography scan every year. Electrical connections tend to loosen over time due to contraction along with vibration. When electrical fittings become loose, they begin to arc and build resistance which in return generates heat. This heat can lead to a fire if not addressed. It is suggested that facilities are thermographed at least once per year to avoid any hazards. Any identified issues should be corrected as soon as possible by applying the proper safety measures. As with any facility, one-line schematic drawings should be available and kept both in an accessible place in the archives and in the electric room for easy access in case of an emergency. When analyzing electric consumption data, it is important to understand when peak loads occur.

39 Having a full year of electrical bills to review can help understand where costs can be reduced. Many electrical service providers are offered what is call demand response. Upon request of your power company, they will contact you when the grid is at or near peak capacity. With demand response, or as some say peak shaving, basically you have a strategy in the summer when the electric grid is at peak load to reduce your consumption. This can be accomplished by shutting off non-critical equipment allowing the electric grid to gain back some capacity. Another term for demand response is curtailment. There are many curtailment programs which allow safe and utility approved disconnection from the grid at peak times of usage. Curtailment programs allow you to run your own electrical generation equipment like emergency generators. Since these events only happen a few times a year, maintenance of your generator will be critical to your operations. If you have generators, be sure they are receiving the proper maintenance including air and oil filters and proper oil changes and that the fuel has not become stale and lost its combustibility. Paying attention to transformers in your building or facility is equally important. Conducting a load study will help determine if your transformers are adequately sized. Transformers operating in the range of 70% to 80% may be oversized. Because transformers usually generate a fair amount of heat, they are typically located on an outside wall of the building so that free outdoor air cooling can be used for ventilation to reject the heat. It is recommended that transformers not be cooled with air-conditioned systems for a few reasons. First, cooling rooms with transformers with mechanical air conditioning are expensive. Second, if the mechanical cooling fails for any reason, the room can overheat, damage the transformers, and potentially cause a fire.

40 It is recommended that the room be conditioned with filtered ambient outdoor air. For this reason, many electric and mechanical rooms are located on an outside wall of a building. The ventilation fan should also be on e-power. It is recommended that transformers be located away from critical areas of a building. Transformers that are specified as low temperature rise are usually the best candidates if you have to put them within an air-conditioned space. Electric Motors: As part of the electrical system, when it comes to purchasing motors, premium efficient motors should be specified whenever possible. Paying attention to the horsepower requirements becomes critical when selecting a motor. I have seen undersized motors installed on VFD drives which should operate below 60 Hz running into the service factor at 80 Hz. Although it is possible to go into the service factor of the motor, most are rated for 1.15 of the total load; the life of the motor will be shorter in this range. As with the location of transformers and motors, they should be located in spaces that are un-air-conditioned with adequate outdoor air ventilation suitable for keeping them below the manufacturer’s recommended operating temperature as aforementioned. The upper limit on most electric rooms is 104°F; however, this may vary depending upon the motor, transformer, or switchgear manufacturer. With older facilities, it is a good idea to perform a motor efficiency survey to see if there is any opportunity to upgrade motors from standard to premium efficiency. Regarding utility rebates, sometimes there are incentives that will allow you to increase your return on investment. When inspecting motors, it is important they be free of dirt, especially around the casings which hold the motor windings. I have seen in the past the ventilation ports become clogged with dirt, which acts as an insulator. When this happens, the windings overheat, and the motor burns out. Lack of air flow across an electric motor, if an open casing (non-explosion proof), will significantly reduce its life span. Most electrical motors today are equipped with VFDs. In many fan applications, soft starters for motors are now being replaced with VFDs.

41 Soft starters allow the motor to ramp up slowly instead of turning on full speed and drawing a lot of current. As mentioned earlier, it is critical the VFDs are sized correctly and not running at full speed. Lighting Systems: As with any electrical analysis on a building, understanding electrical consumption by watts/square meter or foot provides you with information that can be used for benchmarking against similar facilities. At this point in time, all interior fixtures are specified as LED (light-emitting diode) with the exception of special areas that may need a different lighting intensity. Given the installation or re-lamping with LED lights, utility rebate programs should be pursued if available. Spaces in the building should be evaluated to take advantage of reflectance from reflective surfaces, light walls, and ceilings. Existing lighting levels should be evaluated; many times levels are too high and can be lowered by de-lamping. Taking photometric or actual measurement of light levels is a good idea to gain understanding of existing spaces. In many facilities, I have seen fixtures that are dirty, which cuts down on lighting levels and also shortens the life of fixtures. Dirt acts as an insulator and does not allow the fixture to reject its heat to surrounding areas. Justifying a lighting upgrade from fluorescent to LED may warrant an understanding of the cost of ongoing maintenance due to changing out bulbs and ballasts. Exterior fixtures should also be clean and measured for light output. The newer LED lights on the market give out significantly more light with a much lower draw on electricity. Most lights for commercial buildings are equipped with electronic ballasts. For larger systems, it is good to have a computerized lighting system installed to control the lights. Motion detectors, photocells (to detect light levels), and time clocks are also good ways to control the use of your lighting. Use of daylight harvesting is also a method to reduce lighting costs. Daylight harvesting is when you take advantage of free light from the outside to light a space. For areas along glass windows or walls, dimmers and photocells can be installed to reduce lighting when the natural sunlight is available for lighting.

42 As with any control system, it is a good idea to recommission the system to be sure original set points for setback have not been overridden. I see this in many facilities where a temporary change was made but never put back to the original design. Confirming that sensors are placed in the correct location prevents unnecessary activation due to movement in adjacent spaces. Most lighting systems typically include indoor lighting only when being designed. The engineers should also consider outside lighting as well. It is good when the software has the ability to collect data for each light within a zone. This information helps troubleshoot the system when there are issues. Having system controls to turn lights off in the evening and reverse night setback during the daylight hours is helpful. In some cases, it is necessary to install overrides in the space with timers for times when the office or area is occupied during unoccupied hours. Office Equipment and Un-interrupted Power Systems (UPS): Whenever possible, it is a practice to have office equipment specified to be Energy Star rated. Many power strips with transformers remain plugged in and draw energy. This energy draw, termed phantom loads, uses power even when equipment is off. Computer workstations, printers, and equipment should have a sleep mode feature. Plug-in zero power draw power supplies should be specified whenever possible. Not all computers and printers have sleep modes built in. In these cases, there is software that can be deployed across a computer network to put computers in sleep mode when not in use. When dealing with UPS systems for backup power for computers and other critical equipment, the battery room should be cooled to the manufacturer’s specifications to extend the life of the batteries. The UPS system is also used for life safety operations such as fire control panels, emergency lighting, and alarms in the building.

43 Building Management Systems (BMS): There are many building management systems on the market today. Honeywell, Siemens, Schneider, Delta V, and Invensys are just a few of the many options. Most of these systems are now open protocol and not proprietary in nature, meaning they can be programmed and can openly communicate with other systems. When designing a BMS system, it should have the ability to turn off air handlers and other high energy-consuming equipment when the building is unoccupied or perform night setback functions. Monitoring the status of valves, dampers, fans, motors, temperature, and humidity is a critical part of energy management with BMS systems. It is important to implement some level of ongoing commissioning or continuous commissioning to detect abnormalities in operations, which is what this book is about. When issues are found, they should be retro-commissioned and returned back to their original operational values as designed. Ensuring that the building management system is commissioned correctly to control the building is critical. It is best if the lighting and HVAC system controls are on one system. When these systems are integrated, there is constant communication for all the controls making energy management more efficient. The efficiency is gained by coordination between elements of functionality (integration of lights and HVAC) using a one-time schedule. Applying standard features such as night setback and meter data recording is helpful in identifying potential energy waste areas. For the many building management systems I have retro-commissioned, I have found that temperature dead bands were too close in many cases. The dead band is the distance in temperature between the heating and cooling modes. Typically a dead band should be no less than 3°. For example, a 3° dead band would have a low set point of 70.5° and a high set point of 73.5° resulting in a median temperature in the space of 72°. When temperature dead bands are too close, systems tend to overheat and overcool which causes a significant waste in heating and cooling, something we term as simultaneous heating and cooling.

44 The example below is a before and after dead band implementation found using fault diagnostics by Cimetrics, a Boston-based company fluent in fault diagnostics. On the left, heating (red) and cooling (blue) valves are conflicting with each other.

Figure 3. Before and after narrow dead band adjustment

On the right, you can see that once the dead band was widened, the heating and cooling separated. In the left of the preceding picture, the dead band was set at 1° calling on cooling at 72.5° and heating at 71.5° to maintain 72° on a system that had 500 above-ceiling fan coil units with heating and cooling coils. The result of widening the dead band from 1° to 3° resulted in $100,237 in annual savings and a 407-ton carbon reduction. There was no reported adverse impact on employee comfort in this case from widening the dead band. Simultaneous heating and cooling is a very common issue and is typically identified through the ongoing commissioning and fault diagnostics process. The space being served is usually comfortable so this issue many times goes undetected.

45 You really need a BMS system tied to some type of fault diagnostics to detect this type of issue. With BMS systems, it is important to ensure that air handler equipment schedules coincide with the requirements of the engineer and that programming and logic exist to perform night setback for energy savings. Having the ability to monitor devices like variable air volume (VAV) boxes is important for understanding energy consumption. If the VAV boxes can be monitored for flow, and if equipped with a reheat coil and inlet and outlet temperature readout, then energy units can be measured in British Thermal Units per hour (BTU/hr) or kilowatt hours (kWh). If the BMS system includes zones and pressurization, then more detailed analysis can be completed to confirm that system components are operating correctly. One typical failure I see with BMS systems is broken outdoor air economizers on air handlers. When actuators fail, the free cooling mode no longer works correctly. In certain regions outdoor air is used to cool a building when the temperature is sufficient saving significant energy. Many times failed economizers go unseen resulting in higher energy costs. The BMS system should be able to detect space temperatures, determine the proper level of cooling, and adjust the chilled and hot water temperatures as required.

46 The Physiological Effects of Buildings on Humans Building commissioning is a comprehensive process to ensure that systems are installed according to design and work effectively and efficiently with other building systems. Without the proper commissioning of building infrastructure systems, indoor air quality (IAQ) can decline leading to health issues and reduced productivity. As we all know, the HVAC system is critically important in all occupied buildings, especially schools. Because children have a different respiration rate than adults, children breathe a greater volume of air. Poor air quality and temperature issues have been problems in public schools for many years, in large part because schools have not had sufficient funding for maintenance and repairs. Poor air quality is responsible for both discomfort and a decline in health, including psychological health, which disrupts our productivity levels. Many authors note a link between a person’s health and the indoor environment which was directly related to the HVAC system. In addition to complicated IAQ problems, the broader topic of indoor environmental quality also includes such factors as sound, physical comfort, lighting, and access to views of the outdoors. These factors have a profound impact on the human sensory system. While natural ventilation may improve air exchange rates and thermal comfort, it cannot prevent external noise, pollutants, or excess humidity from entering the building. Given these external conditions, employing commissioning services may have no effect on the quality of surroundings. For this reason, the external environment becomes a critical attribute when commissioning buildings. Taking a total envelope approach to building commissioning will save additional money beyond energy savings alone. A good example would be commissioning the amount of light entering a building to ensure that levels are as designed. Many studies have been completed looking at the physiological impact of lighting on humans in the workplace. Studies have disclosed that the presence of daylighting can increase productivity by as much as 25%.

47 Experts say this impact is because daylight suppresses the natural hormone melatonin while stimulating serotonin, a combination that leads to greater alertness. Green buildings designed with daylighting and outside views make for a more productive environment which leads to a more productive experience. Indoor plants such as ferns can filter out toxins in the air; however, molds growing in the soil of the plantings can cause allergic reactions and other issues among occupants. It has been discussed that being near a window can be psychologically and physiologically beneficial, especially if the view contains natural features such as trees and flowers. Studies have shown that visual contact with nature through windows enhances mood, reduces stress, and promotes higher quality of life. Environments can have pleasant and stress-reducing effects. As building design continues to evolve in the 21st century, greener concept buildings are being constructed with a growing emphasis in architecture focusing on nature. As a result of these factors, green buildings are expected to require more advanced building commissioning to ensure that operational efficiency is maintained. In the past, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a school modernization bill which committed funds for the construction of and updating to more energy-efficient school buildings. As older buildings convert to new green technologies, building commissioning will become more critical and include all infrastructure systems to ensure a maximum life cycle value. The recent focus on energy management and greener systems presents many opportunities for commissioning firms. As building management systems become more complicated in nature, many still do not account for daylighting, power consumption, water usage, and emissions. This means that design engineers must get involved early in the commissioning of complex systems and remain engaged to ensure that these systems are integrated and function properly. Similarly, the commissioning engineer must follow the same process to become fully educated on all functional abilities of a building’s operation.

48 The physiological effects building systems can have on the wellness and productivity of occupants have been a focus for years now. We now recognize the link between the physical and emotional differences and recognize that green building design is influenced by the science of our physiological response versus environmental factors. Some look to commissioning to fix building issues completely; however, in reality, many of the issues originate from decisions made during design and construction. Value engineering is probably the most detrimental concept I know of, as it sacrifices quality for cost-saving measures. When quality is compromised, the results can affect the life cycle operational costs of the building necessitating a more frequent need for commissioning because the equipment installed is inferior and will have to be replaced early. Cutting corners when purchasing office equipment has in the past been linked with health effects due to the release of chemical toxins found in volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Emissions originate from many sources in the office environment such as inks, toners, papers, media, and ozone from copier processes, plastic construction materials, and circuit boards. From a building commissioning perspective, these types of issues can contribute to physiological effects on occupants and should become a part of the commissioning process through the testing of acceptable levels of contaminants through IAQ practices. Extending commissioning services into IAQ ensures procedures are undertaken after occupancy and the installation of all equipment and furnishings. The USGBC certification process allows one credit for flushing the building of contaminants for a minimum of two weeks with 100% outdoor air to remove toxins. The credit requires a letter from the architect or engineer describing the flush-out procedure including the dates of the flush-out. Many agree that new buildings have an increased potential for IAQ problems due to new materials and deficiencies in mechanical ventilation system performance during construction and initial occupancy. Alternatively, specifications and documentation demonstrating compliance with the IAQ testing procedures and requirements are required to obtain the credit.

49 At the top of the shopping list for questionable air quality are shopping malls. Consider the thousands of products (plastics, resins, finishes) outgassing toxins directly infusing their way into the surrounding environment. These toxins are routinely linked to sick building syndrome (SBS). In the event that equipment or other outgassing material is brought into a building after green building certification, there is no guarantee there will be any physiological impact on the building’s occupants. As part of the ongoing commissioning process, additional air quality testing could be done to confirm that there are no factors causing potential health risks. In order to decrease the potential for air quality issues, an evaluation of the mechanical ventilation system design should be performed with a clearly defined set of environmental factors to consider. Ultimately, this type of indoor air commissioning program could be incorporated into a larger commissioning plan. Unacceptable IAQ has been found to lead to litigation proceedings stemming from building occupant health issues. Asthmatic issues are most prevalent, and in many cases, building outgassing of formaldehydes, pollens, and other particulates that make their way into a building create these issues. Microorganisms from molds are the most notorious and are associated with SBS (sick building syndrome). Noted on numerous occasions, I have observed the fact that there are risks of liability for building owners relating to failure to maintain IAQ in their buildings. Closing outdoor air dampers to save money on air conditioning costs or not maintaining the systems so they function properly many times is the cause of such building issues. The commissioning process can help prevent such problems from occurring as these types of issues are typically uncovered during the investigative process. As HVAC systems age, so does their ability to delivery proper quantities of air. Because the common form of retroactive commissioning is not a sustainable process, equipment not receiving frequent operational maintenance can be prone to high operation costs.

50 I have seen actuators on dampers forced into manual positions using coat hangers, tie wraps, and string. Proper maintenance is critical for the cost- effective operation of HVAC systems. Maintaining a commercial building requires commitment, both financial and managerial. I have learned from research that building owners who have high levels of employee absenteeism or tenant complaints spend millions of dollars in remediation costs to avoid litigation. We know commissioning can serve not only as a check to ensure that systems are receiving proper maintenance but also in some cases to protect building owners from liability. One could speculate that if building owners were to engage in some type of routine commissioning process, lower building insurance premiums would result due to reduced exposure to liability. When the commissioning process is value engineered out for project savings, I find that most of the time the project does not meet its intent, and it inherently uses considerably more energy. Many times, commissioning is performed after construction, and the process unfortunately identifies issues that could have been addressed during the programming phase. Code compliance drives many of the requirements for healthier and energy efficient buildings requiring a new approach to commissioning, one which is integral to the process over the life span of the building. Validating performance against energy bills for the first year of operation will ensure the building is meeting the design intent from both a functional and a cost perspective. Traditionally commissioning has been about ensuring that mechanical and electrical systems operate correctly after construction. Given the cost of energy, both retroactive commissioning and ongoing commissioning should be deployed in parallel to take a holistic approach to managing energy in buildings. Taking passive measures, particularly in natural ventilation, like using windows as we did for centuries up until the 1960s rather than relying on a totally air-conditioned world, would significantly reduce energy consumption.

51 In recent climate concerns, elimination of the dependency on mechanical systems is becoming a focus, especially for new buildings that are designing for net-zero energy consumption. Options like operable windows that will lock out the HVAC system if opened can help save energy. Importantly noted, Europe has been practicing green building design for decades; the concept is just now becoming popular in the U.S. with leaders in California, Colorado, and Texas. Some of the newer techniques of green building design include using night ventilation for cooling, free water cooling using a cooling tower, and ground source heat exchangers (heat pumps). Even if you have a green building off the electrical grid, systems will experience performance decline over time due to equipment age. Poor IAQ, improper maintenance, sick building syndrome, and the lack of building commissioning are routinely observed in older buildings that were not designed to take in sufficient amounts of outdoor air. Building automation systems have become so complex, especially in green building designs with many interactive control systems that even maintenance personnel cannot understand how they are supposed to function. In conclusion, we must remember that knowledge is critical in understanding how energy is consumed in a building. In many cases, we now leave it up to artificial intelligence to operate a building; however, we still need human interfaces to operate it and diagnose issues. When facility personnel want to modify building management systems, frequently they find it to be expensive so the work is not completed. For ongoing commissioning, which relies on the accuracy of these multitask systems, there is potential that the full value may not be realized if the system interactivity concept is never thoroughly understood.

52 Renewable and Off-Grid Technologies

The intent of this section is to give you a short overview of some renewable technologies on the market today. Depending on your specific need, you may want to investigate further beyond what is discussed in this section. Renewable technologies are in a constant state of evolutional change. Every day new technologies become less expensive and more productive in what they provide. I see lately many companies getting off the grid and installing their own form of power generation. For industrial applications, micro turbines have become popular over the past decade. A micro turbine can be driven by almost any type of fuel. The micro turbine generates electricity and in some cases will have reject heat available to make steam or hot water for other needs. For this reason, when performing a study for a micro turbine installation, it is important to understand all of the site’s demands for steam, hot water, and electricity. Sizing of a micro turbine is critical to the load it will serve. If the unit is oversized, and there is no ability to send power generated back to the grid, then the unit has to be de-rated which will cause it to be less efficient. For this reason, it is important to optimize your energy consumption before sizing a turbine. Typically micro turbines are designed for a base load, and beyond the base load of the building grid electricity is utilized. Micro turbines are very similar to combined heat and power (CHP) plants; the concept is essentially the same, as you are generating electricity from some type of fuel and in some cases using reject heat from the turbine for other processes. Depending upon the fuel source options, in some cases byproduct gas or landfill methane capture can be used. Wood waste and in some cases animal waste can be used as fuel. Depending upon the combustion capability, the right technology can be selected. Another option if natural gas is available is a fuel cell. Fuel cells use natural gas to cause a chemical reaction on a carbon plate sandwiched between a cathode and an anode. This chemical reaction creates electricity, and the byproduct from the reaction is water.

53 Fuel cells are very environmentally friendly, as there are no emissions. There are two types of fuel cells. The first type creates electricity from natural gas only. The second type also creates electricity, but the chemical reaction also creates heat. The excess heat can be used to create hot water through a heat exchanger. If there is a need for the hot water, then the second option may be better than option one. One of the most common renewables is solar panels. Our planet is beginning to load up with these anywhere there is open space. From roofs of buildings to past farm fields, there seems to be no end to how many solar panels will be installed over the next several years. Now that renewable technologies like solar have become more affordable through lower manufacturing costs, rebates, and lower cost of materials, solar is making better financial sense. A few years ago the return on investment was 10–14 years for a typical installation. We now see the return on investment in as low as 3 years in most cases. Photovoltaic (PV) materials and tracking PV systems are becoming more popular. Tracking PV systems move with the sun to maximize solar input and power output. Solar steam generators are also becoming popular. The sun’s energy is collected using heliostats (tracking of the sun) and then applying concentrated magnified sunrays onto piping with water in it. The energy then creates steam, which is used to turn a turbine and generate electricity. Another form of renewable energy is hydroelectric, which generates electricity using gravity-fed water to make free energy using an electric turbine. When talking about large hydroelectric plants, the Hoover Dam always comes to mind. The Hoover Dam generates over 2,000 megawatts of capacity with a yearly average generation of 4.5 billion kilowatt hours from Great Lakes water. Hydroelectric is very common in the northern part of the United States and Canada. Although hydroelectric is very dependable, I have seen facilities connected to these power sources have some issues with harmonics.

54 Harmonics is the frequency of electricity. In some cases, harmonic filters are required to “filter out the noise” in the electricity improving the overall quality of the power. Depending upon your company or home, you most likely have an option to purchase some type of green power. Green power is generated usually by solar or wind power. When buying green credits, in some cases there are tax benefits which make it a worthwhile effort for you to pursue. The last technology worth mentioning on the list is wind. Wind is free and can be used to drive turbines using propellers. There are many installations around the world today, and the population of wind turbines is on the rise. In some areas there are environmental concerns with turbines interfering with birds and wildlife. For this reason, in some areas wind turbines are prohibited. Recently, offshore wind farms are becoming popular for harvesting electricity, as there is always wind on the ocean.

CHAPTER II: CONCEPT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF SUSTAINABLE COMMISSIONING

Differentiating between Human and Artificial Intelligence

When it comes to operating buildings, there are many energy-consuming systems to consider. There are HVAC and life safety systems in most industrial buildings. Expanded support systems include utilities housed in central utility plants consisting of boilers, chillers, air handlers, and air compressors. Looking at all these systems and maintaining maximum performance are real challenges. As equipment ages, efficiency declines over time leaving behind increased operating costs and higher carbon emissions. This condition leads to poor operation of the building, but other issues mentioned earlier like poor IAQ and SBS can have both legal and health implications beyond inefficiency alone. There are basically two levels of intelligence required to keep buildings sustainable with respect to the energy they consume. First are the humans who perform the work on systems to keep them operational (facility and maintenance personnel). When performing the standard energy audit, human intelligence is required to visually identify defects and to use handheld equipment to test accuracy of system devices (temperature sensors, pressure sensors, actuators, valve positions, etc.). As humans, we use our eyes and our hearing to identify defects such as pump bearing noise, vibration, air leakage, and other suspicious noises that would not normally be detected using the BAS system alone. Once issues are identified during the energy audit process, they then need to be corrected using the retroactive commissioning (RCx) process. The RCx process involves contractors, facility personnel, engineers, and others to physically correct identified issues. The second form of intelligence is artificial intelligence. The BAS uses artificial intelligence to operate the building controls through a sequence of operations to drive the operation of HVAC systems.

56 Using computers to perform the entire task is not functionally possible without some human intervention. We need humans to interpolate alarms, study BMS output data, and make the physical changes to systems to correct abnormalities in operations. The computer can do what is humanly impossible: poll thousands of data points using algorithms to help catch operational issues with the building systems, something we refer to as fault diagnostics. When performing what we call ongoing commissioning (OCx) or fault diagnostics, we rely on artificial intelligence to find system issues. Data polling of energy critical automation points every 3-5 minutes generates an enormous amount of data. Many would agree, based on the sheer volume of data to analyze alone, that it would not be humanly possible to perform OCx. For this simple reason, the development of algorithms to identify abnormalities in the day-to-day operations is extremely valuable. The OCx process uses building automation exclusively and relies on some human interface to interpret the data abnormalities. The OCx process relies on the accuracy of field-installed devices to report information back for analysis. Fault diagnostics offers remote continuous building monitoring and analysis, and it is typically used in facilities equipped with automation systems that are managing energy-consuming equipment. Ongoing commissioning has been around for over 25 years now; however, it is also recognized that the reliability of sensors and controls on which the operations staff rely declines over time if they are not calibrated frequently. During the course of my research and in writing this book, I observed that building automation and control network standards have been in a constant state of change. According to the American Society of Heating and Refrigeration Engineers (ASHRAE), the building automation and control network standard (BACnet), which is a communications protocol for the Building Automation and Control (BAC) network that supports the ASHRAE, ANSI, and ISO 16484-5 standard protocols, is now recognized as the standard protocol in the U.S.

57 People are good at eliminating unrealistic options in assessing possible fault causes and subsequently exercising judgment, and both functions are considered to be part of the required human interaction with the BMS system. . The Sustainable Commissioning Approach

In order to complete a dissertation, there must first be a problem to solve. During my dissertation, the research behind this book was identified through comprehensive examination of the subject matter to confirm that a problem existed with both the OCx and RCx commissioning processes. I found that OCx and RCx services are rarely deployed in parallel; you invest in either one or the other. Before my study, means and methods of fault detection had not been addressed resulting in a less than desirable efficiency and return on investment (ROI). Due to lack of studies and access to proprietary data, legal barriers existed which would have to be overcome to obtain the necessary data. Through the use of confidentiality agreements with select data providers, I was able to overcome this barrier. Until the time my research was completed in 2010, commissioning process improvements had not been made, and they continued to lose effectiveness. If obstacles such as the proprietary data barriers couldn’t be overcome, business opportunities would continue to be lost as stakeholders are usually not willing to invest in commissioning services without proven return on investment. The optimization of commissioning requires more efficient fault detection which results in a greater ROI and carbon reduction. As part of my research, I studied 80 buildings across the U.S. in multiple industries to understand the fault detection capability differences between OCx and RCx. My research concluded that the two fault detection methods for commissioning buildings were very different given that OCx uses computers to collect the data, whereas RCx uses humans to collect the data through audits and to physically repair issues.

58 After Northcentral University performed extensive research on this subject, they informed me that no one had completed a dissertation on comparative analysis of the two commissioning technologies, and they authorized me to proceed with the study. The main purpose of my research was to assess fault detection differences between OCx and RCx, improve the processes, and develop a methodology that could be applied to buildings to get them to be more sustainable with respect to the energy they consume. Comparing differences was important for increasing the fault detection efficiency required to achieve an adequate return on investment for commissioning services and increase building energy performance. I utilized a quantitative comparative statistical design to address the problem and answer the research question, “Is there or is there not a difference between ongoing and retroactive commissioning?” Many believe they are the same thing to a certain degree. Four U.S. commissioning firms participated in the study: three located in Boston, Massachusetts, and one in Baltimore, Maryland. The fault occurrence data was collected for two groups of buildings, 40 for each commissioning type (OCx and RCx). To answer the research question, two hypotheses with statistically testable conditions were postulated. The results from the independent t-tests were statistically insignificant resulting in no recommendations; however, there was a major difference in what each technology identified for faults. Using the data collected from 40 buildings for each technology (80 total) quantitatively, 2847 faults were identified using the ongoing commissioning process applying artificial and human intelligence. Using the same number of buildings, a total of 4196 faults were identified applying the retroactive commissioning process using human intelligence as the primary form of technology. Buildings in both the data sets were equal in total square footage size (100,000 s.f.). All values were based upon number of faults in each category for both commissioning types. The faults identified by the RCx process which were absent in the OCx process indicated where efficiency opportunities exist. Underlined in the following table are the faults detected through the RCx commissioning and auditing process.

59 Table 1 Ongoing and retroactive commissioning fault percentage deviations Ongoing Retro Ongoing Retroactive # Fault issue identified faults faults % gain % gain 1 Discharge / return temperature fault 236 18 1211% -92% 2 Discharge / exhaust pressure / static flow 227 140 62% -38% 3 Economizer / outdoor exhaust damper fault 126 89 42% -29% 4 Simultaneous heating and cooling 139 27 415% -81% 5 Return / space air change rate 47 34 38% -28% 6 Space temperature fault 72 57 26% -21% 7 Fan cycling / damper oscillation 14 11 27% -21% 8 Air balancing / leaking 15 276 -95% 1740% 9 Visual thermostat in wrong location 1 215 -100% 21400% 10 Visual deflection / vibration / overheating / binding 1 232 -100% 23100% 11 Relative humidification fault 39 23 70% -41% 12 Improper valve / damper position 41 60 -32% 46% 13 Pump / valve / oscillation cycling / leak through 197 128 54% -35% 14 Water / steam temperature 85 25 240% -71% 15 Water / steam pressure 41 19 116% -54% 16 Water / steam flow 6 124 -95% 1967% 17 Water / steam leaks 118 196 -40% 66% 18 Pneumatic pressure (valve / damper) 9 13 -31% 44% 19 Unstable signal 108 41 163% -62% 20 Meter calibration 23 35 -34% 52% 21 Sensor / switch / signal calibration / voltage 278 268 4% -4% Continued on next page

60 Table 1 Ongoing and retroactive commissioning fault percentage differences (continued) Ongoing Retro Ongoing Retroactive # Fault issue identified faults faults % gain % gain 22 Sensor / switch fault / controller flat line 163 89 83% -45% 23 Smoke / hood / air filter alarms 19 28 -32% 47% 24 Envelope leaks / building pressurization 1 330 -100% 32900% 25 Visual observations (incorrect installation, damage, drainage, missing equipment) 1 543 -100% 54200% 26 Equipment accessibility issues / housekeeping 1 406 -100% 40500% 27 Equipment performance / vfd control / fault 125 109 15% -13% 28 Runtime / overridden in hand position 84 51 65% -39% 29 Engineering issue (over/undersized) 41 109 -62% 166% 30 Incorrect labeling / documentation conflict 11 87 -87% 691% 31 Sequence optimization / tuning / programming 576 336 71% -42% 32 Field / BMS issue (reversed or incorrect wiring) 7 77 -91% 1000%

This observation applies to both commissioning types. Although some of these faults could have been distributed into other categories to equalize percentages during the data sorting process, deviations remained regardless. The conclusion of the data analysis revealed there were 32 common faults that occurred in a building given the application of OCx and RCx concurrently. Of the 32 identified faults, the conclusion was that both technologies have to be deployed concurrently in the effort to maintain ongoing efficiency. The following figure presents the theory that by combining both technologies simultaneously, a higher level of efficiency can result in finding the maximum number of faults. The areas under the curves in blue and green represent opportunities for each technology.

Figure 4. Comparing fault differences between commissioning technologies

To improve commissioning fault detection efficiency, an audit of the data was required to confirm that differences exist between fault detection methodologies. Where fault detection deviations exist, there are opportunities to increase efficiencies for both the OCx and RCx processes. I realized this, and it formed the basis of the Sustainable Commissioning process. I put the observations from my research into practice, and with the help of others, I completed 8 case studies over the past 7 years to prove this methodology is highly effective. The connection to OCx is critical and must be maintained 8760 hours per year by looking at critical elements of the HVAC, boilers, chillers, and other critical central plant operations. The operational and functional energy audit should be conducted at least once per year to identify changing conditions. If issues are found during the audit, they should be retroactively commissioned to restore systems back to their normal operation.

62 Applying the sustainable commissioning concept, results found later in this chapter conclude an average payback on investment of 18 months with a five- year internal rate of return of 75% and an average net present value of $688,253 over the eight case studies with an average of 1000 MTCO2 per project. The case studies can be found in Chapter IV of this book. Only through understanding the means and methods of fault detection can we understand what our investment and savings will be.

Energy Audit and Retroactive Commissioning Process

Now that I have discussed the research behind the Sustainable Commissioning concept, I can share with you how to integrate these two technologies together. I will first start with the basic energy audit or audit process. The process outlined in the following sections includes questions I typically ask when conducting an energy audit or assessment. The questions are required to better understand how building systems are being operated. The issues and culture around operations and maintenance personnel and their expectations of the energy audit are a few things that need to be considered. The operational audit covers the planning stages of the audit, documentation review, and interviews with operations and maintenance personnel to understand where further energy opportunities may exist. The operational portion of the audit includes reviews of system drawings, process and identification drawings (P&IDs), sequence of operations, building architectural drawings (windows, walls, roof, etc.), and the location of mechanical rooms, electrical rooms, and other areas that will require access. The functional audit steps you through the analysis of each building system and integrates the use of energy measuring equipment and in-field observation of the building infrastructure support systems.

63 Beyond using the human senses (eyes, nose, and ears), some basic equipment can be rented or purchased to assist in finding and measuring opportunities. As the functional part of the audit focuses on non-invasive testing, it is worth a brief review of some basic pieces of equipment and their capabilities.

Basic Tools and Equipment

Beyond using the human senses (eyes, nose, and hearing); some basic equipment can be rented or purchased to assist in finding and measuring opportunities. As the functional part of the audit focuses on non-invasive testing, it is worth a brief review some of the basic equipment and its capability. Some of the basic equipment may include the following:

- amperage probe/ kilowatt meter - infrared camera - foot-candle light meter - portable data loggers (temp,

humidity, light levels, CO2) - combustion analyzer - air flow and pressure annometer - strap-on ultrasonic flow meter - digital camera - tape measure - smoke test tubes - stethoscope - laptop computer - energy modeling software Figure 5. Energy measurement tools

64 Some of this equipment will assist in taking air pressure readings on the envelope of the building, using infrared thermography to identify areas of energy loss, taking motor amperage readings to understand inefficiencies, and taking air and water flow readings in HVAC system equipment to better understand operations. Following the audit, the collected information is run through the 32 fault commissioning checks derived from my research to ensure all opportunities have been evaluated. Once the audit is complete, each energy measure is quantified as to how much it will cost to implement, what the potential savings are, what the net present value is, what the internal rate of return is, and what the carbon savings of the opportunities identified are. Once the matrix is complete, then the workshop can be completed. The workshop involves the people who will be making the decision to move forward with your energy projects. The actual process of implementing the identified measures is the RCx process, during which the issues are actually corrected, measured, and verified for savings. Although I furnish you with some basic knowledge on this subject, it is advised you consult a certified energy auditor or assessor. You may have trained personnel already with the right knowledge in the area of energy to identify some opportunities. If hiring an energy assessor or auditor, you would want someone with experience and a professional engineer’s license or someone who is a Certified Energy Manager (CEM) and Auditor (CEA) through the American Energy Engineers Association (AEE) with a few years of experience.

65 Individual Systems Operations Review

The following interview process can be done in tandem with functional testing of systems allowing the energy auditors to split apart to best utilize time. By asking the right questions, hopefully you will get the right answers. If you don’t get the right answers, this is where you will have the opportunity to find improvement. The functional audit usually begins on the second day of the audit, as the first day is dedicated to an operational overview, safety orientation, and a continued tour of the site. At this stage I begin a series of questions that have to be answered for each of the energy-consuming process systems. For the individual systems operations review, the following discussion would apply to all systems which use energy to move air, water, or some other type of fluid. Examples would be boiler systems (hot water and steam), chilled water systems (electric centrifugal, screw, gas turbine, steam absorption), water for injection (WFI), reverse osmosis systems (RO), deionized water (DI), air compressor systems (AC), hazardous fume removal, general ventilation systems, air handlers (HVAC), etc. I have commented on each question asked to give you an idea of what the outcome may be. You will have a number of questions to ask during the individual systems operation interview process. Find out what type of systems are present and how many of them are on site. Due to time constraints, sometimes you will have to take a representative sample of systems to evaluate. If there are multiple systems, possibly they can be tied together, or one can be eliminated.

Figure 6. Steam leaking from failed trap

66 Take name plate data and understand if motors could be changed out or a VFD added to the system to increase overall system performance. Ask maintenance personnel if they know of any leaks or repetitive system issues. Leaks, if excessive enough, can increase the utility bills; issues of pump cavitation can cause amperage fluctuations with the motors. Leaks can also cause indoor air quality issues and mold growth. For steam systems, be sure to confirm that traps are operating correctly. If they are not, a remediation plan should be pursued. Investigate what the operating parameters (system flows and pressures) are. By understanding the operating parameters, you can determine if there is opportunity to reduce flow, pressure, or temperature. Too high of a system pressure consumes more energy. As a test for boiler steam systems, on a cold night, reduce pressure and temperature slowly to identify areas that fall below set point to better understand what is actually required for heating. For chillers, in the peak summer, can the water temperature be reset to a higher set point? One way of testing this is to slowly raise the temperature until issues begin to arise (areas becoming too warm). In some of these cases, the warmer areas can be rebalanced for more water or air flow. Knowing what the temperature parameters are is helpful. If the water temperatures for chiller systems can be raised 1°F, a 1-1.5% system efficiency gain can be realized. If the temperature on a hot water system can be reduced or tracked based on outdoor air temperature, significant energy savings can result. Raising or lowering temperature set points based on outdoor air temperature always leads to energy savings. I have seen an entire campus’s chilled water system running at a low water temperature just to serve one piece of equipment. In these cases, a small trim chiller could be installed allowing the remainder of the system to operate at a higher temperature. Take a look at VFD positions and see if they can be lowered. Many times I see drives locked out or running at 60 Hz for no apparent reason. Understanding what the electrical requirements are is a critical part of the evaluation.

