ED 097 703 TITLE INSTITUTION PUB DATE AVAILABLE FROM- DOCUMENT RESUME CS 201 626 Applebee, Arthur N. Tradition and Reform In

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ED 097 703 CS 201 626 AUTHOR Applebee, Arthur N. TITLE Tradition and Reform in the Teaching of English: A History. INSTITUTION National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, Ill. PUB DATE 74 NOTE 310p. AVAILABLE FROM-National Council of Teachers of English, 1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana, Illinois 61801 (Stock No. 21103, $5.95 nonmember, $5.50 member)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$15.00 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS Communication (Thought Transfer); Conventional Instruction; Curriculum; Drama; *Educational History; *Educational Innovation; Educational Philosophy; *English Instruction; Grammar; Individualized Instruction; Language; Linguistics; Literary History; *Literature Appreciation; Progressive Education; Rhetoric; Traditional Schools IDENTIFIERS National Council of Teachers of English ABSTRACT Tracing the broad movements in the teaching of English--both in theory and in practice--from its origin as a subject during the 1880's to the present day, this book focuses on the aspect of the teaching of English which has absorbed the greatest amount of teacher's time, energy, and enthusiasm: the teaching of literature. Chapters, following a chronological pattern, are "Early Traditions," "The Birth of a Subject," "A School for the People," "Science and the Teaching of English," "A Framework for Teaching," "Narrowed Goals," "An Academic Model for English," "Winds of Change," and "Afterward: The Problems Remaining."'Appendixes covering important dates in the teaching of English, offerings in English in the North Central area from 1860 to 1900, requirements in English literature for college entrance from 1874 to 1900, the most frequently anthologized works from 1917 to 1957, the growth of English from 1900 to 1949, and major officers of the National Council of Teachers of English from 1912 to 1974 are included, along with a selected bibliography and an index. (JM) CTr" w tuck-ion and eform

in the Teaching of English: a History

Arthur N. Applebee

U S DEPARTMENT OFHEALTH. EDUCATION &WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO OUCED EilAcTLy AS RECEof ED PROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION 004CoN ATING IT POINTS Or VIEW OR OPINIONS alED DO NOT NECESSARILY RE ',RE SENT arringa NATIONAL iNST,TUTE Or EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY YI

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERSOF ENGLISH ACENOWLEDGNIENTS: Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following authors and publishers for permission to quote fromtheir works in this history. For passages from How to Read aPage by I. A. Richards: Reprinted by permission, copyright1942 by W. W. Norton & Company, and Routledge & Regan Paul, Lid.Copyright renewed 1969 by I. A. Richards. For a passage from 1;Mo:standing Poetry: .1a An lhology for College Students by Clean th Brooksand Robert Penn Warren: Reprinted by permission of Holt,Rinehart and Winston, Inc.For passages from High School English Textbooks: A ('ri Heal Examination by James J. Lynch andBertrand Evans: Reprinted by permission. © 1963 by the Council for BasicEducation. For a passage from Slums and Suburbs by James BryantConant iNleGraw.ifill Book Co. and Signet Books): Reprinted bypermission of the project administrator, Conant Studies of AmericanEducation. Educational Testing Service.

NCTE EurroRIAL BOARD: Richard Corbin, IlunterCollege High School, New York City; Charlotte S. )luck, The Ohio StateUniversity: Richard Lloyd-Jones, University of Iowa; Roy C.O'Donnell, University of Georgia; Owen Thomas, Indiana University;Robert F. I logan, NCTE es officio; Paul O'Dea, NCTE esofficio

STAFF EDITORS: Ann Warren, Diane Allen STAFF DESIGNER: Norma Phillips Meyers COVER DESIGN: William May

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All rights reserved PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY Printed in the United States of America RIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY National Councilof National Council of Teachers of English Teachers of English 1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana. Illinois 61801 To ERIC AND (IFIGANI2AIIONS OPERA/II1G UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE NATIONAL IN

.%MUTE OF EDUCATION FURTHER REPRO DICTION OUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM RE QUIRES PERMISSION OF THE r,OPYR(GI OWNER Contents

Preface ix

Chapter I! Early Traditions 1 The Ethical Tradition in Elementary Instruction The New England Primer, 2;%Mister's Grammatical Institute, 3;Mc Guffey's Readers, The Classical Model in School and College 5 English Grammar, 6;The Prescriptive Tradition, 6; Rhetoric and Oratory, 8;Literary History, 10 The Nonacademic Tradition 11 The Extracurriculum, 12;The Finishing School, 12 Reprise: 1865 13 Chapter I Notes 15

Chapter II The Birth of a Subject 21 TheCultural Value of Literature 21 The Romantic Tradition, 22;Culture and Education, 23;Horace Scudder, 24 Philological Studies 95 Philology in the UniVoNity, 26; Francis James Child, 26;The Spread of Philology, 27; High School Programs;8 Institution:dint:ion 29 The College Ell trance Requirenwnts, 29;Jiniform Requirements, 30;The Committee of Ten, 32: The Literary Canon, 34 English at the First Plateau 36 Chapter II Notes 39 Chapter III: A School for the People 45 New Goals for Educatlon 47 Changes in Philosophy, 7; Changes in Psychology, 47,John Dewey, .18 i Aornos AND REFORM

filch School against College -19 The Domination of the Uniform List';, 49;The Founding of IiCTE, 51;The Fate of the Lists, 53 Toward New Methods 54 The Types Approach, 55;Concern for the Child, 56; Contemporary Literature, 58;Vocational Education, 59; Teaching Aids, 60 The Role or Drama 6 I The Academic Tradition, 61;The Progressive Tradition, 63;The Effects on the Schools, (13 The Reorganization Reports 64 The Cardinal Principles, 64;The Reorganization of English, 65;Continuations, 67 Chapter III Notes 69 Chapter IV: Science and the Teaching of English 79 Overviewofthe Progressive Era 79 The Movement in Education SO The Concern with Efficiency, 80;Objective Measurement, 81:Rebuilding the Curriculum, 82 Studying the Curriculum in English 84 Minimum Essentials, 84;The Functional Emphasis, 85;Media Study, 87; Evaluating the Selections for Study, 88; Reading Skills, 90 The Focus on the Individual 91 Ability Groups, 91;The Dalton Plan, 92;Unit Work, 93;Objective Testing, 94 Experimental Method 96 Settling Down 99 Chapter IV Notes 101 Chapter V: A Framework for Teaching 107 The Project Method 108 The Method Proposed, 108;The Response, 109 Toward Experience 109 Literature and Experience, 109;Countercurrents, 113 The Social Perspective 115 Patterns for the Curriculum 118 An Experience Curriculum, I 18;Conducting Experiences in English, 121;A Correlated Curriculum, 122;Literature as Exploration: The Final Synthesis, 123 The Effect on the Schools 125 The CourseorStudy, 125;The Literature Anthologies, 128 Perspective: The Years between the Wars 130 Chapter V Notes I 33 Chapter ViiNarrowed Goals 139 Progressivism as the Conve ntiunal Wisdom 140 The Eight-Year Study, 140;Life Adjustment, 143; The RejectionorCorrelation, 141 English as Adjustment 146 Meeting Adolescent Needs, 116;liuman Relations, 1-17; Organizing a Curriculum around Immediate Needs, 150; (70NTENTS VII

Selecting Materials, 151; Literature for the Adoles- cent, 155 Developing Competence in Language 156 Language and Communication, 156;Reading, 160 The New Critics 162 Changes in Literary Theory, 1G2;The New Critics and School Programs, 164 The Changing Curriculum 166 The NCTE Curriculum Studies, 166;The Course ofStudy, 169;The Anthologies, 170 Summing Up: Literature in the Progressive Era 174 Chapter VI Notes 177 Chapter VII: An Academic Modelfor English 185 Critics of the Schools 185 The Academic Critics, 185;A Crisis of Confidence, 188 English as a D; 189 "rn ('or the Talented, 1891A New Curriculum Model, 191;The Basic Issues Conferences, 193; The Spiral Curriculum, 195;The Commission on English, 196 Federal Support for English 198 The Struggle for Funds, 198;The First Programs, 201 Changing Programs 20 -I Literary Values and the Threat 01' Censorship,204; Other Materials, 207;The Humanities Course, 208; The National Study of High School EnglishPrograms, 210 1ligh Points and Low Points 213 Chapter VII Notes 216 Chapter VIII: Winds of Change 225 The Other Half of the Curriculum 225 The British Model 228 Industrial Models 232 Toward a New Curriculum in English 236 Chapter VIII No' 's 240 Chapter IX: Afterword: The ProblemsRemaining 245 Teachers of literature havenever successfully resisted the pressure to formulate their subject asa body of knowledge to be imparted. 245 The acknowledged goals of the teachingor literature are in conflict with the emphasis on specific knowledge or content, 2.16 Teachers of English need to make thedistinction between knowledge which informs their teaching,and that which should be imparted to the student, 246 There is a need to reconceptualize the"literary heritage" and its implications for pal ents of teaching, 247

The teaching of literature isa political act, . 248 Language skills have been narrowlyconceptualized as an independent and functional aspect of theEnglish program. 243 VIII TRADITION AND REFORM

A focus on correcting taste has obscured the need for fostering response. 250 The educative effects of the act of reading need to he defined. 251 Goals for the study of English depend upon prior assumptions about the nature and purpose of education. 252 Sequence in the study or English must derive from psychological rather than logical principles. 253 The Next Chapters 255 Selected Bibliography 257 Appendices I.Some Important Dates in the Teaching of English 271 II.Offerings in English in the North Central Area, 1860-1900 274 III.College Entrance Requirements in English Literature, 1874-1900 275 IV.Alost Frequently Anthologized Works. 1917-1957 278 V. The Growth of English, 1900-1949 280 VI. Major Officers of the National Council of Teachers of English, 1912-1974 281 Index 284 Preface

Though English is a young subject, less than one hundred years old, its teachers have from the beginning been leaders in the reform of school programs. The emergence of the subject during the 1880s and 1890s was itself part of one battle between the "ancient- and the "modern" subjects for control of the college preparatory curriculum. With the position of the moderns secure by the turn of the century, English took the lead in throwing off these preparatory school functions and establishing a new pattern of common school education. This was part of the first wave of the progressive movement in education, and -though teachers of English remained suspicious of the movement in its institutional form, they remained true to its spirit and moved in the same directions. As a result, the 1920s and 1930s can be seen as a grand experiment in implementing progressive education in the English classroom, an experiment that overreached itself during the 1940s and early 1950s, losing sight of its own original principles. This in turn provoked a reaction, short but intense, which brought the profession together in support of "academic" goals during the 1960s: teachers from elementary school through college recognized a unity of purpose that had sometimes been forgotten. This academic resurgence, though it began in a rejection of progressivism, in the end led to the reestablishment of the authentic parts of the progressive vision, allowing teachers in the l970s to begin again, with new insight and new courage. the difficult task of fundamental educational reform. The factors which have led to these changes in the teaching of English are complex. Shifts in school populations, educational philosophy. psychology, and the scholarly disciplines from which Eng- lish as a secondary school subject derives have all had a more or less direct influence upon instructional patterns. Flow these interact with one another, with goals for English teaching, and with classroom practice are major concerns in a history such as this. Our knowledge of the history of the teaching of English is not yet definitive, but we know enough to trace the broad movements in the theory and practice of the teaching of English from its origin to the present day. The universe of concern in such a study is large, almost limitless. I t moves outward on the one hand through general trends in educa tional thought to patterns of social and moral philosophy, and on the

ix THAntrior:AND REFORM

other through the disciplines of English to patterns of scholarship and definitions of knowledge. And it naives inward toward the specific changes in classroom practice in the schools and classrooms of the nation. The approach taken here is a compromise between these competing demands. We will sketch enough of the general trends to understand the forces to which English was responding, and enough of the classroom practice to give a sense of what was happening in the schools; bat the emphasis remains on trends and movements in the teaching of English as a whole, broad strokes rat her than fine details. The universe has been simplified, .too, by focussing on the aspect of the teaching of English that has, since the beginning, taken up the largest proportion of the teacher's time. energy. and enthusiasm. the teaching of literature. This focus on literature rather than on English instruction will cause little distortion in this history: the goals and emphases have moved in parallel fte- the major components of the course. Where there have been important devehmnients which do not impinge upon literature di, reedy. I have tried to point to them at least in passing. The general 1)8U: tit of the discussion is chronological, though more in n sense of "epochs" and "movements" than a year-by-year recital of events. This introduces another kind of distortion at some points in the narrative, with movements parallel in time but distant in motivation discussed at some distance from one another: this is especially true of transitional periods when one era is coining to an end and another beginning. Again. I have tried to indicate parallel developments at least in passing, pointing the reader forward or bark to fuller discussions; but the real solution to this problem is to emphasize that the separate chapters are not meant to he a chronicle, and provide one only when the book is taken as a whole. For those who want it, Appendix I offers a brief chronology. For the teacher of English. a book such as this is both an end and a beginning: it gives a sense of where his profession has been in the past, and a sense of the issues and the forces which will shape it in the future. In offering this history in the form I have chosen, looking at the past on its own terms rather than using it to provide "perspective- on contemporary issues, I am inviting others to use the material provided here for their own ends: preliminary versions of the manuscript have already been used as evidence of "clear trends.' with which I do not agree. One point in particular that has arisen several times has been an analogy between developments in English and a pendulum swing between student and subject. affective response and cognitive discipline. In spite of its apparent applicability, I think this is a misleading metaphor: for all of its apparent motion, the pendulum never moves forward, never changes. never offers us something new. The teaching of English, on the contrary, has had a rapid and healthy evolution. I think it is better today than it has ever been in the past: it is certainly different. PREFACE Xi

Such disagreements are themselves healthy, and if this book can serve to generate many more of them it will have served one useful purpose. Still,1 have come away from my study of the past with a number of quite specific lessons which I- think it has taught me. These arise from the fabric of the history, rather than from its argument: they arc certainly not theses defended in the course of the narrative. Yet I think they are important and have drawn them together in the last chapter. There has been very little systematic exploration of the history of I he teaching of English, though theare a few very useful beginnings. Much of Ilse material is relatively inaccessible. in doctoral dissertations and outof.print reports: this has meant. inevitably. that each discussion has had to begin without any assumptions of prior knowledge. I hope this book will change that, reducing the need for each writer to recapitulate the universe. There is much to learn: I offer the book confident that it is accurate in its general tenor and emphasis. and equally sure that it must be wrong in some of its

Many people have courageously worked their way through early. drafts of this manuscript, pointing me in new directions and correcting my errors. Early in the project...I asked a group of prominent members of the National Council of Teachers of English to list for me titles which they felt had "significantly influenced" the teaching of literature in American secondary schools. It was a deliberately ambiguous and difficult brief, but they responded generously and in detail. Their suggestions ranged across all fields, frdm literary criticism to educational philosophy, psychology. tnd sociology. All the references were eventually followed up, and some led me in new and unexpected directions. For these lists, then, special thanks to G. Robert ('arisen. Alfred II. Grommon. W. Wilbur Ilatfield, Lou L. 1.allrant, Albert 11. Nlarckwardt, Joseph Mersand, and James It.. Squire. The manuscript itself has been read in whole or in part by many people. A few of these have influenced it deeply, forcing me to redraft and revise again and again. For asking the difficult questions, then, thanks to James R. Squire. Lou L. LaBrant, Roger K. Applebee. and Marcia Lynn Appleby°. The last of these has had the dubious pleasure of reading each of the drafts in all of its versions. My final debt of gratitude is to Robert L. Church. His comments. uttered as an historian rather than a teacher of English, were the most fundamental of all. Ile taught me to ask a different set of questions than I had asked before, gave enough encouragement to keep me going, and enough criticism to force me to begin again, and yet. again.

London. England A.N.A. February 1973 Above all things. let the Scriptures be the chief and most frequently used wading book, both primary and high schools and the very young should be kept in the gospels. Is it not proper and right that °vet), human being, by the time 1w has reached his tenth year, should be familiar with the holy gospels. in which the very core and marrow of his life is bound? Martin Luther.'

'b define a uniformity and purity of language in Americato destroy Ike provincial prejudices that originate in Ihe trifling differences of dialect, and produce reciprocalridiculeto promote theinterestof literature and harmony of the Stalesis the most ardent wish of Ike author. Noah Webster, in the Preface to his Blue-Backed Speller (1783)2

familiarity with Greek and Roman writers is especially adapted to form the taste, and to discipline the mind, both in thought and diction, to relish of what is elevated, chaste, and simple. The Yale Report of 1828a

It is nog what a boy learns at school that makes The man, bid how he learns it. .If the acquisition of knowledge were the chief object in education, very useful as an acquaintance with the dead languages is, indispensable in fact to the man of letters, one might with propriety doubt the expediency of spending so large a portion of youth and early manhood in the study. Rut the earnest, laborious stollen; of language develops a power which no other (raining could possibly give hint, and in comparison wit/z which all his acquisitions of mem knowledge sink into utter insignificance. Francis Gardner, Headmaster of Boston Latin School, 18674

Latin has come to be (aught confessedly as a gymnastic. .. and Latin sets Om pattern for English. Samuel Thurber, Master at Girls' High School, Boston, 1902" Chapter I

Early Traditk,ns

Though English did not emerge as a major sobool subject until the 1890s, the instructional traditions whhh have shaped it are much older. At least three traditions vieni already fully intertwined in the English curriculum of 1890: an 4,1rical tradition which placed its emphasis on moral and cultural entelopinent, a. classical tradition of intellectual discipline anti close iiixtual and a nonacademic tradition more concerned ,vith "enj,ymunt and "appreciation.- The interactions of these various traditiom in I.he early history of the teaching of English represent less ttle tween conflicting points of view than a web of accepted assuuiplioini. all the more pervasive and far-reaching because they were never made explicit. To untangle some of this web, we will be,:tib with the ethical tradition, and the earliest form of systematic institution in the vernacular the leaching of reading.

The Ethical Tradition in Elementary Instruction

The roots of elementary reading instruction as it deceloycd in the American colonies go back at least to the Council of Mainz 031:3I, which firmly linked religious instruction with the teaching of reml- ing. After some seven hundred years, this tradition was C13 IC tied over into the teaching of English through the translation of t he "Book of Hours" as the Prymer of Salisbury Use tea. 149C1 Though the primer and the ABC were initially separate, they were t imbrued toward the end of the sixteenth century to lower print:fig coat,:.

1 2 TRANI to%Attat

Through this practice the beginning reading bookacquired bath a title. "primer,- and a heritage of ethicalconcern." 'I he typical early primer included an alphabet andsyllabarium, a creed, a catechism, and a collection ofprayers and devotional mat- .ises. Though these materials were originally includedsimply because they were considered important for the child to know, during the Reformation they became caughtup in the struggles between conflicting faiths. As catechisms proliferated, primersmultiplied Lump.

The New England Printer

In the New World the tradition of instruction throughsectarian primers continued unabated. Though at first relyingon British im- ports. the American colonists soon began to issue theirown editions, culminating in The Net,' l.:ngland issued by Benjamin Ifarris, a Boston printer, sometime betttql0e0 IBM and1690. Harris had previously !Winking] at similar book in London.tinder the title The Protestant Tutor for Youth (16791. For the NewEngland version 1w reduced the size of the book andgave it a new title, but the partii. remained those with which the colenistswere familiar: each began with the letters of the alphabet, followed bya syllabarium, the Lord's Prayer. at lean "- one catechism, and various other religious and instructional pieces, often heavy with morallessons. One of the most famous is the child's prayer beginning. "Now I laytr., down to sleep,- which appeared for the first time ina 1737 version of the Primer: its author is unknown.' little else in the Primer was as literaryas this little verse. For the most part the selections were didactic, chosen ;Or the virtue of theit dogma rather than for their suitability for childrenlearning to read. The hook had one major advantageover its predecessors, however.; as a result of the Westminster Assembly 11613.49), therewas for thy first time a single generally accepted catechisni;Incorporating thin catechism in a familiar instructional format, and witha title pitched toward the colonists' regional pride, The New EnglandPrimer was an immediate swcess. For over a hundred years itvia,' withort serious challenge us the instrument of beginning readinginstruction in America. and for another !Mildredyears it. was frequently r_,- printed. The Primer urns(' out of a particular tradition of instructionto fulfill the particular needs of the American colonists. Byits very success. it generated challengers and imitators. and though the first of these soon fell away, other forces eventually reshapedthe Amer- ican landscape, demanding new naterials foruse in the :44! h ou s Though the Printer itself attempted to reflect changing national concerns in its successive editions, the basic character of the work Emus Tamatioss 3

was in Movable. The young 1..1 nited States, on the other hand,was laced with problems other than those Which haddominated its cob- mai .lay-4. Chief among thesewere problems of unity; how to provide the disparate colonial states witha common tradition of culture and pw, z Milent , a common spirit of responsible republicancitizenship. a common language that would transcend the regional dialects.Reli- gious dogma, which had determined the history ofthe primers and given them their internal structure,was no longer of prime importance.

Wc"ister 's Grammatical Institute

The hellei in the power of the primers to achieveaims far beyond the limited goal of learning to read, however, continued.Noah Web- ster clearly bad faith in it when as a teacher in OrangeCounty. New York, he compiled a spelling hook designedexplicitly to foster the unity and common culture which he sensed thatthe nation lacked. Pulilisned in 1783 as The First Part ofa Grammatical Institute of the English tanguage. his Blue-Backed Speller also filleda need for an American source of hooks at a time when the usual suppliesfrom Britain wore upset by the war.' Atrue .desc'enden't of the earlier texts, Wyk tor's Speller combined underone cover alphabet, primer, speller, and reader, using materials whichwere unabashedly adult and didactic. Thus a section entitled "Precepts concerningthe Social Relations" offered advice to youngwomen:

Ik cautious in listening to the addresses ofmen. Is the suitor addicted to low vices'? is he profane? is he a gambler?a tippler? a spendthrift? a imunteror tat eras? and, above ads. is he a scofferat religion?- Banish -ich a auto Irma thy presence. his heart is false, and hishand would lead r'ncete rho loess and ruin.