67 Evaluate name plate data and ask if the system is running over name plate amps. If so, understand why and then run an energy savings calculation. Understanding what the storage capacity of a system is can help you gain knowledge of how much energy is being lost to surroundings. Condensate receiver tanks and domestic hot water tanks with too much or too little capacity can cause boilers and chillers to cycle on and off too much resulting in inefficiency. As with any system, it is critical to understand what the overall performance of the system is. Knowing the energy efficiency rating (EER) is helpful in understanding how the system should be performing. By measuring the input power and the output capacity, you can confirm the efficiency. This simple test can be done by the manufacturer or energy auditor in most cases. As with any system, it needs to be reliable. Looking at name plate data and checking against manufacturer specifications are important. For boiler systems, understand what the stoichiometry and combustion efficiency are along with return temperature of condensate for steam systems. Many times there are annual tune-up reports you can obtain copies of to get a better understanding of how the system is operating. All these factors add up to understanding the total system efficiency. Find out if there is a BMS interface for the system you are evaluating. If the system has a BMS interface, you may have access to energy information such as power consumption, data output, or a diagnostic log that shows performance over time. There are now wireless devices that can connect to local unit controllers. This technology allows units to be networked and some level of ongoing commissioning fault diagnostics to be performed. Information such as runtime hours can sometimes be confirmed via BMS or meter logs. Reducing runtime or turning equipment off when not in use will lead to savings opportunities. During the operational audit, find out if there are any process and instrumentation diagrams for the system. Most times these can be obtained prior to the audit, which will give you an idea of how the system is configured.

68 Upon further examination, you may find the drawings and process identification diagrams are not correct. This is very typical in buildings that are not under some level of change control. Improper system modifications made over time can lead to excessive energy usage over the life cycle. These issues would include too small of a pipe or duct, improper elbows, clogged filters, and other added friction components increasing static and fluid pressure and causing energy waste. Very importantly noted, find out if the system can be walked down (confirmed by eyesight) to verify that the P&ID configuration is correct and that the sequence of operations actually matches the operation. There is a good potential that systems that cannot be walked down or verified were not properly commissioned due to inaccessibility. If this is the case, there may be unseen discrepancies between what is installed in the field and what is in the drawings (e.g., pipes and fittings in walls or in inaccessible spaces). During the interview, you may need to confirm that the system is engineered properly (not over or undersized). In some cases, I have seen pumps of similar size swapped in their positions, meaning the chilled water pumps were installed where the heating pumps were supposed to go. Although the pumps are close in size, they will have differently sized impellers and operational differences. In three phase applications, I have seen the wires swapped, so the pump was actually running backwards! If the proper pump is not in the correct position, the impeller which moves the water may be sized incorrectly causing excessive energy use, even if the motors are rated for the same horsepower. Understand if the frequency of operation or cycle time is normal or abnormal. Looking at this is an indication the system may be doing more work that it has to; failed sensors can cause unnecessary runtime. Understand where the service is going and who the main system users are. Are the users trained to observe items like lights left on, air leaks, abnormal sounds, and problems with the system?

69 Many times the end users will know about system problems long before they are discovered in the routine preventative maintenance (PM) program. If possible, find out what the load profile of the system is (VFD control, meter input/output). Staging multiple pieces of equipment properly is important for the energy they consume. Higher efficiencies occur when the equipment is utilized near its full capacity. Many times I find multiple pieces of equipment running at part load to equalize runtime instead of operating one machine at full load and trimming excess load with a VFD. The load profile is critical to understanding where the maximum efficiency occurs with any system, especially chillers. Many times the translation is lost, and efficiency is not the focus. Knowing how any system is loaded under demand is critical to understanding the energy it uses. Check if the VFDs are working or not. Sometimes you will find out they have been overridden to operate at 100%. Sometimes false demand can happen from a bad sensor or unnecessary cycling of air or liquid. If the runtime is measured or logged by maintenance personnel as part of a standard operating procedure, this information can help identify opportunities, especially when the equipment is not needed but is still running anyway. Knowing the runtime helps identify and schedule times for equipment to be off when it is not needed or run at a reduced operation. The following diagram is taken from a Cimetrics ongoing commissioning report. The graph makes it possible to visually understand excessive runtime on equipment that should not have been running at particular times.

70 Figure 7. Cimetrics equipment runtime graphic

Understanding if the system performance has been compared to other systems in the industry can help lead to identifying best practices. Inquire if there is a typical operational cost for the output of the system (output/input). Vendors of equipment have insight as to how much energy should be consumed according to coefficient of performance (COP) or energy efficiency ratings (EER). These numbers indicate if energy is being wasted or not; and if it is, find out why. Following this interview process, you should have in-depth knowledge of each system, what the potential deficiencies are, and where there may be financial opportunities or reliability risks.

Utilities Operations Review

The next step under the operational audit is to conduct the utilities operations review to better understand how systems are being operated. The discussion provides some ideas that may assist you with this part of the audit. If possible, find out from the people you are interviewing what system they are responsible for.

71 Gaining an understanding of the system they are responsible for and what kind of on-the-job training experience they have with the system are critical in understanding their awareness, especially as it pertains to energy efficiency and education in that area. They should have the knowledge to test the system and to recognize energy inefficiencies. Answering this question may lead to a recommendation to obtain more training on the system or to put in place a metric that allows for routine energy efficiency measuring. Find out what the communication between utilities and operations people is. Operations many times has insight into utility problems like fluctuations pressures, quality changes, odors, leaks, etc., which may not be immediately visible to utilities personnel. Understand if there are requests from operations personnel to the utilities group and if they are reasonable. I have found that unreasonable requests indicate there are issues with the system other than just operations alone. This question could lead you to a reliability or other system issue. Understand how their role fits into the context of operations. The closer the relationship between utilities and operations, the more likelihood those abnormalities will be discussed and resolved. If possible, find out what the communication structure or protocol is. The communication structure is critical to preventing issues before they become major operational problems. Understanding how the staff supports energy conservation initiatives is an important conversation to have. Always try to gain insight into whether the staff is educated to spot or identify energy problems. Vendors occasionally offer training on certain pieces of equipment, but it is really up to the staff to understand when something is not right. Examples may be a VFD drive that is running over its design capacity or a system over or under pressure. Find out how they handle specific activities like startup and shutdown of operations. Startup and shutdown of systems can be critical to the energy they consume. In the event of a shutdown and startup of a system, sometimes valves don’t get opened up fully resulting in an increased pressure drop. Sometimes automated (pneumatic/direct digital control) dampers actuators don’t always fully open after a power shutdown.

72 These are all critical energy problems that may go unseen many times. This is why it is important in commissioning exercises to understand what the base design conditions were when the system was newly installed. Understand if there are established standard operational procedures for equipment in service. Standard operating procedures will indicate the proper startup and shutdown of systems. They should include critical operational parameters such as flow, temperature, and pressure, and they should confirm that the necessary safeties are in place. Any event which deviates from the procedure is cause for investigation. Ask if they feel energy efficiency is a part of their daily operations. Not always is energy a primary focus in daily operations; normally it is about keeping systems up and running. By making energy efficiency a part of the operational culture, inefficiencies can be noted earlier if they are visible; when not visible, technologies like OCx can help identify issues through artificial intelligence algorithms and set alarms. Understanding if training is theoretical or practical in nature can lead to insight into how operations are managed. If training is theoretical, one might not fully understand the mechanics of the system and how it is supposed to operate. When the training is practical in nature, the mechanics of the system are understood, which results in more in- depth knowledge when a problem arises. These questions lead to understanding if there is on-the-job training (OJT) available. If there is OJT, find out how effective it is. When available, OJT is good; however, when not available, technical training is not always as effective, as the instructors many times understand just the design aspect of the system and do not know how to identify operational inefficiencies. From a systems perspective, find out if they know if their systems are energy efficient. Although this was mentioned earlier, knowing if the system is energy efficient goes back to the fundamentals of what the design operation should be. To understand the design flow conditions, take amperage readings of the pumps, confirm VFD drive positions, and verify that system pressures are within normal operating range.

73 Being able to understand when deviation or abnormal operation of the system is occurring is critical to assessing energy loss. If they are looking at some type of capacity utilization and operational excellence program, you most likely are dealing with a higher level of knowledge around energy and reliability. Understanding what the capacity of the system is with respect to supply and demand is critical. If a piece of equipment is not delivering what it was supposed to, sometimes this is misinterpreted as a capacity constraint for which another piece of equipment is then justified. The new piece of equipment will have a capital expense associated with it and may not have been required because the efficiency of the existing system was not analyzed closely enough to understand that a problem existed before purchase. The result is that low efficiency requires more equipment; the root of the problem needs to be identified first to understand why the system is not delivering the connected capacity as designed. Many times new installations on an electrical, chilled water, or boiler system are completed without knowledge of the system owner, and for that reason, a system may require additional capacity. Find out if there is a governing body for energy consumption (state, federal, convenience) influencing the use of energy. In many cases, mainly in Europe and in some U.S. states, there are local ordinances, and government is actively involved in promoting energy reduction. These types of influences can help reduce energy consumption and help keep equipment operating as efficiently as possible to minimize emissions. Carbon credits are actively traded on the market. Find out if they have daily operational meetings. Daily operational meetings are a good way to communicate information around energy conservation. It is a time when end users meet with utilities to discuss how operations are performing. It is at this time that deficiencies, inefficiencies, and deviation in services are identified. Critical questions get asked from end users like, “How come I don’t have as much pressure when using compressed air?” or “Why has the temperature in the room gone up?”

74 These are all signs that there are issues to be investigated like leaks and potential equipment failures. Understand if there are any issues seen in the daily operations record that could affect energy consumption. Daily visual observations of temperature gauges out of range, hearing noises, and feeling vibrations can all be key indicators that something is not right. Bearings failing in a motor can cause a lot of vibration; as a result, the motor or pump is no longer balanced and will require more energy to operate. There may be an opportunity to develop a standard operating procedure or modify the content to promote energy efficient operation. Formalizing a program for utility technicians to include energy efficiency is a good idea. Understanding how the system is supposed to operate versus how it is operating is another way to identify issues. During the interview, find out if there are opportunities for energy awareness training across the site. Going beyond end users into technical spaces, people in offices, and other areas can help change the culture around energy consumption. Communicating how much the annual energy bill is, along with getting people to turn off computers, equipment, and lights when not in use, is helpful and can change the cultural awareness around energy consumption. In the event real- time information is provided to empower operators with the knowledge to make adjustments for energy efficiency, find out how and what they define as acceptable limits. Have a conversation around a load shed strategy and participating in demand response with power companies; this can be financially beneficial. Real- time information collected through the BMS system can assist in this area. On hot summer days when power is in demand, load shedding or taking some equipment like non-critical HVAC systems off-line for an hour can save significant electricity and avoid a power demand charge. Understand if knowledge is shared by senior engineers to younger staff and operators, particularly for HVAC optimization. Transfer of knowledge can be very beneficial, especially in well- established organizations that have been around for a while.

75 If information is not shared, it usually is lost over time. Most importantly, it is critical to understand if there are any operating profiles for the utility systems and if sub-metering exists to assist in understanding how energy is being utilized. When these systems are in place, then specific areas can be focused on for energy reduction. For example, sub-metering a manufacturing area can identify how much energy is costing per unit of product. Find out how much energy is being consumed as part of any given process if possible. Sub-metering allows power loads to be analyzed for opportunities; without it, individual measurements must be taken or logged over time. If possible, find out if the energy awareness across the site is communicated by including energy improvement as part of employees’ yearly objectives. When energy becomes a part of an employee’s deliverable or compensation plan, it will receive significantly more attention than energy directives given with no incentive or objective. Be sure to have a conversation around training to improve individual employee understanding. Basic employee training on energy can be very beneficial. If you can change employee habits by training them on things they can do at home to reduce energy, there is a good chance they will take that practice to work with them. Understanding if there is a wide communication of energy conservation measures, site consumption, targets, and initiatives is the first step in educating toward an energy efficient culture. Energy conservation measures should be communicated at all levels of the organization, especially if the company has a carbon reduction goal. In some cases, this can foster competition between departments working toward energy goals. Raffles, lunches, and other ways to incentivize employees to reduce energy are usually a minor investment compared to the impact employees make on energy. It is important to ask if energy efficiency is considered at all stages of project development, procurement, and implementation. Energy has to be considered in the conceptual design before the equipment is specified.

76 Many times inferior or cheaper equipment is purchased to save project money, and it is later realized that the additional energy it will consume over the life cycle will far outweigh the investment of purchasing a better piece of equipment. This is why conducting a simple life cycle analysis when looking at energy alternatives is financially critical in the beginning of a project. Focus on employee culture; find out if there is an equipment labeling program for lighting and process equipment that can be switched off. Labeling can be put on light switches and certain types of non-critical equipment. For laboratory equipment, I use a red, yellow, and green tag approach. Green means you can turn it off if no one is using the equipment. Yellow means you must ask the operator first, and red is critical (do not shut off). The labels could also include energy information like CO2 emissions generated and annual cost to operate to encourage end user participation. During the interview, find out if there is a utility master plan that documents capacity, demand scenarios, and critical user requirements. A utility master plan is useful in creating an energy balance. An energy balance is a holistic understanding of all equipment and what energy it should use given manufacturing operations and weather data. The energy roadmap is useful for forecasting energy consumption and balancing the overall operation. Ask if there are any established energy objectives, targets, and measures for all buildings and production facilities across the site or campus. Understanding the energy baseline is the first step in quantifying energy consumption. An Energy Management System (EnMS) similar to ISO 50001 requires a baseline to be established. Energy performance measures are then mapped against the baseline using KPIs (key process indicators) to show continuous improvement. During the operational interview, find out if they are performing vibration monitoring, infrared thermography, motor current analysis, or any other reliability and energy inspections routinely. If there is excessive vibration and heat rejection from fans, pumps, motors, transformers, and switchgear, this can be an indication of increased power consumption or safety concerns.

77 Routinely testing equipment for heat and vibration is a good idea and should be a part of everyone’s preventative maintenance program. Inquire if energy efficiency is considered for spare materials or parts. Many times spare motors and equipment for emergency use are stocked. The problem arises when the redundant equipment sits for many years unused, and many times, it is not as efficient as a new piece of equipment. For this reason, going with a part-less stock room frees up space on site. Finding a vendor that will guarantee instant delivery to your site in times of emergency would need to be negotiated. That way you will be getting the latest technology and will not be risking the complications that arise from equipment sitting for long periods of time, such as bearings being dried out or flattened from weight. Understand if energy performance is communicated with key service providers to ensure that performance (water treatment, boiler operations, and air compressors) is sustained over time. Many times if vendors know you are interested in energy efficiency, they will offer options over their standard equipment. Many times the local utility will offer an incentive to pick up the difference, realizing the savings impact on the electrical infrastructure over the life of the equipment. Find out if costs targeted by plant area provide any incentive to reduce consumption. Sub-metering is a good way to target certain areas for energy reduction. When set up correctly, sub-metering will allow for a constant baseline audit and analysis for any abnormal energy-consuming activity. Without sub- metering, it is difficult to ascertain how or why there are deviations in energy consumption. Sub-metering allows for mapping of operations, and when connected to the BAS system, it will also allow for fault diagnostics to identify abnormalities in consumption. These are just some examples of questions asked during the utility operations interview with facilities and maintenance personnel that can lead to energy-saving ideas.

78 Training and Development Review

The next step under the operational audit is to conduct the training and development review to better understand how employees are trained and what systems they use for energy management. The following discussion is around some of the key areas to focus upon. Gaining an understanding as to how the maintenance training is recorded is critical to understanding how energy is viewed. By finding out what kind of a system is used, if one at all, it will help you understand how effective it is. The importance here is to understand if there are training records and if not already in place, include some form of energy knowledge. Understand if there are plans to use some type of work instructions for effective system use and energy management. If not already employing a formal energy management program such as ISO 50001 or Superior Energy Performance (SEP), there needs to be a baseline mapped and energy initiatives pursued to reduce overall energy consumption. Many times the most effective way to assess the energy system is to have a written instruction plan or making the plan part of the standard operating procedure. This procedure would apply to all higher energy consuming equipment including process, central plant, and any other on-site operations that use a large amounts of energy. Having a conversation around what training is given to plant operations is a good to have. Finding out if there is any training around energy given the operation of the facility. If there is no training plan in place, there are many consultants that offer low cost energy toolbox type classes. Some of the larger companies in the HVAC industry like Trane and Carrier offer clinics or certification programs. Hosting a ½ day session could prove to be very effective. All new practices should be tracked so improvement can be measured at some capacity. Understanding what procedures there are in place is critical to educating employees around the use of energy.

79 If energy is not part of the procedure, or at least an awareness of it, it will be overlooked. It is good to find out if maintenance personnel express any need for training. Training is an important component to operational success with-in any plan operations organization. The employees must be empowered and proud of the systems they maintain and operate. My experience has been when you provide system ownership; there is a level of pride that takes over beyond the day to day operations that occurs. It is said that up to 12% of the annual energy consumed by a commercial property can be related to employ habits around energy. It is good to have the staff trained to be cross function in tasks adding a level of redundancy to operations. Empowered employees have proved to want to advance and require ongoing education to stay current in the systems they operate. The understanding if there is a system along with KPI requirements is an integral step towards the ISO 50001 system. In the absence of a formal management system, establishing KPI’s is a good practice because you always have an understanding of the energy baseline and the system you are measuring. Without a well-established KPI, there will be lack of vision upon what should or shouldn’t be evaluated for performance.

Maintenance Operations Review

80 The importance here is to understand if there are training records and, if not already in place, to include some form of energy knowledge. Understand if there are plans to use some type of work instructions for effective system use and energy management. If not already employing a formal energy management program such as ISO 50001 or Superior Energy Performance (SEP), a baseline needs to be mapped and energy initiatives pursued to reduce overall energy consumption. Many times the most effective way to assess the energy system is to have a written instruction plan or to make the plan part of the standard operating procedure. This procedure would apply to all higher energy-consuming equipment including process, central plant, and any other on-site operations that use large amounts of energy. A conversation around what training is given in plant operations is a good one to have. Find out if there is any training around energy in the operation of the facility. If there is no training plan in place, there are many consultants that offer low cost energy toolbox type classes. Some of the larger companies in the HVAC industry like Trane and Carrier offer clinics or certification programs. Hosting a ½ day session could prove to be very effective. All new practices should be tracked so improvement can be measured in some capacity. Understanding what procedures there are in place is critical to educating employees around the use of energy. If energy is not part of the procedure, or at least an awareness of it, it will be overlooked. It is good to find out if maintenance personnel express any need for training. Training is an important component of operational success within any plan of operations organization. The employees must be empowered and proud of the systems they maintain and operate. My experience has been that when you provide system ownership, there is a level of pride that takes over beyond the day-to-day operations that occur. It is said that up to 12% of the annual energy consumed by a commercial property can be related to employee habits around energy.

81 It is good to have the staff trained to be cross-functional in tasks, adding a level of redundancy to operations. Empowered employees have proven to want to advance and require ongoing education to stay current in the systems they operate. Understanding if there is a system, along with KPI requirements, is an integral step toward the ISO 50001 system. In the absence of a formal management system, establishing KPIs is a good practice because you will always have an understanding of the energy baseline and the system you are measuring. Without a well-established KPI, there will be lack of vision as to what should or shouldn’t be evaluated for performance.

Laboratory Operations Review

If you have or audit a laboratory, there can be many differences in how energy is consumed depending upon what is being done in the lab. High chemical usages or research may drive higher air exchange rates. Sometimes there are strict health, safety, and environmental rules or codes and laws driving the operation and use of the laboratory. Many times I find that operations can be changed to accommodate energy conservation, provided the right people are involved. Understand if lab personnel are open to the idea of changing operations as they relate to energy conservation. A great example of this is the use of fume hoods or cup boards. If the fume hoods are constant volume exhaust, possibly they can be retrofitted to become low flow hoods and still meet the safety requirements of ASHRAE 110 (American Society of Refrigeration Engineers, air flow safety tests for fume hoods). The ASHRAE 110 test utilizes tracer gas to fully understand the ventilation effectiveness in protecting the worker against hazardous substances used in the hood. Conditioning make-up air into the laboratory that is exhausted by fume hoods can be expensive depending upon the outdoor climate. Other changes like modifying cycle times on equipment, closing down fume hood sashes when not in use, and turning off unused plug strips when not in use are all examples of changing the culture around energy.

82 Before energy awareness can be applied, a survey must be completed to understand what is left on when not in use. Once that is understood, an intelligent strategy can be applied to construct a plan to address the impact on energy savings and carbon. Find out if the laboratory personnel would consider changing work hours to accommodate peak demand charges. This change may involve moving the lunch hour forward or backward; all is dependent on when the demand time is as designated by the utility. One of the more significant aspects of laboratory operations is understanding the culture toward energy consumption in the laboratory. How aware are people of opportunities to make a difference? Lab operators and scientists need to be educated on the monthly and annual costs of energy. Without an understanding of energy use and cost, the idea of energy waste cannot be materialized.

Figure 8. Typical laboratory space Standard practices you would do at home like turning lights out, raising temperature in the summer and lowering it in the winter, and turning off computers and equipment when not in use are major steps forward in changing culture. Having lunch-and-learn sessions on a frequent basis will also keep energy conservation on everyone’s mind. Many don’t understand how much energy equipment uses. Installing tags on equipment telling what the annual cost and carbon emissions are if left on is a way of educating and reminding people on the subject. Again, this is where implementation of a red, yellow, and green tag program may benefit you. A red, yellow, and green tag program works in many laboratories, and if the colors are conflicting with some other safety system, then numbers can be used.

83 Organizational Practices Review

The next step in the energy audit is to review organizational practices. This review is usually carried out with some employees and managers at the site. Understanding how the corporate environmental objective is communicated to employees is the first step in energy awareness. The ISO 50001 system requires this with auditable proof. Objectives around the reduction of energy use should be posted in a visible place like the cafeteria, lobby, or other common space where employees will see them on a routine basis. Routine global e-mailings and company newsletters are other forms of media which can be used. Some companies have networked large screen monitors in the entries of their buildings displaying safety or product data; this is another way energy can be communicated. The focus on and attention to energy use should be part of everyone’s job description. There should be annual training requirements just as reminders that energy use is important not only to save cost but also to reduce carbon emissions. It is good to interview people to find out if they are aware of the energy goal, if there is one, and to find out what improvements have been made to support the goal. If there is a corporate goal, you will want to find out what the goal is and what progress has been made. You will want to understand who supports the goal and how and why it was implemented. Energy management systems like ISO 50001 require an energy policy statement and support from senior management to help reach that goal. It is important that senior management is engaged and supports the energy policy and goal. Another critical step in assessing energy is finding out if there is a history of energy conservation measures for the building or site. Understanding what energy measures have already been identified will help you assess the potential for opportunity. Even if some of the easy energy conservation measures have been completed, be careful, because I find the low- hanging fruit always grows back.

84 An example of this is compressed air and steam trap leaks; they seem to reoccur on a frequent basis. I was recently at a site where the steam trap surveys had not been completed in several years. The outcome of the survey was that 60% of the steam was being wasted to atmosphere. Understand if facility personnel and managers have a good relationship with external suppliers for compressors, chillers, boilers, and other major energy-consuming pieces of equipment. Some vendors will sell a maintenance package and guarantee equipment efficiency. When you purchase a new product, whether it is a boiler or a chiller, as part of the commissioning of that piece of equipment, it must undergo a performance test to ensure it is operating as designed. Most vendors guarantee energy efficiency under the first-year warranty. Others will offer an extended warranty; however, you must be sure energy performance is part of the agreement. Some equipment manufacturers will not guarantee efficiency and will leave it up to maintenance or service contractors to monitor. In those cases, we see equipment only getting tested once per year, if that. To ensure efficiency at all times, you would need to connect to some type of fault diagnostics or ongoing commissioning. This will allow you to monitor the input and output of the system, and then you can derive SEER (system efficiency energy rating) or a COP (coefficient of performance).

Conducting the Operational Audit

The operational audit requires introduction to building operations personnel and stakeholders supporting the energy initiative. As with any energy audit, the first step is to define the planning stage. If he building is using more energy than comparable buildings in size and use, you should consider an energy audit. Technology is advancing, and with older buildings, system controls for each piece of equipment, once standalone, now can be networked wirelessly.

85 The benefit of connecting standalone systems to the BMS system is that you can gain a holistic view of operations. Understanding when systems are running and if they need to be is important. Many times I find standalone pieces of equipment (air handlers, fans, pumps) running when they don’t need to be. Completing the operational audit is critical, as the people you interview who are in charge of the various building systems are most knowledgeable about problematic areas. Problems with systems usually indicate there is an opportunity to save energy. This situation in some cases can be a sensitive area. Some in management will question facilities personnel as to why identified conditions have not been fixed, which can result in discipline. I have found this situation to be uncomfortable and nonproductive in some cases. I have found that having transparency with maintenance and facility personnel yields the most opportunities and trust. Understanding the main site operations, best presented as a layout and/or schematic together with some descriptive text to help provide an overview, is helpful. The following table provides a guide to typical stages in an energy audit. Following the site, client, or auditee agreement, a site questionnaire should be sent out. This questionnaire is a request for information (RFI) of the building owner or facility director. The information collected in this questionnaire will answer questions which are needed to begin the audit. In the following text are the questions that will need to be asked prior to the audit and interpretations of those questions.

86 Table 2 Sample energy audit procedure

Energy Assessment Procedure Title: Functional and Operational Procedure

Reference: Practice and Procedure for Sustainable Energy Date: Management Assessor: Revision:

Stage ID Activity Responsible Party(ies) Coordinate annual energy assessment with site in Energy Program Manager, Assessment Team, Site 1 Q1 of new fiscal year. Manager Upon site agreement to participate, send out site 2 Energy Program Manager questionnaire. Set up conference call with site to discuss Energy Program Manager, Assessment Team, Site 3 assessment requirements and strategy. Manager

Planning Establish schedule of events for assessment and 4 all department contacts. Obtain P&ID drawings and Energy Program Manager, Site Manager at least 1 year of energy bills or more. Obtain quotations for using external assessors and 5 Energy Program Manager obtain purchase order if necessary. Arrive on site; conduct kickoff meeting with all involved and mobilize team (Day 1 AM ). Issue Energy Program Manager, Site Manager, Site Personnel, 6 roles & responsibilities (R&R) sheet for report Assessment Team sections. Tour facility; become familiar with system Energy Program Manager, Site Manager, Site Personnel, 7 topography and facility operations (Day 1 PM). Assessment Team Interview facilities and maintenance; complete Energy Program Manager, Site Manager, Site Personnel, 8 system questionnaire (Day 2). Assessment Team Interview facility personnel and complete functional Energy Program Manager, Site Manager, Site Personnel, Assessment 9 checklists (Day 3). Assessment Team Complete selective functional commissioning Energy Program Manager, Site Manager, Site Personnel, 10 testing on systems (Day 4). Assessment Team Conduct closing meeting and present overview of Energy Program Manager, Site Manager, Site Personnel, 11 findings (Day 5). Assessment Team Complete final energy assessment presentation 12 (PowerPoint) and send back to site; divide Site Assessment Team, Energy Program Manager disciplines; regroup; and format (2 weeks).

Report Set up conference call to discuss report and

Generation 13 Energy Program Manager, Assessment Team recommendations. Six weeks after issuing presentation and opportunities have been identified, hold a WebEx Energy Program Manager, Site Manager, Site Personnel, 14 session to rank energy conservation measures Assessment Team (ECMs) (Day 1). ECM prioritization is completed and placed onto energy conservation measurement tracking Energy Program Manager, Site Manager, Site personnel, 15 schedule (ECMTS) global tracking log and PM Assessment Team

Workshop Completion (Day 2). Schedule meeting with site to place prioritized 16 Energy Program Manager energy conservation measures onto ECMTS.

Identify resources required to implement ECM 17 Energy Program Manager, Site Energy Manager (internal / external) - capital or expense.

Set up weekly site teleconferences to track 18 implementation and M&V of measures and close- Energy Program Manager out / dismissal of ECMs.

Implementation

87 Be sure to find out the size of the site, and get a map if there is one available. Understand what is produced at the site and in what quantity. This question can lead to cost per unit of product produced, which in a competitive market like generic pharmaceuticals can provide a marketing edge against the competition. Understand the magnitude of energy and utilities usage and spending for the past few years. This would include steam, natural gas, electricity, water, and sewer; both quantity and cost are critical. This data will help you understand trends and relevant energy impacts on the building including external variables like weather and production. It is worth knowing what the typical spilt of energy is between electrical (imported or generated on site) and thermal (natural gas, coal, oil, etc.). Find out if there is an energy map of the site; some sites maintain this document for local energy compliance. In some regions of Europe, this is required as part of the facility operations by the local municipality or governing authority on energy. Investigate if there is an on-site power plant. If so, find out whether the plant produces steam from boilers or both electricity and steam from a cogeneration arrangement or micro turbine. Cogeneration is when utilities (mainly electric and steam) are generated on site. Understand if the site reports annually on any specific energy targets and if those targets are based on product output. View the operations layout for the site if it exists. It is beneficial to understand the roles of the current management. Find out if there is any responsibility to reduce energy on site. If there is not any responsibility, energy reduction can be difficult to promote and effectively accomplish, as there will be other competing priorities. Is the responsibility visible to senior management, and more importantly, do they support the initiative? Understand what their roles are and if there are targets and goals set. Ask how many employees are on site and if there is a designated site energy manager or team. Prior to the audit, find out if the site has any equipment you can use (amp probe, flow meters, foot candle meters, infrared thermograph camera, air flow probe, hobo CO2 sensors, humidity, and temperature data loggers) and when the last calibration was.

88 Find out if the site has a list of assets or any energy models of buildings. Understand if they have had an energy audit before, and if so, if they have completed energy conservation measures. In the event the site has previously gone through some type of energy audit or assessment, this will allow you to focus on areas other auditors may have not have. Find out if there is an organizational chart including key site management, engineers, and other stakeholders. This will help define where responsibilities fall for design, implementation, and operations of systems. If there are any process flow diagrams, they can be useful in understanding design, flows, and potential areas for opportunities. Investigate if there is any sub-metering to help separate loads. Find out whether there is an explanation for variability of energy consumption. Specifically, obtain a list of equipment and systems with connected utilities. These utilities may include compressed air (compressors and load requirements), refrigerant/HVAC (chillers and air handling units), steam, hot water (boilers and pumps), nitrogen, oxygen, natural gas, water (reverse osmosis, deionized, and water for injection), electricity, and process compressors. For major equipment, include equipment numbers, locations, redundancy philosophy, typical operating parameters (e.g., flow, pressure, etc.), type of fuel, power requirements, process application, and type of controls (pneumatic or DDC). By assessing the equipment, you will be able to understand the operational efficiency, age, and condition of the assets so you can make appropriate recommendations. For older equipment, take the name plate data off motors and compare to newer, higher efficiency equipment available. Importantly noted, understand what the operating hours are along with the current energy costs with demand charges if they apply; this will impact any calculations on energy savings you make. Most critical to your audit or assessment is understanding who will be present.

89 Look for representation in facility operations, plant maintenance, laboratory management, building controls personnel, HVAC technicians, process utilities engineers, building electrical technicians, auxiliary systems engineers, site managers, energy management, environmental engineers, security, and warehouse logistics personnel. This discussion should happen at least one month prior to the audit.

Table 3 Sample pre-site survey questionnaire from workbook

1 - Pre-Site Survey Questionnaire Title: Pre-Site Survey Questionnaire Reference: Practice and Procedure for Sustainable Energy Date: Management Assessor: Revision:

Action Description: Comments: Yes / No 1. What are the main site operations? (Ideally presented as a layout and/or schematic, together with some descriptive text.) 2. What is the size of the site (square feet / square meters, by building)?

3. What is produced at the site (all products and by- products)? What are the annual quantities? 4. What is the magnitude of energy and utilities usage / spend per year?

Utility Unit Cost Annual Cost 5. What is the typical split of energy between electrical (imported or generated on site) and thermal (natural gas, coal, oil. etc.)? If there is an existing energy map for the site or a utility system schematic, can this be provided? 6. Is there an on-site power plant? Does it produce only steam from boilers or electricity and steam? 7. Does the site report an annual energy-specific target (e.g., GJ/ton of product)? If so, what has been the trend over the last few years? 8. What is the organogram for the site (high level)? Which roles include responsibility for energy management? How many employees are on site?

Is there a site energy champion or steering committee on site? 9. Is there a designated site energy manager or team? 10. What equipment (e.g., amp probe, flow meters, foot-candle meters, infrared thermograph camera, air flow probe) do you have on site that could be available to assist with the assessment as designated in the global energy practice/procedure? When was the last calibration?

11. Do you have a complete list of assets?

12. Who will be available to represent the following areas during the assessment? Name and Phone

Facility Operations Plant Maintenance Laboratory Manager Building Controls HVAC Process Utilities Building Electrical Auxiliary systems RO/DI Site Management Energy Manager (part-time) Environmental 90 Warehouse / Logistics The energy audit will require enough time for the participants to plan their attendance. A site profile should be completed to understand the fundamentals of the site as shown in the preceding table. Energy audits can range anywhere from a few days to months depending upon the size of the site or facility. An agreed schedule of events for the audit including all department contacts should be completed a few weeks in advance. After agreeing to a schedule, a conference or visit to the site to discuss audit requirements and strategy should commence. Also before appearing at the site, the schedule of activities should be completed. A sample schedule may include an agenda for each day identifying the time of the event and who will be attending. The schedule of activities will be dependent upon the size and complexity of the building systems. A typical operational and functional audit can be completed by 1 or more trained people; it all depends on the size of the facility and the complexity of process equipment. I have completed audits of 150,000-200,000 s.f. of complex pharmaceutical manufacturing with 2 auditors in 3 days. For non-complex systems such as an office complex, I have done audits with 2 auditors covering up to 800,000 s.f. with multiple office buildings in 5 days. A typical operational and functional energy audit schedule for the week might look something like this:

Monday: Introductions of the energy auditor and team to the site occur in the morning audit kickoff meeting. Typically everyone involved in the audit including representation from site management and program sponsors will be in attendance. The kickoff presentation includes objectives of the audit and an overview of activities for the week. The first day also includes any required safety training, an overview of site operations, and a walk-down of the site to understand the layout, location of mechanical and electrical rooms, systems on the roof, and the perimeter of the building. If time permits, more detailed walkthroughs of the mechanical systems could be completed at this time. On the first day, deployment of data loggers on equipment is recommended. There is usually sufficient time to collect data, as most audits last 5 days.

91 Data loggers collect runtime data on pumps and fans along with light levels, temperatures, humidity, and CO2 Using the data collectors will help validate the actual occupancy of the building.

Tuesday: Usually on the second day, if there is more than one auditor, you can break into teams. One auditor will usually focus on operations of the building (schedules, sequences, operations, building management system, lighting systems, HVAC systems). The second auditor would begin the operational interviews of facility staff and operators to understand how the systems are maintained, any known problems, issues, maintenance challenges, and training required for operators.

Wednesday: The third day is a continuation of Tuesday’s activities with a more in-depth focus on the individual infrastructure support systems. On the third day, in-field testing typically begins, which includes measuring of the building’s pressurization level (positive/negative), air flow and static pressure readings in air HVAC systems, exhaust systems, etc. In the field, assess the condition of air handlers, fans, chillers, boilers, etc. Inspection of water treatment reports, chiller and boiler service logs, and any other critical equipment commences at this time. Light levels are taken along with air flow readings at the air handling units. With one auditor at the BMS system and another in the field, check for accuracy of BMS by actuating valves and dampers. Many times I find discrepancies when comparing the BMS to field conditions, which warrant further calibration or replacement. The use of infrared on pipes in mechanical rooms and areas where energy loss can occur typically is done on this day.

92 Thursday: The fourth day is a continuation of the functional testing along with continued investigation into the infrastructure support systems. At this time the 32 fault building fault matrix check is performed. This check includes looking for discharge air temperature faults, exhaust pressure problems, static flow issues, economizer and outdoor exhaust damper faults, simultaneous heating and cooling problems, return air conditions, space air change rates, space temperature faults, fan cycling problems, damper oscillations, faulty air balancing, ductwork leaking issues, visual thermostats in wrong locations, deflection and vibration problems, overheating or overcooling issues, binding of equipment, and relative humidification faults. Also included is investigation of improper valve and damper positions, pump and valve oscillations, equipment cycling, valve leak by, water and steam (temperature, flow, and pressure) issues, pneumatic pressure (valve and damper) problems, fan and valve signal oscillation instability, meter calibrations, sensor and switch problems, signal calibration and voltage issues, sensor and switch faults, controller flat line issues, status of smoke damper positions, fume hood, and air filter alarms on high differential pressure. Using the 32 fault matrix, if a fault is marked in green, it means the issue was evaluated, but there were no findings. If a fault is colored in yellow, that means there was potential issue identified, and more time may be required to confirm that there is an issue. If a fault is marked in red that means there was a problem identified. Typically identified problems lead to an energy conservation measure. There are times when the issue will be a reliability problem or potential failure. The 32 fault matrix can be used as a guide as shown in the following table.

93 Table 4 Diagnostic 32 building fault matrix

94 All investigations should include faults 1-32 listed in the preceding table. At the conclusion of analyzing these systems for faults and opportunities, a meeting is held between the auditors. This is basically a brainstorming session for all the opportunities identified up to this point in time. From this meeting, a list including each potential opportunity is generated. Upon generation of the list, the opportunities are assigned to each auditor to determine the cost, savings, amount of CO2 generated, and 5-year IRR, NPV, and ROI. These numbers are generally high-level, and the auditor uses experience with other audits and basic calculations. I use a 5-year life cycle analysis which includes the general time period from when an energy measure is implemented to the time you begin to see decline bac to the original state of efficiency. Connecting to ongoing commissioning is recommended to prevent this from happening. For capital replacements for chillers, boilers, and air handlers, I use the manufacturer’s recommended equipment life expectancy. For each energy conservation measure, an Excel worksheet is created which contains all the calculations required to support the energy conservation measure.

Friday: The first half of Friday is reserved for completing the necessary calculations to support each energy measure. Once completed, the spreadsheets are copied into the final closeout PowerPoint presentation. The PowerPoint presentation includes intent, schedule of activities, overview for the week, site demographics, energy profile, energy model validation (if used), identified energy conservation measures, portfolio financial review (cost, savings, carbon IRR, NPV, SPB), operational observations, functional observations, benchmarking calculations, digital pictures, and closing comments. The closeout presentation includes everyone who attended the kickoff meeting and generally occurs in the afternoon.

95 Any work that can be done prior to the audit to gain a better understanding of systems operations and the location and age of equipment is very beneficial. In the event an energy model is constructed, you may use free software such as DOE2 eQUEST from the Department of Energy or purchased software from any of the large HVAC manufacturers like Carrier or Trane. Depending upon the accuracy of the drawings, it is helpful to begin construction of the model prior to gaining access to the site. The energy model can be very helpful in simulating the energy usage for the building for the 8760 hours per year using binary weather data for the location. With energy modeling, you can run different parametrics on various scenarios. You simply start with a base model that is validated against existing energy bills. Once validated, you can change parameters in the original model like air changes per hour in spaces, efficiencies of equipment, lighting changes, internal shading, window u values, and roofing insulation. It is important to get the model to look as close to the building as possible and in the right orientation and correct materials of construction. The following figure is a model that is in progress on a manufacturing campus.

Figure 9. Example of E-Quest energy model in progress

96 Water Treatment Review

Water treatment has critical reliability components associated with it. Systems that circulate, heat, cool, and evaporate water are subject to corrosion, microbiological growth, mineral deposits, and many other issues that can affect system performance. By reviewing the water treatment practices, we can begin to understand where some of the more challenging areas are that could have an adverse effect on energy consumption. The water treatment review is usually carried out with the maintenance personnel with some assistance from a local water testing company. These systems usually apply to boilers, closed loop water systems, and open water systems (condenser water for open cell cooling towers) where the quality of the water is critical to the operation of the system. If there are boilers, chillers, cooling towers, or other open water systems on the site, a thorough understanding of how the equipment is operating must be achieved. Find out how the equipment is run, cycled, and sequenced to run in parallel with other systems, etc. How the equipment operates will play a key role in understanding how to maximize efficiency. As we know, a boiler or an air- cooled chiller operates at maximum efficiency when the equipment is fully loaded versus running at part load. Understanding how closed loop systems (hot, chilled, and steam loop systems) operate and are chemically treated is essential to understanding where the problematic areas are. Understand what type of chemistry is being applied; ask to see the water test reports. Understand what the pH (acidity) and phosphate levels are in boiler systems. Ask if the tubes on the boiler and/or chiller are cleaned (punched) on a scheduled basis. Find out if an efficiency test has been completed to check the pressure difference across the tubes for the boiler or chiller. Understanding this will lead you to potential energy measures. If the tubes in the chiller or boiler have not been cleaned, heat transfer becomes poor due to scaling and buildup of material.

97 This problem can also restrict flow, causing the water pump to develop too much pressure or resistance to move the fluid and resulting in increased energy consumption. Coupon racks provide removable ports with multiple thin wires representing the various metals (usually copper, steel, and stainless) that the system is constructed of. The purpose of these ports is to show how effective the water treatment is. If a copper wire completely disappears between tests, this could mean the water is too low in pH or that some other type of metallurgy problem exists. The next important item to discuss is whether there is metering on isolated systems, and if so, what strategy is used. Find out if there are meters in the system, especially to meter make-up water to the cooling tower. Many municipalities will offer an evaporation credit. Most facilities don’t know that, as it is not advertised by the municipality. It is worth looking at the water and sewer bills to understand the true savings. If possible, find out the source and quantity of water being delivered to the site. Investigate whether an on-site well could be drilled to offset municipal water costs. Most importantly, understand the quality and cost of service from the water treatment vendor. Investigate whether alternative water conservation methods like sand filtration or electronic precipitators for cooling towers will reduce chemical and water consumption. These types of systems can save significant amounts of water and the cost of unnecessary use of chemicals that are not always environmentally friendly. Understanding if the water treatment system is tied to a BMS system is important. If not, there are wireless packages that can integrate multiple pieces of equipment. You will want to know when equipment should or should not be running. Find out the frequency of reports and ask to see those reports. Inquire if the reports are done in-house or by a vendor; this will help you figure out the overall strategy. I have seen systems installed with no water treatment strategy; needless to say, the equipment life was limited, requiring early replacement.

98 Ask to see the state inspection report and certificates and if water sampling is done on-site, as many do their own water testing. Ask to see calibration records for the testing equipment and determine whether the frequency is too little or too much based on the condition of the equipment. Find out if there are evident problems with the system or reoccurring issues. It will be important to understand the sampling methodology they use because if it is not frequent enough, the system chemistry tends to drift, causing issues with the piping. This condition, if it exists, will lead to rapid deterioration of the tubes in boilers and chillers along with the distribution system. This problem can become very expensive, putting the operation of the equipment at risk and many times resulting in replacement of equipment. I have found that one of manufacturing’s largest uses of water results in heavy chemical usage, unrecyclable discharge, and evaporation from the employment of open cell cooling towers used to cool mechanical equipment and processes. Environmentally, the trouble with cooling tower water is that it can provide an ideal environment for the growth of legionella pneumophila (cause of Legionnaires’ disease) and algae. This can pose lethal health risks to anyone who has been in direct contact with the vapor or water. The evaporation plume off of the tower can drift into nearby air handler intakes and distribute rapidly through a building. This vapor is usually not a concern; however, in rare cases legionella has been contracted. Another problem with cooling tower water is the need for it to be blown down to a sanitary drain, thousands of gallons per day, to maintain water resistivity and remove solids from the water. In cooling tower water systems, the conductivity is actually representative of the controlling parameter for city water make-up and blowdown. Depending on the quality of the water supply, the equipment being cooled, and the temperature differential across the tower, there is usually hardness, silica, dissolved solids, and algae issues to contend with. It is the relationship between conductivity and the desired chemistry of the water that determines the blowdown water amount.

99 For this reason, it is important to have a water meter on the blowdown discharge to record water usage. Because the evaporation rate at the tower is high, solids tend to settle first and collect in the tower basins. Particles and contamination are allowed to enter the water at the open part of the system, and if they are not suspended by using chemicals in the water, they can begin to clog the system and turn into toxic soil.

Figure 10. Toxic dirt accumulation

This soil contains environmentally hazardous concentrations of chemicals and urban dirt, and it is not suitable for natural decomposition. For this reason, many property owners are choosing to use ozone for eliminating microbial contamination and algae in condenser water systems. Also, acid treatments using sulfuric or ascorbic acid are frequently used in cooling tower water applications. Special care must be taken because the use of acids can become corrosive and eventually erode the tower to the point of structural instability. Figure 11. Metal erosion on tower

When added to recirculating water, acid can improve efficiency by controlling scale buildup created from mineral deposits. Acid treatment lowers the pH of the water and is effective in converting a portion of the calcium bicarbonate, the primary cause of scale, into more readily soluble forms.

100 As you can see, if we can cut down on the use of water by reducing the blowdown rate and evaporation, systems could become more environmentally friendly. Water conservation is a high priority, and estimating the quantities and costs of treatment chemicals and required blowdown is something property managers need to do for maintenance budgeting. Reducing chemical usage and evaporation can save money and significantly lower water consumption.

Figure 12. Stages of water quality using sand filters

The foam bath pictured on the left in the preceding diagram is an example of too much chemical use. The middle picture, which looks like chocolate milk, is the water being cleaned using sand filtration, which requires much less chemical. The picture on the right shows continuous improvement with the use of sand filtration. As these pictures show, the foaming chemical has been eliminated, and the water has cleared up enough to see the bottom of the basin in the tower. Due to the size of the system and previous contamination (pipe volume and equipment hold 24,500 gallons), the filtration process took several more weeks to clean all the piping out. The relevant issue associated with the previous water treatment system was that water regulations authorities view chemical treatment and discharge to sanitary waste as potential environmental risks. In some towns a significant upcharge is put on contaminated wastewater. In a cooling tower, water is lost through evaporation, bleed-off, and drift.

101 To replace the lost water and maintain its cooling function, more make-up water must be added to the tower system. Sometimes water used for other equipment within a facility can be recycled and reused for cooling tower make-up with little or no pre-treatment. The facility in this example is approximately 20 years old and flows 10,000 gallons per minute through plant equipment to maintain manufacturing operations. The filtration system failed many years ago, so high chemical usage was necessary to suspend contaminants in the water which are removed by blowdown only. City water used for evaporation in this case is not subject to charge, as the incoming water is metered along with the blowdown. Just recently, this plant has added a centrifugal chiller to back up some of the manufacturing operations. The new chiller has enhanced tubes, meaning they are spiral-cut on the inside to obtain higher heat exchanger efficiencies. The chiller tubes pictured can become fouled if the condenser water is not clean. Parts of the condenser water system I studied clogged the chiller tubes, so the blowdown rate on the water was over 45,000 gallons on some days. In order to clean up the water and cut down significantly on chemically treated water evaporating into our environment, I suggested the installation of a side stream sand filtration system. Figure 13. Chiller condenser water tubes

This particular system draws water from a large storage tank, in this case a 10,000-gallon atmospheric vented tank. Sediment is filtered out with sand, and water is returned to the system. Side stream filtration is particularly effective if you have a high level of condensed solids in your system. Sand filtration works like a brook, where the sand removes all the dirt and makes it settle.

102 When the filter begins to clog with debris, the system will use clean city water or condenser water to backwash the sand clean. The cycle is enabled by the pressure differential between the condenser supply and return water at the sand filter. When the sand gets clogged with contaminants, the differential pressure builds to around 15 PSI. This pressure increase triggers a pressure switch which backwashes the sand and sends he dirty water to drain. Condenser water is typically chemically treated, which is expensive to send to drain, so city water is preferred for blowdown of contaminants. This backwash cycle continues until the system is free of contaminants and an acceptable differential pressure is achieved. With this system, there is a minimal need for particle suspension or frequent blowdown to keep the water clean. Side stream filtration is responsible for turning a troublesome system into a trouble- free system.

Figure 14. Sand filtration unit

Because the particular cooling towers in this study were outside in the shade and not exposed to a lot of sunlight, they were highly subject to microbial growth. To further cut down on the chemical usage and water in the system and deal with potential microbial contamination resulting from darkness, I have recommended installing an ionization system. Field tests have demonstrated that the use of ozone in place of chemicals for water treatment will reduce the blowdown rate. As a result, cost savings accrue from decreased chemical use and make-up water requirements.

103 By reducing wastewater volume, the blowdown rate is minimized, and wastewater disposal surcharges due to residual chemicals are avoided. The environmental benefit is fewer chlorine or chlorinated compounds and other chemicals discharged to sanitary waste. Ozone oxidizes the biological slime that serves as a binding agent and adheres scale to heat exchanger surfaces. Using ozone reduces scale buildup on these internal surfaces, and higher heat transfer rates are achieved. To mitigate scale issues, the use of an electrostatic precipitator, which is an electrode that collects particles in the water down to 0.1 micron in size, is very effective. The electrodes are easy to clean and are typically removed once per month. Although ElectroCell is unique to the market, they manufacture systems for most commercial, industrial, and institutional facilities applied to conventional water-cooled chilled water plants. Chiller plants are typically a facility’s largest water users and also consume an average of 25% of the facility’s electrical energy. The ElectroCell system significantly improves efficiency in water and energy use with paybacks in the 2.0- to 3.5-year range. The system is not a substitute for chemical treatment; rather, it is a condenser water efficiency system engineered specifically and solely to increase water and energy efficiency by addressing the uniquely challenging demands that exist only in the condenser water loop. The systems are designed to work alongside existing chemical treatment and noticeably enhance the effectiveness of the chemical treatment. The unit, when installed, typically saves 10%-12% in chiller energy and 20%-25% in cooling plant make-up water. Previously I mentioned that the plumes from cooling tower evaporation water are an issue in certain areas. I have addressed this issue in a residential area in part by installing mist eliminators. These units have vanes that condense the water vapor back into droplets of water and let them drift back into the tower. Mist eliminators can help reduce the smokestack appearance that the neighbors don’t like to see.

104 They are constructed by using a series of sinusoidal-shaped corrugations bonded to force the air direction. The forcing of the air direction results in water removal from the air. Although not all the moisture can be removed, about 40% can be effectively recovered. From the inefficient equipment older buildings contain to the water-wasting processes they run, aging facilities can be the most difficult to justify infrastructure upgrades for. Most cooling towers require replacement at 10-15 years; however, their economic life is 20 years. In many cases the equipment is still on the financial books and not fully depreciated. Unless the cooling towers are constructed out of stainless steel, they rarely make it to 20 years of service. When this is the case, many times the equipment is repaired instead of replaced. This can result in high operating costs and energy usage. Only by making improvements toward water and energy conservation can a company improve its environmental posture and appearance to the general public. Also mentioned in the Appendices is the use of an electrostatic side stream filtration unit

Energy Culture and Awareness Review

As we gain a better understanding of cultural awareness around energy, I also realize it does not happen overnight. Simply sending emails, mounting posters on walls, handing out flyers, and making periodic presentations at meetings tend to have temporary effects. The ISO 50001 process focuses on this area in part, and when implemented properly, a paradigm shift can begin, one that is both measurable and effective. This discussion does in part overlap with a few of the preceding sections; however, it is critical to understand that cultural change around energy can result in up to 12% savings on total energy spending. The first order of business is to understand whether the executive team members or sponsors of energy reduction plans have any roles or responsibilities in improving energy efficiency.

105 Energy must be committed to by the executive team; without their support, it is difficult to get the leverage required to conduct audits, appoint the proper people to manage the process, and make necessary investments in training. Find out if they are benchmarking their energy practices with competitors, sustainability leaders, or energy management standards. Benchmarking is very beneficial when comparing energy costs. Tools like the EPA’s Energy Star benchmarking program are very useful for this purpose. Attending energy conferences and understanding what others are doing around energy management standards and procedures are also helpful. Understanding how the ISO 50001 process works, if not already in place, will provide some critical knowledge about how to effectively deploy an energy management system using the PDCA (plan, do, check, and act) cycle. As we continue the discussion, it is important to find out if there is an energy reduction strategy; if one does not exist, one should be developed. Confirm that there is an energy kWh or cost reduction plan. If not, there may be a carbon dioxide (CO2) reduction target. If there is a target, it is important to understand whether it is adequately funded. Many times I will find that the initiative has been stated by senior management with no strategy or financial provisions to drive culture change or implementation of the energy measures required to achieve the goal. It is important to find out if any metrics exist for measuring energy efficiency. Find out what processes are in place, if any. Find out if any of the buildings and systems are sub-metered and if there is a BAS system. In the event there is a BMS system, confirm the capability and find out if OCx fault diagnostics can be performed. In the event there is no automation, and the utility meters have to be manually read, data loggers and portable measurement devices may be the only ways to measure consumption before and after implementation of energy conservation measures. There are a number of wireless energy devices available today which can network and collect data for analysis.

106 Understand how management presents specific energy efficiency investment ideas to the executive team, if at all. If this is not happening, there’s a disconnect between management levels in communicating energy goals and objectives. There must be sponsorship at the executive level; otherwise the program probably will not be of great enough importance to be recognized beyond competing day to day priorities. Management must consider all benefits of improving energy efficiency beyond cost savings alone (employee morale, increased productivity, and shareholder interest in sustainability). Conduct a survey and find out if there have been any links to morale and productivity relating to energy projects in the past. If not, this may be an area to focus on. If your management considers risks associated with escalating energy price growth in the decision making process, you are probably in good shape. If not, a long-range energy plan should be developed. The energy plan should include evaluation of energy conservation measures to be implemented and have marketing intelligence built into the plan (future cost versus energy forecast). If a plan is not in place, one should be built to understand the potential future impact of the rising cost of energy and the present value of energy investments over time. Some companies buy their way into sustainability through 100% green power requisitions. Although a company can claim net-zero carbon emissions by taking this approach, inefficiencies should be eliminated first to ensure that an ethical approach is taken when using green commodities. The sustainable commissioning process is about just that: achieving an acceptable level of building efficiency and performance and then sustaining it over time. Green leases that align incentives with those of the landlord to ensure that efficiency investments can occur are both ethically and morally a good idea. Find out if the various departments of the organization that use energy are responsible for paying for that energy from their own budgets. I find that departments that are responsible for their own energy want to take ownership of initiatives and receive credit for their accomplishments.

107 If departments are not responsible due to lack of metering or other reasons, a plan may need to be put in place or support from executive leadership obtained to reduce energy and cost. When interviewing different departments, try to gain an understanding of whether they consider the total cost of ownership (TCO); this includes energy costs when making purchasing decisions. Importantly noted, for energy consuming equipment, many times a less expensive alternative will use more energy. It is important that a life cycle cost comparison be done on the differential cost of the energy over time. The first cost savings may not outweigh the additional energy used for the life of the asset. An understanding of the internal accounting system is an important piece of the initial investigation into what is evaluated during the energy efficiency process. If departments are able to recover the cost savings their investments generate, this may give them additional incentive. If the department can profit from energy projects, they can potentially use the saved money for other investments. It is a good idea to understand whether management has hired one or more individuals responsible for coordinating and funding energy efficiency investments. Another key aspect in understanding the financial viability of energy measures is knowing how the financial decision-makers impose payback requirements on energy efficiency projects. Many times it is the finance department that will determine what the return on investment (ROI) or minimum internal rate of return (IRR) should be on a project. Many companies pick a reasonable number like three years for return on investment; however, for projects where energy is relatively inexpensive, moving energy projects forward can be a challenge, as the paybacks will be longer. The best way to understand what the real payback period should be is determined by the financial health of the company. This is further reviewed in this book in the section on financial qualifications of energy conservation measures. We also must understand the return on investment, keeping in mind that money received from rebates and incentives will increase your ROI.

108 As with any business, considering the time value of money is important because it represents money that could have been used for other investments instead of being lost to wasted energy. If your management considers environmental key performance indicators (KPIs) when making investment decisions related to energy efficiency, this is another way to assist in the approval of energy projects. This works well in a project portfolio arrangement where you have some projects with great ROIs and others that make good sense from an operational or reliability perspective but don’t have an attractive enough ROI to stand on their own. When I look at different energy programs, I find two distinct types: centralized, where energy investment money is held by one entity; and decentralized, where money is held by departments or sites. The pro argument for a centralized fund run by an energy manager is that the money will always be used for energy projects. When the money resides in the facility budget of a certain department or site, many times it will get used for something other than energy. At the end of the day, someone has to take responsibility of the funding for energy projects. We must not forget about utility and/or government rebates with incentives to fund capital and non-capital energy projects. Utility rebates can play a major role in getting an ROI down to where it is acceptable by finance to move forward with a project. I also see organizations and companies utilize external financing to fund energy projects. If the company does not have access to affordable capital for energy upgrades, then external financing is the answer. An energy service contract option (ESCO) is where the installing company pays for the investment and obtains either a monthly fee for the installation or a portion of the annual savings. This makes sense for companies that want to keep their capital for acquisitions and other business decisions. Once energy projects are implemented and commissioned, it is a good idea to track the total money invested in energy efficiency projects.

109 In the effort to maintain a strong and healthy energy project portfolio, any organization will need to incorporate energy efficiency tasks and deliverables into their employee work plans or with some level of training. If employees are incentivized some way to reduce energy, there is a better likelihood they will make a concentrated effort. It will be important for the organization to form teams to advance and implement ongoing energy efficiency initiatives and projects. I have found that when I direct weekly meetings held specifically for energy projects, many of the typical barriers are eliminated. Employees can only become motivated around reducing energy if their coworkers are also doing the same. Providing energy awareness training can be very beneficial. Evaluating an organization to see if it keeps centralized records of its equipment inventory and how much energy its equipment uses and should be using under normal operating conditions is suggested. As previously mentioned, if this information is not in a CMMS or alarms set in a BMS, it may be difficult to conduct baseline analysis. Having a centralized record system is also important when implementing the ISO 50001 energy management system. Both a corrective action plan (CAPA) and a records retention system are required as part of ISO 50001 to address energy non-compliances. Shifting our discussion to the utilization of the BMS system to control energy use, there may be opportunities to identify energy measures beyond controlling systems alone. Utilizing the building management system for energy monitoring is highly recommended. Depending upon the system age and capability, fault diagnostics or ongoing commissioning may be beneficial for reducing energy and increasing reliability. It is also recommended that software be used to aggregate energy data collected for analysis. If there is no diagnostic system in place, find out if department managers can issue energy use data reports on a frequent basis. Reporting energy use data is highly recommended with the proper metering in place. Reporting energy data is a proven way of maintaining awareness around how much energy is consumed.

110 The following questions and comments can help identify some new opportunities around energy awareness. • Question: Does your organization utilize energy scorecards to regularly compare the energy use and efficiency of buildings? Comment: Using energy scorecards is a good idea when comparing buildings. While some buildings may have different operations, scorecards can help identify the high energy consumers, which can be beneficial for justifying additional analysis. Comparing energy consumption by cost and square foot to derive an energy use index (EUI) is a good start. • Question: Does your organization use a website, online database, or other mechanism to collect energy efficiency improvement ideas from employees? Comment: Empowering employees to help reduce energy can be very beneficial. This can have a psychological impact on the organization from the self-worth perspective of contributing to something that not only saves money but is helping save the environment. • Question: How long does it take to identify and seek approval for energy efficiency projects? Comment: There are multiple methodologies for seeking approval for energy projects. Energy conservation measures can be identified by employees, facilities staff, department managers, consultants, etc. Funding projects usually comes down to the ROI and what is acceptable from a finance perspective. When no money is available for projects, sometimes you can hire an ESCO or other service provider to assist in implementing your energy efficiency projects with no costs to you.

111 • Question: Does your organization internally review and verify energy savings, or does it use a third party? Comment: Sometimes there are no technical people available to review energy savings or manage projects. If this is the case, sometimes a consultant is retained to review the savings and work with local utilities to provide incentives to lower the cost of the energy conservation measures. • Question: How often does the organization share energy efficiency success stories with the executive team? Comment: Communication on energy projects is critical for the executive leadership team. It helps them understand the savings, but more importantly, when put in the terms of IRR and NPV, it helps them understand the time value of money that would have been wasted on high energy bills. This assists them in understanding future cash that would be available for other investments in support of sustainability goals. • Question: Does your organization’s public relations or media team produce content that showcases energy efficiency success stories through various media channels (website, press releases, annual sustainability reports, etc.)? Comment: Showcasing energy projects can be very beneficial in cross communicating successes to other organizations and companies. When you have the opportunity to communicate externally, you can gain insight into what others are working on for projects. Using the public relations team will also increase energy awareness among all employees. This is also beneficial for gaining exposure to shareholders and investors, as many of them care about companies that have made a commitment to sustainability and the environment. • Question: Does your organization participate in sustainability- or energy- related conferences to share energy efficiency success stories and learn from other organizations?

112 Comment: Participating in energy conferences is a great opportunity to showcase your successful projects and share knowledge with others in the industry. Attending conferences is also a great way to meet vendors with new technology products on the market. • Question: How significant are barriers in preventing your organization from giving employees the capability and motivation necessary to improve efficiency? Comment: Removing barriers is critical, whether they are from lack of communications, resources, or finances. Employees need to be made aware of the importance of energy and should be encouraged to reduce consumption as necessary to change the overall culture around energy. • Question: Do employees lack the knowledge to successfully identify energy projects, implement projects, measure and verify results of projects, and create or share stories about projects? Comment: Some basic training by vendors or consultants can be very beneficial for making employees aware of opportunities. Energy consultants have a great deal of knowledge from the past projects they have completed.

In conclusion, culture and awareness around energy consumption should be integral parts of your energy program efforts. To achieve a true paradigm shift in the behavior around energy consumption requires training and incentive. As previously mentioned, the ISO 50,000 certification system builds a framework around all factors influencing energy consumption and is highly recommended. It is critical to understand the level of collaboration among employees that is required to be effective. Behavior does not change overnight; however, repetition and application of the proper educational techniques will prove to be most effective over time.

113 Building Envelope Review

One of the first steps in the functional audit is to conduct a building envelope examination. Using a non-particle generating smoke tube and a handheld vane annometer, I can quickly understand if the building is under positive or negative pressure. It is suggested that the building be slightly pressurized (0.005”-0.01” water column) to keep contaminants and moisture out. The primary focus in examining the building is on the penetrations in the facade. I first begin with visual observation of the alignment and operation of windows (if applicable) and areas around doors to check for excessive infiltration. In colder weather, it is good to evaluate doors, windows, walls, and the roof using thermal imaging. Thermal imaging will reveal leaks and missing insulation or simply areas that could be insulated better. Focusing on doors and windows, if they visibly do not close properly, they should be repaired. In some cases, it is necessary to seal around the windows or replace them. Be sure automatic door closing hardware works properly and replace any damaged gaskets or caulking. Self-closing doors to roofs and any unconditioned spaces are highly recommended. Pay special attention to loading docks; be sure there are brushes around the doors or some other means of preventing infiltration. Use a smoke tube to identify which way the air is flowing. I also use a vane annometer to measure air flow under the cracks of doors and windows. If the building is negative in pressure, it will require more heating in the winter and more cooling in the summer. In loading docks, there should be a switch on the overhead doors to stop the HVAC unit from operating when the door is open unless an air curtain is installed. An air curtain is a blower that creates an air barrier between the inside and outside. Wherever you find infiltration, on the roof around penetrations, or anywhere on the facade, sealing is required.

114 For exterior entrances, vestibules are a great way to cut down on infiltration. Revolving doors are also recommended for entrances, especially for high-rise buildings with open atriums which induce the stack effect. Any broken or snapped windows should be replaced. Where wall air conditioners are installed, if not removable, they should be sealed around the edges with insulated covers put in place for the winter months if you are in a cold climate. Where there are doors and windows separating conditioned from unconditioned spaces, be sure they close correctly and display instructions like “Close door or window before leaving the area.” In some cases, the backs of doors should be insulated if they are between conditioned and unconditioned spaces. For windows, it is a good idea to install either blinds or shades to cut down on the solar heat gain in the summer. If there are windows that are non-operative, be sure they are sealed to prevent any infiltration. If you are installing new windows, they should be double- pane and tinted to minimize the solar gain. In the winter in cold climates, you would want the solar gain, so this is where the installation of internal shades makes most sense; then you have control of heat gain or loss between seasons. There are some glass technologies available that use low voltage charges to change the tinting of the glass to match the weather conditions. This is a way you can use the window to create heating in the winter and reduce the cooling required in the summer. There should always be insulation between heated and cooled spaces. These spaces would include roofs, basements, attics, and any unconditioned areas. Vapor barriers are important for minimizing water damage and the growth of molds. Replacement of any damaged insulation is recommended in these areas. As part of the energy culture awareness training, occupants in the building should be trained to close blinds in the summer, and they should open them in the winter to allow heat to radiate in and heat the space. In warmer climates, outside shading can be added to the building. The addition of trees and other shading plants, along with changing the roof to a light color (preferably white) to reflect heat, can also be helpful in cutting down heat gain in the building.

115 Building Controls and Systems Ventilation Review

The control system, if one exists, is critical for controlling the energy consumption in a building. Find out what kind of BMS system is installed and what technology it is. Asking whether the system is pneumatic (uses compressed air for controls) or direct digital control (uses electric actuators for controls) assists in understanding both the vintage and the reliability of the system. If a BMS system does exist, find out what the age, make, model, and technology base are. Understand how many points (controllers) there are on the system and what its capability is for processing information. Find out if the system is running slow or fast. Using commands from the system, you will want to confirm that valves and dampers are properly opening in proportion to the screen readout. Confirming valve position, along with knowing whether temperature and pressure sensors are in calibration, is critical for understanding whether the system is adjusted properly. To perform this test, one person must be in the field to visually observe the movement of the actuator while another person is at the building management system commanding the change. Understanding when the last sensor calibrations were done and whether there is any spare capacity in the system will help complete the BMS evaluation. Is the system capable of downloading critical HVAC point data in connection with an ongoing commissioning service? There are many different control system manufacturers; Johnson, Siemens, Schneider, Carrier, Trane, Andover, Invensys, GXP, and Delta V are just a few of the major companies in the present market. It is especially important to understand the system architecture and whether the system is open protocol (can be programmed) and has BACnet capability (a communications protocol for building automation and control). If the system is closed protocol and not BACnet capable (proprietary and not subject to change, only by manufacturer), you may have difficulty in achieving your objective, as you may have restrictions around optimization.

116 Today, there are wireless device options for standalone controls, which is a great way to integrate them into one system. In building spaces, understand where field components like thermostats are installed. Ensuring that thermostats are located in the correct spaces, not over heat generating equipment (or radiators) or on exterior walls, is critical for proper operation. Thermostats that can be adjusted by occupants can be problematic if not programmed correctly through the building management system. Having the proper thermostat dead bands set with high/low limit lockouts is critical for the energy consumed. If thermostats are damaged by occupants, a locking cover should be installed. In some cases, the thermostats can be relocated into the air handler return air duct to prevent occupants from adjusting them. For pneumatic systems, collected oil and dirt may need to be cleaned out for proper operation. Thermostats should be recalibrated and dead bands confirmed to ensure proper operation and that they are interfacing with the BMS system, if one exists. When turning the thermostat down, it should be confirmed that dampers in the system are opening. If a VAV system, you should hear air flow increase; if the system is a fan coil type, you should either hear the unit turn on or take a diffuser register temperature reading to see if the temperature is dropping. You may need blueprints of the mechanical system to understand what the VAV boxes or fan coil units are connected to. The standard adjustment for thermostats is 68°F in the winter and 78°F during the summer. Thermostats should have separate settings for cooling and heating. If interior zones are set up for cooling only with no reheat, then the thermostat would have one setting only. If the HVAC system runs after occupancy, the thermostat should be set for 10° higher in the summer and 10° lower in the winter with a morning warm-up or cool-down. It is important to note that to go beyond these settings, more energy will be required to recover the building conditions.

117 Alternatively, the temperature should be reset based on outside air temperature. For HVAC building setbacks, the air conditioning should be turned on 45 minutes before occupancy and 45 minutes after occupancy. Importantly noted, higher setbacks will result in longer recovery times. If there is any way to shut down units at night or on weekends or to have them cycle on temperature alone, this change will have a significant impact on energy consumption. To further reduce energy, automatic controls for lighting should be installed, and any areas that may not require air conditioning should be eliminated. Widening the dead band on thermostats from 1° to 3° or 4° prevents simultaneous heating and cooling. For air handling units, the discharge temperature can be raised on a reset schedule if space thermostats are integrated with the BMS system. If there is no central BMS system, the discharge air temperature can be experimented with by raising temperature until the space becomes too warm in the summer and lowering the temperature in the winter. Air handler sensors for discharge air temperature, return air temperature, and mixed air temperature should be confirmed for proper calibration and damper positions. Outdoor air sensor temperatures should also be confirmed, as they will help determine if preheating is required in the winter. Ensure that the building’s outdoor air sensor is properly located and is a good quality device. If possible, redundant sensors should be installed or a local weather station used to confirm accuracy. If there are local control components, it should be evaluated if they can be wirelessly connected to the BMS for optimized control. All sequences of operations for equipment should be evaluated for energy efficiency. Find out if there is a discharge air reset on the air handlers and if there is an outdoor air reset for hot water systems. If not, changing the resets can have a significant impact on the energy consumption. Chilled water can also be reset using outdoor air temperature. As previously mentioned, for chillers, for every degree you raise the chilled water temperature, the system will gain 1% overall efficiency. When possible, if you have a condenser water system and a need for cooling in the winter months, use free cooling using either an air-to-air heat exchanger or a plate and frame water exchanger.

118 For air distribution systems, variable air volume terminal units should have defined turndown ratios; see if these ratios can be changed to increase energy savings and performance. If enough components are found to be out of calibration, consider applying the retroactive commissioning process to correct these building management system issues. Find out if hidden issues exist like failed dampers, dead band heating and cooling problems, humidification/dehumidification sequence issues, and simultaneous heating and cooling problems. I have found that understanding the ventilation system and how it is operating is the key to identifying energy opportunities. In the space that is being served by the ventilation system, I look for consistency in air flow and circulation from one space to another. If access can be gained to check the inlet sides of heating coils, obstructions may be found requiring general maintenance to remove dirt from the inlet sides of coil faces. Many times fire dampers are found partially closed or obstructed with construction startup debris (paper tags from ductwork, plastic, etc.) which has found its way to the faces of coils. These obstructions cause an increase in system static pressure and block cooling or heating from getting to the space. All room diffusers and return grills should be inspected for adequate air flow. This can be done with a velometer, usually used by an air balancing company and preferably by someone who is NEBB (National Environmental Balancing Bureau) certified. Any of the aforementioned issues should be corrected during the retroactive commissioning process. For above-ceiling fan coils, any dirty filters should be replaced and the coils cleaned to reduce static pressure, which will reduce the fan motor power requirement. Take a look at heating equipment found in vestibules and lobbies. Check the set points; many times they can be lowered in the winter and raised in the summer, as these areas have very temporary occupancy. Check the ventilation rate and carefully assess the use of outdoor air. For rooftop air handlers, see if they have economizers installed for free cooling that are operating properly.

119 Most outdoor air quantities are set by codes to allow a CO2 level of 800- 1000 parts per million (ppm) to be maintained during the hours of occupancy to ensure proper IAQ levels. Any dampers or ductwork found to be leaking should be repaired. Controls should be installed, if not already, to close dampers during unoccupied periods. Many times the return, outdoor air, and exhaust dampers are not sequencing properly, which we usually identify through fault diagnostics because issues are not always visible to maintenance staff. This occurs due to poor linkage adjustment, shaft slippage, or controlling sensors that are out of calibration. I find that many installed units are not designed to use free cooling. Depending upon the manufacturer, it is worth investigating whether free cooling makes sense in your area. Some manufacturers offer add-on economizers for free cooling applications. Installation of an economizer cycle with enthalpy control to optimize the use of outside air for free cooling is a good idea. When evaluating exhaust ventilation systems, challenge the demand for those systems. I find many times they do not need to run all the time. Sometimes exhaust fan operation is related to occupancy, and it can be programmed to shut off or be tied to a light switch for operation. If there is a BMS or time clock available, fans can be tied to the system for both control and runtime analysis. All these questions can lead to an energy-saving strategy. Installing controls to shut off the exhaust system when not in use is effective in conserving energy. When evaluating motors, listen to hear if the belts are quiet or noisy. Sometimes they can be worn or slipping on the sheave (pulley). There are a number of energy-saving belt products on the market today including link belts, cog belts, and low friction V-belts. Some belts can save as much as 10% on electrical costs. The most popular question is whether you can minimize flow; if so, you will save energy. This can be accomplished by installing a VFD drive or reducing the quantity required. Installation of the proper measurement devices like filter pressure-drop gauges will assist in understanding when filters require replacement.

120 Differential pressure monitored through the building management system with set alarms helps identify high pressure drop issues. When evaluating the ductwork systems, I listen for air leaks or whistling. Air leaks, as previously mentioned, should be repaired and the system rebalanced to understand how much air is being delivered from the air handler to the space. Air change rates, especially in regulated spaces (cleanrooms and laboratories), should be evaluated for reduction potential. The operational parameters that can impact the effectiveness of maintaining a good manufacturing practice (GMP) environment for an AHU usually include (1) air change rate, (2) temperature, (3) humidity, (4) fresh air, (5) discharge air reset, and (6) night setback mode. These parameters should be evaluated by conducting a thorough risk audit to determine if a reduction would negatively impact the ability of the system to maintain the GMP environment. This is further discussed later in this book. The air change rates indicate the amount of filtered air that is recirculated in a room, usually through an HEPA (high-efficiency particle arrester) filter system, which arrests particles before they enter the room. Air change rates are related to the amount of time it takes to recirculate the air in a room. The cubic volume of air recirculated in one hour’s time gives the AC/hr. Depending upon the room’s application, air change rates will vary based on acceptable particle levels during occupancy, heat load, and health and safety requirements. Acceptable particle levels are defined in the pharmaceutical industry by classification categories A, B, C, and D. The higher the classification of the room, the more air changes are required to keep the room in a clean state and prevent contamination. The following table outlines the acceptable limits for particulates permitted in GMP spaces for pharmaceutical applications.

121 Table 5 Limits in particle counts per grade

GMP Classification

At Rest In Operation

EU GMP Class Max. permitted Number of Particles / m3 (equal or above)

0,5 µm 5,0 µm 0,5 µm 5,0 µm

A 3.520 20 3.520 20

B 3.520 29 352.000 2.900

C 352.000 2.900 3.520.000 29.000

D 3.520.000 29.000 not defined not defined

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The temperature in the space is determined by the heat load from equipment, possible solar gain, and how people working in the room are dressed. Temperature set-points can be changed to accommodate less energy consumption. Allowing for a thermostatic dead band widening saves considerable energy as previously discussed. The same applies to maintaining humidity. In some cases, product stability can drive the air exchange rate and not so much personnel in the room. In some cases, the depending factor on temperature can be product related and not so much the personnel in the room. Check for humidification systems and question whether they are needed or not. If they are, rather than using energy intensive system humidification (from steam boilers or quartz heaters) possibly they could be replaced with ultrasonic humidification with a di-ionized water source. Humidity levels should be evaluated because humidifying a space can use a considerable energy. The humidity in a room is usually specified for product purposes where the product has direct exposure to the surrounding environment. Humidity can affect overall quality along with human comfort. With any humidification system, there is always a concern for microbial growth and these systems can be very expensive to maintain in narrow ranges. The wider the range of the humidity, the higher the savings value will be in energy.

122 Humidity should be evaluated very closely for product manufacturing purposes and have a wide band (+/-10%). Narrow band requirements on humidity require excessive air exchange rates for stabilization and are usually product driven. Maintaining a narrow humidity range is mainly seen I the semiconductor and electronics manufacturing process where sensitive electronics are under fabrication. A close evaluation of the fresh air intake to any space, whether is for occupant ventilation, or room pressurization to keep contaminants out should be completed. The fresh air requirement is usually based on 1) occupancy in the space, 2) required pressurization needed to cascade between spaces to maintain cleanliness between classes of spaces, and 3) make-up fair for exhaust (fume hoods) in some cases for purposes of health and safety. The ability to use fresh air for free cooling should be evaluated along with slow response times of intake of outside air to ensure a pressurization cascade remains stable and within specified limits. In some cases, the outdoor air requirement is driven by health and safety requirements. Providing fresh air make up for fume hoods and purging out other impurities in the space may be required. For buildings with space hot water reheat, the BMS programming logic should constantly evaluate the re-heat valve position for all of the rooms to confirm if the discharge air temperature can be reset. Discharge air reset should have no impact on room temperature, however, based on humidity requirements, the discharge air reset may not be applicable. Specific rooms requiring humidity control should have a local humidification control per zone and not for the entire system. Discharge air temperature reset should be unrelated to the air exchange rate within any given space. Evaluation of night setback mode for areas that are not in use is another essential energy measure. In production areas, spaces that are not in use are not subject to higher contamination levels because there is no occupancy or production.