Still it was not the lessons but the spelling lists whichwere the most important part of the hook. Wehster setout consciously to reform and simplify the erratic American spellingsystem of his day. and to impossan order on the chaos that had previously been therule. With his slicker and. later. The American Dictionary118281, he to a large extent succeeded. lake the Primer hefore it, Webster's Spellerbe- calme it nvarlt universal medium for instruction; it was still inuse in some areas of the country as late as 1900. The third part of Webster's Grammatical Instituteis also important for our purposes, for An American Selection of Lessonsin Beading and Speaking (1795)was much closer in format to a school reader in the modern sense. In this volume, Webstercontinued the secularization of school materials: rather than theCatholicism or Prottrtantism of early books, selectionswere chosen for patriotic rinitent ethical emphasis, and usefulness in the developmentof the I TsAnrrios AND REFORM

speaking voice. (Oratory and elocution had becomeimportant concerns to a nation newlyconstituted as a republic and destined to be governed, or so it seemed, by the constantdisputations of its Con- gress.) Though Webster no longerdefined appropriate selections in the rigid terms of the early primers. oneof the major functions of school materials, as he wrote in his introduction,remained to "im- press interesting truths uponyouthful minds,"" Webster's Amer- ican Selection, together with the grammarthat formed the second part of the Grammatical Institute, neverattained the overwhelming popularity of the Blue-Bucked Speller;nonetheless it dominated instruction for nearly fifty years, and set a patternwhich most of its immediate successors followed. A number of collections similar to Webster's werequite popular at a regional level. Nlost noted werethose by Lindley Murray and Caleb Bingham in the 1790s. and John Pierpont a fewdecades later. In t heir editing and choice of selections,these books reflected a Protes- tant ethic of thrift, honesty, ownershipof property, love of country and of God, and dedication to work. Thoughincreasingly secular in content, they continued in their own waythe colonial tradition of moral education as a primary function ofreading instruction. The Spectator papers and other works of the Augustansdominated during the early part (f the century, being in turnsupplanted by the works of the then-contemporary Romanticwriters during the 1820s. Still, it was not until the 1830s that secularbegan to consistently outnumber biblical selections in school readers." The texts which followed Webster gaveincreasing attention to the literary quality of the selections, LindleyMurray's three books (1799-1801) were devoted half to poetry,while Pierpont's series (1820-30) included, for the first time, excerptsfrom Shakespeare. Nonetheless there was a strong counter-movementtoward "content" readers in which rending exercises weresubordinated to the study of other subjects. The century produced, amongothers, The Christian Reader (made up entirely of tracts andhymns) and The Farmer's School-Book, with offerings on "Making andPreserving Cheese,- "Raising Calves," and "The Nature ofManure." The excesses of these readers helped literature to emergein the 1880s as the accepted vehicle for reading instruction, but onlyafter a long and often vituperative professional debate."

McGulley's Readers But before literature emerged as a school subjectin its own right, there was one more giant in the teachingof reading. This was a six-book series by William Holmes McGuffey,the first volumes of which appeared in 1836: as with the twoearlier texts, their use was virtually universal for the next fifty years. EARLY 'PHA DITIONS 5

The content of this series was again decidedly moral, though not overtly religious, advocating a stern Protestant ethic through care - IulIv chosen selections from a wide variety of American and Euro- pean authors. Patriotism was fostered and American productions git en a solid place, but the readers were not as narrowly nationalistic as Webster's had been The hooks were graded by level of difficulty, with selections of real literary value predominating in the fifth and sixth readers. though all of the lessons remained shortusually a page or two at most. And finally, the teaching materials surrounding the selections placed strong emphasis on the mechanics of reading aloud. presenting such topics as "Articulation." "Inflection," "Ac. cent." "Ernithasis," "Nlodulation," and "Poetic Pause."" These three early educational giantsThe New England Primer. Volister's Grammatical Institute, and the NIcGuffey readersdid more than just embody the changing interests and pedagogy of the nation they served. They also provided a common background of culture and allusion, a common heritage for a nation too young to have any other. The Primer spread a common catechism, Webster's Institute advanced a common system of spelling and promoted a chauvinistic nationalism, McOufky's readers created a literary heritage, even if one based on fragments and precis. This sense of an ethical and cultural heritage has certainly remained as one of the major goals of the teaching of literature, though later generations of teachers would come to question the kind of heritage a collection of excerpts could offer.

The Classical Model in School and College

Even as the ethical tradition was developing as part of reading instruction. other pedagogical models were emerging in the secondary schools and colleges. Most of these models developed from an analogy between the studs of English and the study of the classical languages, an analogy conditioned and reinforced by the prevailing doctrines of "mental discipline" and "faculty psychology." Through- out the period under discussionroughly from 1750 to 1865 the fate of English studies in the high schools is similar to that in the colleges. Sometimes one exerts the leading influence, sometimes the other. but the difference between the two is never great. TI-'ugh the roots of English studies can he traced back at least to the Latin catalogs of John Leland and Bishop John Bale in the 15.10s, it is not till the end of the nineteenth century that there was anything even approximating what we now roughly subsume under the heading "the study of English."' The pedagogical theory of mental discipline was at the root of the long delay: it held that the titthrlitiN ANDRHAIICAI

purpose of education was to exercise and train the mental faculties, in particular the faculties of "memory- and "reason."' The value of angiven subject was directly proportional to the degrie of internal structure which the subject exhibited, the apparatus of rules and "knowledge" which a student could be required to master. The complex vocabulary and rules of syntax of the classical languages had °tiered an obvious and fertile field for such training. Other subjects could compete for attention only as they demonstrated that they, too. had a substance that would insure the same discipline of the mind that the classical languages provided. Thus the problem w hick English, and in particular English literature, had to surmount was that. as far as the classicist could see, it was too easyit had no substance, no organized body of knowledge, no rules, no theory. in slug.' nothing to promote the rigorous mental training. the discipline, that was the justification of an education. Only by being grafted' onto -1)t her disciplines with more evident justifications did literature find a place at all in the early curriculum, for it was only in such a firm t hatit seemed to offer more than the "mere chatter about Shelley" of which so many complained.:

;raraM Mar Grammar was the first formal study of English to become a idespread part of the curriculum, and it did so by -taking up the methods and approaches which hacl dominated in the teaching of the classical languages. Grammar was an especially powerful model because of the various traditions in its own history once "English grammar" had become respectable. a variety of speculative.. his tor. ital. rhetorical. and textual studies that were loosely related to it wen. similarly legitimized: some. like rhetoric, were so revitalized that they became permanently separated from their parent subject." Grammatical studies in the classical languages had traditionally emphasized two elements: the learning of rules. and their "use- or practical application. An extensive methodology had grown up around both aspects. and this was transferred more or less intact to studies of English grammar,'" "Parsing.' and analysis of sentences. diagramming, the learning of paradigms, and the correction of "errors" in usage all entered the curriculum through this tradition. together with the rite memorization of definitions and rules for the %Arians grammatical categories. Such studies claimed to be teaching the practical use of language. as well as to offer formal discipline in the best classical tradition. flu' Prescript ire Tradition The 'shift of grammatical studies from the classics to English invoked a shift from a method of teaching a foreign language to one EmuTitan: rioNs

of correcting a nativeone. I hiring the eighteenth century this was accentuated by an attempt to regularize the Englishlanguage on the model of Latin and Greek. leading,among other results, to Bishop William lVarburtoris editions of Shakespeare andRichard Bentley's of \lilt on. Bent ley's comments on the last lines of ParadiseLost are well known, but they are worth quoting againas an illustration of 11w kind of criticism that vi as developing,as well as of the breadth of interest of the studies that were then subsumed underthe heading of "grammar.- Bentley's demands for "proper"usage and his ultimately specious adherence to logicalcanons are typical of the approach when it was codified, though his workswere repudined by many who shared his general point of view. Ile concludes his"New Edition" of Parodist, Lost 11732) witha lengthy note.

And how an the Expression be justified, with wand'ringSteps and slow'? Why wand'ring? Erratic Steps? Very improper: when inthe Line before. they were guided by Providence And why Slow?when oven c pro les s'd her Readiness and Alacrity for t hed onrney . And why their .solattry way? All Words to represent a sorrowful Parting?When even their former Walks in Paradise were as solitary as their Waynow: there being no Body Iwsides Them Two, both here and there.Shall I therefore, alter so many prior Presumptions.presume at last to offer a Distieb. as rinse as may be to the Author's Words, andentirely agree- able to his Scheme? \ hand in hand with h SOCIAL steps theirway Through EDEN took. WITII 1 11:At-NIX COMFORT CHE4.11'11.

W hen flugh Blair and his colleagues separated rhetorical fromgram- . matictil studies later in the century, they approached literature in a similar way_ The prescriptive tradition of language instruction becamedomi- nant between 1750 and 1800, finding its way into the schools where it has flourished ever since. Noah Webster includeda school grammar in this tradition as the second part of his GrammaticalInstitute 117) and Caleb Bingham prepared a similar volumeas part of his own series 117991,-1 Though both enjoyed a moderate initial success, they were soon supplanted by Murray's Grammar, publishedin England in 1705 and soon in use in America. Thistext was more systematic in its approach than the others had been, andvirtually dominated the held for the next several decades. By 1850 it hadgone through some two hundred editions,' Lindley Murray hasbeen dubbed -the father of English granunaras a result of this text, though he is a lather figure whommany generations of schoolchildren, and not a few of their teachers, would have been happyto do without. With a ready supply of texts, an inherited methodology, anda recognizable justification in the theory of mental discipline, English TUA1/11111sAND itEwkst

grammar was ollewd in mostAmerican schools by 1810. This was tacitly recognized by the College of New Jersey(which later became Princeton University), when it asked its 1819candidates for admission to be "well acquainted- with English grammar:it was the first time that competence in any aspect ofthe vernacular had been required for entrance to any college in America.By 1800 most colleges had introduced similar requirements.'

Ithetorie and Oratory Grathmar, however, was considered more orless a school subject, a prerequisite for the higherstudieS of the college but not, usally, a study which would he continued there. Thegrowth of English studies at a more advanced level owes itsfirst impetus to a group of Scottish educators who divorced the studies of rhetoricand oratory from their early roots in grammar duringroughly the same period that grammar was itself becoming an importantschool subject. The group. included, among others. Adam Smith, DavidHume, Lord Eames. and I lugh Blair: they argued in thedecades after 1740 that the arts of public reading and speakingdeserved an important place in the education of clergy and laityalike. under which the rules of grammar, rhetoric,and "composition- hod often been subsumed, was theimmediate parent. Edinburgh the birthplace. Here from 1730 on,Professor John Stevenson devoted the first hour of histwo-hour-a-day logic class to rhetoric, illustrating the classical rules ofcomposition with extracts from Dryden, Addison, Pope, and otherEnglish and French writers. Byre in 1748 Adam Smith began aseries of public lectures on rhetoric and belles lettres, the first time thatliterary criticism had been dealt with in a separate course of lectures.'When Smith left for the University of Glasgow in 1751. tobecome like Stevenson a professor of logic, the seriescontinued under Robert Watson who in turn left to take up a chair of logic, rhetoric,and metaphysics at St. Andrews in 1750. In 1759 Smith'smantle descended to Hugh Blair. an Edinburgh clergyman and literaryfigure well known in his day both for his published sermons and hischampionship of the spurious poems of Ossian, Under Blair, the lectures werefor the first time given within t he university, rather than as partof an extra- mural series: Blair himself became Regius Professorof Rhetoric and I ielles 14ettres in 1762. Blair apparently borrowed Adam Smith's lecture notes,and certainly there was little difference in the approaches ofthis early series of teachers. Whereas the grammarians wereconcerned with syntax and morphology, the rhetoricians placed theiremphasis on "expression,- both written and oral (the latter eventuallyevolving into the separate studies of oratory). Diction,style, figurative language, the "flowers" of rhetoric-- these were the concerns to whichthey turned EARLY TRADITIONS u

their attention and which, until anew movement in the 1880s and I890s began to argue that practice wasmore important than theory. constituted the teaching of composition in Americansecondary schools and colleges.; Like the grammarians whowere their professional colleagues, the rhetoricianswere prescriptive, filling their texts with rules to be followed, and with examples oferrors of expression as well as of the successes of the hest writers. Themain point of reference was the Latin and Greek tradition,now translated into English. Blair made ext ensive ase of classical illustrationsin his lectures, discussing Virgil, Cicero, Aristophanes, Tasso. andmany others. At the same time, however and this is thesignificant de- parture which Blair shared with John Stevenson and Adam Smith- 1w wanted to argue that the principles which they followedare universal and could he applied to English and Frenchauthors as cell. Favorite examples included Addison. Pope, Swift.Dryden, Milton, and Shakespeare, though the latter violatedmany of the rhetorical "laws." (Blair explained Shakespeare'stransgressions as "blemishes- due to the grossness of the age in which he lived."1"It is interesting to note that, while the "greats- of Englishliterature were acknowledged, many of the most thoroughly discussed authors were contemporaries or near-contemporaries of the rhetoricians. Pope and Swift were still living when Professor Stevensonbegan-his lectures in 1730: the Taller(1709 -11)and Spectator(1711-12)papers were just twenty years old. All were at a peak of popularity. Blair published his notes as Lectureson Rhetoric and Belles LettMSin 1783 and retired from active lecturing the followingyear. The batik quickly became a popular text in Americaas well us England. Yale adopted it in1785,Harvard in1788,Dartmouth as late as 1822: during the nineteenth century it also found itsway into many secondary school classrooms.n Though the Scottish rhetoricians madea clean theoretical separation of grammar and rhetoric, in practice both approacheswere simultaneously applied to literature. Throughout thenineteenth century, "rhetoric,"analysis,- and "criticism" usually indicated much the same course of study. in which a literary text would be critically examined to insure that it conformed with the prescriptiverules of grammar and rhetoric, all in the ultimate service of the student's own speaking and writing skills." Thu rhetorical approach of Blair and his colleagues didnot require any literature to be read at all, but by the 1840s some schoolswere supplementing the rhetoric handbooks with individual worksfor parsing and analysis. This was an important shift,yet it was a change only in t he material and not in the method of instruction.The texts were few in number till the end of the century, and approached with the same exhaustive line-by-line analysis that thehandbooks had illustrated. Paradise Lost found itsway into the curriculum by this route in the first half of the nineteenth century. and itis not 14) TRAIIITOIN atiu 121411ItSt

accidental that it is also the most Latinate of our English classics. It was (Men joined by Pope's Essay on Man. another favorite illustration in the books of the rhetoricians."' l'hese works provided an excellent exercise ground for the grammars and dietaries of the Lime, and though they must he seen as the forerunners of the school editions of English authors that would domMate instruction at the end of the century. itis clear that any interest in literature that might emerge from such studies would arise in spite of rather than through the approach that w is taken. hose studies were the first of the English studies to win acceptance at the college level, though they were generally thought of as a rather minor aspect of preparation for theclergy. It was under their umbrella that America got it s first professor of English, in the person of a clergyman. Ebenezer Kinnersley. Kinnersley was the second head of the "English School" of an academy in Philadelphia, and w as appointed professor of the English tongue and oratory when the academy became a college in 1755. (Still later, it became the University of Pennsylvania.) Kinnersley was also a scientist of some !nay and a friend of Benjamin Franklin: his successor in 4773 was a lawyer by trade. Other universities slowly followed the same pattern; Harvard. for example. established its Boylston Professorship of Rhetoric and Oratory in 1806, with John Quincy Adams as the first ineumlwnt 11806-091. During the tenure of Edward Tyrol Charming I8195 1 I, the work at Ilarvard was expanded to include individual texts for parsing and analysis. but. as in the high schools of the period. the literature was still well subordinated to the rhetorical studies.Though Amherst experimented with a course in English and American Literature in 1827 and Dartmouth mentioned English literature in 1822, before 18(R) English studies in most colleges consisted of rhetoric and oratory, and nothing more.'

Literary History liy the late 1840s, riding a crest of interest in historical and biographical studies. literary history had also emerged as an important aspect of English studies. This took as its model the stt«tics of ancient civilization, which were a well-established part of the classical curriculum. Though both the classical course and its English translation began with broad and humanistic goals, an emphasis on one memorization and on names, dates, and places. dominated virtually all applications." The first textbook in this tradition to be widely used in Ameri,..a was Thomas Budge Shaw's Outlines of English Literature, pull fished in England in 1848 and reprinted in America the following year. The hook was a simple narrative and included noselections from the authors at all, but it was very popular and went through many editions before the end of the century."Charles D. Cleveland, A HIV TR.% MT IONS II

A Philadelphia schoolmaster, also publisheda history of English literature in 1849 and followed itup with n history of American literature ten years later. Thesewere very successful. Boston English High School. having been content with Blair's Rhetoric,for twenty years. introduced Cleveland in 1852, substituting Shaw sixyears later. '' The entry for each author in Cleveland'sseries was rather similar to an encyclopedia listing all the claws, the hooks,the immediate. 111(1 historical reactions. Thoughgenerous excerpts were also provided, the "Questions for Et.am Motion" whichconclude his volumes reflect the real emphasis. Of Lady Russellthey ask. "Whose wife? . . What does Burnett say of her letters?"Of Robert Dodsley, "What was his first publication?" OfMilton, "What is his first poetical work, and what its subject?What the second? Third? Fourth? Fifth? Sixth? Seventh? Eighth?Ninth? Tenth?. . What does lirydges say of Johnson's Lifeof Milton?'" To our eyes such hooks are unattractive andeven unpedagogical, but they take their shape from the ern) basison formal discipline already noted. If the value of a subject lies in itsstructure and in the demands that it puts upon memory, then pedagogically the soundest approachis the compendium (whether ofgrammar, rhetoric, or history) which presents that structure and that material in themost elaborate detail. Histories such as Cleveland's and Shaw'sbecame very popular (luring the 1850s and 1860s, and with theirintroduction schools for the first time began to claimto be teaching "literature" rather than rhetoric, oratory, or reading,'" Still, thoughliterary history was a popular subject. the curriculumwas very unstable; schools changed from one text hook to another, and thenchanged back again presumably because none of the textsn ere really satisfactory. By 1870 the emphasis on information in literarystudies was well established, with examination quest ions like thoseCleveland had proposed facing students throughout the country.17 Suchstudies of facts about literature remain an element in high school instructionto the present day, though their justification has changedfrom mental discipline to knowledge of our literaryheritage.

The Nonacademic Tradition

While an ethical traditionwas emerging in elementary school reading materials, and a classicalone in secondary schools and (.'alleges, a more amorphous but equallyimportant nonacademic radition of English for "appreciation"was developing outside of the traditional curriculum. This madeno attempt to justify Diglish as an academic study, championing it insteadon other, and at t he time Icss arguable, grounds. 12 THAI/1'110N AND REFORM

The Extracurriculum One area in which the appreciative traditionflourished was the extracurriculum of the nineteenth century colleges, inparticular in the students' literary and dehating societies.The dehates and journals of these clubs dealt with the political andphilosophical issues of the timeissues more or less ruled outof the classical curriculum of the colleges. In their societies, studentscould debate the topics they wished, and could and didinvite controversial figures to address them. Thus Ralph Waldo Emerson,whose Divin- ity School Address 11838) had come too close topantheism for conservative faculties to accept. was able to speak threetimes at Williams, though the college had banned him from the campus.He always appeared under the auspices of astudent group, in an off-campus building.' 'rho many literary magazinesfounded and supported by the societies during this periodprovided a similar forum for students to debate contemporaryissues, as well as to polish their skills in English composition; their college courses were more likely to concentrate onimproving their Latin and Greek. Through their libraries, the societies also offered theliterary fare which the colleges themselves ignored. Throughoutthe country, these libraries were the only place for the student toread contemporary fiction, poetry, biography, ordrama: on most campuses the libraries of the literary societies surpassed thoseof the colleges themselves in both quality and number ofvolumes. (It would not he until the end of the century that the great researchcollections in t he modern languages would beestablished.)" All of the evidence available suggests that these activities were greetedenthusiastic- ally by the students of the time, forming animportant part of their collegiate experience, if not of their formalcurriculum. As one measure of their concern, we cantally the response of Harvard students to an edition of Shakespeare offered forsale in 1807; of 175 students. 99 suhscribed.'" It is important to note here that theseactivities were usually quite happily sanctioned by the colleges.What the colleges ob- jected to was giving English literature a place as asubject to be taught rather than something to be read andenjoyed on one's own. Most expected that students would readwidely in contemporary literature, both in secondary school andcollege." But as will become apparent in the next chapter, thisextracurriculum of the students' creation became after 1870 a major part of thecurriculum itself.

The Finishing School In the early nineteenth century, students in preparatoryschools and colleges could expect exposure toEnglish literature only RAMS TRADITIONS 13

through t he ex tracurriculum. In the finishing schools. however, which sought to offer a "practical" course for the student who would tro4 go on to college, English studies and the other modern subjects had a somewhat better time. Benjamin Franklin, for example, in his plans for a Philadelphia academy (ca.1750), had seen a practical value in English literature as a model for writing, as a subject for declamation and oral reading, and as a moral exemplum: Though Franklin's program was never implemented," it was only a few years later that his friend Ebenezer Kinnersley became America's first professor of any aspect of English, when a similar Philadelphia academy became a college. In the years that followed, the various English studies worked their way first into the "English" course that arose m opposition to the Latin or classical program of studies. Blair's Rhetoric,for example, was included in the first course of study (1821) at Boston English High School; it was never used at Boston Latin School at all," In the college preparatory curriculum, as in the colleges themselves. the literary interests of the student were left to the extracurriculutn, where debating clubs and literary societies grew up on the college model." Girls' schools during this period were almost all finishing schools, and English studies did find an early place in some of them: the belles lettres were considered an appropriate subject for polite conversation, if nothing else. Thus it was not entirely accidental that many early English textbooks were for "Young Ladies," or prepared by schoolmasters in girls' finishing schools.'" Lacking a rigorous academic cachet. these "appreciative" studies of English carried a certain stigma, an air of being a second-best choice for those who it was presumed could not handle the rigors of classical studies. When Oxford, for example, finally allowed English into its examinations in 1873, it was only for the pass degree; honors students did their work in Latin. And as late as 1889, the U.S. Commissioner of Education in his annual report was tallying students taking English in business schools and in schools for the blind, deaf, and feebleminded, but not in public or private secondary schools!"