123 The air change rate for spaces not in use can be reduced by either installing a time clock, building management system, or occupancy sensor to detect when someone is in the room to signal an increase in the air exchange rate. The design airflow values for spaces may be different than what is required for the actual space. Many times I find that constant volume systems are overdesigned and installation of variable frequency drives can assist in energy savings opportunities. For motors that cannot be retrofit with drives, new sheaves may be an alternative to slowing down the fan. Taking a risk based approach to reducing air flow, especially for non-validated or critically controlled spaces is advised. When HVAC equipment is not properly loaded, it has the ability to cycle on and off which impacts the efficiency. To reduce or eliminate excessive cycling of HVAC equipment, consider adjusting set points for more continuous operation which will increase efficiency. If there are electric space heaters in office spaces, consider rebalancing the HVAC system to eliminate the use of them. In air handlers systems equipped with vane guides, which are usually problematic due to linkage issues, replace them a variable speed drive to operate the motor whenever possible. For areas with special requirements, dedicated units should be considered to eliminate excess waste of running larger systems that may be conditioning an unused space. The reheating of dehumidified air in process areas can become very expensive depending upon location. In these cases, many times there is an opportunity to apply some type of heat recovery using glycol or refrigerant pipes. Reheat coils can experience stuck valve issues which can lead to simultaneous heating and cooling issues which is a very typical problem. This is where fault diagnostics and or ongoing commissioning is most beneficial in detecting these types of issues. In the pharmaceutical industry, millions of dollars are spent each year conditioning make-up outdoor air. Fume hoods used in laboratories are responsible for using much of the conditioned make-up air. When possible, low flow fume hoods should be selected or hoods that have the ability to use filtration, similar to biosafety cabinets which recycle room air using filtration.

124 In high exhaust situations, heat recovery as mentioned earlier may be a cost effective option of lowering utility costs. An emphasis should be put on due diligence study of existing equipment and respective efficiencies. Old equipment should be replaced with new energy efficient equipment. In these cases, a full energy evaluation should be completed with a focus on available utility rebates. New equipment should be equipped with differential enthalpy for economizer control and high efficiency fans, compressors, and pumps. For variable volume systems, static pressure reset should be investigated.

125 Air Filtration Review

Like many others in this publication, air filtration is a big topic, so I decided to make a high-level summary knowing that there are many publications available from the major manufacturers such as AAF-Flanders and Camfil Farr. There are multiple local and international organizations involved in setting filter standards/guidelines and testing methods, some of which are listed below: • American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) • Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST) • Underwriters Laboratories (UL) • Central European Norms (CEN) • International Organization for Standardization (ISO) When selecting air filters, we should always look at the many factors listed below. I will focus on two topics, filter economy and testing of filters, which seem to be the most important. • Global and local standards • Filter economy • Filter efficiency • Filter media type • When to change filters, time or pressure drop • Location of filters • Environmental effects of used filters • Classification of the room • Testing of filters Regarding filter economy, the last 10 years or so have seen more focus not only on selecting the correct filter grade or efficiency from a pre-filtration or terminal (ceiling/exhaust) standpoint but also, now more than ever, on optimizing the useful life of the filters selected. Most reputable filter manufacturers have developed tools in the form of simulation software (TCOD) that enable the end user to make intelligent filter selection decisions to optimize lifetime and reduce energy cost and frequency of disposal.

126 More work needs to be done in this area, as these tools make several assumptions; while useful when comparing one filter type to another, they are static tools. Work is ongoing at this time to develop dynamic simulation software utilizing sensor technologies, for example, in order to simulate in real time how filters will perform in a given environment. When selecting pre-filtration for the air handling units, the typical minimum efficiency reporting values used are MERV 8 (G4) for the first step and MERV 13 (F7) for the second step. There are multiple types of filters in use today, from pocket or bag filters to box- or v-bank-style secondary filters with different types of media such as synthetic, glass fiber, and newer hybrid media that look interesting from an efficiency standpoint. HEPA (high-efficiency particle arrester) filters are used in multiple applications today in the life science industry. The most commonly used applications are for supply air in the form of terminal housings and/or in the AHU. HEPA filters are installed in exhaust air applications, in potent compound applications to minimize the risk of cross- contamination, and in bio-safety cabinets, ovens (high temperature HEPAs), and BIBO housings. Again, there are many different construction and media types available today. The original aluminum separator construction is still widely used, normally in the AHUs or BIBO (bag in/ bag out) housings. Close or mini-pleat construction is utilized in the terminal housings with options for pack depth. As you can see below, this can influence the initial pod and therefore improve the life and/or save energy in the form of less pressure drop.

127 Table 6 Air filter pressure drop table

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Glass fiber has been used in the construction of HEPA filters for over 75 years. While excellent from an efficiency standpoint, when the media are produced and constructed into a frame/housing, they have always been very susceptible to damage. More recently, there have been some interesting discussions on utilizing PTFE membranes in life science type applications to further improve energy savings and limit the amount of damage or failures seen from cleaning or handling on site. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) has long been established in the microelectronics industry, but it has not been utilized in pharma mainly because of the testing requirements, i.e., challenging HEPA filters with an oil-based aerosol (PAO). There are PTFE PAO-compatible media available today that give additional advantages over traditional glass fiber media, namely their robustness and lower resistance (normally 50% less). The cost of these media was historically prohibitive, but today it is close to that of glass fiber, which makes these media interesting for all sorts of applications.

128 Below is a useful table summarizing filter testing standards in use globally. In the U.S., we specify Type K in accordance with IEST-RP-CC001 and/or H14 in accordance with EN-1822.

Table 7 Filter performance testing table

Compliments American Air Filter (AAF) International Table 8 Standards comparison table

Compliments American Air Filter (AAF) International

129 Table 9 Integral and local values table

Integral Value Local Value Leakage Group EN-1822 ISO 29463 Efficiency at MPPS Penetration at MPPS % Efficiency at MPPS Penetration at MPPS Factor E10 ≥85 ≥15 E11 ISO 15 E ≥95 ≥5 EPA ISO 20 E ≥99 ≥1 E12 ISO 25 E ≥99.5 ≥0.5 ISO 30 E ≥99.9 ≥0.1 H13 ISO 35 H ≥99.95 ≥0.05 ≥99.75 ≥0.25 5 HEPA ISO 40 H ≥99.99 ≥0.01 ≥99.95 ≥0.05 5 H14 ISO 45 H ≥99.995 ≥0.005 ≥99.975 ≥0.025 5 ISO 50 H ≥99.999 ≥0.001 ≥99.995 ≥0.005 5 U15 ISO 55 U ≥99.9995 ≥0.0005 ≥99.9975 ≥0.0025 5 ULPA ISO 60 U ≥99.9999 ≥0.0001 ≥99.9995 ≥0.0005 5 U16 ISO 65 U ≥99.99995 ≥0.00005 ≥99.99975 ≥0.00025 5 ISO 70 U ≥99.99999 ≥0.00001 ≥99.9999 ≥0.0001 10 U17 ISO 75 U ≥99.999995 ≥0.000005 ≥99.9999 ≥0.0001 20 Compliments American Air Filter (AAF) International

The most recent change in the world of pre-filtration standards was the release of ISO 16890 in 2016. Below is a table (not an exact science) that compares ASHRAE 52.2 and Europe’s EN779 with ISO 16890 in between. In conclusion, selecting high-efficiency filtration is not as simple as you think. Great care should be given to ensure we utilize the right media and select the correct efficiency, especially for HEPA filters as these filters are often our last form of defense and in many cases have a direct impact on product. Don’t forget that the filter is only as good as the frame or housing it is installed in; if the housing is not leak-free, then the filter is pointless. Take equal care about the hardware selection and specifications. Filters for HVAC units come in many shapes and sizes and use different media. Do your homework on how these filters perform in real life as opposed to simply in a lab? Filters play an important and often critical role in your process. Consult with manufacturers (more than one), who can often give you good advice and ensure you make the best decisions for your facility or clients.

130 Heating Systems Review

As we know, there are many types of systems used to generate hot water or steam for heating and processing. Boilers associated with providing heat for the system should have efficiency tests on a scheduled basis. Combustion efficiency tests are the best way to understand the actual operation of the boiler burners. Like automobiles, they need to be maintained on a regular basis per the manufacturer’s recommendation so the warranty is not voided and to maximize the life cycle of the equipment. When there are multiple boilers in series, from an efficiency perspective, it is critical to understand how they are loaded. Boilers run at maximum efficiency when they are running at or near full load conditions. In the event multiple boilers are running at the same time, the controls can be adjusted so that primary demand is put on one boiler instead of part-loading two. Most boilers today are equipped with automatic controls with oxygen trimming. These controls allow the boiler to operate at maximum efficiency, as there is constant measurement of flue gas controlling for optimal stoichiometry. If your boiler is not equipped with such controls, a flue gas analyzer should be purchased for frequent testing and adjustment; alternatively, you can hire someone to do this work. Upon initial installation, boilers are usually commissioned to confirm the correct fuel to air ratio. If there is an opportunity to do fuel switching (oil to natural gas or biofuel), this will provide some level of redundancy and competitive cost control of fuels. Older boiler burners should be upgraded to ones with low excess air. In the event there are two boilers, one burner could be upgraded for a higher turndown ratio. There are now burners that offer a turndown ratio of 30:1 versus older ratios of 5:1. Generally, if the boiler chimney flue temperature is greater than 395°F, energy is being wasted. This could indicate there is a problem with the fuel to air ratio. In some cases, there is inadequate make-up air entering the boiler room and/or the stack draft is incorrect.

131 Sometimes this is due to closed dampers and/or obstructed intake filters. If this is the case, filters should be replaced and any broken actuators on dampers repaired. In some cases, boilers can over-fire and generate too much heat which is then wasted. For this reason, the nozzle orifice size should be confirmed. Oversized nozzles for residential boilers are a common problem. Many states require licensed personnel to work on boilers, so you should check with your state or municipality before making changes to the system. One energy measure is to preheat the combustion air. It is estimated that transferring hot air from the top of a hot boiler room down to the intake of the boilers can increase the efficiency 1-2%. In the event you observe burners short-cycling, this is another energy waster. Burners have transformers which use a lot of electrical energy to create the ignition source. A good example of this can be found in the technology review section of this book. Many times I find the parameters on the limit switches are set too closely, as with a dead band on a thermostat. If there are indications through efficiency testing that the boiler is not operating efficiently, there may be other non-visible issues on the inside of the system. For boilers, the water quality and chemistry are critical. Scale and deposits can build up on the internal tubes of the boiler causing them to reduce heat transfer on the water side of the system. On the fire side of the boiler, soot from the burner can build up on the tubes causing heat transfer issues. Whether the issues are on the fire or water side of the boiler, tube fouling will cause the efficiency of the boiler to decrease. Considering that most steam and hot water boilers are only 80-85% efficient at or near full load and condensing boilers (low temperature) are 93-97% efficient, keeping the system clean and free of contaminants is a good way of maintaining maximum efficiency. One energy measure is to evaluate high temperature systems like steam. Understand what the steam is used for and whether a smaller unit could be installed to serve only equipment or processes requiring steam. Find out if the pressure can be lowered.

132 When evaluating humidification, find out if it could it be done with a cold water atomizing unit instead of using plant steam. If so, a smaller steam boiler may save a considerable amount of money and carbon emissions. In some cases, it is necessary to install a smaller boiler in parallel with a large boiler to handle off-peak loads. In many cases, new efficient boilers are eligible for a rebate from the local utility or government. As with most systems, it is not always easy to figure out where the energy is going. For this reason, the installation of a flowmeter to monitor and record steam or hot water consumption is recommended. Understanding the leaving and return temperatures and flows is also important for determining how many BTUs (British thermal units) are being consumed. When dealing with steam systems, the steam should be returned to a condensate tank that is fed by treated make-up water. In some cases I have seen condensate going to a drain due to stuck bleed valves or failed steam traps. In these cases, I recommend repairing the steam traps to eliminate the waste of condensate. Condensate is usually returned through sloped piping back to the boiler room. If for some reason the condensate cannot be returned through a sloped piping system, a tank and must be installed. Waste condensate can also be used to preheat other systems. Heat from flue gas can be used to preheat treated condensate water or make-up air. In the event there is continuous blowdown of the system, a small heat exchanger could be installed to recover waste heat. For district steam, there are sometimes regulations on the temperature of the return condensate. In those cases you would need to check with your provider to find out what the return temperature is supposed to be, as there can be costly penalties applied to your district steam bill for returning cold condensate. In the event of abnormal operation of coils, radiators, or fin tube radiation, the temperatures of the pipe should be evaluated using infrared or some other temperature-scanning method. Check the temperature of the pipe on the downstream side of steam traps. If it is excessively hot, the trap is probably passing steam.

133 This can be caused by debris within the trap, a faulty valve stem, excessive steam pressure, or worn trap parts. If the steam trap is not working properly, it will require servicing. System air vents should be checked as well because if they are obstructed, the system will not function properly. For steam systems, this would also include any valves on radiators. These problems can lead to areas of water in the piping, which can prevent the flow of steam. Additionally, if there is any missing insulation on the piping, this leads to energy loss to the environment and restricts how far the heat can travel, leading to cold spots in areas of the building. Along with piping insulation, the insulation on the boiler jacket is critical. The boiler jacket should be scanned using infrared to find any hot spots or leaks. All condensate receivers, boilers, pumps, heat exchangers, piping, and any other elements of heating or cooling with the potential to lose energy to their surroundings should be insulated. Some steam traps can be insulated; however, it depends on the type, so you should check with the trap manufacturer first. As mentioned previously, one simple test is to see how low you can go on setting the hot water temperature with respect to the outdoor air temperature to satisfy the demand. Depending on the size of the coils, the lower the temperature is, the more open the valve will be at the radiator or coil. The design of the system will work either with or against you. For systems that are micro-engineered (at maximum capacity), which use smaller pipes and higher pressures, lowering the temperature set point may not work as well as it does for a system that is macro-engineered (oversized). Eliminating pressure drop in systems also represents an opportunity for cost savings. If possible, constant volume systems should be converted to variable volume systems with the elimination of three-way and triple-duty (balancing, shut-off, and check) combination valves. Pumps and motors should be reviewed for maximum efficiency.

134 Cooling Systems Review

There are many different types of cooling systems. From an air conditioner in a window to chilled water systems on large campuses, there are many opportunities to save money. With large chillers (centrifugal, screw, gas engine, steam-driven, and steam absorbers), each will have its own unique operating parameters based upon the manufacturer. Air-cooled chillers utilize condensers to cool the hot refrigerant. These systems are commonly referred to as direct expansion (DX), which explains the process of compressing refrigerant to produce cooling. These types of systems are most common in commercial applications. Water-cooled chillers are more common in industrial applications and involve not only a chiller but also an open or closed water tower to reject the heat. If the condensers and cooling towers are not maintained on a scheduled basis, many issues can arise. Water in the cooling tower basin, if not treated correctly, can allow legionella bacteria to grow, posing a health risk to facility personnel; and if the cooling tower is close to a building’s air intake, it could pose a health risk to occupants. Towers should have a maintenance schedule established per the manufacturer’s recommendations. The chemistry (antimicrobial treatment) of tower water is critical, as discussed earlier. Sand filtration or electrostatic precipitators with some chemical treatment to suspend solids in the water are the best way to remove contaminants. Be sure the pumping system is in good operation and the controls for the system are operating correctly. If automated controls don’t exist, they should be installed to avoid problems. Chilled water systems are responsible for using a lot of energy, ranging from 0.4 kilowatts per ton of air conditioning to 1.5 watts. For this reason it is critical these systems are serviced correctly and remain efficient throughout the life cycle of the assets. If the chiller’s evaporating and condensing temperatures are not tuned properly, the system will not operate efficiently, which is why we always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.

135 As an energy measure, sometimes you can lower the chiller’s condensing temperature; however, it is a good idea to contact the manufacturer first so there is not a warranty issue with the unit. In colder climates, some chillers operate in cold weather to provide air conditioning to spaces with high heat loads. Examples would be computer and server rooms where there is a high rate of energy consumption and heat rejection. It is usually cost-effective to use outdoor air to cool spaces with high heat loads instead of relying on mechanical cooling. In these cases, installation of a plate and frame heat exchanger makes good sense. In cold weather conditions, a plate and frame heat exchanger utilizes water to transfer cooling to the indoors. This type of system is effective; however, it does have its limitations. If the outside tower is closed loop, meaning circulating water is not exposed directly to the environment, glycol can be added so the water does not freeze. There is usually a 2°-3° approach to a plate and frame heat exchanger, so the controls have to be set up properly or else the unit could freeze. If the system is fed by an air handler, the outdoor air damper can be modulated to produce the correct mixed air temperature; this results in free cooling, as most systems discharge 55°F air. This process is referred to as the economizer cycle. Most air handling systems for building HVAC are variable air volume control. If they are not, one energy measure is to install VFDs so only the required air flow is delivered to the space. Many systems are equipped with reheat coils to maintain zone temperatures. It is important that the discharge air temperature for these systems is reset based on what the space requires. If not, unnecessary heating and cooling will result, leaving you with a problem to solve. Some older buildings are equipped with a dual duct multi-zone system, which actually mixes both hot and cool air to meet the desired condition. If the controls are not set up properly, this can become an energy nightmare. These old systems should be converted to variable air volume if at all possible. As with boiler systems, chilled water systems can have problems with condenser water fouling the tubes.

136 Fouling of the tubes means the tubes have developed a coating on the inside preventing proper heat transfer. When this happens, the tubes in the chiller need to be punched, meaning cleaned out to remove scale and other contaminants. For direct expansion refrigerant systems, there are times when the evaporator coil can build up ice and restrict air flow. This will cause a number of issues, including insufficient air flow to the space that is requiring the cooling. Upon many inspections of systems, I have found fire dampers partially closed, coils clogged with insulation that has come loose from inside the unit, and clogged air filters. From a maintenance perspective, I have seen discharge air temperature settings lowered to compensate for some of these issues. The results are higher static pressure, reduced air flow, and significant cost impact. If differential pressure gauges or controls are installed, that can help detect this type of issue. On refrigerant DX systems, check the liquid line on the other side of the heat exchanger; if it is colder than the entering line, most likely the strainer is clogged and should be cleaned. During the operational inspection, sometimes I come across leaking water lines. Although the lines may be leaking slowly, this can lead to mold and other IAQ problems. The pipe leaks need to be repaired. There are other issues found by the operational audit that cannot be detected using automation alone. An example of non-automated detection is using your ears when around chillers. If you hear the chiller starting and stopping excessively, you have to ask yourself why it is operating in this way. The condenser could be fouled, or the chiller could be low in refrigerant. Short-cycling of this equipment is not only a waste of money; it reduces the life of the asset. If the refrigerant is low, you have to ask yourself where it went. Possibly there is a leak that needs to be traced. I have seen cases where the liquid line solenoid valve was leaking. When dealing with waterside cooling towers, I have seen them get clogged with dirt, leaves, feathers, etc. If not filtered properly, this debris will make it back to the chiller and foul the condenser tubing, as mentioned above.

137 At times, the spray nozzles in the tower build up with contaminants, and if the water does not flow properly over the tower media, the heat rejection opportunity is lost, resulting in a drop in efficiency. Cooling towers that use water sheeting instead of spray can provide more equalized water coverage over the tower media, improving the heat transfer. Improved heat transfer will reduce fan and pump power over time. Not all chiller systems are set up for light load operations. Many times chillers are sized the same and are not equipped with VFDs. In this case, you may be able to isolate unneeded chillers or add VFDs. When dealing with cooling systems, another problem I see frequently is valves to chilled water coils that will not shut off entirely. This is especially a problem for facilities that circulate chilled water year round. The problem leads to simultaneous heating and cooling, as the heating valve can be open with the chilled water valve leaking by at the same time. In these cases, the valve or actuator needs to be repaired or replaced. In any event, conditioned air or water should not be wasted. For this reason, it is important to understand heat recovery options if the flow of air or water cannot be turned off. Many times I have seen campus systems operating at a low temperature only because there are a few pieces of equipment requiring it. This condition warrants a trim refrigeration unit to be installed for specific pieces of equipment. The time when peak electrical demand charges occur and the actual cost to operate the chiller during this time are important factors when calculating savings. By monitoring flows and temperature differences in conjunction with incoming power, a kW/ton cost can be derived along with a COP (coefficient of performance) rating. Once this is known, you can put together a simulation to understand possible load shedding opportunities or necessary upgrades to equipment. Many buildings around the world utilize ground water for cooling. The ground source heat pump is among one of the options. Utilizing free cooling options such as open or closed loop cooling towers is dependent on both climate and region.

138 When installing a new chiller, it is important to understand the load profile at part-load efficiencies. These efficiencies are usually found in the latest local energy code or edition of the ASHRAE 90.1 standard. Chillers should be staged according to load. The closer to full load the chiller can run, the better the efficiency of the unit. Most of the time this sequence is done using the building management system or the manufacturer’s local controller. Another important component of the chilled water system is how the water is distributed. Understand whether the system has a primary and secondary pump arrangement or just one single loop and whether the pumps that supply the loops are on VFDs. Knowing this will help you understand what type of system you have and what can be done to save additional cost. Evaluate the technology of the chiller; I have seen chillers 75 years old and still in service! Absorption chillers use steam to make chilled water through a deep vacuum of lithium bromide, while other chillers like scroll, centrifugal, and reciprocating machines rely on electricity. For centrifugal chillers, implementing a VFD on the compressor may be an option; if not, possibly a staged soft starter would cut down on the initial draw of electricity. Any time a new chiller is evaluated for purchase, a life cycle cost analysis of using an electric, steam, DX, or water-cooled unit should be completed. The local utility rates and a market intelligence report for the local region should be incorporated to understand the future escalation rate of energy costs. Older systems equipped with pneumatic controls should be considered for electric direct digital controls. When the loads are significant enough, a life cycle cost comparison should be completed to decide between purchasing a direct expansion refrigerant chiller, which uses a dry cooler to reject heat, and installing a water-cooled chiller, which uses a condenser water tower to reject heat. Water flow in these systems is best balanced with VFDs instead of balancing valves, which add pressure drop to the overall system. On direct expansion (DX) refrigerant systems, many times I see plant growth on condensers, which limits the amount of air flow across them and reduces the efficiency.

139 I also see damaged fins on evaporator coils preventing air from passing through. In these cases, the aluminum fins on the coils can be combed out to restore air flow. Through the many energy audits I have conducted, I have seen many chillers not on a proper preventative maintenance schedule. This is usually identified during the operational interviews of facility personnel. As equipment ages, older chillers should be replaced with new, environmentally friendly non- CFC chillers. Chilled water systems that are equipped with plate and frame heat exchangers should be monitored for performance by looking at temperature and water flow rates (chilled and condenser water). It is critical these systems stay clean. For this reason, treatment of the water is critical. The emissivity, microbial content, mineral content, and other critical water factors need to be monitored and tested frequently. Most of the time a coupon rack is installed with small wires (copper, nickel, steel) that can be pulled out and inspected for corrosion. I have seen a cooling tower water system started without water treatment for a few months during a new project. The result was that the water was aggressive enough to erode most of the media in the towers and all of the connected piping, costing the contractor thousands of dollars and causing delays in the schedule. Many new chilled water plants are being constructed in a modular arrangement. In these cases, the owner can work with the chiller manufacturer for the efficient arrangement of pumps, chillers, and controls before the unit is shipped to the site. I have commissioned these in the past, and they minimize interference in the construction of a new building that normally would have procured individual pieces of equipment. Technology in chillers is always changing. For DX chiller systems, the refrigerant level and pressure are critical, as is the proper oil level. Frequent amperage readings should be conducted to understand the operating efficiency of the unit. Many owners have migrated toward using vibration monitoring and analysis on motors as part of their predictive maintenance programs. Some of these systems are now using wireless technology, making them cheaper to install.

140 Installation of premium efficiency motors on pumps and cooling tower fans, along with associated VFDs, is always a good idea. Many times there are local utility incentives for installing high-efficiency motors and VFDs. Older cooling towers should be replaced with new high-efficiency towers. It is essential that a make-up water meter is installed for the tower. If there is enough room, many engineers will oversize a cooling tower to create lower condenser water temperatures. When dealing with cooling tower systems, I recommend the water be filtered using back washable sand media or an electrostatic precipitator. This will minimize the amount of chemicals added to the water to suspend solids in the system for blowdown. I review this in more detail in the water treatment section of this chapter. Many owners are using reject reverse osmosis water to replace costly city water; however, it is imperative this water be treated correctly in a mixing tank before being introduced to the system. If the make-up water is not treated properly, significant corrosion can result in the tower, piping, and chiller, causing irreversible damage. When chemically treated correctly, RO reject water can provide significant savings on the water bill. For DX chillers with evaporative cooling technology, similar to the open cell cooling towers discussed earlier, treated water can be sprayed onto the condenser coils to increase the efficiency.

141 Water and Plumbing Systems Review

There are many types of water and plumbing systems in today’s buildings. Low flow toilets and automated bathroom fixtures are simple ways to conserve water and offset its rising cost. Some of the opportunities I have come across when evaluating water systems involve reducing both pressure and temperature if possible. It really does not matter if it is a domestic water system, water for injection pharmaceutical processes, or a reverse osmosis system; there is always an opportunity to lower costs. During unoccupied periods, pumps can be turned off by the automation system or time clock, or they can even be written into a security patrol round to be turned off manually. If pumps can’t be shut down due to manufacturing requirements, possibly a VFD could be added. Any water leaks that are found should be repaired along with broken faucets and other water-consuming devices. Many times I see hot water pumps operating in the summertime for reheat purposes when they are not needed. I find electric hot water heaters with no time schedules of operation running when they could be turned off or when not in use for extended periods of time. In these cases, a time clock or other automated device could reduce electrical consumption. If the storage tank is large enough, there will be hot water to get through the peak time. Today I am seeing more solar water heaters installed to supplement the hot water demand. For water that is heated using a central boiler system, possibly a smaller hot water heater could be installed to maintain temperature instead of running a large boiler. The same applies to any hot water system. Always evaluate installation of VFDs to circulate water. For cooling tower systems, sometimes the water can be used to cool industrial refrigerator condensers. Popular today is the installation of gas-fired condensing hot water heaters. Due to their high efficiency (95-98%), these have a great return on investment versus using standard technology. Many sites are now using low flow water fixtures and filtering rainwater for irrigation and cooling tower make-up.

142 Renewable Energy Review

This is an area where technology is advancing at an alarming rate. Solar cells are becoming more efficient, and the costs are coming down significantly. In this area of interest, it is important to investigate incentive programs in your region. The money returned on an investment in renewable technology justifies the investment to the point where it makes sense. Evaluating the use of fuel cells, micro turbines, photovoltaic materials, solar steam generators, and combined heat and power generation makes sense for most owners. Fuel cells are now requiring less space for installation and can be tied in series with backup generators for N+2 redundancy. Some fuel cells are now stackable, saving space. Wind turbines are another form of power generation along with the use of hydroelectric and geothermal systems. Figure 15. Wind powered electric turbine and water pumping in the Netherlands

Today, wind is still used in the Netherlands to pump water, while turbines are used to generate electricity. Saving the cost of energy can be challenging; however, with the right combination of technologies, a good payback can be achieved. When looking at new technologies, it is important to look at all economic incentive programs. Before engaging in the design of one of these systems, it is important to complete an energy balance of your facility. An energy balance should be part of every energy audit; this will help you understand where the opportunities are and help you design an energy roadmap.

143 You will want to correct any energy-consuming issues prior to designing a renewable system, as your consumption will directly impact the size of equipment required. Whether you are investigating the use of hydroelectric or using biofuels, it is always a good idea to complete the energy balance first.

Metered Calculated 1,175.04 Estimated COP 3.50 358.74 3,067.19 HVAC Energy Mapping (MWh/y) Simplified Drawing 6,815.98 Boiler 2,016.00 Effic. 90%

Natural Gas 7,174.71 1,533.59 (3) 500 Ton 720.00 Chiller 252.00 Electricity 9,538.26 COP 3.5 Process 2,000.00

55.55 65.35 Compressed Air 1,533.59

252.00 Clean Utilities

2,937.86

2,640.00 Lighting & Plug

0.01 Safety Showers

Figure 16. Energy map diagram

The energy map above illustrates annualized energy (gas and electric) coming into the facility measured in kWh. The energy map shows how the energy is distributed throughout the facility. Depending upon how the facility is metered, building loads such as HVAC, process, lighting, and others can be separated to further understand the performance of those systems. By developing an energy map, you are also performing a meter gap analysis. Once you complete the diagram, you will understand where you need to add meters to measure significant energy users. If you can’t allocate where energy is going due to a lack of meters, then you will have to estimate to complete the balance until measuring devices are installed.

144 Electrical Systems Review

Every building is equipped with some type of electrical system. Some systems are more complex than others, and depending upon the use of the facility, significant electrical switch gear, transformers, and breakers are required to distribute and regulate energy through a facility. When evaluating electric systems, I first look at one-line diagrams or plans, if they exist, which will show me what the architecture of the system looks like. Looking for opportunities in electrical systems is always challenging. Evaluate the transformer locations in the building and find out if they are drawing current when there is no connected load. If so, find out if the transformer can be disconnected or turned off. During the energy audit, I use infrared thermography on transformers to better understand their operation. Infrared has become a relatively inexpensive technology. Flir makes a plug-in camera for the iPhone that costs around $300, which is low compared with the cost of conventional cameras. Using infrared, sometimes I find that temperatures are too high in transformers. Looking at the transformers, you must ask if the transformer is sized correctly for the load it serves. Many times when there are changes to a space, the load is either increased or decreased, but the transformer is never changed to accommodate the new load. Some electrical rooms are air- conditioned, while others rely on large amounts of outdoor air to cool them. Be sure to look at the ventilation system closely. Many times I see transformers in fully air conditioned spaces when they could have been located in a room on an outside wall to make use of ambient air for cooling. Most transformers and switch gear rooms are designed for an operating temperature of 104°F. On many occasions I have seen failed damper actuators on outside dampers shut with an exhaust fan running and not moving sufficient air to cool transformers in the space. Checking the name plate data on all equipment is a good start to your investigation.

145 Contained within maintenance records should be lists of all motors, pumps, air handlers, and other energy-consuming assets. Many facilities use a barcode system for logging maintenance records in the asset management system. Electrical maintenance records are essential for understanding how equipment is performing. For larger pieces of equipment, motor amperage and voltage should be checked monthly. If there are hot spots detected through infrared, it should be confirmed that connections are tight and that there are no worn parts such as contactors, brushes, or other internal components. Focusing on electric motors, I find that the sizing of the motors to meet the brake horsepower is sometimes incorrect, causing the motors to operate outside of their safety range. Many times this is due to incorrect hydraulic calculations or improper sizing of impellers installed in pumps. In some of my energy audits, I witnessed vibration in fans and pumps that contributed to higher electrical consumption, which causes premature wear on the equipment. Voltages should be checked, especially for 3- phase motors, to see that they are balanced between the three poles (3 phases).

Figure 17. Using IR to find hot spots

Staging of pumps and motors is critical for the initial draw of electricity. For this reason, pumps and motors should be on a defined startup schedule and staged to avoid overloading if not already on a programmed VFD. When replacing any motor, pump, or fan with a higher efficiency model, utility rebates should be investigated. Many times the rebate will increase the return on investment and shorten the payback.

146 If the facility is large enough, a load profile of the building should be conducted. Understanding the load profile can help with load shedding or demand response exercises, better known as curtailment. Facilities that are on hydroelectric sometimes experience harmonic issues. Harmonics (power quality) is critical to the life of electrical equipment, and in some cases, filters are required to protect equipment from damage. It is said that power phases should be balanced within 30 percent and current within 3 percent for voltage. I would recommend that a registered electrical engineer evaluate your system for efficiency. Understanding the power factor is critical in any facility, as it can cause unnecessary demand on the system. Understanding where the power goes and how it is used is a critical part of the energy balance. Close examination of the electrical bills will help reveal the peak load times and rate structure. See if you can confirm peak loads on the utility bill. In some cases, demand charges can be significant but not always transparent or obvious. There may be ways to optimize the operation of equipment during peak demand. Understand if non-critical air handlers can be turned off during the time of peak demand. Determine if the use of major electrical equipment can be scheduled to reduce demand. Many overlook these charges and accept them as the costs of doing business; however, many times they don’t understand that charges can possibly be eliminated if the power is managed correctly. If the building has an emergency generator, ask if it can be used during peak demand times when the electric rate is high. In some cases, local environmental laws or government regulations prohibit operation for this purpose. Equipment that operates 24x7 should be examined. This includes vending machines, plugged-in computer transformers, and other components that may not have to run continuously. We call these phantom users. Take a close look at the elevators; many times I find that the lights are on all the time when they could be put on a motion sensor. If they have to stay on all the time, possibly they could be converted to LED technology and put on a motion sensor.

147 These are areas where specific manufacturers may be able to help with energy savings. Many meters now can’t be tied into the building management system; in this case, investigate wireless technology options, which cut down on the installation cost. In the event the meters can be tied into the building automation system, some form of proactive energy management can be performed. The more that sub-metering can be done, the better the data analysis and control. Ideally, if different systems can be separated (e.g., pumps, HVAC, lighting, heating, etc.), then the systems can be diagnosed for energy loss. For air-moving equipment, I inspect the name plate data to understand if the motors can be upgraded to high efficiency. I also measure the current to find out whether the motor is correctly loaded, and as mentioned earlier, I confirm that it is not in the service factor zone. For larger systems, the installation of VFDs can yield significant savings, especially for systems where the flow (air or water) can be reduced when not required. With the installation of drives, many times balancing valves and dampers can be eliminated, as the system will become self-balancing. By removing these components from a system, pressure drops can be eliminated and the efficiency of the system increased. When you observe VFD drives running at full load or in the service factor of the motor, you have to ask if there is a problem. Sometimes I see this as a sizing issue, and other times I find obvious issues in the field like stuck dampers or clogged coils. In these cases, maintenance is simply required and is highly beneficial for reducing the energy wasted. As we move through the 21st century, lighting technology is changing rapidly. I have seen ceiling lighting systems go from T-8 to T-5 fluorescent technology conserving considerable amounts of energy, with most retrofits paying back in the 3-year range. Every day now we are seeing LED technology evolve in the same way fluorescent technology did but at a faster rate. For lighting systems in office areas and building common spaces, a photometric light meter should be used to measure the lighting levels. In some areas, it may be possible to use fewer lights with a higher wattage or to eliminate extra bulbs.

148 When de-lamping, or removing fluorescent light bulbs, it is important that the ballast is disconnected as well or else it will continue to draw unnecessary power. Older incandescent lamps should be replaced with new LEDs. Every building should have a re-lamping schedule after so many hours of use. When re-lamping a space, the reduction in wattage should be calculated. Going from 40-watt bulbs to 30-watt bulbs will result in both a reduction in heat rejected to the space and reduced electrical cost. These calculations are important when dealing with utility incentives, if available, as the calculated savings will be required to complete a utility rebate application. Fluorescent bulbs in ceiling light fixtures can build up airborne dust, which reduces their lighting capacity. Add-on control systems that make use of motion sensors or other technology to sense occupancy should always be part of your evaluation. Lighting sensors that detect daylight should be used in lighted areas. The lights can also be automatically dimmed by a light sensor if they are in a naturally sunlit area such as an atrium or are located near outside walls with windows. Reflectivity off of walls and ceilings can help lower the lighting requirement. For larger spaces such as warehouses, the installation of skylights and fiber optic light transfer tubes is effective in cutting down on the cost of lighting. Occupancy sensors work well in warehouses, as they enable lights to be turned off when the area is no longer occupied. In areas where safety is a concern like mechanical spaces, electrical rooms, etc., instructions should be posted over light switches reminding people to turn lights off when exiting the area. When dealing with aging lighting systems, you may see that the ends of the fluorescent tubes are darkened; this is a sign that the lighting output is beginning to decline. At this time, new fluorescent fixtures with electronic ballasts may want to be considered. The same applies to exterior lighting. Exterior lighting should be tied to photocells or a time clock for operation. Many installations are now utilizing LEDs outside, as they disperse more light and use considerably less electricity than traditional halogen and fluorescent bulbs.

149 Older metal halide or sodium fixtures should be considered for replacement with LEDs. Office lighting can be controlled by occupancy sensors; however, a good lighting system connected to a building management system can be very effective. Programmed lighting schedules with overrides are necessary to make these types of systems operate efficiently. Lighting sensors have to be in correct locations to detect any movement or else they will not work properly. Advanced lighting system software packages will show graphics of the areas being lighted along with data collection from each component in the system. Most lighting system software allows for custom programming for night setbacks in individual zones. Reports can be run to understand system operations and when overrides to the system occur. In some of the green buildings I have audited, the lighting systems were equipped with daylight harvesting. This is where daylight is measured and the surrounding lights are automatically dimmed to maintain a certain light level in the space. Some lighting systems track the voltage range of dimming ballasts, which allows for system optimization. Importantly noted, the lighting system should be commissioned every year to ensure that it is operating properly, that the components are calibrated, and that there have been no space changes. As part of the electrical systems review, I look at equipment in both the laboratory and office spaces. It is important that equipment has a sleep mode and draws no power when off. Many times I find power strips with transformers connected drawing current when equipment is turned off. These phantom loads can be detected using infrared thermography. When specifying new equipment, it should be Energy Star rated or certified by a reputable agency or company. All offices should be equipped with some type of energy-saving technology to turn off equipment when not in use. Many times I find computer rooms operating at low temperatures with no equipment in them. The thought is to run the air conditioning system cold so that if there is a power outage, there is time to move in some temporary air conditioning.

150 That idea works in theory for a fully loaded room with rack servers but not so much for an empty room. There are sometimes opportunities to change the operation of the room and run it a little warmer. Most of the time these rooms are overcooled and on emergency power, so cooling them is not so much of a concern during an outage. When dealing with DX HVAC systems, keeping evaporator coils free of ice buildup is a common issue. When this occurs, the coils should be defrosted. If this is a routine event, the automatic defrosting system controls should be evaluated and replaced if defective.

Figure 18. Typical empty computer room

Sometimes the gaskets around doors are found to be leaking, which can contribute to this problem. In this case, the door gasket material should be replaced. If there is missing or damaged insulation on pipes, it should be replaced to increase system efficiency. In some cases, the temperature set point can be raised to increase the efficiency of the system. Through the use of infrared on outside condensers, I have found some to be operating at too high of a temperature based on the manufacturer’s temperature limits. Figure 19. Obstructed direct expansion coil

151 What I usually conclude is that the fins on the condenser coils are clogged and need to be cleaned. In other cases, I find that the coil fins are flattened, preventing air flow over them. In this case, the coil fins can be combed out to make them straight again, allowing air to flow over them again. Importantly noted, the absence of insulation on external piping will cause temperature issues with the refrigerant liquid and suction lines, especially if there is a long enough run from the condenser coil to the evaporator. Any length of refrigerant piping over 40 feet typically requires a refrigerant pump.

Metering System Review

Many buildings I audit are equipped with main service meters only. In some cases, multiple buildings are tied to one meter, making it difficult to derive an overall cost or consumption by square foot or to measure energy consumption against other buildings. Lack of metering can make the creation of an energy map challenging. In the event there are sub-meters on-site, an inventory of the meter numbers for all gas, electric, chilled water, steam, and condensate meters is helpful. If the meters are tied to a building management system or SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) system, a plan should be put in place to utilize and analyze the meter data. With smart metering technology where information is readily available all the time, kWh usage can be directly accessed. Many times, the smart meters are tied to the building management system so proactive monitoring can be accomplished. This is especially useful when monitoring for demand response, a time when excess building load can be shed to save significant kWh and money. In some cases where it is difficult to run wires and other accessories, wireless technology has become an option to transmit and collect data for analysis.

152 Understanding the calibration schedule of the meters is also important. Centrally networked meter systems allow for reporting of kWh and demand, which is essential when analyzing utility data. Data should be collected in a central building management system with the capability of storing the data for at least one year. Whenever possible, meter steam, chilled water, and hot water to air handlers and other equipment that use major utilities. Some new state-of-the- art buildings are using intelligent valves that measure flow and temperature and report energy data back to the BMS system. All critical loads above a certain size should be metered, as it will become cost-prohibitive to measure everything due to the cost of the meters. All electrical breakers in the main switch gear should be addressable (meaning data can be downloaded for analysis) with respect to measuring energy consumption. If the load is critical, it should be metered for usage and demand. Whenever possible, it is helpful to have a display at the point of use to measure the energy consumed.

Procurement, Utility, and Rebate Review

I find that many people stay clear of this area due to its complexity. With good reason, utility bills are not the easiest to figure out. As for reading the electrical bill, it is broken down into several main segments. Most bills use the current meter reading subtracted from the previous meter reading to calculate the usage for the billing period. The days in a billing cycle can vary according to the meter reading cycle. Electric usage is usually measured in kilowatt hours (kWh). Most utility bills show the previous 12 or 24 months of your electric usage, measured in kWh, usually shown on a graph. You can use this information to follow how weather patterns, energy efficiency upgrades, and energy measures have impacted your bill. Most electricity is charged using a ratcheted system, which is now itemized. When a customer’s usage hits a certain threshold, they are bumped into a higher-rate and more expensive tier or level. The tier system is not new; only the itemization of it on the bills is new.

153 Ratcheted rates encourage energy efficiency in an effort to help recover costs associated with upgrading the infrastructure to deliver higher consumption amounts, particularly during the summer months. There are different electric rates for summer and for winter. The format usually shows the levels used to figure your bill and the rate for each. Large commercial customers also pay an electric demand fee because they are demanding a large amount of electricity all at once, which goes into the cost to provide electric service. The first aspect of reviewing utility bills is to understand how they are structured. On many utility bills I review, I find unidentified charges on the energy bills. There are services on the market available today for checking your utility bills. These services justify their fees by finding enough issues on your utility bills to pay back for the service. Upon further investigation, I find charges that should have been removed like service charges for temporary power on a construction site long after the project was completed. Utility bills can be complicated, which is the reason many don’t take the time to understand what the different charges are for. Most importantly, understanding the billing cycle and how long the contract runs is important. If the utility cost has dropped, find out if the contract terms are negotiable. Most supply contracts are locked into a 1 to 3 year term. Procurement people understand not only how the billing process works but also how to lock into supplier contracts for several years in advance, which is known in the industry as hedging. A hedging strategy involves negotiating a delivery cost with the supplier. Find out what the demand charge is and when it occurs. The demand charge occurs when there is too much of a draw on the grid. An example of this may be a hot day in the summer when everyone is running their air conditioning system. The reverse would apply for natural gas consumption in the winter on a record cold day. Most importantly, find out when and how the rate is set. This is where demand response may be helpful in reducing cost. By shedding loads (turning off non-critical equipment during peak demand times), the demand charge can be impacted. The peak consumption during this critical time period sets the ratchet rate at which you will be charged the following year.

154 In the event there is no demand response service in place or available, find out if the utility offers a program. It is important to understand if there are any demand response arrangements to assist with lowering cost. Another area of opportunity to reduce cost is rebate programs. If your local utility offers rebates, many times they will cover the cost of energy studies (in part or in full) along with supplementing costs for new equipment that will lower energy consumption. Most utilities put money aside as a requirement of the PUC (public utility commission), which oversees the operation of utility franchises. Some programs will provide rebates for overall consumption saved. There may also be state and federal incentives available that should be investigated. Incentives can help increase the return on investment and can sometimes get a project approved that normally would not be approved. For example, for re-lamping building lighting, most finance groups look for at least a 3-year return on investment. Many times these projects do not move forward without some type of financial incentive. Depending upon your procurement portfolio and whether there is a carbon reduction target set, purchasing green power may be an option. Keep in mind that solar, wind, and hydro power are all good sources of clean energy and can help with your procurement strategy.

155 The Functional Audit

The functional part of the energy audit includes using human intelligence (observation) for assessing different energy opportunities. With the use of a few relatively inexpensive and non-invasive measuring devices, you can locate many energy opportunities quickly. Understanding where energy is being wasted is the start of your forensic investigation of the building infrastructure. Many buildings have complex systems, which are sometimes integrated to take a whole building approach. As described earlier in this book, the functional audit reviews the 32 faults typically found to occur in a representative sample of 80 buildings across the U.S. The 80 buildings studied had a median age of 17 years, 100,000 s.f., and geographical locations across the U.S. Taking the guesswork out of what to look for, the matrix assists the energy auditor in quickly finding energy opportunities. In the following diagram, if a problem is found, the fault number is marked in red; if the issue is not severe but worth noting, the fault number is marked in yellow; and if there is no issue, the fault is marked in green. If a fault is noted in at least one piece of equipment, it is worth taking a representative sample of other pieces of equipment to see if the fault is consistent. Interpolating these faults can sometimes be challenging, as they can have multiple root causes. For this reason, in this section I briefly review each of the 32 faults individually to give you a better understanding of what to look for.

156 Table 10 Typical 32 re-occurring building faults

Fault 1: Discharge / return temperature fault issue:

This problem is typical in air handler systems. Many times a temperature probe in the air handler or duct will be out of calibration. This problem can be spotted using an insertable temperature gauge or hot tip in the duct near the other probe or sensor. Most times there are plugged ports drilled into the ducts that were previously used by the air balancer. I recommend taking a non-invasive approach to analyzing systems.

157

Figure 20. Typical BMS system view of air handler

By non-invasive I mean not modifying or tampering with any equipment (drilling holes, etc.). Another way to confirm temperature is to view what is going on through the BMS system. The deviation between what the gauges on the air handler read and what the BMS reads can indicate whether there is a calibration issue when compared to your probe. Temperature sensors that are out of calibration result in over- or under-cooling, contributing to energy waste . Fault 2: Discharge / exhaust pressure / static flow issue: Pressure sensors that are not working correctly can cause system over-pressurization or under pressurization. Both of these conditions can be checked using a magnehelic gauge, which usually measures in pascals (PA) or inches of water column (WC). If the BMS system is connected to some type of fault diagnostics, many times this invisible issue will be detected.

Figure 21. Differential pressure gauge

158 Fault diagnostics will pick up discrepancies from the field device and send them back to the building management system, especially if the static pressure or flow is out of limits. The sensors in the ductwork usually control how the fan in the air handler operates. If the fan is equipped with a VFD, a faulty sensor may be communicating to speed the fan up, which will result in excessive energy usage and over pressurization of the system. Over-pressurization destroys the duct sealant and can lead to significant air leaks, requiring the system to be resealed. As many of us know, resealing insulated ductwork is an enormous task. In some cases I have seen the pressure sensor tube (p-tube) get clogged, causing the fan to run at full capacity because it is sensing low pressure. This condition basically overrides the variable speed capability. Other signs of this fault are concave or convex ductwork. The ductwork will be concave if there is an under- pressurization issue and convex if it is over-pressurized.

Fault 3: Economizer / outdoor exhaust damper fault

This problem is usually caused by a failed damper actuator. The ability to use outside air for free cooling on some units is the key to considerable energy savings. Many times I see failed actuators and the outdoor air dampers closed on units. The best way to detect this issue is to have someone command the damper on or off and watch the movement of the actuator. If the BMS system has a graphic for the damper arrangement, evaluate the percentage it is closed and then compare that to what is going on at the unit. The usual signal range from the BMS is 0-20 milliamps to open and close the damper. Many times I see the damper slipping on the shaft, and although the BMS system says it is open, it is not. The operations of the outdoor air damper, return air damper, and mixed air damper are critical for regulating the temperature in the mixed air chamber before it hits the heating and cooling coils.

159 Synchronization of these dampers (outdoor and return air) must be confirmed, and if they are found to be out of tolerance, they should be repaired, calibrated, or replaced. If the BMS system is connected to some type of fault diagnostics, many times this invisible issue will be detected long before someone visually finds it in the field.

Figure 22. Damper position using Cimetrics

Fault 4: Simultaneous heating and cooling: This fault can be detected both in the field and by using the BMS system. The heating and cooling valves should be locked in one position or another with logic preventing them from being open simultaneously; however, it seems this is rarely the case. A simple infrared camera targeting the heating and cooling coil pipe can reveal whether both are on at the same time. The BMS system may indicate valve position percentages, and if both have a reading, this can also be an indicator that something is not right.

160 The only time these valves should be open simultaneously is for dehumidification for a process where the space has critical temperature and humidity requirements. Many times I have found that even when the BMS system says the valves are shut, they are partially open, allowing hot water, steam, or chilled water to leak by. Leaks and simultaneous heating and cooling issues are evident when using IR. Using IR will allow you to see if the valve is leaking by for either hot or chilled water; you will see that the temperature of the pipe is not what it should be. When this issue is detected, the valve or actuator needs to be rebuilt or replaced. In any event, this is a typical problem that is routinely overlooked. If the BMS system is connected to fault diagnostics, many times the algorithm written for this particular fault will identify it. In the next picture, a cooling register discharging 62° air onto a heating unit thermostat set for 70° is discharging 161° to reheat the space back up to the cooling unit thermostat set point of 73°.

Figure 23. Simultaneous heating and cooling in same space

161 Fault 5: Return / space air change rate under / over: After a system is air balanced, many times I see dampers drift open or closed over time. I also find that in-duct heating coils collect sheet metal tags that were inside the duct when it was installed. These conditions usually lead to an air change rate that is unstable, over, or under. Oscillation in the signal from the duct sensor back to the building management system is also sometimes an issue. This can be caused by a faulty sensor or damaged wiring. It is a good idea to traverse (take an air flow measurement) in the duct to determine what the flow of the unit is and how much air is leaving the system and actually entering into the space. If issues are evident, a certified air balancer may need to be hired to measure air flow in the system.

Table 11 Summary of air flow and set points Many times I find laboratories and research spaces operating at too high of an air change rate. The VAV boxes serving the space have incorrectly programmed turndown ratios. All of these issues can lead to excessive energy consumption. Sometimes this fault can represent an opportunity to reduce air changes in spaces, especially if they are too high and can be reduced with no major impact to the space. If the air handler unit and system are equipped with air flow sensors, the problem could be detected through fault diagnostics, as many times this invisible issue will surface.

162 Fault 6: Space temperature fault: Within any given space, the thermostat may be out of calibration, causing overcooling or undercooling of the space. For buildings equipped with above-ceiling fan coil units capable of heating and cooling, the dead-band range on the thermostat should be no less than 3°. The dead band range is the set point between heating and cooling. When dead-band ranges are too close, it can cause simultaneous heating and cooling. By the time the space is cooled, the unit will want to go back into heating mode. This process will eventually wear out the heating and cooling valves from excessive actuation.

Figure 24. Using IR to find stuck valves

The picture for this fault is a valve that is stuck in the open position. At the BMS system, the valve was commanded off a few weeks ago; however, it continues to leak by hot water. Further investigation revealed that the thermostat controlling the valve was faulty and had failed in the open position. If the BMS system is connected to some type of fault diagnostics, many times this invisible issue will be detected. This fault can be caused by the thermostat being located in the wrong place, which fault 9 addresses directly.

163 Fault 7: Fan cycling / damper oscillation: This fault typically results from an unstable signal from a sensor. Either the sensor in the air handling unit is in the wrong position or location (turned incorrectly or in turbulent air stream) or the fan and/or dampers are receiving an unstable signal. In some cases I find the sensor is faulty and just needs to be replaced. If the BMS system is connected to fault diagnostics, many times this invisible issue will be detected.

Figure 25. Visible damper oscillations using Cimetrics

Fault 8: Air balancing / leaking: This fault is usually detected in the field using our hearing. Listening for whistling in mechanical spaces can lead you to find system leaks. Most of these types of issues are found where ductwork joints (where sealant was applied) are damaged from people walking on them or running into them with other equipment. In these cases, the ductwork may require resealing to prevent leakage and a pressure test to ensure it is below the allowable -10% leakage rate as originally commissioned.

164 Sometimes there will be hot or cold spots in rooms. In these cases, the system may need to be rebalanced, especially if new equipment has been added or the area was recently renovated. In the picture for fault 13, using duct tape and cardboard is not an acceptable way to repair ductwork, as these products won’t withstand the static pressure of the system over time.

Figure 26. Leaking ductwork above ceiling

When there is a steam leak, sometimes you will hear it, but sometimes it can be invisible and cause serious injury. I have heard of people using a broom to pass by piping they suspect has a steam leak. The broom will disintegrate if it gets in the path of a high pressure leak; better the broom than you. If you suspect a steam leak, you should immediately notify your safety department or someone with experience to locate and address the leak.

Fault 9: Visual thermostat in wrong location: Many times I find a thermostat located over a radiator or on an outside wall overcompensating to meet the set point. Thermostats should be located on an interior wall or column to accurately sense temperature. This observation can only be made visually. This particular fault can also be detected through the BMS system through excessive cycling of a fan coil or VAV box. If the BMS system is connected to some type of fault diagnostics, many times this invisible issue will be detected, provided an algorithm has been written for it.

165 Fault 10: Visual deflection / vibration / overheating / binding: These faults are usually detected through visual observation in the field. Deflection in belts can be seen with the eye. Excessive vibration near pumps and motors can be detected by just being around the equipment. I have found that a stethoscope is also effective for listening to vibrations. If equipment is connected to some level of vibration monitoring, issues can be detected long before failure occurs. Binding usually occurs on actuators that are not operating correctly. Figure 27. Pump motor vibration

Sometimes the shaft is bent or some other issue is causing binding. Using IR can help identify these types of issues, especially hot spots and overheating issues in motor casings.

Fault 11: Relative humidification fault: In duct humidifiers, this can be problematic. Sometimes the high limit switch for a humidifier will malfunction causing the humidifier to flood the duct. This problem can lead to damaged insulation and cause mold to grow in the ductwork if the conditions are right. This problem can be detected by taking relative humidity measurements in the space using an electronic humidity meter or wet sling pycnometer. When humidity in office buildings is too high, you can usually see it in the ceilings. Many ceilings have tiles derived from starch products. Gypsum and drywall usually show misconfiguration (convex in shape) and sometimes will have black mold spots on them. Reflective ceiling tiles hold moisture and will begin to lose their form, going from flat to curved to sagging.

166

Figure 28. Over-humidification in air handler

If over-humidification is detected (typically above 60-65%) in any given space, the humidifier should be checked. If there is no humidifier in the air handler, find the source of water that is contributing to the problem. I have seen space humidifiers under employee desks left on. As humidity rises, sometimes the problem can be challenging to troubleshoot. Typical office space should not be humidified over 35% in the winter; when using an economizer in the summer (free cooling with outdoor air), an enthalpy sensor (senses moisture in the air) is used. In the summer, the humidity in the space should not go over 60%; this could be caused by a failed enthalpy sensor (measures moisture content in the air) in the economizer. If not programmed correctly, a failed enthalpy sensor could allow the unit to switch over to 100% outdoor air for cooling because the dry bulb sensor is satisfied. At 100% outdoor air with too much moisture, this can cause duct flooding, mold, and humidity problems in the space. Both the temperature and the enthalpy of outdoor air have to be sufficient for free cooling. I have seen cases where the enthalpy sensor has failed but the temperature sensor is OK.

167 Fault 12: Improper valve / damper position: This fault can be detected when the set point temperature is not being met. Although this fault can be detected visually, most of the time it is detected through fault diagnostics. Revisit the sequence of operations of the air handler unit to ensure the dampers and valves are in their proper positions for the range of temperatures given. If dampers are not in their proper positions, mixed air temperatures may not be correct or the system may experience higher static pressure with minimum flow of air to spaces. I have seen in several cases fusible links for fire protection dampers partially fail, leaving dampers halfway down inside the ductwork. If the mixed air temperature is not correct, this will result in unnecessary heating and cooling.

Figure 29. DDC damper actuator

Fault 13: Pump / valve / oscillation cycling / leak by: Oscillation and cycling of a pump, valve, or fan is usually a sign of instability somewhere in the system. These types of problems are easily detected using fault diagnostics; however, without fault diagnostics, they routinely get overlooked. In the field, you will hear unstable flow; some refer to it as hunting or cavitation. This situation occurs when an actuator is in constant motion because it cannot find its correct set point position. This problem can be caused by an undersized or oversized valve or just a bad actuator. In these cases it is good to have your controls contractor or in- house technician diagnose the problem.

168 In the picture for fault 13, there is a series of pumps that were found to have a signal oscillation problem. The oscillation was caused by a faulty pressure sensor. The pumps could not find their set point, so they were in cavitation. This issue is usually heard in the mechanical room; it sounds like the speed keeps changing on the pump. Figure 30. Outside chilled water pumps

Fault 14: Water / steam temperature over / under: Maintaining the proper temperature of utilities has a direct impact on energy consumption. When hot or chilled water temperatures deviate from the set point, this triggers many questions. For chilled water systems, the condenser water may be too warm, or possibly a tower fan is not operating correctly. Your chiller could be low in refrigerant, or a compressor stage may be out of service. There is also the possibility of a refrigerant leak, which will make the system work harder than it has to, or maybe the condenser tubes need cleaning. The same applies to hot water and steam systems. If the water is too hot, most likely there is a faulty sensor.

Figure 31. Refrigeration compressor

169 Whatever the issue may be, a temperature that deviates from the set point is a sign of a problem. Many times I find the deviation is simply caused by a faulty sensor that just needs to be recalibrated or in some cases replaced.

Fault 15: Water / steam pressure over/under: As with temperature, pressure that is too high or too low has some of the same root causes. This issue is usually detected on the BMS, but sometimes routine rounds by maintenance taking log readings in the field may detect it. The problem usually results from a faulty pressure sensor and/or some type of obstruction in the line to the sensor. If the BMS system is connected to some type of fault diagnostics, many times this invisible issue will be detected. When there are gauges in the field on chillers, boilers, air handlers, or pumps, they should be calibrated for accuracy. Many times I will confirm a reading from the field with the BMS system. Many times I find discrepancies which are the root causes of under- or over- pressurization Figure 32. Centrifugal chiller

170 Fault 16: Water / steam flow over under: As with temperature and pressure, insufficient flow that is too high or too low could have some of the same root causes. Water flow can be restricted by plugged strainers, debris buildup in pipes, or simply undersized piping. Many systems are being converted to variable volume, and older balancing and triple-duty valves are being removed to eliminate high pressure drops. I have seen cases where plugged strainers have created enough backpressure to set off the system pressure release valves.

Figure 33. Pumps running in service factor

The pumps pictured are running in their service factor due to an undersized cooling system. You would never know that by looking at them; this is why it is important to take amperage readings. System overpressure valves are usually piped to drain. I have seen cases where they are not, and this can cause a lot of water damage when they do go off. For steam pressure reliefs, if they are going off too frequently, there is a problem. Pressure relief valves are safeties that are typically set 10% above the nominal pressure of the system. If safety valves are lifting too often, too much steam is being produced, which could mean a faulty pressure sensor.

171 Fault 17: Water / Steam leaks: This observation is mostly found using human interface (either seeing or hearing a leak). Sometimes a leak can be detected by the smell of dampness or mold. A leaking coil in an air handler can unnecessarily send water to drain, as can a broken humidifier valve. When coils develop leaks, they are usually under pressure, which will make everything in the surrounding environment wet.

Figure 34. Leaking steam valve

These leaks are usually easy to detect; however, in an air handler where the entire base of the unit has a pan with a drain under it, they may take longer to detect, as you will not always find the problem with fault diagnostics. You can have a pinhole leak in a coil or a leaking pipe fitting, which can saturate the insulation with water. This situation can lead to mold growth if it is not addressed. In some cases, a small coil leak in an air handler can be absorbed by the air flow, and you will see increased humidity in the space.

172 Fault 18: Pneumatic pressure (valve / damper): This problem can sometimes be detected through the BMS system if the compressed air unit runtime is monitored. The leak rate can be determined by timing the compressor runtime duration. For a system that is not in use, if there were no leaks, it should not run. Most of the time, leaks are found in the field by using your ears to hear them. You can usually hear steam traps leaking by or a pneumatic actuator leaking air in the field. Soap and water can be used on fittings to see if they bubble, showing signs of an air leak. If the faults are severe enough, the actuator, valve, or damper will not actuate correctly, resulting in an adverse operation. Figure 35. Pneumatic valve actuator

I find many times that fittings have come loose from system vibration and need to be resealed. In these cases, I find it is worth hiring someone who specializes in air leaks to work with you to optimize your system.

Fault 19: Unstable signal: Similar to faults 7 and 13, this problem occurs in the controls instead of in the hydronic system itself. At times this fault is caused by loop tuning that has drifted out of calibration. By loop tuning I mean setting the upper and lower limits (pressure/flow) to be within operational boundaries as the system was designed. It seems that an improperly sized valve or pipe typically leads to this problem. When we are operating outside of these boundaries, there are other problems to be addressed. Issues like unstable voltage to actuators (4- 20 milliamps of power average to move valve open and closed) are most common with this fault. Most of the time, this fault can be seen through the building management, mostly through unstable conditions. The valve actuator will continuously hunt for its proper position but will not find it. As with fault 13, this can be either a voltage issue or a hydronic/engineering issue.

173 When this fault occurs, you can visually observe it in fault diagnostic graphs. For air supply systems, the supply static pressure will be unstable, as will the air flow. Again, this problem is usually picked up by some level of fault diagnostics.

Fault 20: Meter calibration: Whether it is a water, gas, or electric meter or an unstable signal to the building management system, a faulty reading can cause a lot of issues. Depending upon the type of meter, the internal mechanisms can become worn and begin to slip or malfunction.

Figure 36. Standard in-line water meter

When you begin to see measurements that don’t make sense, it may be time to calibrate or replace the meter. I just recently experienced a situation where I witnessed a spike in gas usage at a site. Upon investigation, I found that the meter has just been changed out for a new one. After contacting the gas supplier, they came out and calibrated the new unit. They said the unit was operating correctly and that the old meter had begun to slow down due to age (bearings drying out, etc.). I really believe this could be the case. If the spinal that turns the meter builds up enough resistance, it will turn slower.

Fault 21: Sensor / switch / signal calibration / low voltage: When you begin to see measurements that don’t make sense, it may be time to calibrate or replace the meter. I just recently experienced a situation where I witnessed a spike in gas usage at a site. Upon investigation, I found that the meter had just been changed out for a new one.

174 After contacting the gas supplier, they came out and calibrated the new unit. They said the unit was operating correctly and that the old meter had begun to slow down due to age (bearings drying out, etc.). I really believed this could be the case. If the spinal that turns the meter builds up enough resistance, it will turn more slowly.

Fault 21: Sensor/switch/signal calibration/low voltage: Similar to meters, sensors require calibration frequently. Carbon dioxide sensors have a shelf life, and many of them cannot be recalibrated. For buildings with demand ventilation, meaning outdoor air intake dilution is based on indoor CO2 levels, when the sensors fail, they generally go to full ventilation for the space. In the figure below is a suspect CO2 sensor that was detected with ongoing commissioning.

Figure 37. Suspect space carbon dioxide levels using Cimetrics

175 Without fault diagnostics, this problem generally goes unseen. With respect to outdoor air sensors, they should also be frequently calibrated, especially if there is not a redundant one installed. I have seen cases where a failed outdoor air sensor sent a -50° signal to turn on preheat coils in multiple air handlers in the middle of the summer. Since most air handlers have extra cooling capacity, sometimes this issue can go unseen because the cooling coil can handle the extra load while keeping the occupied space satisfied. It is best to have a metrology schedule to confirm the accuracy of sensors because they can wind up costing you a lot of money if they are not calibrated correctly. It is also good to have a second outdoor air temperature sensor or nearby weather station to confirm accuracy.

Fault 22: Sensor / switch fault / controller flat line: A flat line signal to the BMS could have several variables associated with it. In most cases, the sensor has failed due to a wire being damaged enough to prevent the signal from going back to the BMS system.

Figure 38. Signal flat-line detected through Cimetrics

176 If the BMS system is connected to some type of fault diagnostics, this invisible issue will be detected, and it warrants immediate correction. Sometimes I see switches turning on and off every few seconds. This is usually a bad relay or contact, and eventually, after thousands of on/off repetitions, the switch overheats and trips out a circuit breaker. A flat line on the BMS graphic can also be related to a power module failure. Sometimes the battery backup fails, and data stored at the device is lost.

Fault 23: Smoke / hood / air filter alarms: When an alarm is activated, most of the time, there is a reason. Sometimes the alarm or detector is faulty and requires replacement. In many cases I have seen alarms put in override and then forgotten about. An example of this is a nuisance low temperature alarm on a chilled water coil. I have seen coils freeze and break piping due to overridden alarms. If the BMS system is connected to some type of fault diagnostics, many times this invisible issue will be detected, provided that point is being monitored.

Figure 39. Cogeneration plant control and alarm panel

177 Fault 24: Envelope leaks / stair pressurization: These types of faults are typically witnessed by taking pressurization readings on the building or using infrared. If the building is equipped with a differential pressure sensor tied to the BMS system, a problem may be detected. Buildings with atriums present a special kind of challenge from a pressurization perspective.

When it is cold out, convection of heat will want to draw the cold in at the lower levels, making the building negative in pressure. In the summer the opposite happens: The cold air will fall and exfiltrate the building, causing it to become positive in pressure. The only effective way to regulate the pressure in an atrium so that it is consistent year-round is to have differential pressure control programmed to modulate the outdoor air entering into the building to maintain a constant pressure.

A building should always be slightly positive in pressure to prevent contaminants and untreated air from entering the building. Although the BMS system, if connected to some type of fault diagnostics, may indicate there is a problem, fan backdraft dampers, elevator shaft vents, and other rooftop equipment could allow conditioned air to escape. One of the best tools for locating leaks in the winter months is infrared. I discuss this in more detail in Chapter IV of this book, specifically in case study 3.

Many times I will locate a leak, take an air flow measurement on the leak, and then be able to calculate how much energy is being wasted by looking at the temperature outside and inside and the flow of the leak. There are a few tools I use to calculate air flow and infiltration. If you open a door at ground level and use a van nanometer, you can get the air speed in feet per minute. Once you have the area of the open door, you can then determine how many feet per minute the air is moving. You can then take the inside and outside temperatures.

178 Now you have enough information to calculate BTU heat gain or loss using the following equation:

BTU/HR = FPM x Area in square feet x 1.08 x (temperature inside – outside)

This will give you a quick idea of how much energy is being consumed. You can also use this measurement to determine how much area is open to the outside of the building. This is further discussed in case study 3 in Chapter IV of this book.

Fault 25: Equipment performance / VFD control / status: Performance of motors, fans, and other equipment is best checked by a trained technician or air balancer certified by NEBB. Unless the work of a motor (electrical input – work output) can be measured, efficiency cannot be calculated. In some cases this is measured at the BMS, and if this is the case, this relatively invisible issue will be detected. We should always question a VFD that is running at 100% all the time. We must ask if there is a system leak, and if so, if it is a clogged pressure tube (p-tube) or sensor, or if the fan or motor has been locked into 100% to overcome some other type of issue. I find this issue is the best type of problem to get to the bottom of, as we are usually successful in correcting the issue and saving significant energy.

Fault 26: Runtime / overridden in hand position: Very similar to fault 25, sometimes I find VFD controllers locked in hand position overridden in the BMS system on my walkthroughs of mechanical spaces. This situation creates excessive wear on the equipment if it was designed to run with a part load and not fully loaded. If the BMS system is connected to some type of fault diagnostics, many times this invisible issue can be detected. If the equipment is more than 3 years old, it is a good idea to profile the equipment for energy efficiency and figure out what the coefficient of performance is. If the equipment is not performing correctly, standard efficiency motors can possibly be swapped out for newer, higher efficiency equipment. Many times the

179 local utility will offer an incentive to replace the equipment. Be sure to look at the occupancy schedules; many times I find equipment running when it does not have to be. Fault 27: Engineering issue (over/undersized): Typically found during the energy audit or retro-commissioning process, this is a frequent but inherent problem that gets covered up during construction. No engineer wants to admit to having= undersized or oversized a system and wind up in court. We all know what would happen: The project would go into litigation. So what happens instead is that these issues are compensated for upon startup of the building. They don’t get attention until there is a problem of such magnitude that air or water balancing alone will not fix it. Figure 40. Undersized pump motor

Many times under sizing issues are detected during performance testing of the system. The picture for fault 27 is a set of pumps that were undersized, with amperage readings operating in their service factor range for their entire life. If the BMS system is connected to some type of fault diagnostics, and you are measuring amperage, you will see the system not meeting other set points like temperature, pressure, flow, or any other of these critical performance variables. In cases where a system is undersized, supplemental equipment or replacement of items that are contributing to the problem may be required. Coils with high pressure drops across them may need cleaning, or if the coil is undersized, a supplemental one may need to be added. In any event, it’s a good idea to hire a professional engineering service to investigate the root problem and get a recommendation on how to fix it.

180 Fault 28: Incorrect labeling / documentation conflict: When walking a system down (visualizing configurations) or attempting to troubleshoot issues as noted in fault 27, I have found many times the documentation is inaccurate. Whether it is the wrong pipe size or pump horse power noted on the schedule, these issues are picked up through human interface. Although a problem can be detected through the BMS system, manual calculations and tests must be completed to confirm the actual problem or condition. I find that documentation is only accurate in a few cases. If it is a FDA regulated space confined to strict change control, or second the system has an owner that takes pride in maintaining their system, these are usually the only factors that drive accuracy. Outside of those two variables, I can almost guarantee you 90% there will be something that will be undocumented which is not only a potential engineering issue, it may be a safety one as well.

Fault 29: Sequence optimization / tuning / programming: This fault can be found by either human interface or fault diagnostics. Sequences of operations found in drawings are not always reflective of reality. From my experience, it is a good idea to interview the building management system administrator in addition to examining the control drawings. Many times I have seen sequences of operations copied from laboratories and other projects used by the engineer of record to complete a project. In examining this fault, a representative sample of pieces of equipment should be looked at. The staging of boilers is a great example. To maximize the efficiency of steam boilers, they should be run as close to full load as possible versus running two at part load. In most cases I see equipment running in series (chillers, boilers, air compressors, pumps, etc.) at part load to equalize the runtime, which is highly inefficient. In these cases, you should work with your vendor to help optimize equipment efficiency and tune for efficiency. Many times, reprogramming is required.

181 There may be some hesitancy to do this work; it could be financially related (cost to do the work), or it could be because the programming code is difficult to work with and presents a risk to the current operation. In either case, it is worth investigating and working through the identified issue until it is resolved.

Fault 30: Field / BMS issue (reversed or incorrect wiring): When this fault is observed, many times I find that equipment was installed incorrectly. Take a typical hot and chilled water system in a mechanical room with similar water pump flows. I have seen chilled water pumps installed on the hot water system. Indications of this problem are usually incorrect electrical breakers installed resulting in frequent tripping or system flow problems due to the fact that the impellers in the pumps were swapped between systems. Installed points on the BMS system with no signal are also suspect. I see this a lot for cooling tower water make-up meters. I have found water meters for cooling tower make-up water installed, but the BMS graphic for the water consumption is flat-lined because it was never installed. This situation can lead to thousands of dollars lost, as many municipalities will deduct water used for evaporation from the monthly water bill, especially if you can show them the data. If the BMS system is connected to some type of fault diagnostics, many times this invisible issue will be detected, as there will be a 0 reading for the tower’s water meter, that is, if it was ever programmed.

Fault 31: Boiler effluent in-efficiency: Mostly confined to information tracked in the local boiler controller, if the stoichiometry (fuel to air burn rate) is measured or manually logged by the boiler technician, boiler inefficiency should be evaluated in every audit. I have found errors in past audits where the numbers just don’t add up.

182

Figure 41. Automated controlled steam boilers

Although a problem can be detected through the BMS system, if the boiler controller is connected and is monitoring the effluent for unburned fuel, many times on a local controller, manual calculations and tests must be completed to confirm that the controller is in calibration. Many times I have found discrepancies which required recalibration of controls. Many burners are operated by the local boiler controller.

Fault 32: Lighting to bright in office / stairwell: Typically this fault is found in the field using a light meter. Confirming that lighting levels are too high can result in some potential energy savings opportunities. Sometimes fixtures can be de- lamped; however, the ballasts remain energized and are still using energy. If the lighting system is standalone or is tied to the central BMS system, an occupancy schedule should be evaluated, if not already in place. In some cases, lighting can be rezoned to accommodate a certain occupancy schedule.

183 With the use of LED technology now taking over the industry, it is a good idea to evaluate upgrading to this technology. Many times the local utility will provide an incentive for installation.

Figure 42. LED lighting in mechanical room

Although a problem can be detected through the BMS system, human observation and manual calculations may be required to confirm that an actual problem or condition exists.

In conclusion to this section, there may be more faults to detect in a building beyond the 32 aforementioned; however, the issues cited were the most typical in the 80 buildings studied. Once you have identified your opportunity from either the operational observation or the functional observation, you will need to do some level of calculations to determine the savings. You can skip this step if you have hired a consultant to find energy measures for you.

184 I typically use an Excel workbook programmed with energy equations to understand what the potential savings will be in kWh, therms of gas, and carbon. The typical energy conservation sheet is pictured in the following table. Table 12 Typical energy audit opportunity matrix sheet

This Excel-based table is directly linked to carbon emissions factors, contains calculations for energy savings, and includes net present value, internal rate of return, investment range, and simple payback. Using these matrix sheets assists the energy assessor in assembling the final presentation after the audit is complete.

185 Financial Qualification of Energy Conservation Measures

The first step in understanding financial qualification of energy conservation measures is knowing what your goal is. Does your company or business have a carbon reduction goal? Is your company or business driving a financial cost savings goal through kWh reduction? In many cases, energy reduction is not only good for cost reduction; it is good for the environment. Many companies want to demonstrate to their stakeholders that they are doing the right thing for our environment. No matter what the reason is, engaging your stakeholders and project team to render full support and commitment to energy measures is critical to moving forward. In almost every case I have been involved with, the key to selling energy projects comes down to finance approval of some type. Most financial people want to understand the value of the investment in terms of net present value (NPV) or internal rate of return (IRR). A company or business must understand the value of its investment, which is no different from making an external investment in the stock market. Demonstrating the time value of money and the importance of making future cash available for other investments is financially critical to the profits of the organization or company. The traditional formula for calculating NPV is a follows:

Where r (t) is the rate of flowing gash given in money per time, and r (t) =0 when the investment is over. When calculating the IRR, it is the inverse of the NPV.

The NPV is an indicator of the value or magnitude of that investment. In any event, your IRR must be greater than what you can earn from an alternative investment. Examples of calculating IRR and NPV can be done in Excel. The following project was calculated for the repair of steam traps.

186 Steam traps typically fail over time, so in this example, I take a savings discount over time as illustrated in the following diagram. Most industries that work with steam traps have them surveyed every year. The example shows what the IRR and NPV would be if the repair was done one time.

Table 13 Internal rate of return and net present value excel calculation

Programming the IRR will require an error deviation factor of -.05 as follows: =IRR (S202:AC202, 0.005) The NPV you would give the nominal range as follows: =NPV (7.5%, S199:AC199).

Most companies have rules around investments. What I have seen is that, through its transactions, a company understands what its operating expenses are, or the costs associated with doing business. This is usually referred to as the hurdle rate. This rate is typically set by a finance division or department. Finance personnel understand that when an investment is made, there is always some level of risk. That risk can consist of transparent costs resulting from design changes, cost of materials, change in scope, and regulatory or other municipal requirements. Some refer to this as the iceberg under the water, meaning the danger is not always visible.