Reprise: 1865

By 1865, schools and colleges recognized a variety of loosely related minor studies of the vernacularrhetoric, oratory, spelling, grammar, literary history, and reading all had their places, often conflicting with one another for attention." Though many of these studies made use of literary selections, literary study in its own right had yet to find a place or a justification. Rhetorical and grammatical studies often included literary texts, but instruction was designed and carried out in the service of composition, not literature. Literary II TRADITION AND 11E141101

history, though the schools called it the teaching of literature,was biographical in emphasis and often involved no literature at all. Only the nonacademic tradition stressed the reading of literature for its own sakeand this tradition had found no place in the classical curricidum of the colleges or preparatory schools. 'Photo is another way of viewing the situation, however, which highlights the potential strength of the embryonic subject; this is to recognize that by 1865, English studies had become a part of all three major traditions. Though in each case the study of Englishwas subordinate to other goals. there was for the first time the possibility that all of these traditions might be united within the teaching ofa single subject. And this is in fact what happened in the following decades: English studies increasingly foundways to claim the intellect ual strength of the classical tradition, the moral strength of the ethical tradition, and the utilitarian strength of the nonacademic tradition. It was a fruitful alliance, though sometimesa confusing one, and led in the end to a subject whose content and goals had no real counterpart in any of the traditions from which itarose. EARLY T, ADITIsev, P

cHArrEit I Noll*.

I. Quoted by Nila B. Smith, American Reading Instructim (Nei: York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 19341, p. 11. 2. Smith, American (leading Instruction,p. 38. 3. Quoted by Theodore It, Sizer, Seconder,' Schoolsat the Tam (f the Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, i9641,P. 2. 4. In American Journal of Education 19 (lit701: 491. Quoted in if eiLerr Galen Lull, inherited Tendencies of Secondar,. instruction inthe Ont.,: States, University of California Publications in Education, vol. 3,no. -1 (April 15. 19131; 199. 5. Samuel Thurber, "The English StudiesEnglish Leaflet 11 nitri- cember I. 19021. Quoted by John Muth Bernd, iipproachesto the cliewhiegt of Literature in Secondary School, 1900-19,56 IliEsertation,Unheruky NVisconsin, 1957; University Microfilms No. 24,4'041. 6. The name came about because the exercises beganat "priwe- 09' sunrise, the first hour of the day. On the early history,see Reeder. The Historical Development of School genders unit of Atemods Teaching Reading (New York: Macmillan Co.. 19001; Smith.Amin-ban Reacting Instruction; and Clifton Johnson, OH Time Schools and School Rooks (New York: Dover Publications. 1963). 7. Textual variants of the Primer are dis,:ussed at lengthn Paal Leicester Ford, The New England Primer INee: York; 'teachers r'rilleno. Columbia University, 19621. Ford also reprints he 1727 edition. S. The catechism promulgated by the Asselably hod botha "Langer and a "Shorter!' version. In America it was further abridged andsimplified by John Cotton as "Spiritual Milk for America]; Babes.- 9. Webster's Speller had many titles in later years, inducting TrIr American Spelling-Hook and The Elementary Spelling Book.it got cts common name because it was usually bound between oak covers pattten oxer with blue paper. The popularity of the spelling bee in post-revulutittrig America was due in part to the impetus of this book. On itsuse. SUP RIY-SbY. Historical Development: Smith. American Reacting Instruction;afrihre.rui.. Old-Time Schools: and J. Stephen Sherwin, Enter Problems in;:cachhv. English (Scranton, Pa.; International Textbook Co. for the 1.13,iiotted Council of Teachers of English, 19691. 10. Cited in Johnson, Old-Time Schools. II. Cited in Smith. American Reading Instr(ction.p. 49. 12. See Huth M. Mon. Guardia, TraciitIm: American Schaalb (ME of the Nineteenth Century (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Pres.-,It;641. The use of the various series has been discussed ba several authors:herder Historical Development, pp. 38 ff.: Smith, American Reacting Instracion pp. 51 fl; Joseph Mersand, "The 'leaching of Literature in Americartrliga Schools: 1865.1900," in Perspectives on English, ed. Robert C. Poole!;iNels York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.. 19601. pp. 1r73-75; and Peter DWitt The Beginnings of the Teaching of the Vernacular Weraturean Mi. Secondary Schools of Masscehusetts (Dissertation, Haman) University. 1968; University Microfilms No. 09-11.5071,pp. 39 ff, 13. This debate was in large part funded by the publishers, 'Mita )ltrl obvious vested interests in the results. Speeches and articlespro mid Kett were commntissioned and reprinted as sales pamphlets, The most vitriolic 16 TRAM:MON AND REFORM

debut e seems to hove wen between supporters of NI cG u fit:3°s and of Ni arcius WillsonsSelling and Family series.OnThe Farmer's School -Ron!, see. Johnson. Old -Time Schools.p. 291. 11. These are from the 1879 edition of theFifth Readerand represent quite sophisticated studies. "Articulation," for example, included attention to t he different "Vocals, Subvocals. and Aspirates" which are the "Elemen- tary Sounds" of English, as well as substitutions which are permissible from one sound to another, and "Faults to be remedied." This text is readily available in Commager's reprint edition. The emphasis on oral reading is typical; silent reading did not become important until the 1920s.MeGuffey's Fifth Eclectic Reader.with a foreword by Henry Steele Commager (New York: New American Library, 19621. 15. On the early studies of English, see William Riley Parker. "Where Do English Departments Come From?"College Engilak28:5 (February 19671: 339-51. Parker's unpublished research has been extensively reported in Walter Scott Achtert,A History of English Studies to 1883 Rased on the Resvarrh of William Riley Parker.(Dissertation, New York University, 19;2: University Microfilms No. 72.31.057). 16. These doctrines and their effects on school programs are discuSsed at length in Lull.inherited Tendencies.After 1835, when a translation of Pestalozzian methods became available in English. the faculties to he trained expanded to include aspects of "sensation" as well as memory and reason. 17. The quote is from E. A. Freeman. Regius Professor of History at Oxford, talking in 1887. To him the proper stock to which literature should be grafted was language study. The lack of substance in literary studies was also a frequent theme in America. Carpenter, Raker. and Scott in their early textbook argued that the slow start for English at the secondary level lay "not so much in the lack of desire for instruction as in the general feeling that there was no general body of instruction to give." George It. Carpenter. Franklin T. Baker. and Fred N. Scott.The numbing of English in the Elementary and the Secondary School(New York: Longmans, Green. and ('o.. 11H13) p. 15. Freeman is cited inThe Rise of English Studies. I). .1. Palmer (London; Oxford University Press for the University of Hull, 11165). p. 96. IS. 11w scope of grammar is suggested by the various topics treated in a grammar dining from about 166 B.C. It included attention to accurate renting. explanations of figures of speech. exposition of subject matter. explanations of rare words, studies of etymology. statements of regular grammatical forms. and criticism of poetry. Paul Monroe, edA Cyclo pa lia of Eduzoition(New York: Macmillan Co., 19111; from the article on "Philology." 19. The grammatical categories of traditional "school grammars" also derive directly from classical models. See Sherwin,Four Problems:Ian Michael.English Grammatiral Categories and the Tradition to1800 (Cam- bridge: The University Press, 1970): and Louis G. Kelly.25 Centuries of Language Teaching(Rowley,. Mass.: Newbury House. 19691. 20. Quoted in Sterling Andrus Leonard, The Doctrine ofCorrectness in English Usage 1700- 1800,University of Wisconsin Studies in Language and Literature no. 25 (1929). p. 107. Leonard's book is the best single source on the prescriptive tradition. 21. This was titled The YoungLadys Az:Mimic.reflecting a division . of grammatical studies into accidence (morphology) and syntax. That it EA RIS T RA DITIONS 17

was for "young ladies" reflects the tact thatEnglish studies found an earlier home in schools for girls than they did elsewhere, a point to which we will return. 22. This figure includes editions derived directly fromMurray. Dumas Mal/inv. ed.,I Ect hinary Ameth:an Biography (New York: Charles Si:Hiner 's Sons. 19:151. ('I iliihnson. Ofd -Tinte Schools. 23. Edna Hays, College Entrance Requirements inEnglish: Their Effects on the nigh Schools (New York: Teachers College. Columbia University, 19361, p. 13. 24. Smith's qualifications for the series were the same as for his work in political science: a solid grounding in philosophy and in the classics at Cambridge. and wide reading on his own. Smith's lectures, which Meikle suggests may have been given under the auspices of thePhilosophical Society. were popular enough to be renewed in subsequent years. They were never published, but have recently been rediscovered inthe form of a student's lecture notes. The history of the Scottish rhetoricians has been recounted by Henry W. Meikle. "The ('hair ofRhetoric and Belles 1.0 t res." / "nieersity of Edinburgh Journal 13 IAuttm o 19.151: 89-103,and Rom a slightly ditterent perspective in the introduction to Smith's lecture notes (Adam Smith, Lectures on lthetorie and Belles Lewes. edited with an introduction and notes by John NI, Lothian 1Camilen. N.J.: Thomas Nelson & SODS, 19631. Sep also Palmer. Rise of English Studies, 171-78: Michael. English Grammatical Categories. 197: and Parker. ''Where on English Departments Come Front'" 25. Scott and Carpenter were active in this movement, as was Barrett Wendell at Harvurd, See F. N, Scott and .1. V. Denny, Paragraph Writing (189 II. and I larrett Wendell, English (' opposition (18911, The "flowers" was .1. Nlennye's designation in his English Grammar117851. Cf. Leonard. nottritle of Correctness. p. 114. 26. lIugh Blair. Lectures in Rhetoric and Wiles Lewes. ti vols. (Dub- lin. 17831. Quotes are from VOL 1. p, 48. 27, Blair's book was eventually translated into German 11785-891. French 117961. Spanish 117981, Italian 118011 and Russian 118371: it was he most successful of many similar texts helping to spread the rhetori- taus' approach. See Witt. Beginnings of Marking Vermicular: p, 36: and loath:, "Chair of Rhetoric." p, 91. 28. The course often took its title from the particular text used. Later a the century. the rhetorical forms of intensive analysis werejoined by thers deriving from philological studies. These will be dealt with in the chapter. 29. For a near-contemporary account, see Anna C. Brackett, -Teaching '.1 English Literature," The Arudemy 3 (February 18881: 14-18. See also Nat, Beginnings of Thaching Vernacular, pp. 27, 228. 30. Adams' Litt tiros on Rhetoric and Oratory (1810) werewidely praised. Charming was also very popular: he numbered Dana, Emerson, llohnes. And Thoreau among his students. Parker. -Where Do English Departments 1 'tome From ?'' See also Witt. Beginnings of 7.'11thhimVernacular, pp. 35, 48. 31. Grandgent has commented on this in discussing the modern languages at Harvard: "As to English, its advance hasbeen more in the nature of peaceful penetration. Its delay in getting started seems to have been due. not to opposition, but to a general failure to see in it anything inure than a minor element in preparationfor the ministry. Charles II. IS 'l'nA 01"11( IN AND REFORM

Graudgent'"the Modern Languages." in The Development of Harvard t'oitersity Since the IttauguratMn if President Eliot 1869-1929, ed.Samuel Eliot Morison Wandridge, Mass.: Ilarvard University Press,1930). At the secondary level the situation was no better. As lateas 1876, Carpenter. linker. anti Scott claim there "was scarcely to be found in the nat.(' States, any dwinito, well-organized system of secondary instruction in Uri mot hergongue.- I lays echoes their findings, claiming that English was "non-existent- In fore 1870. Carpenter. Baker, and Scott, '('etching of Fugl'sh. p. 46: and ILtvs, College Entrance Requirements,p, 10. 3:2,Lull, inherited Tendencies, documents both the original goals and the degenerate practice. 33. Shaw was a Cambridge graduate teaching in Russia: he prepared the book for his students there. On Shaw's life.see Sir Leslie Stephen and Sir Sidney Lees, eds..lire Dictionary of National Biography (London: Oxford University Press, 1021.22). 31. See Witt. Beginnings of Tearldng Vernacular,pp. 173-75; John E. Stout. Dm Dereloptnint of Ikgh School Curricula in the North Centnil States from IMO to 191S. Supplementary Educational Monographs, vol. 3. no. 3 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, June 19211, pp. 3-4, Witt found two other histories in frequent use in Massachusetts before1870: William Spaulding's The History of English Literature(1853), and William Francis Collier's A History of English Literature (18621. :35. Charles I). Cleveland. A Compendium of English Literature,Citron- ()logicallyrranged. from Sir John Alanderille to William Cowper (Phila- delphia: E. C.& Biddle, 1851. First Edition. 18491. 36. Witt found in surveying thirty-four Massachusetts secondary schools that fourteen began to teach literature between 1850 and1867, another twelve before the end of the 1870s. and eight in the 1880s,"Literature- usually meant one of the histories. 37. Literature remained an optional subject. however; rhetoric and grammar were required. Cf. either of the reports of an 1888 survey carried out by the Massachusetts Teachers Association: English in Secondary Schools. Report of a Committee of the Massachusetts TeachersAssociation (December L 18881: "English in Secondary Schools," The Academy3 (January 1889); 393-609, Like Witt. the Committee found thata large proportion of those teaching literature were using manuals of "factsabout authors." :1s. As a result of the same speech, he was banned from I larvard, his alum mato'. 'or thirty years (Monroe, Cyrlopedia1. On hisappearances at Williams. set Frederick Rudolph, The American College andUniversity: .4 History (New York: Vintage Books, 19621.p. 142, Rudolph provides an extensive discussion of both the curriculum and the extracurriculumof the colleges during this period. Cl. Rudolph, American College and Unicersity.p. 143; and Rent: Wellek. "Literary Scholarship," in American Scholarship in theThentieth Len luny. Merle Curti, awls (Cambridge. Mass,: Harvard (Ink orsityPress. 19:13). 11 ht. Beginnings of Teaching Vertu:calor,pp. -5. II. Thus Beers explained that Yale studentswere expected to have read a good deal of English literature,even as he was arguing that this knowledge should not he tested since it would not lie needed"in the tort her pursuit of the prescribed college studies." I teary A. Beers. "En- EA lily IBA nrrioNs 19

trance Itequirements in English atl'ale." Educational Heckle :11Nlay 1s112i: 127-13. 42. Franklin's proposals hove been quoted by many later writers. Ile continued to he an advocate of the modern subjects, in 1789 attacking the "unaccountable prejudice in favor of ancient customs and beliefs- which had led to the continuance of the classical languages "after the circumstances which formerly made them useful tease to exist." Carpenter. I taker. and Scott, Teaching of English, pp. 36-39- 43. "English course- in this context does not refer to the teaching of English. but to a course of study thin usually emerged as a nonacademic alternative to the classical course. In spite of its Title, the English course did not necessarily include any more attention to '.1riglish studies than did the parallel classical curriculum. See Stout. High School Curricula, p. 4; and Carpenter. Baker, and Scott. Teaching of En;lish. pp. 45-46. 44. The strength of such interests is clear. though there is no single discussion equivalent to Rudolph's histiwy of tha extracurriculum at the college level. Sit. for example, in his discussion of the academies notes that many had flourishing literary and debating societies akin to those in the colleges. Carpenter, Baker, and Scott. Teaching of English, makea sithilar mint (p. 451. Witt. Beginnings of Teaching Vernacular, provides somewhat more detail (pp. 21ff.).In The Age of the Academies. ed. Theodore Sider (New York: Teachers College, Ceiumbia University. 19641. 15. The belief that. a literary education was particularly appropriate for women was widespread and persistent. Palmer, Rise of English Studies, p. 36, notes it. and Samuel Thurber was still arguing the point in 1894. Samuel Thurber. "English Literature in Girls' Education," School Review blune IM)-l): 321-36, See also Carpenter, Raker, and Scott. Teaching of English, p. 43; and Witt, Beginnings of Tracking Vernacular, p. 37. 46, Report of the Catnaussioner of Education for the Year 1889-90. cols 2 tWushington, D.C,: U.S.-Government Printing Office, 18931. This was the first attempt to survey the various components of the curriculum. The tables input ioned hew are printed on pp. 1390.92, 16'21.28. I657.58, 1611-42. and 1666.69. English literature was evidently surveyed M the secondary !whim's but not considered important enough to report. On the Oxford puss degree, see Palmer, Rise of English Studies, p. 70. 47. For an illustration of the variety of offerings in 1865, see Appendix II. Ow Poet]isthe rock of defence for human nature; an upholder and preserver, carrying everywhere with him relationshipand love. In spite of dfference of soil aid climate, of language and manners, of laws andcustoms; at spit, of things pleat& gone out of mind. and thingsviolently destroyed; the Port binds together by passion and knowledge the vastempire of human . society, as itis spread over the whole earth, and over all time. William Wordsworth, Preface to Lyrical Ballads, 18001

The future of poetry is immense, because in poetry, where itis worthy of its high destinies, our race, as time goes fin, will find an ever surer and surerstay. rhem is not a tired which is nod shaken. not an accrediteddogma which is iwt shown to be questionable, not a received traditionwhich does not threaten lo dissolve. Our religion has materialised itself in the fact,the :unposed fact; it has attached its emotion to the fact, and nowthe fad is galling it. But for, poetry the idea is everything; the rest is a world ofillusion, if divine illusion. Poetry attaches ils emotion to the idea; theidea is the fact. The stronger part of our religion to-day is Hs unconscious poetry. Matthew Arnold, 18802

One would hesitate to ask to dinner a man who confessed completeignorance of The Canterbury Tales. Arlo Bates, Talks on the Study of Literature, 18973

Vol only is it impossible for a pupil, without the study of Latin,to obtain the discipline and culture pertaining to an English education, but it is vainfor a teacher, without a fair acquaintance with Latin or Greek. and at least one modern foreign language, to attempt instruction in English. C. NI. Gayleyand C.B. Bradley, Suggestions to Teachers of English in the Secondary Schools, 18944 Chapter II

The Birth ofa Subject

Before it couldemerge as a major school study, English, and in particular Englishliterature, had to developa methodology rigorous enoughto win academic respect. It also overcome the supposition that imaginative had to threat to the moral well-being literature posed a real of its readers. The Romanticera brought a solution Lo both problems:that of methodology through the new techniques of theGerman philologists; that ofmoral well-being through a redefinitionof culture and of the artist'srole. Together these twomovements made itpossiblefor English to become a major subject, butthey did not insure thesuccess of the venture. This success dependedupon institutional changes in the American system of education,changes begun through the influence of the college entrancerequirements, and consolidatedby the report of the Committee of Ten. Theseinstitutional changes succeededin welding the various studies ofEnglish together asa single subject and provided it with its first,albeit rather tenuous, coherence.By 1900 the questions would haveshifted fromwhetherto teach grammar. rhetoric, literary history, spelling,and composition, to howto teach English.'

The Cultural Value of Literature

The ethical tradition whichimplied that literature inschool reading material could be usedfor moral education proveda double- edged sword for the earlyteacher of English: if literaturehad the

21 ''HAMM% ANI) it EFOHM

power to do good, it must alsohave the power to do evil. Well into the nineteenth century, imaginative literature was aslikely to be attacked as a source of corruption as to be defended as a waytoward salvation. History, biography. and travel 'books had alwayshad a certain moral cachet, but fiction and drama, with theirappeal to imagination rather than truth, were definitely suspect.Horace Mann was typical of many influential educators when heargued that novels should not be taught because their appeal was to emotionrather than to reason.' When Vale's WilliamLyons Phelps, as a young instructor. instituted America's first course on thecontemporary novel in 1895. he was forced to drop it after commentsin the popular press. Opposition to drama was also strong: in 1828 a Bostonteacher was dismissed for reading to his class from one of Shakespeare'splays, and even at the college level Oberlin refused to allowShakespeare to he taught in mixed classes until the 1869s.'Such incidents became rarer in the second half ofthe century, but the convictions which led to them were strongly held: as late as 1893.after Hamlet had been on the college entrance lists for over a decade, the NewEngland Journal of Education still took time to give editorial support to aclass who had refused to read the play:

\ II tumor t o the modest and sensible youthsand maidens of the Oakland Iligh School who revolted against studying anunexpurgated edition of Mullet! The indelicacies of Shakespeare inthe complete edition are brutal. They are more than indelicacies,they are indecencies. They are no part of Shakespeare'sthought, have no connect ion with the play, and can be eliminated with as little jar usthe oaths of a modern slugger.' The editor was presumably following thelead of the rhetoricians in attributing these "indelicacies'. to "the grossnessof the age" in which Shakespeare had written.

71Romantic Tradition The poets and critics of the Romanticperiod provided a new justification for literature as a reservoir ofcultural values and a source of moral strength.Writing against the background of the upheavals caused by the scientific andindustrial revolutions, they turned to the artist to provide, through thesuperior development of his faculty of Imagination, the neededcorrective to the intolerable socioeconomic conditions produced by strictadherence tothe "rational- laws of the marketplace.' Theartist would have a different kind of knowledge to the Romanticsusually a "higher" kind which was no less essential than therationalism to which it was opposed. The cumulativeproducts of this artistic imagination THEBruntOF A SUBJECT 23

came to he identified with a nation's culture. inLhe process trans- homing "culture" from :1process into a state, a body of knowledge and tradition to be consciouslyvalued and consciously studied. II istorical studies such as those discussedin Chapter I received part of their impetus from this aspect ofthe movement.) The conception of cultureas a product of the arts originates with Coleridge and runs throughout Lhewritings of the Romantics. Wordsworth relies on it in his prefaceto Lyrical Ballads (1800):so does Shelley in his Defence of Poetry(1821). Through these and similar writings, the status of thearts and of the artist was elevated until, in the end, a view emergedwhich argued that all art is in essence moral. "Poetry strengthens the facultywhickis the organ of the moral nature of man," Shelley wrote, "in the same manneras exercise strengthensa limb."'"