187 I typically see finance departments require a safety of 10% above the hurdle rate to even consider a project. An example of this can be found in the following figure:

Figure 43. Financial risk boundaries

In this case, I understand that as long as the IRR for the project is over 17%, it is considered to be a good investment. Many companies will use a straight return on investment requirement, meaning the cost of the investment divided by the savings will yield the return in time. When calculating the ROI, it is division as follows: (Invested opportunity cost/savings) = time to recover investment

We have to remember that the mistake many people make is just doing the ROI calculation; it does not account for the time value of money. Most companies I have seen typically use 3 years for an ROI. Traditionally this is a good number to use, as it represents low or moderate risk. Put numbers in terms management and finance need to make a competent business decision. Understanding the life cycle cost of an investment will be critical in determining how long you should carry out the IRR/NPV. Some items like installation of large mechanical systems (chillers, boilers, air handlers) may be 20 years, whereas other items such as equipment repairs may only be 5 years. To properly determine the ROI, it really depends upon the financial health of the company. This raises an interesting question I get asked frequently: How do I determine what the financial return on investment for projects should be if there is no ROI (in years) established?

188 It really comes down to how a company can effectively leverage its cash or an investment with attractive returns. In this case I suggest running what is called the sustainable growth rate (SGR) calculation. An example of this is as follows:

First, determine the financial health of your company by applying the sustainable growth rate formula:

SGR= (Retained Earnings/Sales) x (Net Income/Sales) X (Sales/Assets) x (Assets/equity)

Obtain from a typical year-end report of a company (balance sheets) the following information, this example was taken from a biotech start-up company:

Retained Earnings $ 1,682,820.00 Sales $ 1,713,871.00 Net Income $ 397,439.00 Assets $ 5,004,528.00 Equity $ 2,936,412.00

Once you have the SGR calculated, apply what is called the Rule of 72. Determining the payback strategy by utilizing the Rule of 72 from the financial world is common in the industry. Dividing the value 0.72 by the SG interest rate (SGR) gives a close approximation when dealing with hurdle rates from 6% to 8%, which are typical in the financial industry. In this example the formula would look something like this: SGR= ($1,682,820.00 / $1,713,871.00) x ($397,439.00 / $1,713,871.00) x ($1,713,871.00 / $5,004,528.00) x ($5,004,528.00 / $2,936,412.00)

Company SGR = 0.13 or 13%

Corp Minimum Payback (72/13%) = 5.5 years

189 Remember the sustainable growth rate is a measure of how much a company can grow without borrowing more money. After the firm has passed this rate, it must borrow funds from another source to facilitate growth.

Hosting the Energy Conservation Measure Workshop

Now that you have gone through your energy audit, identified ideas, and quantified them in terms of net present value, internal rate of return, and simple return on investment, we can start to think about how to take all the great ideas and turn them from theory into reality. A few weeks after I complete an audit, once the final numbers have been validated, I am ready to facilitate a workshop. The workshop includes everyone involved with the audit, financial people, management, and others with a vested interest in moving forward with implementing some of the good ideas. I typically take all of the items identified and rank them from 0% to 100% in 3 categories. Once you have values for all 3 categories, you can add them and divide by 3. This will give you the average percentage likelihood you will move forward with any given project. The three questions I ask are as follows:

1. Is the project feasible? Feasible meaning that the return on investment is adequate from a financial perspective and that there are no major obstacles in the way of implementation. Obstacles would include financial constraints, extensive shutdowns, interruption of operations, and any other variable making the opportunity difficult to implement. (0-100%) 2. Is the project simple? Simple meaning that it does not require engineering or other resources beyond things that are easy like making a set point change, installing a motion sensor, or something that does not have a complex installation component. (0-100%).

190 3. Is the energy measure quick to implement? Quick meaning that the project can be implemented tomorrow with no impact. An example might be widening a dead band on a thermostat or making a change with no capital or major expense. (0-100%). I tend to pick projects that are above 70%.

Sometimes the project has other benefits like reliability or end of life replacement. An example of using this scaling system is in the following table.

Table 14 Energy measure ranking sheet

Master Portfolio of Energy Conservation Measures

1/31/2018 Euro/MWhr Revision: 1.0

IEE Project RANK Parameters

Order of Savings ID No. Idea Title Type Fuel Type Feasible Simple Quick Ranking cost Potential Payback Comments

LPHW - Provide temperature control for Phase ID - 001 Utilities Gas 50 70 80 66.7% $8,000 Low 2 and 3 offices radiator circuits

Facilitating a workshop is a great idea for a few reasons. First, it engages all participants and makes them feel they are part of the process and responsible for the outcome of a collaborative effort. Second, the workshop helps build a positive culture around change. Facilitating change is good; although not everyone may agree on every measure, it is important to vote for measures to either move forward with or delay until a later time. Depending upon the size of the audit, I have seen workshops run for 2 days and for as little as 2 hours to reach competent decisions as to whether or not to move forward with defined energy measures.

191 Managing the Energy Conservation Measure Portfolio

As with any energy portfolio, you will want to track your energy projects against an established baseline. Having a history of consumption and cost relative to weather data and output of product is necessary. The following table illustrates a typical breakdown of electrical and gas consumption for a facility.

Table 15 Energy consumption sheet

kWh kWh Natural $ Natural CO2 Elec (t CO2 Gas (t $ Electricity Electricity Gas Gas metrics) metrics)

Jan-14 1,322,659 6,588,753 $ 254,050 $ 208,001 433 1,195

Feb-14 1,123,623 7,403,388 $ 203,326 $ 283,175 368 1,342 Mar-14 1,192,889 8,007,189 $ 184,460 $ 303,628 391 1,452 Apr-14 1,161,764 7,009,699 $ 166,308 $ 280,546 381 1,271 May-14 1,144,522 7,380,375 $ 160,550 $ 246,441 375 1,338 Jun-14 1,342,081 6,667,177 $ 193,377 $ 222,132 440 1,209 Jul-14 1,427,785 3,815,809 $ 233,242 $ 170,654 468 692 = Aug-14 1,427,620 5,776,060 $ 210,758 $ 201,391 468 1,047 Sep-14 1,803,807 3,034,874 $ 209,585 $ 171,310 591 550 Oct-14 1,363,729 5,808,542 $ 174,603 $ 217,949 447 1,053 Nov-14 1,209,048 7,120,331 $ 163,090 $ 262,066 396 1,291 Dec-14 1,586,391 1,983,271 $ 185,187 $ 147,780 520 360

It is also a good idea to track carbon generated to gain an overview of environmental impact. Once you have your energy baseline established, you can add other variables like product manufactured and energy consumed.

192

Figure 44. Product manufactured, kWh consumption, and program comparison

Once you have your energy measures identified and ranked for implementation, you will want to manage them to understand when they are fully implemented and how you are making an impact on lowering the overall energy consumption. For energy projects, I typically track the project type, location, description, gas and electric kWh savings, investment cost, utility rebates, annual savings, carbon, and time of implementation. Once constructed, the opportunities need to be entered into an expected cash flow. The baseline kWh reduction can then be compared with projects completed and expected cash flow acquired.

193 The following figure illustrates how a typical cash flow of energy projects may look with an initial investment of $300,000.

Figure 45. Energy measure cash flow diagram

A simple cash flow diagram with IRR, NPV, and ROI calculations in an Excel file will allow you to demonstrate the time value of money invested in your projects. As energy projects are implemented over time, you will want to see the trend line moving in an upward direction. Any project over the net $0 line is considered profitable. In the previous cash flow diagram, $300,000 was initially invested in a number of energy measures. Once those projects were completed, they became profitable after 3.5 months. The area under the curve of the line above the net $0 line is profit.

194 The sum of the savings in both kWh and currency should be matched against the baseline to confirm that the savings are effective. Not always can we track progress by cash savings alone, as the price of energy fluctuates. Additionally, external variables such as weather and site growth must be quantified. The best way to track progress is to look at consumption as described above combined with production and correlated with weather. An example of this correlation would be creating a rolling energy that evaluates progress against the past few years, as shown in the following figure.

Figure 46. Rolling Energy Trend

Maintaining an energy baseline will help you confirm the effectiveness of your energy program. Another way to monitor your energy consumption and project is to use market software. There are a number of software packages available for this purpose. Some software can be purchased and loaded onto your PC; others will require a license agreement. With some research, you may find that your building management system may have the capability of performing some real- time data analysis. If you have smart meters that communicate kWh data back to the BMS system, you will be able to perform some real-time diagnostics.

195 Evaluating central plant efficiencies (chillers, boilers, towers, etc.) and deriving an ongoing coefficient of performance (COP) or system energy efficiency rating (SEER) are very helpful for targeting system inefficiencies when they occur. You will want to create a system efficiency map and take a snapshot of your equipment efficiencies. Ideally, you should have your BMS system connected to your equipment controller with the necessary points to determine what the coefficient of performance is at all times. Typically, efficiency is measured by dividing the input by the output. Table 16 Coefficient of performance map

Measured Capacity in COP Chillers Acceptable Equipment Location Type Output (Tons Units Unit Status kWh Eff Boilers Range / lbs/hr)

Chiller 1 Expansion Centrifugal 2,052 123.00 Tons 3.52 COP 2.8 - 6.1 OK Chiller 2 Expansion Centrifugal 2,052 136.00 Tons 3.56 COP 2.8 - 6.1 OK

Chiller A MFG Mech Room Centrifugal 3,631 478.00 Tons 3.28 COP 2.8 - 6.1 OK Chiller B MFG Mech Room Absorber 3,157 268.00 Tons 0.65 Efficiency .6 - .7 OK Chiller C MFG Roof Centrifugal 3,946 201.00 Tons 3.19 COP 2.8 - 6.1 OK

Cogen Expansion Turbine 3,868 1.2 Mw Mw 0.61 Efficiency 45%-70% OK

Boiler 1 Expansion Steam 1,204 2407 lbs/hr 0.85 Efficiency 55%-86% OK Boiler 2 Expansion Steam 1,204 2407 lbs/hr 0.81 Efficiency 55%-86% OK Boiler 3 Expansion Steam 1,204 OFFLINE lbs/hr Standby Efficiency 55%-86% Sources: EFFICIENCY / COP in range https://energydesignresources.com/media/1681/edr_designbriefs_chillerplant.pdf?tracked=true EFFICIENCY / COP out of range

196 CHAPTER III: VALIDATING THE CONCEPT

Compressed Air Review

When evaluating compressed gas utilities, the most probable area for savings is usually compressed air. Compressing and drying air is energy intensive, as you have to not only compress it but also dry out the moisture too. For this reason, management of compressed air is essential. An evaluation should take place to look at the operations. Find out if compressed air is used for pneumatic controls or if there is a specific process that uses it. At a minimum, a leak survey should be completed once per year. Sometimes I find abandoned equipment with air leaking within it or the air being used for cooling a piece of equipment. To determine the leak rate, when the system is not in use, take note of how often the compressor cycles with no load on it. Once you have an actual runtime, you can determine the power draw and calculate the savings. Opportunities for savings include lowering the pressure if possible, and if the system is equipped with an air dryer, raising the dew point or humidity requirement to allow more moisture to be present. When changing pressure and dew point settings, you need to evaluate end user requirements first so that no damage is done to equipment and no warranties are voided. Changing demand dew point control on desiccant dryers can have a significant impact on energy consumption. The efficiency of an oil-free screw compressor is influenced by the temperature of the air at the intake (typical rule of thumb is 3% for a temperature reduction of 10°C or 50°F). Savings are based on the fact that the compressor set is lightly loaded with reduced cycle times. Savings increase as the compressors become more heavily utilized. In many buildings, terminal units require a significant and continuous amount of maintenance, as they are pneumatic and not DDC controlled. Compressed air can typically be 2-3% of the overall electrical energy consumption in some facilities.

197 Typical air systems will normally have a 30% leakage rate, with 20% for a good system and 10% for a best-in-class system. It is therefore recommended that an ultrasonic detector be used by utility operators to drive down the leakage rate on the air systems.

Completed Energy Studies and Projects

The intent of this section is to present some energy studies and projects I have completed in the past few years. There is a total of four projects in this section.

Boiler Burner Technology

The first project in my evaluation is the upgrading of industrial burners for gas- and oil-fired boilers. This first project reviews a burner installation located in Massachusetts that proved to be highly effective in reducing natural gas consumption. The boilers operated with manufacturer burners and controls. A consulting engineer was hired to confirm the savings from this project. The intent of the project was to maximize boiler efficiency at part-load operation to defer the capital cost of installing a smaller boiler. Now that there are newer burner and control systems available that enable boilers to operate at greater efficiency, older boilers can be upgraded to use this new technology. In addition, the site where the boilers are located met its carbon reduction goal for 2013. Both CO2 and NOx emissions were reduced with the installation of the new equipment. Due to the increased efficiency of the boilers, energy use decreased, which reduced the annual operating costs of the boilers significantly. Figure 47. New Burner

198

The energy goals of this project were accomplished through the installation of two new Limpsfield burner units with Autoflame low O2 control, which replaced two of the four existing boiler burners. The boilers in this case study are rated at 750 horsepower each. The cost for the replacement burners and installation was $220,000; however, there was a utility rebate of $164,500 that brought the total cost of the project down to $55,500. All BMS work was completed in-house with guidance from the project team. To confirm the savings, boiler efficiency curves were developed (see following charts) for pre- and post-retrofit boilers and applied to the annual load profiles. These profiles confirmed annual savings of 25% and 352,715 therms (8,233.5 MTCO2). The results were based upon a typical annual usage of approximately 1,401,321 therms and 136,300 metric cubic feet (MCF) of natural gas.

Figure 48. Completed Limpsfield burner installation

199 The therm savings represent only 8394 hours (96%) of a full year due to limited post-retrofit test data at higher boiler loads; however, the consultant estimated that additional natural gas savings would not be more than 10,000 therms. One interesting aspect of the hourly gas data profile is that the combined process and non-process loads can always be met with a single boiler, i.e., the maximum annual gas input value was only 30,180,000 BTU per hour, and the boiler max gas input rating was 32,689,000 BTU per hour.

Figure 49. Annual hours and lbs/hr steam

200 Table 17 Savings analysis

Pre-retrofit Post-retrofit %LOAD Hours Therms Saved Boiler Effic. Boiler Effic. 15% 1 ------

23% 55 38% 48% 1,812

26% 327 42% 54% 11,550

28% 726 44% 58% 29,246

31% 984 47% 62% 40,575

33% 985 49% 65% 42,941

36% 891 52% 69% 39,454

38% 712 53% 71% 34,103

41% 655 56% 74% 30,388

43% 646 58% 76% 29,936

46% 652 60% 78% 30,132

49% 599 64% 80% 23,742

51% 547 66% 81% 20,768

54% 372 71% 84% 11,367

56% 242 74% 86% 6,702

59% 147 Limited test data -

61% 90 Limited test data -

64% 50 Limited test data -

66% 26 Limited test data and low frequency load 69% 17 Limited test data and low frequency load 71% 8 Limited test data and low frequency load 74% 1 Limited test data and low frequency load 77% 3 Limited test data and low frequency load 8394 Total Est's Savings 352,715 25%

Annual Usage 1,401,321 Usage/Savings

201

Figure 50. Boiler burner comparison

To develop percentage load profiles from gas, cubic foot (CF) measurements were set at 1027 BTU per CF to convert hourly cubic feet (CF) natural gas to hourly BTU, multiplied by its pre-retrofit, which assumed a 4 season boiler efficiency (65%). This figure was then divided by the boiler’s nominal gas input rating at its nominal boiler efficiency rating (32,689,000 BTU/hr x 80%). Then the consulting engineer performed a lookup of boiler thermal efficiency for pre-retrofit and post-retrofit using the following equation:

Therm savings = % Output Load x #Hours x 32,689,000 x 80% x [1/ pre-efficiency -1/post efficiency] / 100,000 BTU / therm.

202 Therm savings = %Output Load x #Hours x 32,689,000 x 80% x [1/pre- efficiency - 1/post-efficiency] / 100,000 BTU/therm

The 4 season boiler efficiency may seem somewhat arbitrary; however, there was no strong pre-retrofit correlation between gas usage and boiler efficiency, as can be seen in the chart below. For this reason, it was left to us to assume a reasonable boiler efficiency in order to create a load profile, which was necessary for calculating a full year’s savings. In a separate analysis, the consulting engineer came up with 312,387 (22%) annual therm savings by developing a slightly different load profile using a boiler efficiency of 75% for the winter months (1964 hours) and 65% boiler efficiency (5814) for the rest of the year.

Figure 51. Pre-retrofit to develop load profiles

203

Figure 52. Post retrofit profile

Limpsfield combustion technology typically saves in excess of 10% annually or more; however, in our case it was 22% due to oversized boilers. Limpsfield burners are of an industrial forced draft design, suitable for alternative or simultaneous firing of gaseous and mineral fuel oils. The unique forced draft combustion design distributes the combustion air at the burner head so that combustion is maximized at all times, ensuring that all fuel is burned safely while maintaining stable combustion and flame geometry throughout the burner firing range. This arrangement results in efficient combustion, excellent reliability, and maximized safety. Each Limpsfield burner is guaranteed to generate 3% O2 emissions when firing gas while producing negligible CO2 with maximized efficiency. Limpsfield products are built by fully trained and certified technicians working with the International Quality Management System for the design, manufacturing, and testing of gas and oil burners with associated valves, enclosures, and housings.

204 In this study, installation of Limpsfield combustion technology avoided the installation of a summer (smaller) boiler to satisfy part-load conditions. With the higher turndown ratios, the large boilers can now operate at a much higher efficiency at part load, avoiding the installation of a small boiler. The main reason for the performance of the Limpsfield burner unit is that the burners are made up with PID (proportional, integral, derivative) control. The integral Autoflame controls reduce the cycling due to better turndown, resulting in low production of O2 thanks to the accuracy of the controls (servo motors). More information can be found by contacting the distributor, The Wilkinson Companies, at 405 V.F.W. Drive, Rockland, MA 02370 - Toll-Free: 800-777-1629 - Phone: 781-335- 2622.

Figure 53. New and old burners

205 Ongoing Commissioning Central Plant Study

The project in my evaluation that has been proven to have a significant payback on investment is ongoing commissioning. Whether you have an existing building or have recently done some retrocommissioning, you will want to keep it operating as efficiently as possible. Ongoing commissioning has been around for quite a few years. With ongoing commissioning, or OCx, data is collected using the building management system to analyze and report operational abnormalities in terms of energy loss, cost, and GHG emissions on a consistent basis.

Figure 54. Cimetrics process flow diagram

In this project, I worked with Cimetrics, a Boston-based technology company. Cimetrics offers a variety of engineering and analytical services based on their considerable experience with networked control systems, building automation systems, sub-metering systems, and commercial HVAC systems. Cimetrics has helped many companies add BACnet capability to their products, and their Infometrics and Analytika offerings are widely recognized as the industry-leading big data analysis services for building systems.

206 In this project, an area of approximately 1.6 million total s.f. of manufacturing, research, and office space was analyzed for fault detection. This review is of a biotechnology company located in the northeast of the United States. There are 41,345 BAS points being monitored by several different BMS systems, including Siemens, Schneider, ENE Invensys, Honeywell, and Delta V. Approximately 4,500,000 data samples are taken per day to look for abnormalities in operations. This project has been active since 2011. The equipment being monitored includes 25 chillers, 16 cooling towers, 125 HW and CHW distribution pumps, 130 air handling units, 2,500 terminal units, solar panel arrays, lighting controls, and miscellaneous equipment. Since the time of connection, 270 issues have been identified, representing an energy cost savings of $1,489,700 and CO2 savings of 5,324 metric tons of carbon. A total of 3,434,717 kWh of electricity, 16,572 dekatherms of natural gas, and 36,446 klbs of steam savings was identified. The costs of some of the issues were eligible for utility incentives under the pay-for- performance program.

Figure 55. Opportunities diagram

207 One of the more significant issues found during monitoring was an inefficient campus chilled water system, which turned into a major energy conservation project. For this project, a central utility building that provides steam and chilled water to several nearby laboratory and manufacturing buildings was the focus. The central utility building (CUB) was constructed in 2007 to replace aging, individual building systems with a more efficient and centralized energy source. The chilled water system was designed to serve HVAC and process cooling loads in four remote buildings as well as the CUB itself. The chilled water system consists of four 750-ton water-cooled centrifugal chillers (see figure below) controlled to produce 40°F 25% propylene glycol-water, which is distributed to the campus using a primary-secondary pumping system. Each chiller has a dedicated 40-hp primary chilled water pump and a 60-hp condenser water pump. Additionally, there are four 100-hp variable-speed secondary chilled water pumps to provide variable-flow, load-based demand distribution to the campus. The design is based on a return-water temperature rise of 10°F. As part of a comprehensive energy program for the campus, Cimetrics, Inc., was contracted in late 2011 to provide monitoring and trending of point data from the CUB’s existing building management system (BMS). Cimetrics identified a significant deficiency in the chilled water system operation. While the actual cooling load was well within the capacity of one chiller, there were two chillers operating continuously along with three secondary chilled water pumps. Although the problem was observed and quantified, further investigation was required since the cause of the deficiency could not be identified through ongoing commissioning software alone.

208

Figure 56. Typical 750 ton York YK Chiller

In an effort to determine the cause of the imbalance between load and capacity, a local professional engineer was hired to evaluate the trend data and investigate the chilled water system operating sequences. The primary cause of excessive energy consumption was found to be an increased secondary loop flow rate and artificially low return-water temperatures, often called low Delta T syndrome, which prevented each chiller from fully operating at its available capacity. Preliminary measurements showed that while the two chillers were operating at about 15% to 20% of the cooling load, the compressors were each operating at 35% of full-load amps (FLA). The overall cooling efficiency of the plant was measured at 2 kW/ton, more than twice the expected value. Surveys revealed that chilled water loads in the CUB and in three of the four remote buildings were directly connected to the CUB secondary loop. Most of those loads were controlled using variable flow via two-way control valves.

209 A few of the older HVAC units and some of the process equipment in one building still used three-way valves. There were some small manual end-of-loop bypasses that contributed to the excess flow and low return-water temperatures. However, the primary cause of the low Delta T was a building where the original primary secondary pumping arrangement was left in place after its chillers had been replaced by the connection to the CUB. The 25-hp building primary pump still operated continuously, drawing 1350 gpm of 40°F water from the CUB secondary loop and returning it, often at a temperature rise of only 2°F, while the building secondary loops used just a fraction of that flow rate. The resulting flow rate in the CUB secondary loop always exceeded the primary flow rate of a single chiller, so the chiller staging program in the BMS then forced the operation of two chillers in an effort to maintain positive flow in the decoupler line. As trend data was collected over the next few months, it became clear that while the actual cooling load never exceeded the capacity of one chiller from November through the middle of March, the BMS operated two chillers continuously. Other less critical but still important issues identified as part of this investigation included:

1) action set points and time delays in the chiller staging program that allowed no flexibility in tailoring the chiller sequencing to the actual cooling load 2) temperature and pressure sensors that were out of calibration 3) a secondary pump sequencing algorithm that was unable to shed excess pump capacity.

All of these issues were addressed by the conservation project, with the priority being the correction of the excessive secondary loop flow rate. The primary pump in the building with constant bypass flow was shut down and isolated. Temperature control valves were installed in the primary feeds to each of the two building secondary loops to modulate flow from the CUB secondary loop to the minimum requirement of 42°F supply water in the building.

210 These piping and control system modifications were implemented in October 2012. After a few weeks of retroactive commissioning and set point optimization, the goal was reached (see figure below). The building’s demand for CUB chilled water dropped from 1400 gpm to about 400 gpm, reducing the CUB secondary loop flow rate equally. Consequently, the second chiller was automatically shut down by the BMS, and it has remained off for virtually all of the last three months. The previous operation of two chillers each running at 35% full-load amps (FLA) was replaced by the operation of one chiller running at 37% to 38%.

Figure 57. Chilled water demand reduction

The immediate energy savings realized from the piping and control modifications at the remote building, which included the elimination of operating its 25-hp primary pump 8760 hours per year, was an estimated 196,200 kWh. The shutdown of the unnecessary chiller was accompanied by the shutdown of its primary chilled water pump and condenser water pump, saving 80 kW.

211 For all pumps, the estimated savings is based on actual motor current measurements, and credit is given for the reduction in chiller and cooling tower loads based on the elimination of pump heat from the water. Based on historical trend data, it was estimated that only one chiller would be needed for up to four months each year. During warmer months, savings was realized by operating two chillers instead of three. The efficiency gain resulting from operating each active chiller at a higher load level, combined with the pump energy savings, was 613,200 kWh annually. Additionally, correction of the secondary pump staging algorithm allowed fewer secondary pumps to operate at higher efficiency levels at all times, resulting in savings of 80,400 kWh annually. Overall, the project resulted in an annual energy savings of 890,000 kWh. This savings is equivalent to a reduction of 515 tons of CO2 generation based on the eGRID2012 Year 2009 annual non- base load output emission rates for New England. At the blended local utility usage rate of $0.125/kWh, the annual energy cost savings is greater than $110,000. For this project, the total cost of engineering fees, BMS programming, equipment and piping modifications, and replacement and calibration of sensors was $241,000, resulting in a simple payback of just over two years. A utility incentive was received for $160,000, lowering the implemented project cost to $81,000 and reducing the simple payback to nine months. The first year of monitoring operations through Cimetrics has proved that savings were achieved. In addition to the energy savings, this effort is expected to significantly increase the lifespan of and decrease maintenance and repair costs for the chiller plant due to greatly reduced equipment operating hours and more efficient matching of capacity to load. This project succeeded through a three-stage approach: 1) information assembly by Cimetrics that identified inefficient chilled water system operation, 2) evaluation, investigation, and physical surveying that led to the root causes and an action plan, and 3) a plan that included implementation and the securing of financial incentives.

212 The result was a payback measured in months rather than in years. This particular project would not have been possible without the help of Cimetrics. Facilities was planning on installing a fifth chiller because it was believed that the capacity was running out due to construction activities when in reality it was an operational issue. Since Cimetrics released its first products in 1991, they have earned a reputation as a technology innovator in M2M networking software and in analytics for building systems. They are one of the prime movers in establishing BACnet as the dominant open network protocol for building automation systems, leading to our selection as the company to establish the BACnet Testing laboratories in 2000. Their BACnet software is found in many other companies’ control and monitoring products, and they continue to provide standards leadership as BACnet evolves. Cimetrics’ observation that the performance of HVAC systems in existing commercial buildings could be significantly improved using data from building automation systems motivated us to develop a technology-enabled service for building owners. This service, which has been sold under the Infometrics brand, is widely recognized to be the most technologically advanced application of big data analytics for building automation systems. They continue to leverage their deep knowledge of BACnet and other protocols to collect data from a wide range of building and industrial automation systems. Analytika is relatively new to the Cimetrics family of analytical products and services, and it builds on the technology developed for Infometrics to improve the performance of industrial processes, central utility plants, and building systems. You can contact Cimetrics at 1-617-350-7550 to discuss how analytical technology could be applied to your industry.

213 Ongoing Commissioning Manufacturing Study

In the third project I evaluate a number of issues identified by ongoing commissioning. Degradation of previously implemented energy measures is always a concern. It seems that as soon as you tune up your building, it does not take too long for issues to reappear. Typical things such as non-functioning sensors, simultaneous heating and cooling, and overriding of controls are just a few items identified as repeat offenders. As in the last case study, algorithms were used to detect pattern anomalies, and visual graphs were used to understand the issues better. By applying workflow integration of issues through the computerized management and maintenance system, all identified issues are completed in a reasonable amount of time. One of the first and most critical items to review is the sequence of operations. When systems are overridden or deviate from their original design set points, the result is energy waste.

Figure 58. Air handler process and identification diagram

214

Figure 59. Typical air handler sequence of operation

Understanding the sequence of operations and looking for abnormalities in operations are the first steps to keeping your building operating efficiently. The following diagram (compliments of Cimetrics) illustrates graphically how an air handler is operating. By taking data samples every 3-5 minutes, anomalies can be identified, and if frequent enough, can result in an energy opportunity.

Figure 60. Air handler fault diagnostics graph using Cimetrics

215 Studying these figures as illustrated in the previous graph (air handler operating temperatures, makeup air temperature, discharge air temperature, return air temperature, chilled water valve signal, outdoor air position, and weather station temperature), we can begin to see some anomalies. The unit should maintain the discharge air dew point (humidity) at 55°F (adj, not visible) through modulation of the chilled water valve. If the discharge air dew point is satisfied and the discharge air temperature is higher than the set point, the chilled water valve will open to lower air temperature to the discharge air temperature set point. In this case, the discharge air set point is constant at 48.2°F, which falls outside of the temperature range specified in the control sequence. The discharge air temperature varies between 45°F and 60°F with the outdoor air temperature. When the outdoor air temperature falls below 30°F, the outdoor air damper goes to 35% (assumed minimum position). When the outdoor air temperature is below 12°F, the discharge air temperature decreases below 50°F. The outdoor air damper signal drops to 35% during lower outdoor air temperatures. Note that the make-up air temperature is approximately equal to the outdoor air temperature as measured at a nearby weather station when the outdoor air damper signal is 100% (fully open) but is 5° to 8° higher than the locally measured outdoor air temperature. This observation indicates that the outdoor air sensor may need calibration. The chilled water valve is signaled open almost all the time, even at times when the discharge air temperature is close to the make-up air temperature, indicating that no cooling is occurring when the outdoor air temperature is higher than 35°F, though cooling was visible. The control sequence specifies that the cooling valve should be locked out when the outdoor air temperature falls below 45°F.

216 Figure 61. Air handler performance graph using Cimetrics In this case, the outdoor air damper signal needs to be investigated to confirm that the damper is opening and closing when signaled to do so. The following figure compares damper signal with temperature and humidity.

Figure 62. Enthalpy comparison graph using Cimetrics

217 The outdoor air humidity as measured in AHU-01 was inaccurate. Throughout the course of March 2014, the outdoor air humidity ranged in value between 25 and 45 BTU/lbm (British thermal units/pounds of moisture). At the same time, the outdoor air humidity as measured at a local weather station ranged in value between 0 BTU/lbm and 22 BTU/lbm. The relative air humidity is flat at about 14 BTU/ lbm. The return air humidity is always lower than the air handler unit outdoor air humidity; however, the outdoor air damper is between 35% and 100% open. Importantly noted, when the return air humidity is lower than the outdoor air humidity, minimum outdoor air should be taken in. This means the air handler unit outdoor air humidity values and outdoor air damper control need to be investigated. The savings associated with this particular problem was estimated at $2,800 in energy loss annually. This is just one example of fault diagnostics and how to keep your building tuned up all the time. Issues like this typically go unseen, as they are transparent to end users and occupants, especially when the conditions in the occupied space appear to be good. Another similar example is where fault diagnostics identifies a transparent issue with air handler unit 17. This unit has a fixed discharge air temperature set point of 55°F. The unit provides dehumidification when required. If a discharge air reset sequence was implemented so that the discharge air temperature would increase when the outdoor air conditions are dry, air handler unit 17 cooling and zone reheat could be reduced.

Figure 63. Air handler zone temperature performance using Cimetrics

218 This unit runs continuously, 24 hours, 7 days a week. The charts below show that the zone reheats are not affected by the outdoor air conditions. If the air handler unit discharge air temperature could be reset to provide only the sensible cooling required at the zones, overcooling at the cooling coil and the subsequent reheat at the terminal unit reheat coils could be eliminated.

Figure 64. Air handler terminal reheat valve signal using Cimetrics

Applying the same energy costs and assumptions as in the previous example are noted below.

Table 18 Annual energy savings comparison

219 Figure 65. Typical cost savings calculation using Cimetrics

I have found in the past that identifying operational issues seems to be the easy part compared to actually implementing them. For companies with competing priorities, sometimes outside contracts are necessary if the work cannot be performed in-house. For this reason, some ongoing commissioning providers are beginning to offer services combined with cloud-based analytics to deploy professional services to correct issues. Cimetrics is now launching a professional services group offering highly specialized system consultants to resolve issues uncovered by its cloud-based analytics platform Analytika. Building and facility managers can rely on this one- stop solution for all aspects of the necessary work, including project management, implementation, vendor management, and verification.

220 The new service, initially available in the New England region, allows Cimetrics to solidify the company’s trifecta of offerings for commercial facilities including connectivity products, IoT (internet of things) building analytics, and professional services. As we know, facility managers today have a lot of responsibility. While the Cimetrics platform can uncover problems that undermine the facility’s operation, resolving those issues can be a challenge. For over a decade, Cimetrics has offered building analytics designed to uncover issues in complex engineered systems at the core of today’s BAS (Building Automation Systems). While a traditional maintenance servicing can remedy many problems, issues often span multiple disciplines, technologies, and equipment manufacturers. Solving these requires a unique skill set that is not typically found in the industry today. Cimetrics’ system consultants establish a new breed of high touch professionals who are broadly experienced and ready to assist building owners as well as BAS industry players in need of help to solve complex and challenging issues uncovered by analytics. For the first time in the evolution of the building automation industry, Cimetrics can provide an integrated full-stack solution: open standards device connectivity, best-in-class model-based analytics, and a highly flexible and able cadre of consultants. This unique and integrated offering allows building owners to rest assured that their facilities are continually operating at their most optimal performance.

221 Manufacturing Insulation Project

In the fourth project I assessed a facility in Europe for energy opportunities. Upon conducting an infrared scan of the basement mechanical room, I noticed all of the steam to hot water heat exchangers (HX) were uninsulated. The HX skids are used to create hot water for clean-in-place (CIP) operations in the facility. The CIP skids operate at different times, so the heat transfer to the surroundings varies over time. There are approximately 10 CIP skids in the basement. The basement is air-conditioned with chilled water fan coil units.

Figure 66. Uninsulated steam skid

The first step in the process was to understand when the skids were in operation. The skid controls in this case were connected to a Delta V controls system. A trend of the operation of the skids was assembled showing the history of the startup and shutdown of the units to understand heat-up and cooldown times.

Figure 67. Skid start-up and shutdown operational algorithm

222 Once I understood the startup and shutdown of the skids and had taken surface area temperatures with lengths of piping, valves, and fittings, I could then begin to derive a heat loss calculation. Using a surface area heat loss table for bare pipe (there are a number of them on the internet) will give you an approximate BTU loss for surface area of pipe. Once you have the surface temperature of your uninsulated pipes and your room temperature, you can then go to the table and calculate heat radiated to the space. We must remember that in an air- conditioned mechanical room, you are losing the efficiency of both the cooling system and the heating system simultaneously.

Figure 68. Infrared scan of skid valve

Figure 69. Example BTU surface area mapping

223 Table 19 Heat loss calculations for skids

Assumptions : Tamb = 27 C 1. Natural Gas= 33 € /MWh U = 35 W/m2K 2. Boiler efficiency of 85% 3. COP = 6 4. Electricity = 103.4 € /MWh Length (in) Diameter (in) Area (in2) Area (m2) Ts C Q (W) Ref image = 602/603 Flange - 1.5 56.0 0.0361 150 155.5352 Piping 28 1.5 132.5 0.0855 150 367.9185 Piping 168 1 529.9 0.3419 170 1710.97 OSdY Valve 1.5 144.0 0.0929 150 399.9476 Flange - 1 28.0 0.0181 150 77.76759 Heat Ex 1365.0 0.8806 90 1941.819 Ref image = 605 Flange 192.0 0.1239 96 299.1478 Piping 164 1 193.0 0.1245 104 335.5703 4, Ball Valves 1 32.0 0.0206 96 199.4319 Flange 1 28.0 0.0181 96 43.62572 Ref image = 606 Strainer 1.5 120.0 0.0774 105 211.3544 Actuator 86.0 0.0555 165 267.9866 3, Flanges 1 28.0 0.0181 165 261.7543 Piping 46 1.5 28.0 0.0181 110 52.47731 6,325 W Heat Load Gain 55.4 MWh Boiler System Losses 65.2 MWh Boiler System Costs 2151 € Cooling Load 9.23 MWh Cooling Load Costs 955 € Total Energy Loss 74.42 MWh Total Energy Cost 3106 € Length (in) Diameter (in) Area (in2) Area (m2) Ts C Q (W) Ref image = 604 Bucket Trap - - 990.0 0.6387 117 2011.931 2,012 W Heat Load Gain 17.6 MWh Boiler System Losses 20.7 MWh Boiler System Costs 684 € Cooling Load 2.94 MWh Cooling Load Costs 304 € Total Energy Loss 23.67 MWh Total Energy Cost 988 € In the previous heat loss table, the calculations were made for one skid. The investment cost to insulate the HX skids was €59,488 with a savings of €31,309. This project yielded an IRR of 44% and a5-year NPV of €79,980.

Figure 70. Before and after piping insulation

224

CHAPTER III: CONCLUSION

Completed Sustainable Commissioning Case Studies

Case Study 1: Massachusetts LEED Lab and Office

This LEED gold-certified lab office concept building was completed in 2012. The building structure is comprised of metal facade with double-pane glass exterior. The building occupancy is approximately 500 people, and it is heated with gas-fired condensing boilers and cooled by a nearby water-cooled chiller plant. The building has 6 floors; one half of the building is dedicated to quality control laboratories, and the other half is office and administration space with a cafeteria. The building is equipped with an Invensys ENE building management system responsible for controlling the lighting and HVAC systems in the building. The annual energy cost is approximately $557,000 per year. Figure 71. E-quest energy model of office and laboratory

225 Table 20 Annual energy consumption profile

Month Electric Gas Chilled Water Jan $22,266 $28,620 $1,058 Feb $21,840 $24,741 $1,035 Mar $24,857 $19,252 $1,873 Apr $24,074 $17,094 $3,867 May $25,530 $8,506 $11,037 Jun $25,880 $6,655 $17,141 Jul $26,405 $6,754 $21,572 Aug $25,295 $5,289 $19,656 Sept $22,088 $6,756 $15,364 Oct $22,624 $8,832 $8,202 Nov $26,678 $13,281 $3,303 Dec $27,034 $11,071 $1,881 Totals $294,570 $156,871 $105,991

The cost for natural gas was set at 0.72 cents per therm, electricity was 0.125 cents per kWh, and chilled water was estimated at $8.13/MBTU. The reason I chose this building to perform sustainable commissioning was because the operating cost was high compared to similar buildings on the campus. Additionally, many of the occupants complained of temperature issues in the space during occupancy. Although this building is a LEED gold building, it was not post-commissioned, and many operational issues were left unresolved. For this reason, the building required an energy audit and retro commissioning. As part of this study, profiling of the utilities is illustrated in the following figure.