Culture and Education

The educational implications of the Romanticview of culture were formulated most fully by MatthewArnold. In Culture and Anarchy 118671, he provided a widely readinterpretation of cultureas the cumulative vision of mankind, winnowedby Lime and sanctioned by genius. Such a culture. Arnold argued,could be the source ofa new principle of authority to replace theeroding bonds of class and of religion: it was the only hope ofpreventing the anarchy which would otherwise surely follow. Thoughbetter remembered in Americaas a poet and critic. Arnold was alsoan inspector of schools: it was from this vantage point that he recognizedthat public education, if itwere given culture as a primary goal, couldemerge as the new unifying and civilizing agent. Classically trainedhimself, Arnold arguedon behalf of culture broadly defined,and in no way asserted Lhe superiority of the vernacular literature;indeed he explicitly argued the proven value of the GreekSover all who came later." In the American high school, however, theclassical languages wouldsoon decline; the main benefits of hisarguments accrued Lo the emerging studies of English literature. Americans who emhraced Arnold'sinterpretation of cultural education did so in the hope of stemmingthe erosion of traditional systems of values. In a very realsense, educational opportunities were extended because schooling with its attendant"culture" was seen as a new agent of social control. For the definitionsof the culture to be transmitted through itsschools. America looked to Nett England, in particular to Roston.IL was a reassuring culture that could be found there duringthe late nineteenth century,a mid-Victorian culture which avoidedsuch problems as civilwar and industrialization by turning toa pastoral, detached literature." As 21 TRADITION AND RF:FORM

Francis Underwood, himself the editorof a series of literature anthologies, put it in 18791

In t his country all things are so new, andpolitical events have such an intense significance, that we do not look at affairs asposterity will look at them. But who run doubtthat, when the true perspective has been adjusted. ours will be known as the ageof Emerson, Irving, and Hawthorne. of lirvant, Longfellow. and 1Vhittier.of Lowell and I101111e;" His hope and faith was that literaturecould gradually surpass and suppress from memorysuch "political events" as civil war. His catalog of authors is a catalog of the NewEngland literary elite as well us of the American contribution to theemerging high school literary canon.

lora«, Scudder The most widely quoted Americanspokesman for an Arnoldian view of cultural education was Horace FLScudder, a member of the Cambridge (Massachusetts) school committee,thief editor for Iloughton Mifflin, and, later, editor of theAtlantic Monthly."He tied his arguments for the teaching c:literature to America's common-school traditions, where the place ofliterature "is in spiritualizing life, letting light into the mind,inspiring and feeding the higher forces of human nature." LikeArnold, whom he sometimes quoted directly, Scudder cast his concernin the context of contemporary social upheaval, of"hands which are nervously pull- ing at the stones of our political edifice, .. .hands that are knotted with hopeless toil." From this vantagepoint, he offered a comprehensive criticism of the teaching of literature atall levels of the common school. Ills argumenthinged on the effectiveness of the "classics" in engendering "spiritualgrace," on the winnowing effects of time as the arbiter of literary merit,and on the value for Americans of their own unique literaryheritage. Scudder was remarkably balanced in his views: he wantedsuch works asLittle Red Riding Floodin the nursery school, complained thatschool readers bad misused literature to the point t hatin them "Pegasusis harnessed to a tip-cart." and recognized that thevalues which he hoped to foster were ultimately larger thanthe Americanism he also espoused," His views, with their essentialoptimism and grand mission for the teacher of English,carried much weight in the debates of the 1880s and 1890s. The teacherwho accepted them and in the end most didcould forthe first time claim the full support of the ethical traditionfor all of his teaching of literature. THE IIIIrrn OF A SUBJECT 25

Philological Studies

The cultural value of literature provideda new and popular mOtivation for the inclusion of studies of literature in thecurriculum, but it did not provide them witha methodology. This was to come from the historical and textual studies of languagepropounded by the German philologists and their Americansuccessors, What these scholars offered was a scientific study oflanguage, a methodology equal in rigor and academic respect toany of the classical studies." Continuing the pattern of transposition fromthe classical to the modern curriculum, philology has itsroots in studies of classical civilizations, transposed by the German Romanticsto the study of German and later of English. The word itself datesat least to the writings of Plato: it was revived in 1717 byFrederich Wolf at the University of Glittingen. Defining his task broadlyas providing the biography of a nation, Wolf includedas legitimate philological study attention to the grammar, criticism, geography, politicalhistory, customs, mythology, literature, art, and ideas ofa people, but like earlier philologists, hewas interested in the culture of Greece and Rome. his theoretical statement, however, impliedno such limitations, and was eventually extendedto other cultures by his followers. The justification of modern language study throughphilology involved a process of slowly shifting focuses ofattention. The Germanic languages were originally studiednot for their importance in German culture, but because scholars hopedto find in that culture remnants of an earlier Indo-European culture and language. Grad- ually, as a body of serious studies emerged, German,Anglo-Saxon, and Celtic began to be studied for theirown sake; later still, studies of the Romance languages began to beapproached with the same methodology. Folklore was an especially importantground for justifying modern studies, for it occupiedan ambiguous historical position. It was studied originally for its presumedroots in an ancient oral culture, yet the tales studiedwere also very obviously a part of the contemporary culture in which theywere collected. As philology became more confident in its modernstudies, it moved closer and closer to contemporary literaturefirstthe Anglo-Saxon poets, then Chaucer and medieval England, later Spenserand Shakespeare, and finally, by the end of the nineteenthcentury, the whole modern field. (liven the considerable disrepute into whichphilology has now faded, it is worth remembering the high idealswith which it began. The compilations and bibliographies, thevariorum editions and collections of folklore, the lengthy textualnotes and arguments over seemingly minor detail had as their originalimpetus the Romantic 26 TRA RENON A'N I) REFORM ideal of the study of a national spirit.In the hands of a few menJacob Grimm is the most brilliant examplesuch studies came close to realizing their lofty goals, but in the hands of most they quickly degenerated into the mechanical and pedantic textual criticism that has earned philology its present low esteem. In fact, philology asked more than most men could manage, requiring a systematic, analytic scholarship on the one hand and a creative, synthetic mind on the otherfor one was asked both to discover and to recreate the cultural, history of a nation. The more limited definition-of philology as a study of language was more or less forced upon the serious student, and it is this more limited definition that has given philology it, negative image.

Philology in the Uttiversity however much it might degenerate, philology offered the fledg- ling subject of English the justification it needed in the colleges of the second half of the nineteenth century, giving it the impetus to heroine a major component of the emerging university system. Before philological studies began to dominate, the professor of English was a curiously ambiguous entity. As we have seen, in many institutions he was simply a clergyman whose oratorical skills gave him license to lecture on language and rhetoric. In others, English professors were trained originally in law, in logic, or in modern history. Ail were expected to tutor in other subjects, ranging from political science and economics to biology and mathematics. Neither English ,ior the othermodern languages produced much inthe way of indigenous American scholarship during the first half of the nineteenth century.inspite of Emerson's famous "American Schokr" address at Ilarvard in 1837. There were no producing scholars in the modern languages, no periodicals, and no university presses. Between 1850 and 1900, however, this changed completely, with philological scholarship transforming the study of modern languages at the same time that Germanic ideals of research were transforming graduate education in general.'"

Francis James Child The rise of philological studies in the United States is reflected in the career of Francis James Child, who presided over the expansion of the curriculum at Harvard to include the study of English literature. After graduating in the Harvard class of 1846, Child stayed on to tutor in math, history, and economics. Three years later he became one of a growing number of Americans studying in Germany, returning to Harvard in 1851 to succeed Channing as Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory, During the ensuing decades he emerged as one of America's leading scholars,his THE BOUM OF ASuniErr 27

definitive edition of Spenser's poetry118551and his English and Scottish Ballads(1857 -58)firmly establishing his reputation.'" Still it was as a professor of rhetoric and oratory that he offered his lectures on language and literature, including three elective courses: History of the English Language; Anglo-Saxon; and Chaucer, Shakespeare. Bacon. Milton. and Dryden.'" For twenty-fiveyears. his responsibilities for the rhetoric course prevented him from broadening the offerings further. Finally in 1876, after a successful series of guest lectures brought him an offer of a position at the newly-established Johns Hopkins University. Harvard released Child from the rhetoric course and made him its first professor of English. In the same year Robert Grant, one of Child's students. earned the first American Ph.D. in English literature. (It is im divinity of the general state of graduate education that after leaving Harvard, Grant took a Columbia law degree and wenton to a lucrative Boston law practice. Though he later wrote novels. plays. verse. essays. and travel books, his graduate work was clearly not vocational.)''

The Spread of Philology

Johns Hopkins' contribution to English studieswas not limited to forcing Harvard's hand. The ideals of specialization, of productive scholarship. and of scientific study of the modern languageswere pursued there along philological lines, even without Child's in- 111.10112(1:' Graduate work in English consisted of rigorous textual and linguistic study; mastery of the early languagesOld French, Old High Gorman, Anglo-Saxon. and Middle Englishwas art essein ial part of the training. In its insistence on rigorous graduate preparation for studies of the modern languages. Johns Hopkins established the first model for the training of teachers of English: up to that point, there had been no standards of preparation at all. With the sanction of philology, the teaching of literature spread quickly through the American college and universitysystem. Francis Andrew March became professor of the English language and comparative philology at Lafayette College in 1857, only six years after Child took up the Boylston Professorship at Harvard!' By1875Moses Coit Tyler was teaching a course in American literature at the University of Nlichigan."' And by 1879, just three years after Child was released from the Harvard rhetoric course, elective offerings there had increased from three toseven, and other faculty members were offering literaturecourses of their own! Though in 1883 when the Modern Language Associationwas organized, representatives of twenty leading colleges could tally only thirtynine teachers of English among their several institutions, by 1900, major universities in all sections of the countrywere offering 2S TRADITION AND REFORM

graduate degrees in English literatureBerkeley and Stanford in the West: Nfieldgan. Chicago, Wisconsin, and Vanderbilt in the Mid- west: Harvard, Yale, Johns Hopkins, and many others in the East. At the undergraduate level, literature had become an almost universal offering and had assumed its still-continuing place as the largest component of English instruction:2h In examining the role of philology in the English studies of the late nineteenth century, it is important to remember the complex traditions upon which it was superimposed. Much that was not philological went on in the early departments of English, stemming from the earlier traditions of rhetorical analysis, from the long tradition of popular, nonacademic criticism, and from oratory (itself a child of rhetoric), which placed more emphasis on sensitive reading and "interpretation." The interactions among such studies are complex and have not been documented well enough to pursue very far. It is quite clear, however, that the prestige of philology served to justify English studies without necessarily limiting them, especially at the undergraduate levels, A number of influential teacherschief among them William Lyons Phelps at Yale, Bliss Perry at Williams, and Hiram Corson at Cornellquite openly resisted philology. They offered instead the goal of "appreciation," but they lacked an adequate methodology to offer in place of the new-found rigor of philology. Their writings and teachings provided instead the academic mots for a dissenting tradition which would contribute in the years after 1990 to the rejection by the high schools of the collegiate model."

High School Programs When systematic, regular instruction in literature emerged in the high schools, it came under the same guises that brought it into the colleges, William James Rolfe. a .prolific writer whose philological scholarship earned him considerable praise, is credited with introducing the first regular high school instruction in literature.'" Rolfe began teaching in Day's Academy. in Wrentham. Massachusetts, in 1848, during the next ten years moving on to the Dorchester and later the Lawrence high schools. His teaching of English during this period came to Child's attention and led to an honorary A.M. from Harvard in 1859 (before his philological studies or school texts had been written). After a brief interlude in Salem, Rolfe became principal of Cambridge High School, where he remained until he left teaching for a life as an author and editor, in 1868. By 1907, three years before his death, he had written or edited some 144 volumes, ranging from Latin and science texts to two forty-volume school editions of Shakespeare 11871-84, 1903-06). The breadth and diversity of his interests parallels that of the early college teachers of English. Tits Barra OF A H: 1 '29

M'hen Rolfe arrived at Cambridge High School in 1862. literature was already a wellestahlished if somewhat peripheral port a the curriculum: it had first been taught there in 1848. under thy guidance ofhis predecessor as principal, Elbridge Smith. Rolfe ar.zred the study and legitimized it with his philological scholarship.; also placed it firmly within the classical tradition of instruction. Formal discipline was the basis of the pedagogy adopted, with considrable stress on rotlearn:lig of rules and memorization of isolatee facts rim eland's rtunpenrlion,wasa popular text at the sclmAl. An examination in Milton given in 1866 during Rolfest'nureat Cambridge Iligh is indicative of the general tenor of hisceur4es; I. Give a sketch of Milton's life to 1635. c a brad outline of "I;Allegro." 3. n examples of obsolete or obsolescent words ham the otler.us st to lied . 4. Gil.examples of words used by- Milton in a different settle than t hey are today. Illustrate. trite a passage tram "11 l'enserost.- 6. Indicate which words in the passage are from the A nglo.Sax which from the Latin. How do you tel 7. Explain all allusions in the passage. What do the follow ing illustrate? ,11 lyre inllow.ed a set or examples of rhetorical figures.; 9. Write .1 passage tri.111 Lycidas.- IlL Explain t he peculiarities in t he passage from '1.ycidas.--" Ilistory and philology explain all ten, When instruction based on this classical modelwas joined with the Romantic conception of culture during the lastquarter of the nineteenth century. the teaching of literature for the first tithemet all requirements that could be put upona subject for :Andy: usefulness, discipline, moral value, interest,even patriotism. Many variations would he played upon these themes, andmany v: riters would still argue pro and con; but this new-found intellectualrigor and cultural strength of English literature prepared theway for its eventual acceptance as a legitimate, even a major.course If study in the schools.

Institutionalization

The College Entrance Requirements School programs have on inertia which can createa surpthingly large gap between educational thought,as expressed at confoomees and in the professional literature, and educational practiceas it ao TRAIWIMN AND REFOIBI

actually transpires in the schools. Such a gap was undoubtedly present in English instruction in American high schools during the late nineteenth century. Because one function of the high school was preparatory, and because then as now the success of its preparatory courses was more important to a school's prestige than its finishing courses, radical change was forced upon the schools in a remarkably short time. In1800formal instruction in literature was unknown; by 1865 it had made its way into the curriculum as a handmaiden to other studies; by1900literature was almost universally offered as an important study in its own right. College entrance requirements were the moving force. College admission presented rather a different problem for preparatory schools during the nineteenth century than it does for schools today. Instead of facing secondary school graduation requirements, candidates for admission were assessed on the basis of entrance examinations set by each college. The topics for these examinations were announced in advance and had a way of dictating the preparatory school curriculum for the year. As the requirements changed, the curriculum changed with them:" Typically enough, literature gained its foothold in the requirements through the nonliterary uses i.o which readings could be put. We have already noted the early and quite widespread requirements in English grammar; Harvard added a requirement in "reading English aloud" in its catalog for 1865. This was expanded and clarified in1869-70,but the real milestone was the Harvard requirement for1873.71;literature was to be studied, not for itself or even for philology, but as a subject for composition.

English Composition. Each candidate will be required to write a short English composition, correct in spelling, punctuation, grammar, and expression. the subject to be taken from such works of standard authors as shall be announced from time to time. The subject for 1874 will be taken from one of the following works: Shakespeare's Tempest, Julius Caesar. and Merchant of Venice; Goldsmith's Vicar of Wake- field: Scott's Ivanhoe, and Lay of the Last Minstrel." This requirement institutionalized the study of standard authors and set in motion a process a. hich eventually forced English to con- solidate its position within the schools.

Uniform Requirements The Harvard model was quickly followed by other colleges and universities; it offered an easy way to recognize literary studies withoLt raising difficult questions about standards and methods: the subject tested would be composition, not literature. There was, however, no agreed canon of texts on which to hase the examinations, and the lists changed yearly. Each college set its own BIRTH OF A. Se easyr 31

examinations, quickly confronting the high schools with a flood of titles in which they were to prepare their students. That the schools soon raised an outcry is hardly surprising,nor is the movement for uniformity which followed. By 1879 the first attempt to set requirements at a regional level began with the organization of the Conference of New England Colleges at Trinity College' this was followed by a succession of similar organizations in both the northern and southern states." Finally, in 1893, afteran appeal from Wilson Farcand, principal of Newark (New Jersey) Academy, the newly formed Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland proposeda joint con- terence with other associations concerned about the entrance requirements in English." As a direct result, the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English met for the first time in May 1894, with representatives from the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland, the New England Commission of Colleges on Entrance Examinations, and the New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools. In later years they were joined by other powerfulgroups, including the North Central Association and the College Entrance Examin- ation Board. 14The dictums of this National Conference succeeded those of Harvard in shaping the teaching of literature."' The group began by approving a list already promulgated by the New England Commission of Colleges on Entrance Examinations, in order to avoid disrupting work already underway in the secondary schools. They split the list into two parts, however, one for "wide" and the other for "deep" study. This was a practice that had already developed informally in high schools faced with a proliferation of titles and with requirements for close, analytic study which often seemed antithetical to more humanistic goals:" The use of two lists offered a compromise between the two conflicting points of view, the shorter list belonging firmly to the advocates of disciplined study, the longer list to the proponents of appreciation. The final separation of the requirements in literature from those in composition was due to the influence of Yale University. Until 1894 the Yale faculty resisted the new requirements altogether, arguing that entrance examinations were designed to assess a candidate's readiness for the studies of the first yearand the first year at Yale included no English." Until the 1891-92 academic year, there were no required English studies atall;at that point a prescribed half-course was added as part of the second year. During the 1892-93 academic year this was expanded again when William Lyons Phelps, newly appointed as an instructor, offered a survey of English literature to freshmenthe first time the first year students had had even an elective offering available. The emergence of literature was part of the larger struggleover elective courses; when Yale finally did take a stand, the proponents 32 TRADITION AND REFORM

of modern studies had won a clear victory. Rather than a subject for composition. literature would be studied in its own right; examination texts were to be selectedas well for their probable attractive- ness to t he preparatory stutleut as for their instrinsic importance." The list for 1894 was chosen from "writers of the present century" and included Rime of the Ancient Mariner." Ivanhoe, "The Lady of the Lake,"TheAlhambra, "Essay on Clive," the fourth ('auto of ChibicHarold. "Essayon Byron."The House of the Seven Gables. English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century.andThe Princess.(Though some of those are now part of the high school canon, it is interesting to note that they entered the curriculum as contemporary literature.) Yale soon found that its decision to set its own lists was raising another outcry: during the following year it accepted the uniform lists in spite of their emphasis on traditional texts. Other schools quickly picked up the new, more liberal justification that Yale had provided for literary study, however, dropping the old emphasis on composition.'"

Tha Committee of Ten The difficulties caused by a proliferation of entrance requirements were not limited to English, prompting the National Council of Education of the National Education Association to call in 1892 for the appointment of a Committee of Ten to arrange a series of subject-area conferences to consider the whole problem of secondary school studies. Charles W. Eliot, president of Harvard and long an advocate of the modern studies, was named as chairman.'" The committee was unique in its composition and effects. Fully half of its members were not even members of the NEA, though all were active in the field of education. They ranged from Eliot, president of Harvard, to William Torrey Harris, U.S. Commissioner of Education, and James B. Angell, president of the University of Michigan. If this group were to suggest change, it would have a good chance of implementation. The competence and experience of the committee covered the full range of American education at the time: half of its members had experience in the lower school, half were from the colleges; most were from the eastern states, but they also numbered James H. Baker of the University of Colorado and Richard II. Jesse of the University of Missouri among their members. If the representation of the professional educators, the teachers of teaching, was slight, it was simply because in 1892 these were not yet of much importance. The committee worked through a series of commissions, each with ten members, meeting separately and submitting their reports to the main committee. The final report was a collection of these documents with a lengthy preliminary, drafted mostly by Eliot, which at- THE BIRTH OF A SVIIJECt 33

tempted to create a consensus out of the often conflicting recommendations of the individual conferences. The first important decision came in November 1892, when itwas derided to call conferences in just nine fields, one of whichwas English,' Ten members were appointed in each of the nine fields, together with alternates. Each conference was to meet separately and elect its own chairman and secretary. The Conferenceon English met at Vassar College, selecting Samuel Thurber, master at Girls' ligh School, Boston, as chairman and George Lyman Kittredge, Child's successor at I I arvard. as secretary.' ' Its report represeuteda summary and a reconciliation of the contemporary points of view about the teaching of English. It began with a statement of the purpoSe of such studies:

The main objects of the teaching of English in schoolsseem to be two: to enable the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others and to give expression to thoughts of his own: and 121 to cultivatea taste for reading, to give the pupil same acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him with the means of extending that acquaintance.'