226

Figure 72. Electric, gas, electricity profile

As we can see from this diagram, an increase in chilled water occurs during the summer months, while the natural gas decreases. Electricity remains relatively stable throughout the year. During the energy audit I was able to identify 13 items for a savings of $157,000 to yield a 1.7-year payback, as shown in the next table.

Table 21 Energy conservation measure summary for lab office building Building 68 Energy Opportunities ID Description Cost Annual Savings ROI (years) 5 YR NPV IRR CO2 Savings

1 Fan Coil Unit Cylcing $2,000 $1,060 1.9 $2,130 45% 3 2 Ultrasonic Humidification $85,000 $21,717 3.9 $2,655 9% 160 3 Fume Hood Air Flow Reduction $12,800 $12,792 1.0 $36,237 97% 51 4 CO2 Demand Control Ventilation $5,000 $5,820 0.9 $17,252 114% 42 5 Vending Machine Miser $100 $104 1.0 $282 84% 0 6 PC Night Watchman $4,400 $1,950 2.3 $3,293 35% 6

7 NRM Control Kitchen Walk-in freezers $3,500 $768 4.6 ($352) 3% 2 8 NRM Cold Room Control $39,700 $19,789 2.0 $37,506 41% 58

9 Lighting Controls $6,500 $12,515 0.5 $46,877 192% 36

10 Data Center Ultrasonic Humidification $6,000 $2,879 2.1 $5,255 39% 8

11 Connect to Ongoing Commissioning $64,800 $63,640 1.0 $179,237 95% 176 Reduce Air Infiltration via 12 Pressurization $2,000 $12,310 0.2 $44,471 615% 47

13 AHU-1 Humidifier Commissioning $1,500 $1,992 0.9 $6,100 131% 15 Totals and Averages $233,300 $157,336 1.7 $380,943 115% 604

227 Following the energy audit, the building was recommissioned to include all of the items above. Once the building was under new operation, it was connected to ongoing commissioning. Once connected to ongoing commissioning, $108,000 in additional opportunities became visible. Although some of the items were flagged during the energy audit, the energy is only a snapshot in time. Connecting to ongoing fault diagnostics ensures that issues corrected through the retro commissioning process do not return. Very similar to repairs on an automobile, eventually components will wear out with no warning. In this case the original return on investment for ongoing commissioning was $63,640, which was based on an 11.5% minimum return on the total energy spending. We must keep in mind that the building was only a few years old when connected to ongoing commissioning. The following table outlines the items identified for building optimization using ongoing commissioning. Table 22 Ongoing commissioning fault diagnostics table using Cimetrics

228 Although the building is relatively new, there were some alterations that could be made to gain higher operating efficiencies. Looking into the ongoing commissioning data further, I could see opportunities for loop tuning in several areas to cut down on unnecessary preheating of air. Loop tuning would have been missed in the past commissioning phase, as it was never done due to budget constraints. There were opportunities to reduce the static pressures in the air handlers, utilize CO2 demand ventilation better, and reduce air flows in certain areas. Additionally, there was an opportunity to save electricity by shutting off unnecessary lighting.

Figure 73. Temperature and dew point algorithm using Cimetrics

Some other energy measures included evaluation of the fan coil units in computer and telephone closets. The fan coil unit fans operate 8760 hours per year. A simple programming change allowed the fans to cycle on and off to maintain the zone space set point.

229 These are 100% recirculation units, and cycling ventilation on and off to meet temperature was not an issue. This energy measure would save approximately $1,060 per year. Humidification was another energy measure evaluated. Gas to steam humidification requires gas to heat water from 50°F to 212°F. I recommended an adiabatic mist-free humidification process that uses 97% less energy. The humidification system uses ultrasonic technology to create an aerosol mist that is not visible to the eye. The aerosolized droplets evaporate into a vapor, thereby increasing humidity and providing evaporative cooling. This provides the additional energy-saving benefit of free cooling. Moving down the list, I identified too high of an air flow through the fume hoods in the laboratories. There are 4 four-foot- and 17 six-foot-wide constant air flow (volume) fume hoods. A total of 21 fume hoods were converted to variable air volume operation using a sash potentiometer that indicates sash height. This change resulted in the same face velocities at the sash. The big benefit comes when the sash is closed during periods of inactivity. The result was 70% flow reduction since, per NFPA, we need to maintain 25 CFM per sq. ft. of fume hood surface area. Implementation of this energy measure saved approximately $12,792 per year. Figure 74. Fume hood arrangement

The building ventilation system, when evaluated, appeared to be over- ventilating the building. The CO2 demand-controlled ventilation was set up as an IAQ override feature. It was cost-effectively retro commissioned as both an IAQ override feature and an energy-saving feature. The constant air volume was 36% minimum outdoor air, and it now only increases when the CO2 concentration exceeds the set point.

230 Concentrations of CO2 observed over the course of the audit (1 week) were very low, indicating significant excess ventilation air. This situation was even more pronounced at night when there were fewer occupants in the building because we continued to maintain constant amounts of fresh air. I noted some sensors registering 0 ppm and one registering 205 ppm, which indicated that calibration was needed. Most of the other sensors were between 400 and 600 ppm, indicating chronic overventilation. This energy measure had an annual savings of $5,820. In most energy audits, I find that buildings have multiple vending machines. Vending machines and refrigerated beverage coolers typically consume energy 24 hours per day in the form of lights and refrigeration. Energy savings can be achieved by installing an occupancy-based controller that will turn the lights off and reduce the compressor runtime by learning the occupancy and usage patterns through a motion detector. Savings calculations for this measure were 800 kWh per cold beverage machine. A single unit can be used to control a bank of vending machines for additional savings at no additional cost; however, circuit breaker capacity should be verified first. The most popular controllers are the Energy Miser series from USA Technologies. Although the energy savings from these controls is not significant, they will save $104.00 per year for an investment of $100.00, so you get a 1-year return. Noted during this audit was that many computers were left on after hours. This led me to the next energy measure. Computer energy use can be controlled through a combination of automatic power management features and manual shutdown by users. Organizations can use a standardized setting so that all monitors go into sleep mode after 10 minutes of inactivity. Power management can also be enabled for computer hard drives; however, this may require some investigation and testing before full implementation. Savings calculations in this report are based on 50 kWh saved per PC.

231 Some firms have found that some PC sleep software is disabled by antivirus programs; it has been reported by other insurance companies that NightWatchman® does not have this issue. This energy measure was implemented in this case, saving $1,950 per year in energy. Most buildings I audit have kitchens with freezers. Another energy measure is to add a controls package to these units. Timed defrost cycles, continuously running door mullion heaters (defrosters), hot gas bypass, and standard efficiency AC fractional horsepower fans on condensers are extremely wasteful practices. NRM (National Resource Management, Inc.) has developed the Cooltrol® system, which reduces energy consumption, provides tighter control, eliminates hot gas bypass, and replaces existing fan motors with high-efficiency ECM (electronically commutated) motors. This energy measure was worth $19,789 in annual savings. In evaluating the building lighting system, which is relatively new, some opportunities became visible to me. The BMS system currently provides scheduled control of lighting in parts of the building, while much of the building makes use of occupancy sensors to control lighting. During the audit, I observed that the program for the office areas was set up incorrectly, which resulted in the lighting in these areas being left on continuously. This should be corrected so that the lights in these areas are only on from 6am to 6pm Monday through Friday. The non-emergency lighting in the mechanical spaces was currently set to be on Monday through Friday from 6am to 6pm. After discussions with building staff, it was agreed that this lighting could be set so that it did not come on automatically. Instead, the lighting zone contactors were set to keep the lights on for 2 hours each time they are activated. Because of the extensive emergency lighting in these spaces, such a change should not affect safety. This energy measure saved $12,515 and 96,272 kWh annually.

232 In examining the building envelope with infrared and taking a pressure reading, I determined that the building was under negative pressure. During the site visit I observed that several exterior doors were not fitting well. Specifically, two doors in the cafeteria showed visible daylight where the door and frame met. One door was actually ajar by about an inch, held open by snow and ice. All of the cafeteria doors are equipped with draft stoppers, but this is not a reliable or permanent solution. The cafeteria doors should be better weather-stripped. In evaluating the rest of the building, I found there to be a savings potential of $12,310 annually by sealing the building envelope (loading dock doors, entry vestibule, and exterior ground level doors). During the audit, it was noted that the AHU-1 humidifier was discharging excessive condensate to drain. Damaged insulation is responsible for allowing the temperature of steam piping to drop, contributing to an excessive condensate problem for AHU-1.

Figure 75. Steam humidifier wasted heat identified with infrared

233 Another typical problem I found was excessive steam being vented on roofs. Faulty steam traps were found to be the issue in this case. Measuring the plume off the sanitary stack that the humidifier condensate was tied into confirmed a 60,628 BTU/hr heat loss. The heat loss can be estimated by using a steam plume chart. A typical chart, as shown in the following illustration, was published by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency located in the U.K. In this case, the humidifier was commissioned to reduce the amount of condensate being sent to sanitary drain.

Figure 76. Steam plume calculator

Another common issue I found was VFD drives operating over their rating. Mainly this is due to a design problem like under sizing. During my inspection, I noted that air handler AHU-1 was running at 80 Hz and was still within the service factor of the motor. Current face velocities are so high that the unit takes in snow and moisture, which may lead to mold and other moisture-related issues. During the design stage of the project, it is essential that the air intakes be designed for 350 feet per minute or less to avoid intake of rain and snow. Due to the fact that the ductwork was undersized, the unit needed to be speeded up to compensate for the ventilation deficiency. Figure 77. Snow in air intake chamber

234

In summary, if I combine the retro-commissioning savings (less the ongoing commissioning estimate) and the actual ongoing commissioning results, the total annual savings was $201,892, or 36% savings from the current energy bill. Considering the building is a relatively new green building designed for energy efficiency, there was a considerable amount of opportunity to optimize the installed systems. For an investment of $233,300, a 5-year net present value of $380,943 would result in a 115% internal rate of return. A total of 604 metric tons of carbon to the atmosphere was avoided in this case by implementing the aforementioned energy measures.

235 Case Study 2: Washington Multi-Use Pharmaceutical Plant

The second case study in my evaluation was a facility designed and constructed to replace leased space at another location. The facility was completed in 2008 with quality control laboratories, manufacturing space, and offices. The central utilities include chilled water, steam, hot water, reverse osmosis water, water for injection, potable water, compressed air, and wastewater treatment. The site occupancy is around 170 people (7x24 operations in production 4-5 months/year). The building has three floors with an annual energy cost of $683,727. Total electrical consumption is 5,807,600 kWh per year with a natural gas usage of 9,024,693 kWh. The cost for electricity is 0.075 cents per kWh, and natural gas is 0.90 cents per therm, or 0.030 per kWh.

Figure 78. Energy model of facility

By studying the cost and consumption, I could see that the generation of steam was closely correlated to product manufactured. Steam is used for process cleaning operations. The central plant consists of air-cooled chillers, and you can see the rise in electrical consumption required to cool the building over the summer months. As pictured in the figure above, an eQUEST model of the building was constructed and then validated with existing energy bills.

236 Figure 79. KwH Energy usage profile The energy consumption over the past four years was evaluated, and an energy profile was created, as pictured in the figure above. After reviewing the profile, I noticed an overlap in gas and electric from November 2011 to April 2012. As we can see, gas consumption goes up in the winter for heating, and the electrical goes up in the summer for cooling. In the winter of 2011, the electrical and gas were closely correlated, which was due to a manufacturing shutdown. After auditing this facility and taking a close look at the operations in the building, the following table of opportunities was created. Table 23 Energy measure sheet for multi- use pharmaceutical plan

ROI GHG EnCM Description Cost Savings (Months) 5 YR NPV IRR (MT)

1 Boiler Room Energy Savings $23,500 $21,989 12.8 $56,909 90% 121.0 2 Ongoing Commissioning (OCx) $45,000 $21,557 25.0 $43,214 39% 114.0 3 Air Compressor Room Free Cooling $18,500 $8,625 25.7 $16,822 37% 42.4 4 Mechanical Room Lighting (in progress) $6,000 $2,893 24.9 $5,835 39% 14.2 5 Vending Machine Controls $400 $182 23.7 $385 42% 0.9 6 WFI Pump VFD $7,700 $2,716 34.0 $3,501 22% 13.3 7 Employee culture and Red, Yellow, $2,700 $5,800 5.6 $20,500 214% 30.0 8 DALI Lighting System Replacement $50,000 $34,310 17.5 $89,174 63% 183.0 9 Covert Exterior Lighting to LED $2,100 $934 27.0 $1,731 34% 4.0 10 AHU 5101 Reduced Air Changes $4,000 $21,286 2.3 $80,817 532% 117.0 11 AHU 5107 CAV to VAV $55,000 $80,897 8.2 $269,593 145% 447.8 12 Extend Plant Shutdown $10,000 $51,762 2.3 $196,265 518% 294.4 $224,900 $252,951 10.7 $793,043 110% 1,382

Percent of Total Energy Bill 37.0% Percent of Total Carbon 36.3%

237 One item that was evident when conducting this audit was that the operating cost per square foot was high when compared to similar facilities. The energy use index (EUI) was close to $7.00 per square foot, almost double that of some comparable facilities. When looking at the operation of the building, there was significant opportunity to reduce energy consumption during times when manufacturing was not taking place. Some other ideas for energy savings in this facility consisted of increasing energy awareness among employees. I suggested posting ideas about energy awareness in high-traffic areas such as the main lobby and cafeteria. The facility had just had new monitors installed in high-occupancy areas like the cafeteria. The monitors were for communicating manufacturing quality information. I felt the new screens could also be used to communicate the cost of energy for the building along with ideas to minimize consumption during peak demand hours. Another great energy opportunity I found was in the boiler room. The boiler room contains two large steam boilers and is air-conditioned by chilled water fan coils. The condensate receiver tank was uninsulated, as was other steam piping in the room. In this case, the boiler system is losing efficiency due to bare pipe, and the cooling system is working hard to compensate for the additional heat. The simultaneous heating and cooling was found to be wasting in excess of $21,000 per year when free cooling could be used. A recommendation was made to install a rooftop exhaust fan and actuators on the existing louvers entering the room to provide free cooling year-round. Figure 80. Uninsulated condensate receiver in air conditioned room

238

In evaluating the QC laboratories, I noticed that many of the fume hood sashes were open. This is where a red, yellow, and green tag program could help reduce energy, especially since the hoods were on pressure control. Red means critical process (don’t close hood), yellow means someone has to check with the operator if in use, and green means the hood can be shut when not in use. Depending upon the application, 1-2% of the overall energy spending could be conserved by implementing employee training and routine meetings about energy conservation. Another opportunity for improvement noted during this audit was to provide free cooling to the room with the air compressor. The room is currently located on an outside wall and is mechanically cooled. Figure 81. Fume hood horizontal sash It is possible to install a fan and intake louver and use ambient air to cool the room instead of mechanical air conditioning. This measure resulted in approximately $8,000 of annual savings. Another measure worth noting was to install a VFD on the water for injection (WFI) system. Because the water has to maintain a flow rate to prevent stagnation, the water must continuously move through the system. In its current state, it ran at full capacity; however, installation of the drive allowed the system to be reduced during non-production times and shutdowns. Installation of the VFD resulted in approximately $2,700 in annual savings. During this energy audit, I found the lighting system was not functioning properly, and further investigation revealed that parts and service were difficult to acquire. Therefore, lighting schedules could not be set, and the system was running in manual mode for controlling the building lighting. A new system was estimated at $50,000.

239 A functioning system with night setback and non-occupancy lighting reductions would result in a savings of $34,000 for a 17.5-month return on investment. A significant energy measure that I identified was an air flow reduction that could be easily implemented. When the building was built, the air handling system was designed for pharmaceutical applications. One area of the building was dedicated to office area, and I found that the air change rate was 28 air changes per hour. A normal office area usually has 6-8 air changes per hour depending upon the heat load in the space. The unit serving the area was already equipped with a VFD drive. The cost savings from reducing the air changes and rebalancing the air system resulted in a savings of $21,000 for a 2.3-month return on investment. Another area of opportunity is evaluating humidity requirements. Whether you use steam or electric coils to generate humidity, it can be expensive to maintain. In this case, evaluation of the building management system indicated that the relative humidity was not floating between 35% and 60% RH as intended; instead, the steam humidifier was activated all the time. During my inspection, I noted excessive humidity conditions in the manufacturing space (57%) with the valve at 89%. Also noted was flooding in an air handler from a steam humidifier valve that was stuck open. Water was condensing off the internal walls of the unit and then was going to drain. In summary, the retro-commissioning work resulted in a savings of $272,896 of which $45,000 came from some form of ongoing commissioning or fault diagnostics. This savings represented 40% of the overall energy bill for the site for an investment of $274,890, resulting in a 1-year return on investment. That investment represented a 5-year NPV of 96%, which made it a good investment. Energy impact is not currently part of the critical priority ranking process. If energy-consuming issues are detected, they should be attended to promptly, as they are signs of problems that can lead to premature equipment failure. Ongoing commissioning will assist with early detection of transparent operational issues. In this case, connection to ongoing commissioning saved $21,557 and 174,223 kWh annually.

240 Case Study 3: Massachusetts GMP Pharmaceutical Warehouse

The third case study in my evaluation was a building designed and constructed to be a controlled warehouse for storing pharmaceutical products. The building includes a high bay warehouse controlled to 0.02” water column positive pressure to the outside environment. The building also includes quality control laboratories, office space, and a small cafeteria. The building occupancy was approximately 170 people. The facility was completed in 2010, and central utilities include chilled water, condensing hot water boilers, reverse osmosis, and deionized water. The building consumes 13,345,657 kWh of electricity and natural gas per year. Initially built as a LEED silver green building, the building’s annual energy spending is approximately $969,690. Natural gas costs $0.70/therm, and electricity is $0.10/kWh. The cost breakdown between gas and electric is 67% electricity and 33% natural gas. Figure 82. High bay cGMP warehouse

The building is constructed out of concrete block with insulated metal siding. The roof is a white rolled rubber base material. The floors in the warehouse are sealed concrete, laboratories are sealed VCT tile, and the offices are carpeted. The employee entrance to the building is VCT tile for easy cleaning. The energy use index cost (EUI) is $3.82 per square foot. The EUI is derived by dividing the total energy bill by the square footage. The profile of gas and electricity is plotted in the following figure.

241

Figure 83. Natural gas and electric profile for warehouse

After performing the initial energy audit, a list of retroactive commissioning items and measures was identified, as illustrated in the following table. Table 24 Energy measure sheet for cGMP warehouse

242 It was noted during the audit that the warehouse space was too high in pressure. Doors were not closing properly, and recently the building experienced issues with the roof separating from the framework due to over-pressurization. When I evaluated this problem further, I found a fixed amount of outdoor air was being allowed to enter the warehouse space. The problem was that the pressure was not dynamic, meaning there was no equalization in pressure between the indoors and outdoors. Instead, the seasonal temperature difference was not accounted for, something that is referred to as the stack effect. When it is cold out, the building will require more air due to updraft; in the summer, it will require less air. When a set amount of air is used, a constant and stable pressure difference cannot be achieved. In this case, a pressure sensor looking at the pressures both inside and outside of the building needs to be installed to regulate how much outdoor air is allowed to enter the space. A common equation for determining how much air is required at different temperatures can be derived from the following figure.

pressure difference due to stack effect ΔPs = 0.01 (in.,w.c.) ρi = 0.075 air density lbm/ft³ (about .075) g = 32.2 gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec h = 60 height of building, ft. hNPL = 30 height of neutral pressure level, ft. T = absolute temperature, °R(=°F=460°) C2 = 0.00598 unit conversion factor .00598 i = 72 inside o = outside Vp=√ 4005

Figure 84. Stack pressurization formula

Compliments of David Berg (1993), Indoor Air Quality and HVAC Systems

243 By using this formula, I can understand that a dynamic (changing amount of outdoor air) is required to maintain a steady exfiltration rate. When this situation is not addressed, over-pressurization or under pressurization results. Fixing the pressurization problem saved $11,385 per year in outdoor air with a cost of $5,500. Upon retro-commissioning all of the items found during the energy audit, this site was connected to ongoing commissioning. The hNPL (net pressure level) is at the midpoint of the height of the building when the indoor air temperature is the same as the outdoor air temperature. Another energy measure was to reduce air flows in offices and areas that did not have a regulatory requirement to maintain a certain environmental conditions. These areas included service closets and office areas. By reducing air flow in these spaces using the BMS system to control the air handler VFDs, a total of $19,000 was saved. During the audit, it was noted through a discrepancy in the BMS system that the chilled water valve was stuck in the open position. The savings was calculated at $31,000, as the system was in constant reheat to compensate for the open valve. The cost to replace the valve was estimated at $5,000, so this energy measure had a 2-month payback on investment. One of the more significant energy measures was based on findings resulting from the connection of ongoing commissioning to the BMS system. The valve mentioned above was discovered during the audit, and no one knew how long the condition had existed; however, when connected to ongoing commissioning, a similar fault was found in AHU-1.2. This unit is a 100% outside air VFD air handling unit. It was observed that the heating coil discharge air temperature sensor was faulty. The figure below shows that the energy recovery wheel supplies air between 60°F and 85°F to the preheat coil; however, discharge air temperature was around 20°F with a preheat valve signal of 0%.

244

Figure 85. Faulty discharge air sensor example using Cimetrics Another example was an issue identified in AHU-1.3, which is also a 100% outside air VFD air handling unit. The figure below shows the temperature and humidity control.

Figure 86. Re-setting discharge air to save zone reheating using Cimetrics

245 Outside air dew point and discharge air dew point temperatures are calculated from the dry bulb outside and discharge air temperature and humidity sensor readings. It was observed that the discharge air temperature is controlled to a fixed set point of 52°F. The air stream is reheated at each terminal box prior to being supplied to each zone. The extent of cooling and reheating can be reduced by resetting the discharge air temperature based on the zone temperature and humidity or the outside air temperature and humidity. Once connected to ongoing commissioning it was discovered there were other leaking coils, discharge air temperature issues, and chilled water loop pressure control problems. Illustrated in the table below is the summary of issues identified.

Table 25 Ongoing commissioning items identified in warehouse using Cimetrics

As we can see, ongoing commissioning identified $67,000 in issues. Beyond that, maintenance and reliability issues were uncovered. One major issue that occurs is over-oscillation of valves because the dead band is set too narrow. The chart below shows the AHU point with the highest rate of travel, the valve command on AHU-1343.446.

246 The valve cycling resulted in a discharge air temperature oscillation between 37°F and 63°F. Similar behavior was observed on AHU-1343.447. The chart below shows the signal with the highest rate of travel, the reheat valve signal in the VAV zone. The zone temperature was within 1°C of the set point, but the valve signal oscillated from 0% to 100%. If you want to wear a valve out quickly, this is how you do it.

Figure 87. Narrow dead band setting using Cimetrics

In conclusion, the energy audit and retro-commissioning process identified $189,098 in energy savings opportunities of which $95,468 was estimated; however, after connecting, the savings was realized at $67,037. The new total annual savings was validated at $160,667, or a 16.5% annual cost reduction. There are further opportunities being investigated, including a full retrofit to LED lighting for the facility.

247 Case Study 4: Maryland: Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Plant

The fourth case study in my evaluation was a facility designed and constructed to be a fill and freeze-dry operation for pharmaceutical products. Products are filled, lyophilized, labeled, packaged, and stored at this facility. The facility has offices and QC laboratories as well. The utilities consist of centrifugal chillers, condenser water, steam, reverse osmosis water, water for injection, process waste, and compressed air. There are approximately 30 people (in production 4 months/year) working at this site. Of the total 77,000 s.f. of space, 51,575 s.f. is used for operations, support, and offices.

Figure 88. Equest energy model of existing pharmaceutical manufacturing plant

The total annual energy cost for gas and electric is $594,822. Annual electric consumption is 3,534,493 kWh, and gas is 202,533 therms. The energy use index is $11.46. The cost of electricity is 0.115 cents/kWh, and natural gas is 0.92 cents/therm. Upon further analysis of the electrical consumption for the building, I found an extremely high correlation between cooling degree days and weather, most likely due to the high air change rate. Usage was down 1.7% (flat after weather adjustment) even though cooling degree days were up 10% (see chart below).

248

Figure 89. Energy usage profile for pharmaceutical manufacturing plant

For natural gas, I found the consumption was uniform to the heating degree days as illustrated below.

Figure 90. Heating degree days

To gain a better understanding of how the energy measures would impact the overall energy consumption for the facility, I hired a consultant to build an eQUEST model and calibrate it with the existing energy bills. Concluding my audit, the following energy measures were identified.

249 Table 26 Ongoing commissioning items identified for pharmaceutical manufacturing plant

ROI GHG ECM Description Cost Savings (Months) 5 YR NPV IRR (MT)

1 AHU-4 Backward Air Flow $400 $1,126 4.3 $4,119 300% 5.6 2 Turn off Reheat Coils $100 $153 7.8 $490 122% 0.9 3 Biowaste Room Pipe Insulaltion (steam & $7,800 $12,053 7.8 $40,540 153% 56.9 4 TowerSand Filtration Evaporation (Reduce Savings Chemicals (Sewer +Credit) $3,800 $15,945 2.9 $59,780 419% 0.0 5 Blowdown + increase eff) $27,500 $14,510 22.7 $31,718 44% 35.1 6 Autoclave Vent $1,750 $3,146 6.7 $10,804 174% 4.0 7 Humidity Set-point reduction to 30% $3,000 $10,589 3.4 $39,248 353% 60.1 8 Chiller-2 150 HP VFD $50,000 $4,830 124.2 -$27,976 20% 18.1 9 Chw.Pmp.25 HP VFDs $19,000 $6,164 37.0 $6,571 19% 23.2 10 Water-side Economizer / Plate & Frame $96,000 $6,314 182.5 -$65,477 -28% 23.7 11 Airflow Reductions - 1st floor mfg $50,000 $48,870 12.3 $147,036 94% 245.3 12 AHU DAT reset $5,000 $9,983 6.0 $34,953 199% 48.0 13 RTU - Schedules $15,000 $22,955 7.8 $77,071 152% 119.8 14 AHU Energy Recovery Glycol Run-around $50,000 $11,295 53.1 -$2,284 4% 100.1 15 Walkin Freezer Controls $8,000 $2,780 34.5 -$3,864 -16% 3.5 16 AHU-3 Bag Filter Removal - static $2,700 $3,550 9.1 $11,558 129% 13.3 17 WFI Bleed for Make-up $1,800 $1,662 1.1 $4,908 88% 3.9 $341,850 $175,923 31 $369,195 762

One of the more significant energy measures identified was to reduce the air change rates in some of the manufacturing spaces. Reducing air change rates can help save on the costs of running the fans responsible for recirculating air through HEPA filters. If the space is non-classified, the change is relatively simple. If the space is classified, to change air exchange rates would require a quality risk analysis and revalidation of the space. To meet strict pharmaceutical manufacturing guidelines and ensure that the product would not be at risk of contamination, a series of tests on airborne particles was required. In this case, the space was validated, and I estimated approximately $50,000 to conduct the study, prepare the necessary documentation, and rebalance the system to a lower air flow rate. There were VFDs on the air handlers, so no additional equipment was required other than an air flow rebalance.

250 Another energy measure was to reduce the humidification requirement from 40% to 25%, as the humidity limit was set for a product packaging suite not in use. To maintain the validation requirements of this room, the HVAC system was maintained even when the room was not in use. Upon further examination, the room air change rate could be reduced (when not occupied) along with reducing the humidity requirement. Making this set point change would result in approximately $14,145 in annual savings and prevent the heating and atomizing of water. I find with many facilities that the usage changes over time, but the initial set points are never reevaluated. Figure 91. Empty packaging suite

Looking at the humidification more closely, I noticed that the building management system indicated that the relative humidity was not floating between 35% and 60% RH; instead, the steam humidifier was activated all the time. This problem represented an opportunity to save a significant amount of steam and chilled water. During my inspection, I noted excessive humidity conditions in the manufacturing space (57%) with the valve at 89%. I also noted flooding in the air handler from the steam humidifier valve, which was found to be stuck in the open position. The opportunity to apply discharge air reset was also noted, as there was a lot of unnecessary zone reheating occurring in the laboratories. Applying the 32 fault detection matrix to this building, the following table outlines issues found during the audit.

251 Table 27 Sustainable commissioning 32 fault detection matrix

In conclusion, the energy audit and retro-commissioning process identified $189,098 in energy savings opportunities of which $171,896 was estimated, which includes an estimate for ongoing commissioning. The total represents a savings of 29.3% compared to the annual energy spending for the facility.

252 Case Study 5: New Jersey 4 Building Office Park

The fifth case study in my evaluation consists of four buildings: Building A = 257,496 s.f., Building B = 207,176 s.f., Building C = 209,653 s.f., and Building D = 204,057 s.f., for a total site size of 878,382 s.f. There are approximately 3,500 people working at this site. The campus houses corporate functions for sales, marketing, research, development, and clinical operations. The main utilities include chilled water, condenser water, hot water, and compressed air. Although the majority of the buildings are offices, there are some quality control laboratories. The total 2014 energy consumption cost was $2,548,845 for the complex. Figure 92. Aerial view of office park

Total electric consumption was 16,522,831 kWh, and gas was 196,031 therms or 5,743,708 kWh; it was mainly an all-electric building. The energy use index was $2.88 per square foot. The cost of electric was approximately 0.145 cents per kWh, and natural gas was 0.78 cents per therm. When I looked at the weekly electricity demand profile, I saw that the peaks were relatively normal during the work week with a steady decline toward the end of the week. The downward trend was due to the fact that some employees worked from home later in the week.

253 Figure 93. Electric demand profile

Further examination of annualized cost and consumption reveals that while there is commodity cost variation, overall consumption has been on the rise. Site observations show that consumption of electric and gas is steadily increasing, however, water consumption since 2013 is on the decline.

Figure 94. Annual electric and gas trending

254 Completing the energy audit and retro-commissioning items for the four buildings, the following results were identified. Table 28 Energy measures identified in office complex

ROI GHG ECM Description Cost Savings (Months) 5 YR NPV IRR (MT)

1 Install 34 Vending-misers for cold beverage $6,400 $2,664 28.8 $4,524 31% 12.8 2 Install 34 Vending-misers for snack machines $6,400 $1,665 46.1 $554 9% 8.0 3 VFD for kitchen hood exhausts and make-up air $38,000 $10,234 44.6 $4,882 11% 60.4 4 Nightwatchman - deep sleep for PCs $43,500 $13,500 38.7 $12,610 17% 64.8 5 CO2 DCV for Auditorium $3,200 $1,560 24.6 $3,179 40% 9.2 6 CO2 DCV for Mammoth Units PAC-1 thru PAC-8 $33,600 $30,781 13.1 $90,623 88% 178.3 7 CO2 DCV for café $3,200 $1,783 21.5 $4,068 48% 8.6 8 Elevator lighting (ABC 96 lamps & D at 32 $8,300 $2,392 41.6 $4,624 26% 7.1 9 Open office lighting redesign (14,000 s.f. area) $14,500 $1,218 142.9 -$8,839 -23% 3.6 10 Building A chillers - chilled water pump VFD $30,000 $11,183 32.2 $16,137 25% 33.3 11 Building B & C condenser water pump VFD $16,000 $12,055 15.9 $32,813 70% 34.7 12 NRM Cooltrol for kitchen walkin freezer and $10,000 $3,150 38.1 $3,804 17% 15.1 13 Reduce pressure on domestic water pumps $650 $2,199 3.5 $8,124 338% 6.8 14 Connect to ongoing commissioning for building D $65,900 $71,400 11.1 $221,569 105% 232.0 15 Damper air in mechanical penthouses $1,000 $5,601 2.1 $21,354 583% 13.8 $265,650 $171,385 34 $434,177 689

Notes: 1. Costs do not include incentives from local utility so the ROI is subject to change. 2. IRR and NPV based on a 5 year term and a 6% finance rate.

Evaluating the highest IRR values in the table above, we can see where we can get the most for our investment. Item numbers 6, 13, 14, and 15 yielded the highest values. For this site, the introduction of CO2 demand ventilation would be very profitable. Instead of maintaining a fixed amount of outdoor air for the building, CO2 monitors would be installed in the office space, which would cut down on the required amount of outdoor air. As we know, depending upon the region you are located in, conditioning outdoor air can be very expensive. In this case, a one-year ROI resulted from the installation of CO2 demand ventilation, yielding an 88% IRR with savings of $30,000.

255 Moving down the list to item 13, for a relatively investment, the pressure on the domestic water pumps could be reduced. It was noted that we could reduce it from 80 psi to 60 psi, provided we maintained 35 psi on the 5th floor for HVAC operations. This is a case where a simple set point change can make a difference. Looking at item 14 with an IRR of 105%, connecting to ongoing commissioning was evaluated for these facilities; however, the controls systems were very old, and in almost all cases they were not capable of extracting information for fault diagnostic purposes. Only building D was equipped with a Siemens building management system capable of being connected to ongoing commissioning technology. Item 15 had the highest IRR of 538%. This energy measure involved rebalancing the air in the penthouse mechanical rooms (8 in total) to half flow (780 cfm to 400 cfm) and setting exhaust fans to ventilate with ambient air at 90°. The equipment in the complex appeared to be receiving good maintenance. Importantly noted, there will be ongoing challenges in maintaining an aging infrastructure. There were upcoming opportunities to replace older, inefficient equipment with new high-efficiency equipment, which should be added to the strategic capital project master small plan. Figure 95. Horizontal chilled water pumps

Pictured above is a horizontal chilled water pump arrangement that is in need of a motor replacement to achieve higher operating efficiencies. This arrangement saves room and is easier to maintain than floor-mounted pumps.

256 In conclusion, the energy audit and retro-commissioning process saved $171,385 in energy savings with an investment of $265,650, just under a 3-year return on investment without energy incentives. The five-year net present value is estimated at $434,177, money which would be lost to energy inefficacies over time. The identified savings represents a 6.7% annual cost reduction and does not include ongoing commissioning, which was not an option in this case study.

257 Case Study 6: Belgium Pharmaceutical Manufacturing and Office Facility

The sixth study in my evaluation was a site designed and constructed to manufacture pharmaceutical products. The site has been in commercial production since 2006 and has been expanded since that time. The site consists of manufacturing and office areas. Utilities include chilled water, hot water, steam, reverse osmosis water, deionized water, water for injection, potable water, compressed air, wastewater treatment, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. There are approximately 600 people on site, and the plant operates 24 hours per day in production. Because this site is in Europe, the calculations use the metric system. The cumulative size of the buildings is approximately 30.8 square meters. The annual energy bill for gas and electric is approximately €2,311,793. The annual energy profile for gas and electric is pictured in the figure below.

Figure 96. Gas and electricity consumption profile

258

The focus of this audit was on process-related energy savings potential. At the conclusion of the energy audit, the recommendations in the following table were made. Table 29 Energy measures identified for pharmaceutical manufacturing facility

Estimated ROI GHG EnCM Description Cost Savings Years 5 YR NPV IRR (MT)

1 Compressed Air Dew Point Reduction € 2,000 € 1,173 1.7 € 2,775 51% 6.5 2 Clean Steam Feedwater € 38,900 € 15,089 2.6 € 19,291 27% 80.2 3 RO Distribution Velocity Reduction € 54,000 € 37,388 1.4 € 97,634 63% 208.1 4 WFI Sanitization Frequency Reduction € 20,000 € 17,499 1.1 € 50,673 83% 89.8 5 RO Water Generation On/Off Setpoint € 55,000 € 17,460 3.2 € 17,498 18% 0.0 6 WFI Water Generation On/Off Setpoint € 35,000 € 20,844 1.7 € 49,814 52% 63.9 7 Chiller Bypass for WFI Cooling € 9,000 € 3,104 2.9 € 3,845 21% 17.3 8 Class D Air Flow Reductions € 40,000 € 116,655 0.3 € 425,841 291% 616.6 9 Utilize CIP Wash Tanks for RO Rinses € 30,000 € 19,440 1.5 € 48,951 58% 71.3 10 Minimize CIP Rinse Water Volumes € 40,000 € 25,700 1.6 € 64,394 58% 80.5 11 Shorten Process Vessel Post SIP Cool-down Time € 10,000 € 9,785 1.0 € 29,452 94% 54.5 12 Reduce WFI loop Temperature € 15,000 € 9,808 1.5 € 24,824 59% 48.6 13 Lighting Upgrades in Manufacturing Areas € 45,000 € 10,129 4.4 € 16,342 19% 30.4 14 WFI Distribution Velocity Reduction € 54,000 € 50,983 1.1 € 151,660 91% 283.8 Total € 447,900 $355,057 1.9 € 1,002,994 67% 1,652

Percent of Total Energy Bill 15.4% Carbon ahieved to date 1133 5 Year Portfolio NPV € 950,688 5 Year Portfolio IRR 67.2% * INPV and IRR ncludes travel and consultant fees

Another significant energy measure was to perform Class D air change reductions. Reducing air changes in class D space from 25 to 15 using a new standard document delivered savings of €116,665. Changing the air compressor dew point from -7°C to -40°C has the potential to save €1,173 per year. The current assumption was approximately 30% savings from changing the air compressor dew point. Another opportunity was to switch the clean steam generator feed water from WFI (water for injection) water to RO (reverse osmosis) water. This change required the extension of an existing RO water distribution loop to 3 clean steam generators. Approximately 35m of 3” stainless steel tube needed to be added.