This simple two-part statement presented thenecessary unification of the many disparate studies which go beneath the rubric English. Communication and appreciation weie the focal points, and if English in later years was to lose some of its vigor because of the diversity of activities which it would be forced to assimilate, in the 1890s that same breadth allowed the various minor studies to be brought together into one far more vigorous whole. This unification of the many parts of English wasone of the most ingmt,ant effects of the Report of the Committee of Ten. The other nuijor effect was to accord the new subject a status at leastas important as that of the classical subjects. The Conferenceon English recommended that a total of five periods a week for four years be devoted to the various aspects of English studies, and the committee as a whole went so far as to accept four a week for the four years in its generalcommendations. In the suggested programs of study. however. English is contracted a bit further. Out of the four years of study described for four alternate programs, English receives a full five periods a week in only the thirdyear of the "English" course, and is cut to three and even two at various points in all other programs. Nevertheless, English is the only suhject recommended for definite inclusion in the program of study forevery student during each of the four high school years." The actual description of the English course by the Vassar Conference is more of a summing up than a statement ofconsequence in the future development of the suhject. The themes whichwere of importance in the emergence of the subject are touched upon, as well THADITION AND ItKEORM

as a number of issues irrelevant to the basic problem of how and why the teaching of English literature attained a prominent place in the American schov l curriculum, The discussic n began by asserting that "at the beginning of the seventh school-year the reading bookmay be discarded, and the pupil should her ceforth read literature." Literature, however,was to include "prose and narrative poetry in about equal parts" drama was still conspicuous in its absence. Histories such as Cleveland's Compendium were out of favor. but philological and rhetorical studies were defended as "necessary if ( he pupil is to be brought into anything but the vaguest understand.ng of what he reads!'" The main report pointed out the recurrent thoughnot explicitly stated theme of the Conference on English: the study of English could become "the equal of any other studies in disciplinaryor developing

The Literary ('anon As schools and colleges increased their attend( rto English literature, in particular to the study of the complete texts required in the college lists, publishers began to bring out annotated school editions of popular works. These go back at least to 1867, when William Rolfe launched his career as editor and author with his American version of Craik's edition of Julius Caesar. His emphasis, not unexpectedly, was philological; it set the pattern that would prevail till 1900. The book contained an Introduction, The History of the Play. The Sources of the Plot. Critical Comments on the Play (26 pages). the play itself (102 pages), Notes (82 pages!), and an Index of Words and Phrases Explained:"" By the mid-1880s, annotated classics were in widespread use, alongside the school readers and histories such as Cleveland's and Shaw's. The college entrance requirements, with their lists of specifically prescribed texts, gave great impetus to the development of these text:.: many different publishers issued their own series before 1900. generally with some reference to one or another of the college entrance lists presumahly a major selling point. Distin- guished teachers and scholars were solicited to edit these editions, providing them with copious and sometimes irrelevant notes and study guides." Given the suddenness with which English literature developed as a major school subject and the lack of teachers trained to teach it, some such apparatus may have been a necessity at the timer" eventually it was to provoke a harsh reaction. The rise of uniform requirements as well as the appearance of many different series of annotated texts raises the interesting question of how the high school literary canon was determined. Some influences are relatively clear. chief among them the prestige of TUE BIRTH OF A SUBJECT 35

Milton and the Augustans from the early rhetoric and grammar texts, in which they had been used as material for analysis. A strong tradition of Shakespearean critiOsm had also been built up, though this seems to owe more to the recognition of Shakespeare's merit than to the ease with which he could he analyzed. At the same Lime, the literature of the English Romantics found a place in the early lists; such literature first appeared as contemporary selections in the school readers and then worked its way into the high school. The classical analogy which had influenced the selection of works for analysis by the rhetoricians also continued to operate; itis evident even in the term "classics" which early came to he used to describe the body of English standard authors. As the curriculum grew, the analogy became if anything stronger:Julius Caesarwas taught during the same year as Caesar's Commentaries; the Latinor Greek epic was followed by Longfellow orParadise Lost;British and American orators were paired with Cicero and Demosthenes. The classical tradition had both a prestige and a methodology which the early teacher of English hoped to emulate; whether conscious of it.or not, he was quite successful in doing so." Another question which the emerging list of texts raised' was whether the high school or the college was leading the way in shaping the requirements. Here thereis no simple answer: neither thecolleges nor the high schools reflected any sort. of consensus about the specific works to be read, Neither, of course, have schools since, though there has always been a good measure of agreement on which hooks are and are not appropriate literature for the high school. Rather than the schools of the 1880s or the colleges of the 1890s. the source of the "classics" in the school curriculum seems to be the tradition of belles Intros, which has never required scholastic attention to survive!" These are Franklin's "best" and Harvard's "standard" texts, representing the kind of unspoken consensus to which Cleveland paid tribute as he explained the basis of his own selections:

I have constantly endeavored to bear in mind a truth, which even those engaged in education may sometimes forget, that what is well known to us, must be new to every successive generation; and, therefore, that all books of selections designed for them should contain a portion of such pieces us all of any pretentions to taste have united to admire. Pton's " nvoca lion le Light," Pope's "Messiah." Goldsmith's "Vil- Ing. Pastor,- and Gray's "ElegN'" are illustrations of my meaning."

The traditions on which the concept of Great Books is hosed, and which have made it. so popular, run very deep. There have been few surprises in the various lists of texts encountered so far, and there are few in the lists which follow. The first, includes all titles which were taught in more than 25 percent of the high schools of the North 3h Tit A041306 AND REFORM

Central region between 1886 and 1900: the second,titles used in from 10 to 25 percent of the same schools. Bothare arranged in order of decreasing frequency.

1 1. The Merchant of Venice 2. ,/:dins Caesar a. First Butcher Hill Oration I. The Sketch Book. Evangeline, Tlw Visionof Sir Latinful 5. Snowbound 6 Macbeth 7, 17w Latly,of the Lithe S. Hamlet 9. The Deserted Village 111. Gray's Elegy. Thunutopsis. .4s YouLike it

11 I. The ntartship of Miles Stotolish 2. 11 Penseroso. Paradise Lost 3. L Allegro. Lyeitlas 4. Iron /toe, Sir Boger de Owerfry Papersfrom the Spectator. David Copperfield, Silas Monier 5. In Memoriam. Behavior, Enoch .4nlen.Munition, Toles of the' IVhite Mils. The Lays of Ancient Rome. A MidsummerNight's Dream, The Vicar of Wakefield, The Iliad 6. Fleury VIII, Among the :fills. The Cotter'sSaturday Night. The Chambered Nautilus. Cams. Bryant'sFavorite Poems, The Princess, Saul, king Lear

Another two hundrei titles appearedat least once in the schools surveyed, as indicative perhapsas anything else that the springs being tapped in the formation of the literarycanon are wide indeed."

English at the First Plateau

With theReport of the Committee of Tenin 1894 and the formation of the National Conferenceon Uniform Entrance Require- ments in English during the sameyear, the place of English studies within the secondary school curriculumwas firmly established. In the years that followed, the question wouldno longer be whether but how the subject should he taught. During thenext half century there would be many changeschanges in materials,changes in philosophy, changes in methods, changeseven in students. But none of these changes would beas rapid or as dramatic as that which brought the teaching of literature into thecurriculum in the first place. THE BIRTH 01: A SUBJECT 37

We can get some sense of that change thathad occurred if we consider offerings in English in the NorthCentral area. Between 1860 and 1900, the proportion of schools offeringcourses in "grammar" dropped from 60 to '36 percent; "analysisfell from 55 to 3 percent: "rhetoric" from 90 to 63 percent. At thesame time, of- lerings in "English literature" rose from 30percent in 1860 to 70 percent by 1890. "American literature" fromzero to 20 percent, and "literature" from 5 to 20 percent. After that period,the separate components were gradually assimilated into English I,English II, English III, and English IV. These first appearedin the high schools between 1886 and 1890 and formedthe hasis for the consolidation of English studies offered by the Committee ofTen; after their report, they became universal." John E. Stout found considerable school-to-schoolvariation in offerings in English in the North Centralarea before 1900, but suggests that these are due more to the size and goals of the schoolthan to regional differences. From the beginning, Englishwas offered more frequently in the large cities and in the nonacademiccurriculum of the schools studied. Peter D. Witt echoes thesefindings on the basis of his research on the early teaching of literaturein Massachusetts, but both of these studies focuson relatively homogeneous geographic areas. Edna Hays, studyingthe influence of entrance requirements on schools nationally, foundsome broad differences rooted in geographic distance from theeastern colleges, with their rigid examination system of entrance requirementsand generally more traditional program of studies. Though she concludedthat all areas of the country were eventually influenced bythe entrance requirements. this influencewas earliestin eastern secondary schools. and weakest in schools in the Far West. The annual report of the U.S. Commissioner ofEducation for the year 1900-1901 makes it clear that there were also quite substantial differences between the various geographicregions of the United States. differences that cannot be explainedon the hasis of the size of the school or community. During thatyear, the proportion of secondary school pupils enrolled in literaturecourses ranged from 22 percent in Idaho and 32 percent in New Yorkto 96 percent in Washington, D.C., 84 percent in California,and 73 percent in Massachusetts. In general, states in the North Centralarea had a lower percentage of their students in literaturecourses, and the western states a higher. Private school pupilswere less likely than public school students to study literature (38to 45 percent); girls outnumbered boys in such studies by threeto two. Even at this relatively late date, however,more students were studying Latin than were studying English." Since rhetoric didnot make it into the list of subjects reported until 1894-95, andliterature only in 1897-98, the U.S. Commissioner's reports providea convenient turn-of-the- century benchmark but little evidence of historical trendsduring the early history of the subject. is"'aunties aNa It Froitst

The relative importance of the National Conference and the Committee of Ten in the struggle to win recognition for English studies was deb..ed at the time and is no more certain today. A balanced view must give some credit to bothto the Ten for unifying the subject and raising itsprestige, to the National Conference for adding the compulsion that insured its prosperity. Neither alone would have led to the teaching of English as we know it today. The teaching of literature at the turn of the century was still a very new and uncertain enterprise, and most of the issues which torment the teacher of English at the present could be heard clamoring in the near distance. Several points were granted by most teachers. however, and various approaches to the subject were confined within these basic premises. One was that the value of education. of all education, lay in mental discipline; thus any proposal for the study of English literature had disciplinary value as part of its justification.' Another was that the unique value of literary studies was their guarantee of a continuing cultural tradition, an extra-historical perspective encompassing and preserving the values of Western civilization. Third, there was the conviction that all of the varied studies of language, literature, and composition which had previously had to fend for separate places within the curriculum were really only different aspects of the same central study. And finally there was the belief that this study was the one subject within the school curriculum to which all students needed a steady exposure. THE 13IRTII OF A SUBJECT 39

CI IAPTER 11 NOTES

1. Quoted by Raymond NVilliams.Culture and Society 1780 - 195(1 11,mulom ('Matto and Windus. 1958). p. 41. 2. A. Dwight Culler. ed..The Poetry and Criticism of Matthew Arnold (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1961),p. 306. 3. Arlo Bates.Talks on the Study of Literature(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1897). p. 125. 4. C. M. Gayley and C. 13. Bradley, Suggestionsto Teachers of English in the Secondary School(Berkeley, Calif.: University of California, 1894). In Some Trends in the Teaching of Literature Since 1900,John R. Searles (Dissertation. University of Wisconsin, 1942),p. 22. 5. This chapter will discuss the main lines ofargument that won a place for English. These arguments did notgo unchallenged, but the counterproposals did not become important till after 1900: they willbe touched on only briefly here. 6. Mann did approve of rhetoric,in spite of its use of literary examples. It offered a "scientific" rigor and discipline. Whenthe Mas- sachusetts Board of Education announceda plan in 1840 to provide leisure reading materials for children and adults through thedistrict school libraries, its lists included no fiction andno poetry. Peter D. Witt,The Beginnings of the Teaching of the Vernacular Literaturein the Secondary Schools of Massachusetts(Dissertation, Ilarvard University. 1968;Lira. versity Microfilms No. 69.11j97), pp. 10-21; 42. 7. See William Lyons Phtlps,Autobiography with Letters(London: Oxford University Press. 19A). p. 301; Witt,Beginnings of Teaching Vernacular,p. 33: William Riley Parker, "Where Do English Departments Come From?"College English28:5 (February 1967): 339-51. 8.A. E. Winship, "Unexpurgated Shakespeare," NewEngland Jour- nal of Education37:15 (18113):4. As quoted by Witt,Beginnings of Teaching Vernacular,p,.340. 9. Adam Smith reenters the story here. HisThe Wealth of Nations (1776) was instrumental in creating anawareness of industry as an institution with its own rules and rationality. Raymond Williamsprovides detailed discussion of the interaction between thepressures of the industrial revolution and conceptions of "culture." "art," andthe "artist" in his Culture and Society. ID. Quoted by I). 1. Palmer,The Rise of English Studies(London: Oxford University Preis for the University of Hull. 19(15),p. 41. 11. Williams.Cul ure and Society.places Arnold in the tradition beginning with Coleridge, ofCulture and Anarchyhe writes: "Its impact was immediate, and it has remained more influential thanany other single work in this tradition" (p. 115). Arnold was appointedto the Inspectorate in 1851; he became Chief Inspector of Schools in 1884 andretired in 1886. two years below his death. From 1857 to 1867 he was also Professor of [Classivalf Poetry at Oxford. See W. F. Connell,The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold(London: Routledge and Kogan Paul, 1950). On the superiority of the Greeks, seeThe Poetry and Criticisn of Matthew Artio'd,pp. 411. 434. 12. Witt,Beginnings of Teaching Vernacular,presents a concise summary of the mtitudes of the literary elite, both with respect toproper subjects for literary works and with respect to theuke of the schools as TI1A111 HOS ono Itl.FORM

instruments ut social control 1pp. 9311..4 Witt in turn draws on Nlichael B. Katz. Thr Irony of Early School Reform: Educational Innovation in Xincicenth Century Massachusetts (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni- versity Press, 19981. 13. Francis I1. Underwood, English Literature. and ltq Place in Papa. tar Education (Boston: 14'e and Shepard, 1879). P. 4. 14. The At/antic Month/y. Minuted in 1857. was the chief forum for this schiml of thought.It carried the word to teachers and administrators across the nation; the soft tones it championed did much to hasten public acceptance ot literature in the schools. See Witt, Beginnings of Teaching Arrnatular. p. "k1; and I tarry 11. Krouse. "I listory and Evaluation of the Critical Trends. Exclusive of Fiction, in the Atl«ntie Monthly. 1857 to 1808- (Dissertation. University of Wisconsin. 1972: University Microfilms No. 72-22.1011. 15, Horace E. Scudder, Literature in Schools, An Address and 7"(co Essays, Riverside Literature Series (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, and ('a.. 18881. p. :11. Ih. Ilw history of philological studies has been recounted by Kemp Malone in his presidential address to the Nlodern Humanities Research Assoeinthm. "The Rise of Modern Philology: Annual Bulletin of the lhonanities Research Association 30 (November 19581: 19.31, and earlier in Paul NIonroe's Cyclopedia of Education (New York: The Marini' lam Co.. 19111. See also Samuel "bother. "Suggestions of English Study for Secondary Teachers of English." The Academy (January 18911: 2 ff, Thurber states that "Philology is simply science applied to language," and argues that teachers should be prepared in Gennan. "the indispensable tool of scientific research." 17. Wellek has discussed this contrast between the goals and the practice of the early philologists. Rene Wellek, "Literary Scholarship." in Anterhath Scholarship in the Twentieth Century. ed. Merle Curti Warn. [wally. Mass.: Harvard liniversity Press, 19531, 18. Wellek, "Literary Scholarship,- pp. III 112. 19. Wellek. "Literary Scholarship." credits Child with being the only ''producing scholar" in the modern languages in America at that time. See also Don Cameron Allen. The Ph.D. in English and American Literature (New York: I lolt. Rinehart and Winston. 1914M. 20. The content of the courses varied slightly, from year to year. The list here is CI randgent 's. Charles 11.Irandgent , Ile Modern Languages," inlin /hwelopment of Mom& University Since the inauguration of President Eliot 1569-1929, ed, Samuel Eliot Morison (Cambridge, Mass.: I larvard University Press, 19301. 21. Allen. Ph.D. in English and American Literature, p. 7. Grant's thesis "summarized the various theories about Shakespeare's sonnets." :12. A.S. Cook was Johns Ilopicins' first instructor %a English. lie had a Rutgers A.B. and had also studied in German, On developments at Johns I lopkins. see Allen, Ph.D. in English and American Literature. and Parker, "Where Do English Departments Come From?" 23. %larch was an Amherst graduate whose interest in language studies was apparently stirred by a series of lectures given by Noah Webster. Ile also taught French. titanium Latin. Greek, law, political economy, political science. philosophy. and botany. Dumas Malone. ed.. Ilietantary of American Biography (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 19351. Tut: Norco or A Solturr, :11

21. Separate courses in American literature remained theexception until 19n0. Usually American literaturewas considered part of the English tradition and taught together with it. Evelyn Rezek Bibb,Anthologies of American Literature, 17N7-196:1(Dissertation, Coltimbia University, 1965; Unit ersity Microfilms No. 661728), 25. A. S. 11111. A. S. Briggs. and Barrett Wendellwere among the early instructors in English at Harvard, George Lyman Kittredge beganas a graduate student in 1881, eventually succeeding Child in theEnglish pro- tess(trship. Kittredge's studies shiftedmore towards literature, but he was a disciple of Child and continued the philological work as well. See Grand- gent, "Nlodern Languages." and Allen, Ph.D.in English and American Literatare. 26. See Parker, -Where Do English Departments ComeFrom? p. 341. and Allen,Ph.11 in Engli.sh and American Literature.p. II. When Ida A. Jewett surveyed offerings in state teachers colleges in 1900, shefound literature to be the mem common offering in English. Englishin Sulk, Teachers Colleges:A l'atalogueStudy,Contributions to Education, no. 256 (New York: Thachers College, Columbia University, 19271. 27. %Vent*. "Literary Scholarship,- p. 117, has commentedcaustically on the blend that sometimes developed: "'I'hey taught graduate students bibliography and sources. 'Shakespeare on the graduate lever (that is, the distinct ions of quartos and folios, sources, stage conditions). and meanwhile they read poetry to undergraduates in a tremblingor unctions voice,Sen- timentalismand antiquarianism are nut incompatible.even philosophically,- But see also Witt.Beginningsof TeachingVernacular,p. 288; Searle, Trends in Teaching Literature.p. 21: and Allen,Ma in English and .411WricanLiterature. 28. Malone, DimMouryofAmerican Biography. 29, Witt,Beginnings of Teaching Vernacular,p. 169. :10. This pattern was somewhat attenuated in the West andMidwest, which after 1871 began to move towardsa system of accreditation. The mnflict this caused reached a head after 1900. (See ChapterIII.) 31. Ilareard University,Twenty Years of School and C(91ege EttgliSh ;Cambridge. NI ass.: Ilarvard University. 18919,p. 55. These quotations have been frequently reprinted. For further background,see Alfred fl. (irommon. "A History of the Preparation of Teachers of English,"English datrond57:4 1 April 19681: 484-524. The requirement for 1869-70is of some further interest as an example of the interaction of school andcollege interests,Itlisted Julius Caesar as one required text, presumably the edition edited by Child's protege. James Rolfe. 32. On the uniformity movement. see James (lockerMason,The Xational Onincil of Mashers of English-1911-1926(Dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1962): and Edna Days,College Entamee Requirements in English: Their Effects on the high Schools (New Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936). Importantmeetings have been minuted by the New England Association of Colleges andPrepai wry Schools,Addresses and Proceedings(1886, p. 41: ;888, pp. 53-55t: and the New England Commission of Colleges,Thirteenth Annual Report 11899.pp, 9-10). 33, Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland. Proceedings (1893, p. 1081. See also Hays,College Entrance Requirements,pp. 24 ff. 42 TitaorrioNAND REFODM

34. The formation of the College Entrance Examination Board was itself part of the [novena ht towards uniformity. In 1899 the Association of Colleges and Preparatcry Schools of the Middle States and Maryland Mond Eno conditions v.cre still chaotic; Nicholas 'Murray Butler then took up a long.standing suggestion of Harvard's Fiat for a joint college admissions board that would frame questions as as set texts. The ('El-Al resulted, holding its first examination in June 1901. flays, College Entnincii Requirements. p. 33. 3:1 The history of the conference has been summarized several times. The official report I,. Albert S. Cook's .4 Brief Summitry of the Proceedings of the Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements hi English, 1818 .189!) Inao,rada. See also Francis II. Stoddard's "Conference on Uniform En- trance Requirements in English." Educational Review (1905): :375.83; and Edna Hays. broader perspective, College Entrance Requirements, On the success of the :.fists. see James Fleming Hosic, Reorganization of English in Sccondsry Schools. Bulletin 1917, no. 2, U.S. Bureau of Education (Wash- ington, DA'.: Government Printing Office, 1917), 12: :M. Sec .1. G. Wright. "First Year English in the high School," School Review I (January 18931: 15.23; (lassie Packard Dubois, "home Reading for the Secondary Schools," School Review 3 (November 18951: 485.95; and John 161. Stout. The Development of High School ('u rrienla in the North Central States from 1880 to 1918. Supplementary Educational Monographs. vol. 3, no. a (June (921), p. 140. :37. Literature was taught as an elective Mitering in the upper years. livers, who defended the absence of an entrance requirement, himself taught n Shakespeare course. Yale was alone among the New England colleges in not having any entrance requirements in English. See Her ry A. Beers, "Entrance Requirements in English at Yale." Edam thrual Review 3 May 18921; 427.43: George Wilson Pierson.Yale College: An Educational History. 1871-1921 '(New Haven: Yalu University Press, 19521, PP- 85-80: and Allen. Ph.D. in English and .4 mcrickn Literature. 38. Carpenter. Baker. and Scott point out, however, that the require. mont was misinterpreted by many schools, so that "it was not for several years that a study of the content of certain English masterpieces became an essential part of the preparatory schistl curriculum in English.- George It. Carpenter, Franklin 'F. Baker, and Fred N. Scott, The Teaching of English at the Elementary and the Seconelary School (Now York: longmans, Green. and Co., 19631, p. 48. See also Stout. High School Curricula. p. 134, and flays. College Entram.e Requirements, p. 31. 39. The most thorough discussion of the background and influence of the Committee of 'ten is Sizer. Secondary Schools at the Turn of the Century. lhr Eliol's views. see Edward A, Krug. Charles IV. Eliot and Popular Education (New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 19(31), p. 7; and Oro:ninon. "History of Preparation of Teachers ofEnglish." 10. The full list was "I. Latin; 2. Graok; 3, English: 4. Other Modern Languages: a. Nlathemalks: 6. Physics. Astronomy, and Chemistry; 7. Natural History (Biology, including Botany. Zoology, and Physiology); 8. History. Civil Government, and Political Economy; 9. Geography (Plays ical Geography, Geology, and Meteorology)." Report of the Comi.nittee of Ten on Secondary School Stole"'nith the Reports of the Conferences Arranged bY the Committee (Nev. Yuri?: American Book Company for the National Education Association. 18941, p. THE BIRTH OF A SUHJEC. 13

The tit her numbers of the English Ctinferenettwere Edward A Alain Il nn ors it' of Missouri). F. A. Barbour (Michigan State NormalSythooll. Frank NI. Blackburn (University of Chicago), Cornelius B. Bradtv (Uni- ittrstty ut ('alito:nia at Berkeley.). Francis It. Gummere(llaverford I 'ege), Edward !Inks, . (University of Iowa).. Charles I.. 1.1)0511/n24oOhio. I I igh School!. and 1X. 11. Maxwell (Superintendent of Schools.iirm:klyn). 12, Retort of thy Onnalittev, p. 43. (bid.. pp. -91-47. II. Ibid., pp. 89-91. 45. lbid., p. '21. 16. Joseph Nlersand. Teaching of Literature in American high Schools: IS08-1900.- in Perspectiveson English, ed. Robert C. Pooley, (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, lac., 1980).pp. 279-80, IT. Stout High School Currirtla,p. 134: and Nlersand, "Teachiny Liter- ature: 180:t-1918)." pp. 290-92. Here Americaseems to have followod the trit ish pattern. Palmer finds over two hundredschool edit ions in circulation in England by 1887, exclusive of Shakespeare. Riseof English Studies, p. 50. 48. Carpenter. Baker, and Scott, for example, arguedin 1903 that "certainly half" of high school teachers of Englishhad had no college or university training in their subject, andwere "incompetent- to teach it. Teuelting of English, p. :3:3. 19.I1111.1 indebted to Izal talirant for pointing out these parallels after reading an earl version of this chapter, 50. See. for example, Carpenter. Baker, and Scott'sdefinition of literature: . . Ihat select Ludy of prose and poetry which the world of culti- vated men aml women. untroubled by educationaltheories, is willing to call literature" {Teaching of Nnglish, pp. 155-591. Whetherthis tradition is the proper source of school texts is another issue. 51. Charles I). Cleveland. A ("ompendium of EnglishLiterature, Caron- ohwirally Arranged, from Sir John Muinfertile to William Con-per(Philadel- phia: E. C. & .1. (fiddle, 1851: First Edition, 1849). 32. Stool, High School Curricula,pp. 137-40. 33. These figures are from Stool's study andare summarized in more detail in Appendix II. 5.1. lb-port of the (bmanissioner of Educationfor the Year 1900-1901 (Washington, Of,: Government Printing Office, 1902).pp. 1925, 1941, 19151 and Bureau of the Census, Historical Statisticsof the trailed Stales: ',Anil& nines to 1957 (Washington, D.('.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 960). In 1900, 50M percent of public day schoolstudents in any of the four high school years were enrolled in Latincourses: 38.5 percent were enrolled in English (Historical Statistics, p. 210). 55. Even Carpenter. linker, and Scott. whoare often clearly in an Arnoldian tradition also claim that "The mindgrows by acquiring ideas, by the exercise of. mmory and judgment!' (Teaching of English, p. 1601. It was quite usual for "discipline- and "appreciation'to be expounded by the same men during this early period: after 1900 theycame increasingly to beMillias incompatible. Those of us who are working to bring a fuller life to the industrial members of the community, who are looking forward to a time when work shall not be senseless drudgery, but shall contain some self-expression of the worker, sontelimesfeelthehopelessness of adding evening classes and social entertainments as a mere frill to a day filled with monotonous and deadening drudgery; and we sometimes feel that we have a right to expect more help from the public schools than they now give us. Jane Addams to the National Education Association. 1897?

. in the absence of any course of study, teachers usually elevate the college entrance requirements intothevacant placea place for which those requirements were never designed and never adapted. . .Evidently, were it not for theinfluence, whether attractive or repulsive, of thecollege requirements, the high school teacher of English would be generally without moorings. Report of the Standing Committee on Courses of Study, 19072

Agitation for reform in English is no! unique. It is identical in spirit with the effort to develop a better type of course in history, mathematics, science, and foreign languages and has much in common with the current demands for increased emphasis upon art, music, physical education, manual training, agriculture, and domestic science. After more than half a century of struggle, the public high school has definitely established itself as a continuation of common - school education, as a finishing school (in the good sense of that tenni rather than as a filling school, and now, recognizing its freedom and its responsibility, ii ha set to work in earnest to adjust itself to its main task. National Joint Committee on English, 19173

The i;'hole tendency of the receni movement in teaching English is away from the formal. Old divisions of subject-matter are being ignored, the interests of students are being taken more fully into account, and social demands of various sorts are beginning to function in the selection of materials. John E, Stout in 1921 after a survey of the school curriculum since 18604 Chapter III

A School for the People

The Report of the Committee of Ten(1894) and the establishment of the NationalConference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English markedthe end of the battle to win recognition for Englishas a subject at all. The years after 1894 witnessed a gradual spreading andstrengthening of English courses, and a simultaneous developmentof a professional literature. Articles on the teaching of Englishbeganto appear regularly in journals concerned with high school education,and the first books designed specifically for teachers of Englishwere published. One of the first American texts was written bya former superintendent of the Cleveland Schools,now turnedprofessorof the art and science of pedagogyat the University of Michigan. Thiswas R. A. Hinsdale's Teaching the Language Arts (1896). Itwas followed a few years later by Percival Chubb's The Teachingof English in the Elementaryand Secondary School (1.902), and inthe following year by Carpenter, Baker, and Scott's bookof virtucCly the same title.'The two later books were reprinted well intothe 1920s. These books and articles helpedtb create a new professional consciousness and self-respect. Forthe fir.t time the issues raised and discussed in detailcouldbe methodologickt not generalizations about philological or rhetorical approaches,but detailed attempts to apply these generalizations to high schoolprograk:s. The dialogue which was initiated at this timewas one within the profession, rather than one between advocates of Englishand those of other studies. Teachers of English came increasinglyto feel that they had a professional identity, a competenceto decide what studies to offer, and a corresponding ability to proceedwithout the-guidance of the colleges. After 1900, groups of teachers inwidely scattered parts of

45 16 TRAnitioN ANT) REFORM the country began to organize English clubs and associations to share ideas more effectively and to speak with a more powerful, collective voice. The New England Association of Teachers of English, founded in 1901. was the first; it included William Lyons Phelps and Albert S. Cook among its founding members. During the next ten years, similar groups were founded for English teachers in New York City, New York State. Chicago, Illinois, Indiana, and the North Central Association; but there was little contact among them." This growing independence marks the beginning of the second battle in which teachers of English found themselvesa hattle to transform the high school, and with it the high school course in English, from a "fitting school" oriented toward college entrance, into a "common school," a school for the people, whose chief function would be preparation for life. The pressures to create such a common school came from many directions. One was a tremendous growth in high school enrollment. In 1890 there were just over 200,000 pupils in high schools scattered across the nation; by 1900 this ha? more than doubled;by 1915 it had doubled again.' The pressures generated by these rising enrollments were enormous, even more so because they were coupled with and partly motivated by massive changes in the philosophical and psychological underpinnings of educational theory. Faculty psychology and mental discipline were to he discredited after the turn of the century, and the secondary schools to take on a host of new functions which had little to do with the demands of the colleges. Percival Chubb, principal of the High School Department of the Ethical Culture Schools in New York City, outlined with remark- able insightthe issues that would dominate the succeeding decades when he prepared his texthook on the teaching of English. "In prescribing literature that is to be read during the High School period," Chubb wrote in 1902, "two requirements must be kept in mind." The first was the "characteristics, the needs, and the interests of the adolescent mind"; the second. "the vocational needs and social demands" that were increasingly to ba made upon the high school curriculum/ Already in Chubb's writings it is evident that the emphasis is shifting: it would no longer be the student who must adjust to the school, proving his competence to follow the prescribed, academic course, but the school that must adjust to the student. meeting his personal and social needs. "It is at this point," Chubb continued, "that there will be a clashfelt nowhere so much as in the English workbetween the old ideal which emphasizes formal discipline and thoroughness in a few things, and the new which emphasizes culture-content and many-sided development."' The "new ideal" which Chubb was discussing was the first wave of the progressive movement in education, a movement with complex social and political roots. Its effects on the schools in general and the .teaching of Eriglish in particular were to he far reaching."' A SCHOOL FOR THE PEOPLE 47

New Goals for Education

Changes in Philosophy One of the major sources of changewas what came to be called Social Darwinism; this had its origins in the writingsof Herbert Spencer, who argued that the history ofa culture could be represented as a process of evolution. Though Spencerwas convinced that social evolution took place only overa large time scale and could not be speeded up, an influentialgroup of his followers came to believe that it could be guided and accelerated in the service of specificsocial goals. Albion Small, head of America's first sociologydepartment at the University of Chicago, made the point inan address to the National Education Association (NEA) in 1896.There he placed the school at the center of social reform, arguingthat there was "no means for the amelioration or reform of society more radical than those of which teachers hold the leverage."" Small helped to provide a philosophical justificationfor crusaders who, like Jane Addams, were coming to recognizethe pragmatic value of enlisting education in thecause of reform. One year after Small's address to the NEA, Addams went beforethe same body to talk of the problems of "Educating the Immigrant Child."Her conclusions, cast directly in terms of her experienceat Hull House in Cnicago, indicted the school for isolating itselffrom life as her immigrant children knew it. She argued that educationmust hegin with the experience the child already has, and concludedthat "the city street begins this education for him ina more natural way than does the school." Unlike earlier cultures which succeededin glorify- ing the place of the workingman, Addams complained,America kept the factory worker "totally detached from that lifewhich means culture and growth." Through the active and continuingefforts of Addams and her fellows in otherreform movements, the public elementary and secondary schoolswere gradually enlisted as agents of progressive social change. I twas a major step in the separation of school and college functions."

Changes in Psychology At about the same time, the psychologicalunderpinnings of pedagogical theory were being reformulatedin response to the influence of G. Stanley Hall and, slightly later,Edward Lee Thorn- dike." Both had studied under William Jamesat. Harvard and shared his interest in empiricism, but they developedthis in quite different directions. Hall became the leadingAmerican spokesman for the child study movement, concentratingin his work on deline- ating the characteristics of the normal stages of growth. Hebelieved that the life of each individual recapitulates the life ofthe race, and 48. TRADITIoN ANDREFORM

drew from the conclusion that the curriculumshould parallel and reflect tilee historical stages. flailhad tremendous influence on pedagogy and played an important part inshifting the pedagogical emphasis toward basing instruction onthe characteristics of the student.. Thornlike placed more emphasis on thepsychological laboratory, and in 1901, in a series of articlescoauthored with Robert S. Woodworth, published experimental evidenceattacking the theory of transfer of training. This in turncalled into question the use of -mental discipline- as a justificationof school studies: if training in one area was notgeneralizing to others, the major justification of the classical curriculum would crumble.Educators quickly drew the necessary implications, usingthe articles as the signal for the final abandonment of faculty psychology,already hard-pressed by the shifting concerns of the school."

John Dewey It remained for John Dewey to provide aunified perspective on the forces of change that were developing."As a graduate student at Johns Hopkins University. he had beentrained primarily in philosophy but had been introduced to psychologyand pedagogy by G. Stanley Hall. After several moves, Deweyarrived in 1894 as chairman of the department of philosophy,psychology, and pedagogy at the University ofChicago; two years later he founded a laboratory school in which to test hispedagogical theories. Out of this school, and a series of talks with parents, camehis The School and Society 118991. In this and his laterwritings. Dewey presented a provocative and timely analysis of theinterrelationships among education. the community, and the nature ofthe child. giving strong voice to what came to be known as theprogressive movement in education. Among the many points Dewey made,three contributed directly to the emancipation of the highschool from the college program in English. First was the conception of reformthrough education as part of an intentionally progressivesociety; this had no parallel at all in the classical curriculum of thecolleges or in the Germanic scholarship which soon replaced it. Second wasthe rejection of the traditional hody of literature and history as thesole purveyors of culture. As Jane Addams had pleaded, these werefar from the life of most students. Though in one sensethis challenged the central role which English was beginning to assume inthe high school curriculum, it also provided a justification forabandoning the classical pedagogy which had come todominate English teaching. Finally. there was Dewey's conviction thatdemocracy demands education in the problems of living together for all in thecommunity; there could be no provision for a cultural elite. To teacherswho used Dewey as a A tictiooL YOH THE PEOPLE 49

major reference point, the arguments of the Committee of Ten and the dictates of the National Conferenceon Uniform Entrance Re- quirements in English could only seem antiquated. Theprogres- sives. too, would eventually claim that preparation for college and preparation for life should not be differentiated, but in thenew Ideology it would he the common-school rather than the college that offered the pruper, undifferentiated alternative.

High School against College

The Domination of the Uniform Lists Even as the arguments of Dewey, Hall, and Addamswere offering new goals for teachers of English, institutional forces set in motion at the time of the Committee of Ten seemed to be carrying themever further in the opposite direction. One important factorwas an 1899 report from the N EA Committee on College Entrance Requirements; this reaffirmed that there should beno differentiation of the college preparatory from the terminal course, and then proceeded to outline an English program in which the lists of the National Conferenceon Uniform Entrance Requirements in English hada prominent place. Instruction in literature and in compositionwere integrated around a series of focuses taken directly from studies of rhetoric:narration, description, and exposition, for example,were each given a semester of emphasis. This was widely used asa model for high school programs, and eventually became a focus for the criticism of those resisting college dominatiun." The method of correlating instruction in literature and composition was especially provocative; inan ironic reversal of earlier emphases, thecourse led to a long campaign to separate composition from the teaching of literature,so that composition would receive due attention.'" Still it was the domination of the Uniform Lists that taused the most anger. Because indNidual colleges and, after 1900, the College Entrance Examination Board, used themas the basis for their entrance examinations, the schools had little choice but to accept the selections, whether they considered them appropriateor not. In 1905 the lists were broadened to include two alternateson the list of five for close study, and thirty on the list formore general reading, but even after this expansion it was a very narrow base on which to construct a curriculum. During 1907 the extent to which these lists had nevertheless come to dominate became apparent ina series of reports published by the School Review. Results of the first study are typical of all three. Surveying conditions in sixty-seven high schools in the Midwest, it found that the Uniform Listswere determining the curriculum and producingan unexpected degree of uniformity in the English courses offered. In order of decreasing 50 11RA DMON AND REFORM

frequency, and with the year of their first appearance in the lists added parenthetically, the ten most popular selections included:"

Shakespeare Julius Caesar (1874) Shakespeare Macbeth (1878) Eliot Silas Monier (1881) ilton Minor Poems (1895) Shakespeare The Merchant of Venice (1874) Burke Speech on Conciliation with the Colonies (1897) Lowell The Vision of Sir Launfal (1886) Coleridge The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1890) Scott Ivanhoe (1874) Macaulay Essay on Addison (1879)

These include three of the six on Harvard's list of 1874. All ten were being taught in more than 60 percent of the schoolsJulius Caesar in over 90 percent. The second survey, originating in the Midwest but surveying conditions nationally, found that all seventy of the schools replying to its questionnaire used the Uniform Lists to shape their course)" And the third report, this time coming from more conservative New England, commented with some astonishment that the entrance lists were being elevated into a course of study"a place for which those requirements were never designed and never adapted ."11 Dissatisfaction with this situation took a different form in the East than in the rest of the country. The source of the difference was the extent to which the entrance examinations were important in college entrance. A system of high school accreditation initiated by the University of Michigan in 1871 had spread to almost two hundred other western and midwestern colleges by 1896. The difference this made was outlined by Fred Newton Scott, whose own professional career began at Michigan after this system was well established. Lie described the system of accreditation as an "organic- approach which recognized the natural interdependence of the various parts of the educational system, and which respected the judgment of the teachers involved at each stage. The colleges, of which he considered himself a part, were willing to give advice if called upon. "But we do not prescribe," he insisted, "we do not dictate." The eastern examination system, on the other hand, was from Scott's point of view "feudal": with it, the colleges attempted to dictate the content of lower school programs ahout which they knew little.' Scott's call was to abolish the lists, Teachers in the East, where entrance examinations remained the rule, sought instead to increase the freedom of the school within the general framework of the Uniform Lists. The difference was fundamental, but it was submerged in a general attack on the lists after 1905, culminating in the A Scuola. FOR THE PEOPLE 51

founding of the National Council of Teachers ofEnglish (NCTE) in 1011."

The Poundingof NCTE The movement which led to the founding of NCTEbegan in New York City. under the prompting of Clarence Kingsleyfrom the Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, andTheodore C. Mitchill of Jamaica High School; the former led themovemeaL for a general reorganization of secondary education, the second the specificpro- tests against the examinations in English. The situation in English was discussed at length at meetings of the state and local English associations in 1907, 1908, and 1909, culminating inthe circulation of "An Open Letter to Teachers of English" bythe Executive Committee'of the New York State Association of EnglishTeachers." This embodied the sense of the resolutions passed by theassociation and summarized objections to the currentsystem of examination. Prominent members of the committee guiding theprotest included Percival Chubb, still of the Ethical CultureSchools in New York City, and E. 11. Clark of the East High School,Rochester, as well as Mitchill. This committee also took itscase directly to the National Education Association aL its 1910meeting in Boston, asking for a formal protest against the lists. Theirrequest was dealt with by the English Round Table of the SecondarySection of the NEA, chaired by Edwin Miller, head of Englishat Detroit Central High School. Miller was a long-standing foe of theentrance requirements, and under his guidance the Round Table appointeda Committee on College Entrance Requirementsto investigate the New York Association's request. James FlemingHosic was selected by Miller to head the committee, and alsoto succeed Miller as chairman of the Round Table for the followingyear." Hosic was head of the English department at Chicago NormalCollege and an old associate of Miller's. Together they had foundedthe Chicago English Club in 1905, and threeyears later Hosic had been among the founders of the Illinois Association of Teachers ofEnglish. Fred Newton Scott, under whom Miller had studied,was quickly enlisted in the cause.. as was John M. Clapp of Lake Forest College,who had been active with Hosic in the Illinois Association.These men, all from the Midwest, controlled events during theperiod between the New York protests and the actual rounding of NCTE. In addition to [logic, the Round Table Committeeon College Entrance Requirements included members from NewYork, Wash- ington. Michigan, Kentucky, and CaliforniaScott and Clappad- vised but were not members. Hosicwas the only college representative, and even he was from a two-year normal school/hThe group began by enlisting the aid of existing associationsto survey conditions in the teaching of English, paying particularattention to the 52 TRADITION AND ItSFORM

pickets of the entrance requirements. The difficultiesencountered in coordinating this work led Hosic to secure a RoundTable resolution asking fur the establishment of ''p national council of teachersof Higlish";" this was passed at the summer 1911 meeting of theNEA in San Francisco. As flask described it in announcingthe organizational meeting for the new association, the intention ofthe Round Table resolution "was to create a representativebody, which could reflect and render effective the will of the various localassociations and of individual teachers, and, by securing concertof action, greatly improve the conditions surrounding Englishwork."2" Out of about four hundred who received an announcementfrom Hosic in early. November. some sixty-five gathered atthe Great Northern Hotel in Chicago on December 1 and 2, 1911.Twelve states were represented, with high school teachers from the NorthCentral area in the majority. New York sent two representatives,Clark and &litchi 11 from the committee which had launched the protest. Ilosic had planned the meeting carefully, even to thepoint of having a draft constitution and names forcommittees ready in advance, Fred Newton Scott was chosen as the firstpresident, giving the new organization a spokesman ofacknowledged prestige in the academic world. Scott had already beenpresident of the Modern Language Association (1907), and laterbecame president of the North Central Association (1913) and of theAmerican Associa- tionof Teachers of Journalism (1917). Emma J. Breck,head of the English department at Oakland (California) HighSchool, and Theo- dore N1itchill were elected first and second vicepresidents, -respec- tivelythus giving the National Council representatives onboth coasts. Ilosic was chosen as secretary.Harry Kendall Bassett of the University of Wisconsin as treasurer, Though theofficers of the association were largely from the colleges, they were menwho, like Scott and Hosic, actively supported thedevelopment of an independent high school course. Three decisions taken during the first meetings wereespecially important to the later history of the young association.One was to actively sponsor local organizations, giving each affiliatethe right to appoint a member to the Board of Directors whichgoverned the Council. By the end of the first year nineteen groupshad affiliated themselves, extending the Council's reach by somefive thousand members. The second decision was to sponsorworking committees in a variety of areas; seven wereappointed during the first year alone. The reports that emanated from the morevigorous of these &gain served to extend the Council's influence beyond itsimmediate membership.'" The third decision was to accept a proposalfrom Ilosic to found, at his own expense, a newjournal devoted to the problems of the teaching of English. which thoughprivately owned would serve as the official organ of NCTE. With thehelp of Newman Miller, editor of the University of Chicago Press, thefirst issue of ASCHOOL FOR THE PEOPLE 53

English Journalappeared in January 1912; it has been published continuously to the present day. Mitchi Irs selection as second vice president,indirectly acknowledged the importance of the New Yorkprotests in the genesis of the Council; that he was only second vice presidentsymbolized the fate of those protests in the new, largelymidwestern group. Though Mitchill and Clark offered the earlier "Open Letter"for approval on the first clay of meetings, the Council refusedto endorse it because of itsimplicit acceptance of an examinationsystem of college entrance.'" NCTE chose instead to work throughEnglish Journal and its new committees Lo developan English program that would not depend at all upon the guidance of the Uniform Lists.Though teachers from the East remained active in the Council,both individually and through local affiliates, they tendedLo he a conservative influence pressing fnr higher standards andmore disciplined study."