259 Additionally, a CO2 degassing system would be installed at two of the clean steam generators, saving approximately €15,089 per year. Reducing velocities in closed piping loops was another energy measure implemented. The work involved reducing the flow rate of three 3” RO water distribution loops from 100% pump flow to the EU’s lower velocity limit of 0.9 m/s (16.6 m3/h in 3” SST) during no-load conditions. The design loop flow rates of 50 m3/h (North Loop), 70 m3/h (South Loop), and 50 m3/h (West Loop) have been reduced to 16.6 m3/h each. Making velocity reduction changes resulted in €37,388 in annual savings. Another key area for savings was reducing the frequency of sanitizations. Eliminating “small” WFI sanitizations and relying only on the 2 sanitizations per week with quality testing proved to be a more efficient way to operate. There are two ambient loops that are each sanitized 5 times per week. Making this change resulted in €17,499 in savings. During this audit, I found that the process RO water generation skids were signaled on and off based on the storage tank level. One skid I evaluated was brought online when the storage tank level dropped to 9850 liters (82%), and the skid was started at a tank level of 7850 liters (65%). At these set points, the skids cycled on and off a combined total of ~40 times daily. Each on/off cycle required a 5-minute pre-flush at 8 m3/h and a 5-minute post-flush at 8 m3/h. By lowering the skid start set points by ~20%, the quantity of on/off cycles was similarly reduced (estimated 30 cycles per day). In order to achieve the lower clean in place (CIP) skid start set points, loads had to be spread out to reduce periods of peak consumption. To achieve this, the skids were programmed to allow a limited number of them to draw RO water simultaneously. The resulting savings from making these changes was €17,460 per year. While evaluating the WFI system, I found that the stills were signaled on and off based on the storage tank level. At these set points, the skids cycled on and off a combined total of ~15 times daily. Each on/off cycle required a 15-minute flush at an average of 75 liters per minute. By lowering the skid start set points by ~20%, the quantity of on/off cycles was similarly reduced (estimated 10 cycles per day).

260 Making this change saved approximately €18,384 per year. Another opportunity I found was to install a control valve on the chilled water bypass line that opens and allows bypass during WFI cooling operation. This dilutes the chilled water temperature spike and avoids the need to start an air-cooled chiller. This incident occurs approximately 50 times per year. The savings associated with making this minor change is €3,104 per year. If I evaluate all of the measures together, I can see that the most cost-effective measure is the air change reductions.

Figure 97. Pie chart of energy opportunities

In conclusion, a total of €363,551 in annual savings was identified, which represented a 15% savings off the annual energy bill. The five-year net present value is €1,012,178 for an investment of €418,500. These opportunities represent a carbon reduction of 1,616 metric tons of carbon.

261 Case Study 7: France Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Plant

The seventh case study in my evaluation was a campus designed and constructed to manufacture pharmaceutical products. The site consists of manufacturing and office areas. Utilities include chilled water, hot water, steam, reverse osmosis water, deionized water, water for injection, potable water, compressed air, wastewater treatment, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. There are approximately 200 people in the two buildings evaluated, which include one central plant and one manufacturing building. The annual energy bill for gas and electric is approximately €2,292,400(gas €1,026,300 and electric €1,266,100). The annual energy profile is pictured in the following figure.

Figure 98. Electric and steam consumption trend for pharma manufacturing

At this particular site, evaluated was approximately 24 energy measures as which are in the following table.

262 Table 30 Energy measures for pharmaceutical manufacturing facility

EnCM Description Cost Savings ROI (Years) 5 YR NPV IRR GHG (MT)

1 Seine water pump VFD's (2) @ 800 m3/h Insulate exposed outdoor steam piping to tank farm and around 2 boiler sight glasses 4,500 € 2,189 € 2.1 $4,453 39% 14.2 3 Steam leak surveys 7,200 € 15,000 € 0.5 $52,816 298% 97.0 4 Compressed air leak survey 3,000 € 5,830 € 0.5 $20,338 193% 5.0 5 Preheat combustion make-up air 15,000 € 8,092 € 1.9 $18,012 46% 52.0 6 Insulate legs of boilers 1,900 € 517 € 3.7 $309 12% 3.3 7 Condensate Return 20% return 100,000 € 63,759 € 1.6 $159,034 57% 244.0 8 Chiller VFD's Biolaunch 150,000 € 65,343 € 2.3 $118,157 33% 56.4 9 Additional pipe insulation in main plant room (Biolaunch) 2,700 € 4,518 € 0.6 $15,432 168% 19.0 10 Staging chillers for Biolaunch 5,000 € 21,781 € 0.2 $81,839 436% 19.0 11 Free cooling for swithgear room, challenge setpoint of 66f 10,000 € 1,945 € 5.1 -$1,706 -1% 1.7 12 Occupied Unoccupied lighting in Warehouse 8,000 € 5,245 € 1.5 $13,297 59% 4.5 13 Install LED's and daylight controls in warehouse 7,200 € 2,240 € 3.2 $2,110 17% 1.9 14 AHU-1 Biolaunch discharge air reset 2,600 € 14,939 € 0.2 $56,960 586% 12.9 15 Raise chilled water temperature (reset) to eliminate secondary 1,000 € 7,045 € 0.1 $28,486 741% 6.4 16 Install lighting motion sensors with overide in mechanical space 3,200 € 622 € 5.1 $1,311 14% 0.5 17 Hall corridor lights on daylight sensor 4,500 € 392 € 11.5 $1,167 9% 1.0 18 Evaluate internal hallway radiator 1,800 € 108 € 16.7 -$1,178 -29% 0.7 19 Fume Hoods sash control and VAV upgrade 339,200 € 87,514 € 3.9 $277,673 9% 75.6 20 Evaluate vending machine controls 1,866 € 1,539 € 1.2 $9,400 10% 1.0 21 Evaluate ongoing commissioning for biolaunch building 90,000 € 63,610 € 1.4 $280,696 99% 170.0 22 Warehouse coldroom lights 500 € 415 € 1.2 $3,063 42% 0.5 23 Boiler stack economizers (*10 year NPV) 250,000 € 40,000 € 6.3 $41,899 10% 258.0 24 Opticlim Analysis (Air change reductions) 56,000 € 30,763 € 1.8 $69,421 46% 26.0 1,065,166 € 443,406 € 3 1,252,989 € 29 1,071 Total 477 Metric tons by end of 2019

The site is equipped with a central plant that includes 2 large boilers that feed a campus steam system. Startup time is 3-4 hours; one boiler is in hot standby all the time. In this facility, 90% of the steam has direct contact with product with no condensate return. Waste condensate currently goes to sewer or waste treatment. Use point currently regulates steam demand. Effluent is at 102°C, and burners have O2 trim. The de-aerator, which removes oxygen from water, was found to be operating correctly; hot air from compressors is used to preheat filtered river water, which is converted to RO. River water ranges in temperature from 5°C to 30°C, and water costs €1.5/cm from the city and €0.5/cm for river water. On-site wells are currently used to fill cooling towers.

263 Auto shifting from river to city water is based on particle count. Blowdown of boilers is based on conductivity (lower blowdown); upper blowdown is a manual operation. The failure rate for steam traps is typically 5% per year depending upon the maintenance program. Concluding my survey, I found that approximately 40% of the traps surveyed were leaking. The last steam trap survey was done 10 years ago, and I observed many steam plumes around the campus. The annual energy savings is estimated at €15,000 with a savings of 535,714 kWh in natural gas costs. Another energy measure evaluated was the condensate return for the steam system. It was noted that only 20% of the condensate makes it back to the boilers; the remaining 80% goes to drain because there are no return pumps or piping. Adding additional piping and pumps to capture the wasted condensate that is currently going to drain has a cost estimated at €100,000. The estimated savings would be in the range of €63,759 annually. Most of the expense comes from additional piping that has to be added to an existing exterior pipe rack. Adding VFDs to the existing chillers also conserved energy. The combination of low entering condenser water temperature and the installation of VFDs provided 883,080 kWh in electrical savings and €65,343 in savings for an investment of €150,000. This averages out to a 2.3-year payback. Another energy measure noted was to convert 212 fume hoods over to low-flow volume and to implement a sash closure program when not in use. Figure 99. Centrifugal chiller example The estimated annual savings was €87,514; however, the investment was significant at €339,200, just under a 4-year ROI. The project saved 1,182,616 kWh per year. Ongoing commissioning was evaluated for the central plant and one of the manufacturing buildings.

264 The savings was realized at €63,610 with an invested cost of €45,000. The building management system is a relatively new Siemens system and is open protocol. A cashe poller was installed to extract critical HVAC point data every 3-5 minutes for fault diagnostics. In the manufacturing building, I observed that individual spaces were heated with electric coils. The main air handler preheats return air and outdoor air using natural gas, which is much more efficient. The discharge air temperature could be reset through the BMS system. By data polling the reheat coils, the temperature at the unit may be raised to cut down on the amount of electric heat required. This measure cost €2,600 in programming to obtain a savings of €14,939 per year. This project yielded a 586% IRR if implemented with a 2.4-month ROI. Additionally, recirculating air in the cleanrooms was reduced from 20 air changes per hour down to 12 air changes. This resulted in a 415,720 kWh gas and €380,380 electric savings. The annual savings is estimated at €30,763. Pictured is the mechanical room for cleanroom air handlers. Due to regulatory guidelines, these spaces are kept extremely clean outside the cleanroom environment to minimize any potential of contaminants entering the system. . Figure 100. Clean mechanical space

In conclusion, a total of €443,406 in annual savings was realized, which represented a 19% savings off the annual energy bill. The five-year net present value is €1,252,969 for an investment of €1,065,166, averaging a 3-year payback. These opportunities represent a carbon reduction of 1,071 metric tons of carbon.

265 Case Study 8: Ireland Air Reduction Study

The eighth and final study in my evaluation was a facility designed and constructed to fill and finish pharmaceutical products. In this facility, products are labeled, packaged, and stored. The facility has office and quality control laboratories as well. The utilities consist of centrifugal chillers, condenser water, steam, reverse osmosis water, water for injection, process waste, and compressed air. There are approximately 130 people working at this site. The annual cost for electric is approximately €2,165,000, and gas is €1,012,000, totaling €3.2 million per year. The breakdown of site utilities is as illustrated in the following diagram.

Figure 101. Site utility breakdown

266 The energy focus in this facility was air change reductions in class C and D spaces. By evaluating air change reductions, significant savings can result. The first step I took was to perform a risk audit. A sample format of the table of contents I used for the risk assessment is pictured below.

Figure 102. Typical risk assessment index

In promoting this energy measure, you have to make sure there would be no quality impact to the product from reducing air changes. This can be a difficult measure to sell to quality and validation people responsible for ensuring that the environment meets strict standards. The main AHU plant that supports manufacturing operations cost a minimum of €800,000 p/yr. A consultant was hired to support the design, risk assessment, and alignment with good industry practice (cGMP) and make the required HVAC design modifications. Areas of conservation opportunities explored included air change rate reduction from 22 to a range of 10-15 and introduction of recirculation or air recovery solutions. We also reviewed optimization of temperature control strategy, dead bands, new relative humidity control, and long-life low differential pressure pre-filtration options.

267 Optimization of sheaves, VFDs, fan and motor operation points, and system setback modes were evaluated. The main objective was to challenge the operation of utility systems with respect to cost. For this case study, I challenged the validation acceptance criteria for supply air changes per hour compared to current industry practices for reducing supply air quantities within the cleanrooms without compromising air quality, suite pressurization, temperature, and humidity control. The acceptance criteria were to ensure that an ISO Class 8/Grade D environment was maintained. The FDA guidelines for sterile manufacturing facilities state that for class 100,000 (ISO 8) supporting rooms, air flow must be sufficient to achieve 20 air changes, which is typically acceptable. The goals were to maintain the viable and non-viable particle limits and to ensure that a room can return to normal state in the event of a particle excursion. A smaller room with fewer air changes will exhibit higher quality air and may be able to clear out a particle excursion more quickly due to less turbulent air mixing. The areas I evaluated were as follows: Table 31 Operations description table

268 Upon further evaluation it was discovered that there was no design or validated change of key acceptance criteria to achieve an ISO Class 8/Grade D environment. The design air change rate of 12 achieves an ISO Class 8 environment, so in this case the suite pressurization would remain as originally validated. A pilot study was conducted, and it demonstrated that there was an increase in non-viable counts, but they still remained on average <5% of ISO Class 8/ Grade D acceptance criteria with air change rates as low as 11. Some rooms were commissioned to design and validation acceptance criteria. As we could only proportionally back off the main supply fans, air reduction was proportional across all rooms, and individual balance of supply air was not possible. The savings resulting from making changes and revalidating is shown in the following table: Table 32 Cost and carbon savings table

As outlined in the table above, additional savings was achieved by increasing humidity dead bands, partial setbacks, and lighting upgrades. The following table contains before and after design criteria:

269 Table 33 Pre and post modification criteria

In this case, funding was made available to implement all the recommendations as part of a corporate energy reduction strategy. In the effort to make this opportunity possible, some strategic planning was required. Importantly noted, before changes are made, you will want to take power measurements on all affected areas so you can compare them with the new readings when the work is complete. For this project I constructed the following table: Table 34 Pre and post electrical consumption readings

In conclusion, making the changes resulted in €410,656 in annual savings for a €547,000 investment with 960 metric tons of carbon CO2 savings each year. Over 5 years, €1,115,260 in savings was realized, money that now can be used for other investments that otherwise would have been lost due to continued inefficiencies. With an IRR of 70%, air change reductions are a very good investment.

270 Quantification of Case Studies If we evaluate all eight case studies presented, you can see there is significant opportunity for savings. The problem with building commissioning alone is that it is a one-time fix at one point in time. Very much like your automobile, when you tune it up, it runs great; but over time, it declines. With the sustainable commissioning process, you can keep your buildings tuned up all the time. To recap the sustainable commissioning process, there are essentially three main elements: 1) conduct an operational and functional energy audit, 2) retro-commission and correct all issues found during the audit, and 3) connect to some form of ongoing commissioning.

If there is no BMS system, then you have to construct an energy model that is capable of an 8,760 weather simulation of your area and validate it against your energy bills. If you don’t have proper metering, it will be difficult to find transparent faults that ongoing commissioning would normally detect. In the following table is the sum of all of the case studies presented in this book representing seven years of analysis.

Table 35

Summary of case studies Summary of Sustainable Commissioning Case Studies ROI GHG ECM Description Cost Savings (Months) 5 Year IRR 5 YR NPV ROI (MT) 1 Massachusetts LEED Lab and Office $233,300 $157,336 17.8 61.0% $405,148 33% 604 2 Washington Multi-use Pharmeceutical Plant $224,900 $252,951 10.7 110.0% $793,039 112% 1,382 3 Massachusetts GMP Pharmaceutical Warehouse $118,912 $189,098 7.5 158.0% $639,281 159% 954 Maryland GMP Pharmaceutical Manufacturing 4 Plant $341,850 $175,923 23.3 43.0% $376,605 49% 762 5 New Jersey 4 Building Office Park $265,650 $171,385 18.6 58.0% $430,458 35% 689 6 Belgium GMP Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Plant $447,900 $355,057 15.1 74.0% $988,424 21% 1,652 7 France GMP Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Plant $1,065,166 $443,406 28.8 31.0% $757,190 58% 1,071 8 Ireland GMP Facility Air Reduction Study $547,000 $410,656 16.0 70.0% $1,115,880 25% 960 Averages for 8 Case Studies $405,585 $269,477 18 75.6% 688,253 62% 1,009 Average 5 Year Net Present Value $688,253 Average Return on Investment in Months 18.1 Notes: 1. Costs do not include incentives from local utilities 271 2. IRR and NPV based on a 5 year term and a 6% finance rate. 3. All figures in US dollars assuming close to 1:1 exchange rate. Savings, Washington Savings Multi-use Pharmeceutical Plant, $252,951, 12% Savings, Massachusetts Savings, Ireland GMP LEED Lab and Office, Massachusetts LEED Lab and Office Facility Air Reduction $157,336, 7% Study, $410,656, Savings, Washington Multi-use 19% Massachusetts Pharmeceutical Plant GMP Pharmaceutical Massachusetts GMP Warehouse, Pharmaceutical Warehouse $189,098, 9% Maryland GMP Pharmaceutical Savings, Manufacturing Plant Maryland GMP New Jersey 4 Building Office Park Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Belgium GMP Pharmaceutical Plant, $175,923, Manufacturing Plant 8% Savings, France GMP France GMP Pharmaceutical Pharmaceutical Savings, New Jersey 4 Manufacturing Plant Manufacturing Plant, Savings, Belgium GMP Building Office Park, $171,385, 8% Ireland GMP Facility Air Reduction $443,406, 21% Pharmaceutical Study Manufacturing Plant, $355,057, 16%

Figure 103. Savings by building

Although the case studies are in different countries around the globe with the savings in both euros and dollars, the findings are very similar. At the time this conclusion was written, the exchange rate between the euro and the U.S. dollar was close to 1. Although the use of the facilities is a mixture of pharmaceutical manufacturing, office space, laboratories, and research, you can see there are some basic themes. An energy audit is always the first step in finding operational issues and energy-saving opportunities. We depend upon retro-commissioning to fix many of the problems found during the audit, and in some cases the energy audit is an integral part of the retro-commissioning process. As reviewed, between ongoing and retro-commissioning, there are 32 typical faults that occur in buildings. In conclusion, by deploying the sustainable commissioning process, we can see the average internal rate of return is 75.6%. The return on investment averages 62% over 18 months. We must remember that these numbers do not include utility incentives or rebates. All of the eight projects represent an average of 1,009 metric tons per site in reduction of carbon emissions.

272 Integration of the overall Sustainable Commissioning Process

Energy efficiency can be easily defined. It typically covers areas of adjusting systems, changing out old technologies for new ones, and focusing on everyday operations to gain efficiency improvements. One of the most important aspects of writing this book was to share not only the basics of understanding how building infrastructure systems operate but also actual experience of testing out a new methodology to have buildings use less energy over time. After studying 80 buildings across the U.S., I observed 32 common faults that occur in buildings. Understanding these faults and applying them in several case studies validated that the concept of sustainable commissioning is effective when deployed. Ongoing commissioning data-driven projects with sufficient financial analysis continue to be used in the industry to align with energy reduction goals and cost reduction strategies. The practice of sustainable commissioning is complementary to the ISO 50001 energy management system and provides a structure to identify projects that support relevant KPIs. Energy projects require the support of your management; without that support, I have found that projects can be difficult to move forward. At times, financial barriers have to be overcome by the deployment of external incentives or by enrolling in an energy service contract of some type. For this reason, it is critical to communicate the importance of energy projects in parallel with setting your objectives. Having worked as a global energy manager and energy auditor for the past several years, I understand that the first priority of an effective program is communication. The more consistent the message, the higher the level of success the program will have. Deploying a roadmap of your journey is absolutely critical. Barriers such as lack of resources and funding can make it difficult to move projects forward. Unless there is an importance in the corporate strategy to reduce emissions or cost, energy reduction projects can be hard to sell.

273 For sustainable commissioning to be effective, the energy audit and retroactive commissioning process must be ongoing and not a one-time event. As with our automobiles, a tune-up is not a one –time event in the life of the car. Connection to ongoing commissioning or fault diagnostics is absolutely required to keep building mechanical systems operating efficiently with respect to the energy consumed. Maintaining and analyzing your data and monitoring significant energy users are critical to solving the energy efficiency equation. You will find that the prioritization of identified energy opportunities will keep your financial portfolio alive and profitable. A cash flow is a critical progress reporting tool. The ongoing integration of internal rate of return and net present value is critical and will hold the interest of your financial people who are dedicated to making competent business decisions. With the sustainable commissioning process, you are constantly analyzing energy data and performing frequent audits of mechanical spaces using human intelligence to detect issues that artificial intelligence alone cannot. Understanding the baseline energy use is more critical than the cost. We understand that weather, production, and cost of energy will fluctuate over time. This is when you set absolute reduction goals and track the implementation of those goals regardless of external variables. For this reason, you need solid proof of your accomplishments. Although a good hedging strategy helps curve the cost of utilities, getting to the quick-win projects is essential for the financial success of your sustainability program. Energy projects resulting from audits and the ongoing commissioning process need to be integral to your corporate strategy. Energy management requires the correct resources, capital investment, and in some cases regulatory compliance. For this reason, projects should be forecasted so the proper funding is available, whether that funding is internal or external to the organization. Focus on the human intelligence of the company or organization in the effort to create a paradigm shift in the way employees think about energy. Program initiatives should be clear and well communicated along with the overall strategy to meet your goal.

274 Sharing of data is critical, especially with facility personnel. Utilize an interview strategy to understand how systems are operating and whether there are problematic areas to address. Focus on low-hanging fruit type projects first, especially the ones that do not require a capital investment, while not forgetting that fruit typically grows back in a few years. Employee recognition and engagement are critical to the success of your program; they are integral parts of ISO 50001. Deployment of your energy measures should take into account potential disruption of operations, extended duration of implementation (for phased projects), and overall acceptance from your resources. If not available in-house, be sure to engage external professional resources to help with the planning, engineering, and scope phases to ensure maximum return on investment. An important note: Tracking similar projects and sharing information whenever possible, both internally and externally at energy conferences, are highly recommended. Perform the necessary measurements and verifications to confirm that your projects are performing as intended. Use ongoing commissioning as an in- place measurement and verification tool to ensure that your investments are sustainable in energy efficiency over time. Be sure to have metering available for major energy consumers. If ongoing commissioning with fault diagnostics is not an option, consider constructing a comprehensive energy model validated to existing energy bills. Having a comprehensive energy model will allow full simulation of your building’s energy consumption considering weather and operational changes. It is not always easy to link your energy savings with your energy projects. Training for facility staff on energy is essential and should be mandatory. Involve vendors for HVAC system components in your journey toward energy sustainability. Utility incentives will play a key role in increasing the financial performance of your project portfolio. Local utilities can also work with you on a demand response or curtailment strategy to reduce power consumption at peak times.

275 As noted earlier, always try and put projects in terms of net present value and internal rate of return instead of simple payback alone. This will provide a longer-range view of your program and the time value of money that would have been wasted if you had not invested in energy conservation. In conclusion, by combining artificial intelligence (ongoing commissioning and fault diagnostics) with human intelligence (energy auditing and retroactive commissioning), we now have a proven methodological way to keep energy efficiency in balance. In conclusion, I have demonstrated that if you choose to do ongoing or retroactive commissioning independently, you cannot fully optimize your building for efficiency and keep it sustainable over time. The sustainable commissioning process is structured to incorporate the 32 fault building check system by applying both ongoing and retroactive commissioning concurrently to achieve maximum building efficiency. It is that efficiency that will reduce the burning of fossil fuels and reduce carbon emissions, ultimately helping us solve the global warming problem. The operational and functional audit procedure is available in Excel format as a free resource with the purchase of this book. To order a copy of the workbook, simply send your request to [email protected]

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APPENDIXES

277

APPENDIX A:

Integrity Energy Services

At Integrity Energy Solutions Group, the goal is simple…

Integrity Energy Solutions Group was founded with the purpose of providing its clients with economic and sustainable energy solutions. More importantly, help its clients reduce their carbon footprint, which in return will help make our planet a greener and better place to live for generations to come! IESG will show business owners & property managers how to make educated, informed decisions in order to realize maximum savings on their energy bills. This will be done by teaching in-depth energy conservation techniques, identifying and uncovering the most common energy wasting areas and providing products and services to ensure the continued practice of energy efficiency, conservation and cost effective solutions. What’s more, we have done the hard work so you don’t have to! We have researched and taken the time to find nothing but the best companies, products and services that you need in order to make a difference in your company’s bottom line. Integrity Energy Solutions Group will consistently seek out the latest technologies to refine and better appropriate the use of energy throughout any commercial or industrial location. We work with businesses in all sectors to provide and implement cost-effective products and services already actively being put to use.

Remember, the utilities that we pay for in today’s world are no different than before, yet their costs are exponentially rising every year. Let Integrity Energy Solutions Group show you the way as we provide our clients with economic and sustainable solutions to attain efficient energy output while providing quick returns on their investments. The added bonus that is also realized, is that we are helping to reduce everyone’s carbon footprint and greenhouse gasses which in return is helping to make our planet a greener better place to live not only for all of us, but for generations to come!

278 Energy Solutions Today, Energy Savings Tomorrow!

Energy Services Companies (ESCO’s) “Yes” you do have a choice and the savings can be substantial! Which one should you be using for the best rates? Which one is the most cost effective so you can maximize your savings? We have the answers you need to know!

Energy Audits Our “Certified Energy Auditors” will explain why having an energy audit is one of the most important things you can do to uncover energy waste in your business or home and show potential errors in billing which can significantly impact your bottom line. Once completed, you can rest assured that you will be well on your way towards conserving energy and becoming more energy efficient.

Products At Integrity Energy Solutions Group, we are always looking for the best companies and the latest technologies, products and services that will make a difference not only for your facilities bottom line, but ones that will help the world we live in as well. Below is a brief description of the marketing partner’s products and services that are offered through Integrity Energy Solutions Group. Please contact us with any and all questions you may have or click onto each company to get more information.

3M GLASS ENERGY: Glass Energy is the East Coast’s premier provider of 3M sun control and heat rejection window film products. 3M window film reduces heat, annoying glare and harmful UV rays and provides all season benefits.

BuildingIQ: With their Predictive Energy Optimization cloud based software, BuildingIQ’s software is designed to work with a building BMS that will improve energy efficiency in large complex commercial, public or academic building’s.

Cypress Envirosystems Cypress Envirosystems provides solutions to retrofit existing commercial buildings and industrial facilities for energy efficiency, auto-demand response, improved asset utilization and lower maintenance costs.

ElectroCell Systems: This truly innovative, patented Advanced Side Stream Particle Precipitator increases efficiency and minimizes risk of damage of HVAC water systems in commercial, industrial and institutional facilities.

279

280 Greffen Systems: The M2G is an advanced intelligent boiler control that optimizes the heating efficiency of hot water boilers. A unit attached to each boiler monitors the temperature of the water in the flow and return every 10 seconds and the information is recorded, along with the heat transfer rates at both the first and second stage firings. Thermaxx: designs and manufactures removable insulation jackets for pipes, steam system components and various industrial equipment. The use of Thermaxx jackets on your piping will reduce energy costs without the cost or difficulty associated with hard insulation.

The Bottom Line Let Integrity Energy Solutions Group, be your portal that you can use for all of your energy needs. We have done the homework so you don’t have to and have taken the time to research and make sure that we offer nothing but the best companies, products and services. Now it is your choice. Take the time to go through all that is offered and be sure to ask as many questions as needed so you can make a well-informed decision for your company’s needs. Simple changes will have significant impacts not only on your companies bottom line but also for the environment as well. Let Integrity Energy Solutions Group show you the way!

About Us Integrity Energy Solutions Group was founded with the purpose of providing our clients with economic and sustainable solutions to attain efficient energy output while providing quick returns on their investments. The added bonus that is also realized, is that we are helping to reduce everyone’s carbon footprint which in return is helping to make our planet a greener better place to live not only for us but for generations to come!

Integrity Energy Solutions Group will consistently seek out the latest technologies to refine and better appropriate the use of energy throughout any commercial or industrial location. We work with businesses in all sectors to provide and implement cost-effective products and services already actively being put to use.

We can and will make a difference in your company’s bottom line. Leave it to the professionals to answer all of your questions today! Let Integrity Energy Solutions Group show you the way!

281

APPENDIX B:

Pragmathic Pinch Analysis Services

Gaétan Noël, M.Sc.Eng 1-450-462-4708 www.pragmathic.com

PROCESS/ENERGY INTEGRATION WITH PINCH ANALYSIS

SIGNIFICANT ENERGY SAVINGS: Since almost 2 decades, the energy saving potential identified at our Clients’ industrial sites usually ranges from 20 to 30% of the energy bill with payback periods of 6 to 24 months.

WHO IS PRAGMATHIC? Founded in 2000 in the Montreal area (Canada), Pragmathic’s expertise in Process Integration is based on 30 years of experience in various industrial sectors: pulp and paper, chemicals, agri-food, etc.

PINCH ANALYSIS:

Pinch analysis is a state-of-the-art expertise that minimizes the energy cost of your processes for a minimum capex. Based on rigorous thermodynamic principles, Pinch analysis is a system approach that examines all your processes to identify globally - not locally - the optimal solutions by exploiting to their best the possible interactions and connections between all unit operations of all processes and utilities. The outcome is an optimal plan of action in energy efficiency that can be implemented over the years. Do you know what your plant minimum energy requirement is? Pinch Analysis can answer this difficult question in 2 steps: Step 1: Determine your process minimum energy usage and Step 2: Design the projects that meet this minimum value

STEP 1 STEP 2

282 283

BENEFITS OF PINCH ANALYSIS: Maximize thermal energy savings and fresh water savings! Get the most out of your capital expenditure budget! Maximize your CHP (cogen) efficiency! Debottleneck your process and Increase your production! Minimize your GHG emissions and Environmental Footprint! And Beat your Energy Efficiency learning curve!

284

APPENDIX C:

Research and Development

Word Mark SUSTAINABLE COMMISSIONING Goods and IC 035. US 100 101 102. G & S: Energy auditing. FIRST USE: 20120504. FIRST Services USE IN COMMERCE: 20120504 IC 042. US 100 101. G & S: Architectural and technology consultation services in the field of sustainable energy modeling for corporate and industrial buildings. FIRST USE: 20120504. FIRST USE IN COMMERCE: 20120504

Standard Characters

Claimed Mark Drawing (4) STANDARD CHARACTER MARK Code Serial Number 85527393 Filing Date January 27, 2012 Current Basis 1A Original Filing 1B Basis Date Amended to July 18, 2012 Current Register Registration 4219725 Number Registration Date October 2, 2012 Owner (REGISTRANT) Steven P. Driver Attorney of Record ON FILE Type of Mark SERVICE MARK Register SUPPLEMENTAL Live/Dead LIVE Indicator

‘

285

APPENDIX D:

Powerstar Services

Through excellence in engineering and manufacturing, along with investment into R&D to develop new innovations and keep existing solutions at the forefront of technological advancements, Powerstar has built its reputation as a pioneering global market leader of leading edge energy saving solutions. Its flagship solutions are the Powerstar range of voltage optimization technologies and VIRTUE energy storage solutions. Underpinned by a customer focused approach at all levels of the business, Powerstar is committed to helping clients become more energy efficient through identifying the correct engineering solution and implementing technologies that are designed to meet the individual requirements of each client. Powerstar has a truly global footprint with an extensive network of office locations and approved partners, as well as a dedicated US office located in Florida. This provides a comprehensive geographical presence and offers a tailored, market driven and customer centric approach to ensure clients benefit from localized expert knowledge and understanding of relevant energy management issues.

POWERSTAR PROVEN TECHNOLOGY All of Powerstar's solutions are manufactured to the highest standards and its range of energy management technologies hold patents on their design specifications. Additionally, its voltage optimization solutions are supported by a 100% savings guarantee and verified based upon International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol (IPMVP). This patented voltage optimization technology, and its ability to achieve significant consumption savings, has been verified by various independent reports, including testing performed by American Electric Power (AEP) at the renowned Dolan Research Center in Ohio. Powerstar's solutions have been installed in thousands of sites throughout the world, covering a wide variety of industries. Whatever your business, Powerstar's concept to completion and engineering led approach can provide a solution to your energy management problem. Visit www.powerstar.com to find out more.

286

APPENDIX E:

DAC HVAC Services

PROCESS: HVAC SOLUTIONS DESIGNED AROUND YOU At DAC Sales, the process is as important as the finished product. Our nationally recognized design team believes every HVAC system design should be a custom HVAC system design. We make your system a perfect fit for your building, your budget and your priorities. So when you work with DAC Sales, you do a lot of talking and we do a lot of listening. Our engineers bring an average of 13 years of experience, creativity, and hands-on expertise to every project. But we never forget that the most important person at the drafting table or on the job is you. DAC sales led the way on sustainability and energy efficiency, and our design process makes environmental impact and energy savings a top priority. Any HVAC system designed by DAC Sales has sustainability and energy efficiency in its DNA. As we design your sustainable, energy efficient HVAC application we provide you with detailed drawings, personalized equipment selections, energy payback analyses and timely cost projections. Have questions or concerns? You will always know just who to call – your personal DAC Sales Engineer. Your DAC Sales Engineer designs your system, executes the CAD work, coordinates the bidding process and takes personal responsibility for your job from start to finish. No other firm offers this level of continuity, and it gives our customers a lot more confidence. No matter where you are in the process, we don’t shuttle you between departments. We don’t miss calls or information or opportunities. Our whole team is behind you, but your DAC Sales Engineer is always right beside you. And when you are ready to supply your HVAC project? Your personal DAC Sales Engineer will handle that, too.

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HVAC Product Sales Ready to supply your custom HVAC system? The DAC Sales team will take you through all your options. We source only the very best HVAC products and present you with smart, sustainable choices we know we can stand behind. We have strong, seasoned relationships with our manufacturers and our customers. We know it is critical to maintain that chain of trust. DAC Sales performance data, budget estimates and delivery times are fair and firm. Our pricing is competitive and our technical support is superlative. Our HVAC products are well warrantied and we keep you well informed on product advances and opportunities through our customer education program. As an employee-owned company, we don’t just make sales. We make a promise, and we keep it. No matter where you are in your building construction, renovation or upgrade, you should be talking to DAC Sales.

288

APPENDIX F:

Cimetrics Services

We Are Experts in Analytics and Automation Networks.

 Pioneering open system M2M communication for over 20 years

 A world leader in analytics technology for automation systems

 Deep expertise in energy management, building controls and HVAC systems

 Recognized leader in BACnet technology and software

Cimetrics began as a supplier of networking technology for control and monitoring systems, and we have leveraged our networking expertise to become the leading provider of analytic services for ongoing building commissioning. Based in Boston, Massachusetts, we are a company that prides itself in providing superior products and services to our customers using industry-leading technology. Networking Products for Automation Systems

Cimetrics has supplied M2M networking products to the automation industries since 1991. Since the BACnet standard was first published in 1995, Cimetrics has been deeply involved in BACnet's ongoing development and promotion. We co-founded the BACnet Manufacturers Association (now BACnet International), and we launched the BACnet Testing Laboratories. Our BACnet related products have been utilized by many manufacturers of building automation systems and equipment world wide. Cimetrics offers a broad line of BACnet hardware and software products. Our software offerings include BACstac™, the leading third-party BACnet protocol stack, which is embedded in many BACnet-compliant products. We also offer BACnet network interface products, BACnet routers, and software tools used by product developers and systems integrators. We have many years of practical experience collecting real-time data from a wide range of networked building automation systems, industrial automation systems, and metering systems. Using this knowledge, we offer consulting services to building owners operating complex automation systems that need reliable, secure networks.

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Analytics products and Services Our experience supplying products to the building automation industry convinced us that the data available from building control systems and utility meters could be used to improve the performance of building systems. In 2000 we launched an analytics service for continuous building commissioning, providing building managers with a periodic report containing actionable recommendations and management information that lead to significant operating cost savings and improved HVAC system performance. This service was sold under the Infometrics brand until early 2014 when we launched Analytika.

Analytika provides customers with expert analysis and powerful software tools to translate their automation system data into meaningful, actionable insight. Analytika for Buildings (formerly Infometrics) has a long track record of delivering value for large commercial, institutional and industrial facilities. Analytika for Processes leverages our analytics technology to improve the quality and reliability of manufacturing processes. All Analytika customers benefit from a package of expert analysis services and web-based software tools that is tailored to their needs.

Contact Us Cimetrics Inc. 180 Lincoln Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02111-2400 Tel: +1 (617) 350-7550 Fax: +1 (617) 350-7552

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APPENDIX G:

Wilkinson Companies Services

24/7 Emergency Hotline 800.777.1629 Why Wilkinson? Welcome to the Wilkinson Companies. Founded in 1951, the third generation of the Wilkinson family continues to provide the highest standards of installation, service, and maintenance for all your boiler needs. In addition to offering the absolute latest in heating technology and efficiency, we also have New England’s largest fleet of mobile boilers. We look forward to helping you with all your boiler room needs. History & Experience In 1951, George T. Wilkinson started his own heating company, determined to focus on the needs of his customers. As he recalled in the beginning, “I worked seven days a week, sixteen hours a day, and for the first eight years, I didn’t take a vacation.” As time passed, the company grew, and George’s belief in outstanding customer service continued to attract more and more customers. Taking great pride as a family-run company, George passed the reins to his son, Geoff. Under Geoff’s stewardship, the company greatly increased in size and scope, setting the course to becoming a leading name in the industry today. Like his father, Geoff insisted that quality customer service remain an absolute priority, and he worked tirelessly to maintain high standards in every aspect of the business. As the industry progressed, Geoff realized that the rental of mobile boilers was a growing need, and in 1988 he started Wilkinson Mobile Boilers to fill this demand for current and future customers. Always looking ahead to the latest advancements and technologies, Geoff was also the first person to install a linkage less combustion control system in the United States. A risk that has paid great dividends to many customers.

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Today, the third generation of the Wilkinson family is at the helm, as Geoffrey C. Wilkinson Jr. continues the proud tradition of his father and grandfather. Geoff Jr. oversees a growing operation, providing a diverse list of customers with an optimum level of expertise and service to keep a business or an organization up and running. With three generation of personal pride and integrity, George T. Wilkinson, Inc. remains a respected name in the New England heating industry with a fully staffed office and a fleet of trucks and vans. But it has not strayed from its roots. The company still retains some of its original customers that were served by George Wilkinson when he started the company. In the words of George, who passed away in 2014, “We’ve kept our base. We develop a repeat business by doing a little bit extra. The more satisfied customers we have, the more we gain.” Affiliates Wilkinson uses only high-quality products from respected manufacturers in the industry. To learn more about a specific partner, click below.

Charity We value the members of our community, and proudly support these organizations that are doing good work for so many people.

 American Cancer Society

 Bean pot Challenge

 Camp Harbor View

 Massachusetts Maritime Academy Foundation

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An International Approach to Building Commissioning First Edition Steven P. Driver Ph. D Certified Energy Manager and Auditor