The Fate of theLists

Though unwilling Lo endorse the New Yorkrecommendations, NUPE did view the Uniform Listsas an appropriate focus for criticism. The report of liosic's Round Table committeewas printed in the second issue of EnglishJournaland distributed to all members of the National Conferenceon Uniform Entrance Requirements which led the Conference to invite Hosic andthree other committee members to attend their sessions in Fehruary andagain in May 1912. When new lists were prepared at the Maymeeting, they were considerably more liberal"doubtless," Basic claimed,much in fluenced by the committee report."2 NC'rE continued to feel, hnwever, that itsmost fruitful response to the lists was to provide schools witha hetter alternative This was the motivation behind the appointment ofa Committee on L'ypes of Organization of II igh-School English. One ofits first undertakings was a questionnaire survey of current practices. Published in1913, the report of the committee'ssurvey of 307 schools indicated once again that the curriculum in literaturewas "with few exceptions" determined by the Uniform Lists; therewere no separate "types" to investigate." This survey did not make muchprogress towards providing an alternative program, thougha later report in which the committee was involved was very influential." In the meantime, throughan active campaign for school libraries and distributionof book lists for home reading, NCTE attempted Lo help schoolsbroaden their curricula. The first book list was prepared bya committee under the chairmanship of Herbert, Bates, from Kingsley'S ManualTraining School. Brooklyn. Published in Lime for the thirdannual meeting in 1913. the sixteen-page list sold fora nickel. IL went through eighteen reprintings before being expandedto sixty-four pages in 1923. Both 54 TRADITION AND REFORM

editions were widely distributed; more than one million copies had been sold by the time a third edition was issued in 1931;1' The Council also expended considerable energy on acrusade to expand and improve school libraries. Presentingstatistics to show that the cost of English instruction was less than thatof any other subject, the Committee on English Equipment argued in 1913 that libraries were the most important resource sufferingfrom lack of funds. Convention resolutions called on schools to employtrained. molest:lonal librarians and to provide libraries within their own buildings rather than relying on community facilities. At the same time. English Journal provided information aboutlibrary use and organization, and called attention to especially interesting or successful experiments.'" Though neither home reading lists nor the stress on school libraries originated with NCTE, the vigorous support whichit offered to both gave teachers one of their first constructive alternatives to the narrowly-based literature program of theNational Conference. Kneed with continuing criticism, the college entrance examination in English continued to change. By 1916, theexaminers were offering two completely different examinations. of which acandi- date would take only one. The first or "restricted"examination continued to be based on a small list of titles for intensive study; the second or "comprehensive" examination allowed thecandidate "to Amy that he has read. understood.and appreciated a suffi- cient amount of English literature" no lists were provided at all." This in theory ended the hegemony of the NationalConference: henceforth a school could choose for itself whether to use the restricted lists without jeopardizing its students' chances for college entrance. Many schools did continue to use thelists, however, and certainly the titles which had appeared on them continued to be widely taught. The trend after 1916 was toward increased emphasis uponthe comprehensive examination, until the restricted lists were finally abandoned in 1931; at that point the College Entrance Examination Hoard became solely responsible for the entranceexamination in English. This decision. discussed in more detail in the nextchapter, brought to an end the National Conference onUniform Entrance Requirements in English, and with it the last vestiges of whatScott in 1901 had called the "feudal" system in which thecolleges could directly dictate the programs of the highschools,

'Toward New Methods

The revolt against college domination of the high school program had no clearly worked out principles for restructut ing the program. A SCHOOL. FOR THE PEOPLE 55

"A school for the people" was a good rallyingcry, and as such it served its purpose well; but itwas singularly vague in its imp:ica- Lions for the teaching of English. Many varied andinteresting pmposals were made between 1900 and 1917,but as a set a ey belted unity and direction; nevertheless,they gradually led to implementation of a progressive methodologyand thus opened toe way for development of a more systematic and coherentprogram in later years. Almost all changes offered began out ofa rejection of the earlier, analytic approach to literary studies, moving insteadtoward an emphasis on the work as a whole, and of the ideasor values embodied in it. Even during the period in whichphilological studies were at their strongest, there had been a dissenting tradition which claimed that the proper goal for the teaching ofliterature should be "appreciation." Henry Hudson, acontemporary of William Rolfe and also an editor of Shakespeare,was typical when he argued in 1881 that "Far more good will come,even to the mind, by foolishly enjoying Shakespeare than by learnedly parsinghim."'" In the initial enthusiasm for philology, such protestswere simply brushed aside, but eventually the pedantry ofthe annotated texts, with their exhaustive notes and editorialapparatus, generated a reaction of its own. The first responsewas a new justification for analytic techniques as a means toward fuller understandingof the text thus placing philology in the service of the appreciativetradition. Proponents of this compromise tendedto feel that Hudson was wrong in thinking that students could "foolishly enjoy" Shake- speare without first "learnedly parsing" him. Franklin T.Baker, in his textbook with Scott and Carpenter, carefullypointed out that to assume that intellectual effort broughtto bear on a subject makes it distasteful is to holda brief for the stupid and lazy." Percival Chubb, too, acknowledged the needto train students in careful analysis: he suggested that Burke shouldbe studied for three recitations a week over a two-month period, thoughnot very much literature would need to he treated inthis way." This tradition of subordinating philological and rhetoricalanalysis in the justification of studies but maintaining itsplace in the methodology was quite firmly established by 1900.

'The Types Approach

When the search for alternative methodologicalprocedures began in earnest, one of the first suggestionswas to replace the study of language characteristic of philology withthe study of genres or types." 'l'ill the end of the eighteenthcentury. types had been studied as patterns to which authors conformed,but during the Romantic period this prescriptive tradition hadgradually eroded; genres came to be viewed as havinga history and a pattern of evolution Which could be a worthy object of studyin itself. Hip- THAAIT1 AND dtFreKm polyte Taint' gave this point of view its fullest expression in his /Lynn v Et,/ :Flash Literature (1813), which in turn influenced many minivan mea of ietters. During the 1870s and 1880s, studies of tvpes received increasing attention in departmentsof English, mite ring a he undergraduate curriculum by 1886 at. Yale and 1887 at 11ar..,ard.'" The approach was then extended to the secondary school as port of the attempt to liberalize the curriculum. Allan ?Mitt was an especially prominent early advocate; his description of 'An En et-intent in High-Schott? English" 11904), explaining the types course at the Horace Mann School, was widely citedfor the next fittoor years. His argument, coming beforephilology had been firmly rejected, stressed the study of types as another way to help students overcome the difficulty of the selections. By studying the t :Moos genres, students would learn to solve theparticular reading prolamin; which each posed.' Though the study of types was offered as an alternative to phiHogical approaches, it carried with it no very clear methodology of its own. Like literary history,it could and often did become nothingmere than a method of arranging the order of study of hooks to be intensively analyzed. Though there was persistent attention to types from the time of Abbott's article on, it remained as a relativel minor part of the secondary program till tile 1920s.

(invent for the Child Even as proponents of the types approach were proposing changes in the organization of course material, the child study moveimmt was beginning to argue that the teacher shoult: .elect materia's that the child would find both manageable and interesting; tin se would replace the classic texts which seemed so difficult to teach. G. Stanley flail addressed such problems as early as 1886 in a pamphlet entitled How to Teach Reading, and What to Read in School. Ir the program ho outlined, selections were to be organized and sequenced on the basis of the interests and abilities of the student. Psychological rather than literary principles would dominate; if necessary, teachers would have to rewrite material "till it really and closely fitted the minds and hearts of the children. "" :flail relied on his recapitulation theory to determine what materials would and would not be appropriate at a given age. Continuing the argument in his .later volumes, Adolescence 119041, he suggested that myth and legend were the "best expression of the adolescent stage of our race.- His specific suggestions, many ofwhich were taken up by teachers of English as part of the evolving high school canon, included "the literature of theArthuriad and the Sangrail, the stories of Parsifal, Tristram, Isolde, Galahad, Geraint, Sieg- fried, Brunhilde, Roland, the Cid, Orlando, Tannhauser, Beowulf, 1,ohengrin, Robin flood, and Rolando;'" A sew", von THE pEopLE

This concern with fitting the material to the child led directly to the first statistical studies of reading interests. Hall publisheda number of these in his own journal, Pedagogical Seminary. buta slightly later one in the School Review 11902)was more influential with English teachers. As its author, Allan Abbott, explained it. the study originated out of the belief that "It is our businessas teachers to study the lines of normal growth, and to leadour pupils Rom one interest to the next higher, putting aside the special delights of our own libraries until our pupils also shall have reached maturity.." Other teachers who followed Hall's general leadpro- ceeded to produce simplified versions of Shakespeare, andeven of history, in order to allow the child "to come face to face with the masters. "' Rather than the disciplinary value of classical pedagogy, Hall and his followers stressed the place of literature in moral development. "Patriotism, reverence, self-respect, honesty, industry,con- tentment." he wrote, "these I hold to be the great ethical teachings which should be primarily sought by these selections. '"In the reaction against philology between 1900 and 1917, suchconcerns finally won acceptance as the major justification for the teaching of literature in the secondary school program. This openeda number of new vistas for enterprising teachers. The Bible, though banned from the schools in some states, began to be part of thecourse of study in others, Sex educationor more euphemistically, social hygienealso had some early advocates, though the suggestions were very timid. The Lady of the Lake "rationalizing. dignifying, and purifying the emotions of sex," was the choice ofone teacher. A somewhat holder colleague suggested Irene MeLeod's,"Unborn," a poem which, it was asserted defensively, breathes "an expectancy of motherhood that is scarcely less virginal than maternal..." For most teachers, an emphasis on the "content-or "values" of a hook became inextricably intertwined with response to the "whole work"all in opposition to the previous emphasison analysis and mental discipline. This was initially a pragmatic rather thana theoretiallybased linkage, but it found powerful support in Max Eastman's The Enjoyment of Poetry 11913). This book argued that poetry is far too complex to he adequately handled through analysis, but that it has such deep psychological roots that analysis is not needed, Children in particular could be expected to respond with enjoyment, if teachers did not kill their natural enthusiasm by handling literature improperly.'" The hook had considerable influence on secondary school teachers, helping to convince them that they were right in moving toward less analytic approaches; it was being cited in major reports on the teaching of literatureas late as the 1950sisee I). 168, below). It was partly in response to such trends that Vranklin T. Baker, speaking as second president of the Council, reminded his audience 5S TRADITIONAND REFORM

at the 1914 convention that English literature wouldacquire whatever status and popularity it was ever tohave only when its teachers were willing to require disciplined study." His position had changed little since 1903, and though he still had many supporters, the situation in English had changed greatly. The appreciative and ethical traditions in the study of literature were merging, at least temporarily, in a rejection of the classical pedagogy on which his remarks were based.

Contemporary Literature The concern with the child led almost inevitably to a new emphasis on modern writings.If teachers were really to start "where the student is," they would have to start with the dime novel, the newspaper, and the magazine. This concern wasrein- famed by those who saw the magazine and newspaper aslegitimate genres replete with their ownconventions and characteristics to analyze and tabulate. Through most of theenthusiasm, however, there ran a curiously ambiguous undercurrent: themajority of the teachers who championed current works hoped in the end tolead their students away from them, toward what the teachers saw as the real riches of the literature of the past. Fled Newton Scott set off one wave of this concern with his second NCTE presidential address (1913). Involved at the university level itt the teaching of journalism, he was appalledby the low standards of the mass circulation papers. He was also convinced chat the root of the problem lay not in the papers themselves butin the public which was buying them; if tastescould be raised, the newspapers would improve in their wake.Demonstrating a flair for publicity himself, Scott used his address to call for a"Newspaper Week" to focus teachers' attention on the problem; it was up to them, he argued, to close "the one gate wide enough tolet in all the serried hosts of evil." The speech generated thedesired attention, both in the public press and among teachersso much sothat it served as the model for a "Better Speech Week" a few yearslater." Magazine literature was frequently coupled with the study of newspapers, and it too was approached with afundamental mistrust of the high school student's taste. Mostteaching began with the assumption that students would have to be led to aninterest in the "better" magazines. But if tastes could be improved,replied the opponents of such studies, why stop there? "If it ispossible as everyone seems to admitto pull theboys and the girls away from Hearst's newspapers and to interest them in the more respectable magazines, then why, according to the same logic, doesit not follow that it is possible to lift their taste to a still higherplane, where they will naturally enjoy the best literature?"It is a logical A SCHOOL FOR THE. PEOPLE 59

extension of the basic argument, but the professor presenting it lets his prejudices take over in the closing paragraphs: Let the [English teacher] popularize his course, it he must, so that plenty of crumbs fall to the beggars within the gates: bet let him really spend himself in piling high the feast for the golden-brained, hungry- sealed boys and girls, who will be able, if he does not stunt their growth, to take their places finally, after toil-worn years, at, the ban- queting table of life, beside the real kings and queens of the -.north." Most high school teachers of English were more sincere in their support of a common-school curriculum, but most agreed that in the end the classic texts were most important. They were willing, even eager, to use contemporary materials, but only as a bridge hack to the works with which the curriculum had long dealt.

Vocational Education In the concern with the needs of the student rather th -in of subject matter, vocational education became an important dimension of the school program as it developed after 1900." Many communities began to offer special vocational courses. srtnetimes as an additional track within established schools, sometimes in new buildings devoted exclusively to commercial and industrial educe. tion. These posed a special problem for ''le teacher e! English; 11 the value of literature is ethical, and it the classic,' contain iti; fullest expression, then children in vocational schoons would :,eem to have an even greater need for exposure to their literary, and cultural heritage. It was only in the high school that they were likely to be exposed to it at all. This was of course the position adopted in the Repor' of the Committee of Ten, and in 1911 Eliot defenclet it before the New England Association of Teachtas of English "Can anyone question," he asked, that the college entrance lis!=i "consist exclusively of specimens of English literature which it 1:in the highest degree desirable that boys and girls from fourteer to eighteen ..should he made acquainted with?"It was unfictunate kw the business English curriculum that Eliot put his arguments in the context of the college entrance lists; though in the 'Nfew England Association he could expect considerable support, ,n the rest, of the country such arguments were an well receiver,. The vocn'.ional curriculum had more pressing concerns than 11.e classio., and co, t3 take comfort in Dewey's atr,mments that ,411 suhjen,not just English and history, had cultural value. The changes that followed in tlie teachirig sit English may have been more drastic than anticipate: by thosebo originally argued tit) Tit A attroN AND REFORM

for a special vocational course. The programs that were developed emphasized more businestike skills than literature, even "voca Banally oriented" literature, seemed to offer: many became basi- ca!ly courses in composition, with units on salesmanship, advertie, in;. and printing added for variety and breadth. When literature tha enter in,it suffered from a variety of rationalizations thni.. attempted to force a place for it within a basically alien :tet of goals The Rape of the Lock," for exetImple, was enthusiastically offereil, tit the University of Nevada for its "many if,tteresting hints Ps eet the commerce and industry of the period." Another teacher benvoted of having interested her awictaural students in the study of tr4.4tv by demonstrating to them hofrequently myth-names appeared lit commercial advertisiog." Such enthusiasts notwithstanding. htera Lure yielded before the demands for practical skills. A 1918 rart,y of the teaching of English in schools having at least two burAftla students in commercial courses did not even bother to task attitet the teaching of literaturenot an unexpected result when ;sae "Ideal Course" suggested by an NCTE committee anclud&; the study of literature in but two semesters out of eighlth

Teaching Aids Concern with the interests of students also developed imp a concern with aids that would help in "creating" or "holding" that interest. These took two forms, one concentrating on oral pre:tient- ation, the other on "visualization." The development of oral reading as a form of literary study will be discussed in the next section; the concern with visualization has roots in Sir Francis Gehon's argument in Inquiries Into Human Faculty and Its Development (1883) that the untrained mind thinks largely in terms of pictures. Writers such as Carpenter, Baker, and Scott took from this a belief that the chief pleasure that children would get from reading would be the result of "mental pictures of scenes and actions "; tIr4e also thought that these mental pictures would be easier to remember and more directly connected with real life than "verbal formotas."" Almost any kind of accompaniment to literary studies could be justified with one of these two sets of arguments. The Covimittee on English Equipment listed many items that Council es:embers would find useful, among them photographs and slide-pojecting "lanterns." Ingenious teachers came forward with other sugges tions, ranging all the way fnim a hatbox model of Beowulf's mead hall to literary maps, plot diagrams, songs, and records. Always practical, the English Journal provided catalogs of photographs, picture postcards, and songs for the teacher to use in assembling his own collection.'a Silent films recewed attention, too, especially after film versions of some of the ...lassie texts began to appear. Nobody suggested film as a legitimotie field of studymost consid- ASCHOOL POOR THE PEOPLE 61

mid it decidedly illegitimatebut it could be used forplot analysis or for work in composition.'" How extensive such practices were is impossibleto ascertain, but a survey puhlished in 1918 provides some clues. Althoughit dealt with only the better schools in Ohio,and received a rather poor return of only 33 out of 100 questionnaires (themajority of replies coining from city schools), itdoes indicate at least a degree of congruity betweenEnglish Journaldiscussions and conditions in the schools. Of the 33 schools replying, 16 usedwall maps and charts, 21 used a stereopticon and slides,25 used pictures in teaching, 19 used a Victrola, 19 hada school library, and 5 used the city library. A slightly earlier Illinoissurvey found that 65 percent of the schools had amap of America, 78 percent had a map of England, 20 percent used projection lanterns,and 30 percent used a stereopticon.''"

The Role of Drama

The methodological advances which receivedthe greatest attention and fullest developmentwere in the teaching of drama. Two forces converged in drama during theyears hefore World War I, one from an academic stress on oral presentation, the otherfrom a progressive concern with self-expression;they elevated drama to a position it has never had since.

The Academic Tradition

The central figure in the academic justificationof drama was Hiram Corson of Cornell University. His works,especially The Aims of Literary Study(1895), were cited by virtually every writer concerned with drama in educationCarpenter,Baker, and Scott; Chubb, and Hall acknowledged their dehtto him. Corson's principal concern was to free literary studyfrom the excessive factualism which diverted attention from the ethical valueof the works studied. His cure was oral reading, notas performance or entertainment but as a means to a disciplined knowledge of thetext. To read well aloud, Corson argued, was to make the meaningclearer and to catch the spirit more accurately than would bepossible with any amount of analytic study," Other professors interested in drama gave impetus to Corson's argument, reinforcing the academicas- pect of the movement. Brander Matthews, whowas appointed professor of literature at Columhia in 1892 andmoved to a chair of dramatic literature in 1900, similarly insisted thata play is "something written to be acted beforean audience in a theatre." George Pierce Baker, another professor very active in drama,initiated a 62 'I'n.DITIoN AND REFORM

course in play-writing at Radcliffe in 1905 and was able to offerit to I larvard students the next year. His courses helped to generate interest in serious American drama; Eugene O'Neill was one of the earlier and better-known students. "' Hall, citing Corson and others, was convinced that drama had a major role in the development of moral values. Taking up the argument in Adolescence 11904). he joined it withhis recapitulation theory and concluded that the study of language which the annotated texts embodied was out of place; it was only late in history and thus ought to be late in the life of the childthat language was handled by the "eye which reads instead of the ear whichhears." Drama, on the other hand, offered "a school of domestic, civic, and patriotic virtue" ideally suited to ''the social nature of youth." Hall recalled that in ancient Ore) ce the theater had been "a placeof worship , paid for from the public treasury"; he clearly intended it to fill much the same function in modern schools."' The work of these men helped to overcome a long-standing public ambivalence about drama. America had a tradition of stage performance and road shows, but it was heavily commercialized; melodrama, ermiedy, and patriotic works predominated.Though extremely popular, the theater was also disreputable. Very little drama was allowed in the nineteenth-century schools; even when Shakespeare began to appear in the college entrance lists, it was usually in carefully edited editions. After 1900 this situation began to improve, partly in response to the support drama wasbeginning to receive in the universities. Serious theater, sponsoredby amateur or noncommercial companies, becamequite popular, with several peaks of activity from 1906 until the beginning of the war." By 1910 the Drama League of America had been organized to coordinate the scattered companies that had sprung up and to campaign actively on behalf of serious theater:it paid special attention to activities in schools and colleges. When NCTE was founded the following year, it quickly appointed a drama committee under the chairmanship of Thatcher Guild of the University of Illinois. Guild reported that 70 percent of the freshmen at his university had taken part in amateur dramatics in high school. A national survey reported by the same committee two years later found that 86 percent of schools made provision for plays to be given "regularly" by students; another 20 percent arranged for students to attend "plays of worth."" Such efforts were actively supported by NOTE. which circulated prompthooks, published lists of suitable plays for the high schools, and voted (at the 1918 convention) to ask all high school principals to engage at least one teacher qualified to coach plays." Oral reading of all sorts became an important mode of literary study at this time; teachers of the novel as well as of poetry were asked to remember "the subtle interpretation of emotions that the ASCHOOL FOR THE PEOPLE 63

voice alone can give." Percival Chubb became especially enthusiastic about such studies, arguing in an address to the 1913 convention that "there must he a great return to the oral and the auditory" to prevent our culture from becoming "increasingly eye- minded." Allan Ahbott also supported drama, placing it within the context of the study of types. He outlined a high school course for Council members, following Matthews in treating drama as a literary form meant for the stage. Play production for teachers who approached it in this way was much more than spectacle or exhi- bition;it was undertaken very much, as the Drama League of America put it, in the spirit of "sound literary and artistic efforton the stage"an alternative rather than a supplement to other forms of study."

The Progressive Tradition The other, supporting stream of interest in drama came more directly out of the progressive movement, representinga blend of Dewey's concerns to democratize the classroom, to foster the growth of personality, and to promote social goals of cooperation and group work. "' Self-control, presence, and ease of movement were among the henefits students could expect, but above all they would learn to work with one another, in the process developing class spirit and community unity. Teachers who defended drama from this point of view were less likely to see it as a means of literary study than as one of self-expression; the plays were often written by the teacher or the students themselves. Pageants were the most extreme expression of this philosophy, providing, as the secretary of the budding American Pageant Association told Eng- lish Journal readers in 1914, unequalled opportunity to develop "joyous neighborhood spirit:"

The Effects on theSchools The effects of the dramatic interests of this periodon the schools were varied. From the emphasis on student activity there arose a whole series of student- and teacher-written plays and masques; these were published regularly by the EnglishJournaluntil the mid-twenties, when they mercifully died out. The first appeared in 1912 and its footnote"Written as a regular exercise in the Course in Children's Literature inthe Chicago Teachers College" unwittingly emphasized the degree of spontaneity and literary merit which most would offer." More lasting in its effects was the little theater movement; able to justifyitself both as literary exercise api as democratic effort, the school or class play becamea national audition." (i.i TRADITION AN I) REFORM

Emphasis on cointnunity effort in dramawas itself part of a larger concern with "socialization training." This became especially prominent after Dewey published his.Dentocracy and Education 11916). The underlying premise was simple enough; as a 1918 English Journaleditorial put it.teachers had discovered that "Training in a little autocracy is poor preparation for citizenship in a democracy..." Students must be given a more active role in the life of the school, and that life itself needed to have more relation to the life of the "outside world." Textbook summaries of materials for study, the authoritarian stance of the classroom lecture, the recitation of memorized lessonsall came tinder attack in attempts to transform the school froman intellectual court of justice" into an epitome of:typical group life." In one widely quoted experiment. "Reading Clubs" replaced literature classes so that students could more nearly direct their own reading. Another school brought the "social agencies of society" within its walls by staging a public trial of lianquo for complicity in the murder of Duncan. Still another solved "The Social Problems of Our Little Town" by staging a story-night in opposition to the local "picture show"and winning!" Though the more extreme versions of such activities eventually died out, one outgrowth, the project method, grew in influence during the postwar era; it will be discussed again in Chapter V.

The Reorganization neports

The Cardinal Principles The forces working to alter the basic assumptions of the high school program were not limited in their influence to the English course. The revolt against the college entrance requirements, the new focus upon the student, the concern that democratic values and institutions be reflected within the classroomthese were to transform almost all aspects of the curriculum. The National Education Association, working through a series of committees and commissions headed by Clarence Kingsley, took up the broad questions involved in the reorganization of subject matter and instructional procedures within the high school. The main report was issued' in 1918 as theCardinal Principles of Secondary Education. This report accepted the emphases that have been discussed in connection with the Leaching of English, providing them with what was to become their definitive statement and defense.The main objectives of education, as the report presented them, were seven; 1. Health. 2. Command of fundamental processes. 3. Worthy home- membership. 1. Vocation. 5. Citizenship. 6. Worthy use of leisure. 7. A Seimui.FOR THE PEOPLE 65

Ethical character.These goals are a long way from those of the Committee of Ten, and'if they hadmany antecedents, they were brought together here by a national committeeof some influence and prestige, in a concise statement that wouldbe widely quoted and often referred to

The Reorganization of English The subject of English was dealt with in detail by a National Joint Committee on English, cosponsored by Kingsley'sCommis- sion on Reorganization and by Nut's. Kingsley askedHosic to head the Joint Committee in 1911, at thesame NEA convention that directed him to proceed with arrangementsfor the founding of Nem. Thirty memhers were eventually appointed,representing (with a few change:, and additions) the NEA Round TahleCommit- tee on College Entrance Requirements and the NCTE Committeeon the High School Course in English. Secondary schoolmembers continued to dominateof the thirty, only nine had collegeappoint- mentsatthetime,andthreeofthesewereinteachers colleges. Not surprisingly, therewas considerable overlap between the committee and those whowere active in NCTE during the same period; many of the convention addresses andEnglish Journal articles during these years could beseen as working drafts of various sections of the final report." The finalreport,Reorganiza- tion of English in Secondary Schools(1917), was the culmination of the revolt of the high school teacher cl Englishagainst the domination of his course by the college entrance requirements. Little in the report was new. Like the earlierstatement of the Vassar Conference on English organized by theCommittee of Ten, its value lay in bringing together inone comprehensive statement points of view that its members had heen developingat conferences and conventions and in the professional journalsthroughout the preceding decade. Gathered together inone volume, and united by a common oppnsition to the college entrance lists, thesearguments could serve as a manifesto for reform,a convenient reference point whose principles could be endorsed and implementedas a more or less coherent. whole. As such, and bearing the endorsementsof NCTE and NEA, its influence was considerable:I' Reorganization of English in Secondary Schoolsbegan by affirm- ing the independence of the high school and rejecting theprinciple that preparation for college was also the best preparationfor life. However important the college entrance requirementsmay h -e been in initially securing a place for English in the curriculum,ne longerderm result had heen to achieve a "monotonous and unintel- ligent uniformity" (p7). Picking up anargument the parent commission would use in theCardinal Principlesreport a year later, the committee urged schools to provide "a consHerahle range" of , 66 TRADITION AND REFORAI

muse content to meetthe varying hackgrounds of thestudents, while at the same time preserving "areasonable uniformity of aims and a body of common culture." Inparticular, "Skill in thinking, high ideals, right habits of conduct,healthy interests, and sensi- tiveness to the beautiful are attainments tobe coveted for all" (p26). The main points discussed in the report.paralleled those that had prominence in the professional literature.The justifications for literary studiesfellinto three categoriescultural,vocational, and social and ethical. To achieve theseends, there should be (as Hall , tovalue of hadsuggested) "Subordination of excellenceof style . content and power to arouseinterest" (p. 46). Rather than a formal discipline, English was to he "socialin contentand social in method of acquirement." This would heachieved by structuring the course around "expressional and interpretativeexperiences of the greatest possible social value to the given class" (p.27). As has aheady been evident in earlier discussions,however, it was thegreat books." the classics, which mostsuccessfully demonstrated that they had this "social value." Or as thesubcommittee on literature for the upper secondary school grades putit, "Who shall Gay that boys and girls of to-day will not needtheir (the classics'] clear note of inspiration and courage as muchif not more than their fathers and mothers of yesterday" (p. 65). Thesubcommittee on business English waxed especially eloquent aboutthe virtues of literature that ''is in the spirit of the present,that has a commercial tong, thattreats of the problemsand even of the activities and processes that they will meet after leavingschool." Yet even this subcommittee affirmed too the values of"standard literature... well chosen and sanely taught," as "agood antidote for the harmful pleasures that invite the weary workersin our cities" (p. 971. The teport was very specific about theworks to be studied. It provided two lists for each grade level, oneof books "for class work,- the other of books "for individualreading." The distinction was that of the NationalConference on Uniform Entrance Require- ments in English, but it servedhere, presumably, to provide "common culture" and "considerahlerange." The grade-hy-grade distribution of literary works was carefullyplanned to correspond to the committee's conception ofpupils' emotional and intellectual stages, For the eighth and ninthgrades, they urged "stirring narrative, full of movement and manlyvirtue. This is the place for Homer's hero;'Greeks and Macaulay's noble Romans,for the elemental passions of ballad times, forScott and Stevenson and all others of theirstirring company."The tenth grade, through the use of such plays asThe Merchant of VeniceandJulius Caesar;would deal directly with "serious questionsof right and wrong." The eleventh would be the time "frankly todiscuss the relations of men and women to each other," butonly in the context of the "high ASCHOOL FOR THEPEOPLE 67

ideality" ofIdylls of theKing and SilasMarner.Finally for the twelfth grade, the Joint Committee suggested a "literary"course, organized chronologically and including both American and English literature.'" What the committee members did not do with literature isas important as the lists they provided. They did not abandon the titles used by the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Re- quirements in English; they did not suggest overshadowing them with modern and "relevant" works. They did notpropose that class study be devotedto contemporary social commentary. While greatly shifting the goals and much of the presumed activity within the classroom, they did not shift the materials that were to he used in attaining those goals. Of the authors on the college entrance lists before 1900the lists formulated before agitation within the profes- sionbegunto force changeall but three were part of the Joint Committee's suggestions. Only Johnson, Dryden, and Burke fell completely from favor.'" The concerns with social issues and with the productions of modern writers were generously reflected in the Reorganization report, but their place was clearly to he in the lists for individual reading. For class study, the literary canon continued virtually unchanged. In this emphasis, the Joint Committee was not unusual. George Counts, surveying fifteen cities "representing progressive tendencies" during the spring of 1924, found that English receivedmore emphasis than any other study. Half the time in thecourse was devoted to literature, the other half to a variety of language activities loosely related to composition. The most frequently taught titles wereSilas Marner,"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," Macbeth. ATale of Two Cities, Idylls of the King, The House of the Seven Gables, Ivanhoe, Julius Caesar,and The Merchant of Venice.All were in the Reorganization report lists, and all but Idylls of the Kinghad appeared in the entrance lists before 1900. Counts also found that thirty-four of forty-nine specificcourses examined emphasized intensive study for aL least some of the texts required.'"

Continuations War broke in upon the trends summarized in the Reorganization reports, accentuating soma and postponing the development of others tilllater years. The Declaration of War in April 1917 crystallized definitions of "needs and interests" in terms ofnational aims, and English teachers across the nation responded withenthu- siasm. The Drama League dropped its literary emphasis andpro- vided a play on food conservation. Decatur, Illinois, appalledto discover that a quarter of its studentsnever read the daily paper at a time of history "in the making," made newspaper studya 6S TRADITION ANV REFORM

required part of the English course. For all, literature became a way to instill a sense of national heritage and to encourage patriotism." One of the concerns generated by the war, the teaching of American literature.was among the 1.-w that achieved a more or less permanent place in the curriculum, though it took some ten more years before a uniform pattern for these studies emerged. During the postwar period the North Central Association actively supported the movement to establish such studies; its Commission on Secondary Schools, for example, distributed a questionnaire after the war to assure itself that the schools in the region were diligently pursuing "Training for Citizenship." Other NCA committees concerned with English were similarly careful to include a chronological survey of American literature in various alternate - positions within their recommended courses of study in 1922 and again in 19:30."" NcrE showed a parallel if less intense concern, holding convention sessions on "The Teaching of American Ideals" and editorializing that English should "result in a finer, truer, and larger Americanism on the part of those who study it."" When these recommendations were taken up by the literary anthologies of the late twenties and thirties, American literature was firmly established in the curriculum. The real legacy of this period was inspirational rather than methodological: teachers who had set out to build morale and foster patriotic sentiments, and who had seen their goals reflected in the behavior of their students, emerged convinced of the power of literature to effect such changes. None stopped to wonder whether both the teaching and the response might have had a common origin in the wartime milieu. Teachers who sought to formulate a role for their teaching in "a new world, safe for a new democracy" were above all else enthusiastic about what they were doing: as one put the problem, "The first great aim in the literature course is a training for citizenship by a study of our national ideals embodied in the writings of American authors,-our race ideals as set forth by the great writers of Anglo-Saxon origin, our universal ideals as we find them in any great work of literary art.'"2 How to translate such enthusiasm into a functioning school program was the problem for the next generation of teachers. A SCHOOL FOR THE PEOPLE 69

CHAPTER III NOTES

1. Jane Addams. "Educating the Immigrant Child, Beaver Island Reprint no. He 375; from National Educational Association Addresses and Proceedings, 1897 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press for the NEA, 1897). 2. New England Association Standing Committee on Courses of Study, "The Course of Study in English-The Call for It, the Character of It and the Construction of It,' School Review 15 (October 19071: 559-75. 3. James Fleming Rosie, comp. Reorganization of English in Secon- dary Schools, Bulletin 1917, no. 2 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Educa- tion, 1917), p. 11. 4. John Elbert Stout, The Development of High School Curricula in the North Central States from 1860 to 1918, Supplementary Educational Monographs, vol. 3, no. 3 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, June 19211, p. 235. 5. PAHA, School Review. Education, Teachers College Recant, and The Academy all devoted considerable attention to the teaching of English in schools either before or during this period. For an exter_le Inbliography of writings from all sources, see George It. Carpenter, Franklin T. Baker, and Fred N. Scott, The Teaching of English in the Elementary and the Secondary School (New York: Longman, Green, and Co., 19031. See also B. A. Hinsdale. Teaching the Language Arts: Speech, Reading, Compost- tion (New York: D. Appleton, 1896): and Percival Chubb, The Teaching of English in the Elementary and Secondary School (New York: Macmillan Co., 1902). 6. On the founding of the New England Association, see Charles Lane Hanson, The Early Years of Our Association," The English Leaflet 48, no. 427 (March 1949h 33-47. Hanson had studied with Child at Harvard. On other groups in existence by 1911, see James Hocker Mason, The National Council of 'teachers of English-1911-1926 (Dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 19621, pp. 51.52, 67-68. This list is of groups which cooperated in founding NCTE and is prOably not complete. 7. At the same time, the percentage of those in English classes was also ;rising, from 38.5 in 1900 to 58.4 in 1915. See Appendix V, and Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960), p. 207. 8. Chubb, Teaching English in the Elementary and Secondary School, p. 239. 9. Ibid., I), 241. 10. Lawrence A. Cremin in his The Transformation of the School (New York: Vintage Books, 1961) is the major source for the following discussion of social and intellectual changes in the period before 1917. See also Edward A. Krug, The Shaping of the American High School (New York: Harper & Row, 1964). 11. National Education Association, Addresses and Proceedings, 1896, p. 184: cited by Cremin, Transformation of the School, p. 99. 12. Addams, "Educating the Immigrant Child." From NEA, Addresses and Proceedings, 1897. 13. The colleges were moving in quite another direction, towards specialization and Germanic scholarship. See Frederick Rudolph, The 71) 'rue% arrioN AND REFORM

American College and University: A History (New York: VintageBooks, 19621. 11. On American psychology at this time, see Cremin,Transformation of the School, pp. 100-15; and Edwin G. Boring,A History of Experi- mental Psyrhology (Nett York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 19291, 15. Thorndilitcs warnings not to generalize too farfrom his findings went unheeded. Educators picked them upquickly; they were cited two years later by Carpenter, Baker, andScott, for example (Teaching of English, p. 761. E. L. Thorndike and IL S. Woodworth, "The Influence at Improvement in One Mental Function upon the Efficiency ofOther Func- tions... P.svchidogical /levies,. 8 119011: 217-61, 384-95. 553-01. 16. On Dewey, see especially Cremin, Trans/bona lion of theSchool, pp 115.26. 17. -Report of the Committee on College-Entrance Requirements," National Education Association Addresses and Proceedings, 1899(Chi- cap; University of Chicago Press for theNEA, 18991, PP. 632-814. The group included two members of theNational Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English: John Tetlow and Wilson Furrand.The suggested course was based on a presentation by W. F. Webster, principal of East high School. Minneapolis. See Paul Truman Himmel',A Histor- ical Survey Of Recommendations and Proposals for the LiteratureCurricula of A birdcall Serum/an, SchoolsSinai 1892 (Dissertation, University of Nebraska Teachers College; University Microfilms No. 66-2081);Joseph Merman& "The Teaching of Literature in American Secondary Schools; 1865-1900," in Perspectives on English. ed. Robert C. Pooley (NewYork: APPleton.Contury-Crofts, hoe., 19601; and Harold Rugg."Three Decades of Mental Discipline: Curriculum Making Via NationalCommittees," in Curriculum Making Past and Present, Twenty-Sixth Yearbookof the National Society for the Study of Education, Part One (Bloomington, Public School Publishing Co.. 19261. 18. This campaign was unsuccessful to the extent that separate courses in literature and composition and separate examinations from theCollege Entrance Examination Board were not forthcoming; the realobjective of reforming the teaching of composition to make it less literary and more personal in emphasis was nonetheless accomplished. Fordiscussions of the merits of separation, see, for example, Edwin L. Miller, "Rebuilding an English Course," NEA Addresses and Proem/lags. 1910 IChicago: TheUni- versity Press for the NEA, 19111, pp. 483 -87: Editorial,"'Comprehensive' and 'Restricted'," English Journal 5:4 11916): 2S1-82; E.h. Kemper McComb. "Separation of the Teaching of Composition from theTeaching of Literature: What It Is and How It Works," English Journal 6:2(February 19171: 69.-79: and Husk, Reorganization. 19. George W. Tanner, "Report of the CommitteeAppointed by the English Conference to Inquire into the Teaching of English in theHigh Schools of the Middle West," School Review 15 (January 1907):37-45, llosie was involved in this survey. 20. Cyrus L. limper. "Existing Conditions in theTeaching of English," School Review 15 (April 1907): 261-74. Again, Hosic ismentioned. 21. This is quoted more fully at the beginningof this chapter. The domination of the lists has been discussed and documented by anumber of authors. See Edna flays, College Entrance Requirementsin English: Their Eninns On the High Sc /tools (New York: Teachers College,Columbia Uni- ASCHOOL.FOR ylIE PEOPLE 71

versity. 19361. PP. 92-107; Mersund, "Teaching Literature: 1865-1900"; HOSit%Reorganization,pp. 11-21; Mason,NCTE 1f111- 1926.pp. 39 ff.; Robert S.Fay, 'The Reorganization Movement in English Teaching, 1910- 1917(Dissertation, Harvard University, 1967; University Microfilms No. 08-12.0681, pp. 69-74; John Muth Bernd.Approaches to the Teaching of Literature in Secondary School, 1900-1956(Dissertation, University of Wisconsin. 1957: University Microfilms No. 24,264), pp. 50, 74. 22. Fred Newton Scott, "College-Entrance Requirements in English," School Review-9(June 1901): 365-78. Scott became an instructor in English literature at Michigan in 1889; in 1903 he became head of the department of rhetoric. On accreditation, see Theodore R. Sizer,Secondary Schools at the Turn of the century(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964). 23. Mason,NOTE 1911-15)26,andFay, Reorganization Movement, provide the most detailed discussion of the events leading up to the founding of NCIE. See also the other discussions referenced in footnote 21 above. andthe National Council,1011-36."English Journal25:10 (December 1936): 805-29. 24. The letter was later reprintedin English Journal.(Executive Com- mittee of the New York State Association of English Teachers, "An Open Letter to 'teachers of English."English Journal1:3 [March 19121 179-80.) 25. Technically, the appointments would have been made by the president of the secondary section, but this was Principal Mackenzie of Miller's Detroit Central High School. The Round Table itself was simply an annual forum in which anyone at the convention could participate. The agenda began with prepared speeches which were then opened for discussion; several hundred teachers were often present. 'These developments are not mentioned in the minutes of the 1910 meeting but are referred to indirectly in the volume for the next year. See NEAAddresses and Proceedings, 1910(Chicago: University of Chicago Press for the NEA, 1911), "Round Table Conferences: A. English," pp. 483-93; and NEAAddresses and Proceedings,1911 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press for the NEA, 1911), especially Jamie; Fleming Hosic, "The Questions at Issue: Prelimi- nary Report of a Committee on College-Entrance Requirements in English," pp. 592.98. 26. The other mernhers of the committee were Charles Swain Thomas, head of English at Newton (Massachusetts) High School but u midwesterner by birth and education; Benjamin A. Heydrick, head of English at the High School of Commerce in New York City; Henry B. Dewey, state superintendent of schools, Washington; Edwin L. Miller. who had just been promoted to assistant principal at Central High School. Detroit; Mrs. henry Ilulst, head of English, Grand Rapids High School; Reuben Post lalleck, principal of the Male High School in Louisville; Miss Fannie W. McLean. head of English at Berkeley (California) High School. (Ileydrick and Thomas had at earlier points in their careers taught in universities, and both had published textbooks on the teaching of English. 13. A. lieydrick, Howto Study Literature(1901): C. S. Thomas.How to Teach the English Classics(1910), 27. "Round Table Conference on English. July 12. 1911." NEAAd- dresses and Proceedings, 1911.p. 556. The minutes give a slightly different version than Music later recalled forEnglish Journalreaders. (James Fleming I losic. "The National Council of Teachers of English,"English 72 TRADITION AND REFORM

Journal 10.1 !January 19211: 1-10.1 The resolution was proposed by Walter Hunting. superintendent of public instruction in Nevada ("The National Council, 1911-36,** p. 8091. 28, The model of the N EA sa Council on Education apparently led to the choice of "Council" instead of the more issue] "Associations' for the new organization; this is reflected in the emphasis on representativeness in this initiation, and in the later decision to govern NCTE through a Board of Directors whose members would be appointed individually by the affiliated organizations. "Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting:* English Jour- nal 1:1 (January 1912): 30-45. 29. Fay (Reorganization Movement, p, 1191 credits the committees with being the Council's greatest source of influence. During the first decade alone, there were reports on articulation of high school and elementary school English; revision of grammatical terminology; home reading; English in country schools: plays in school and college; teacherprepara- tion; speech: labor and cost of English teaching; freshman English: economy of time; and reorganizationoften with several reports from the same or related committees. See "The National Council, 1911-36," pp. 816-17. 30. "Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting," p. 37. This was obviously an emotional issue, still being justified in retrospect in "The National Council. 1911-36." W. Wilbur Hatfield later paid tribute to Hosic's "astounding" accomplishment in keeping the local associations, with their different outlooks, within the Council. "In Memoriam: James Fleming Husk." English Journal 48:3 (March 1959): 160. 31. Charles Swain Thomas. as editor of English Leaflet (the journal of he New England Association) from 1909-1940 and as an associate professor at Harvard, came to he the leading spokesman for the New England view, though he began teaching in his home town of Pendleton, Indiana, in 1887. and remained for the most part in the Midwest till 1908. He did not settle permanently in the East till after a spell as director of English in Cleveland (1918-20). See Council News and Comment, "Charles Swain Thomas." EngliNh Journal 32:7 (September 19431: 389.90; and Marion C. Sheridan. lore We Are." English Leaflet 52, no. 507 (January 19531: 2-11. 32. James Fleming Rosie, "Progress in Articulating School and College English." NEA Addresses and Proceedings. 1912 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press for the NEA, 19121, p. 762, 33. ''Types of Organization of HighSchool English," Report of the Committee, English Journal 2:9 (November 1913h 575.95. 34 The committee was one of those forming part of the National Joint Committee responsible for the Reorganization report, discussed later in this chapter. 35. See "The National Council, 1911.36," pp. 817-18: English Journal 18:7 (September 1929): 599; and James Mason, NCTE, 1911-1926, who summarizes sales at various points in his chronology, e.g., pp. 91, 335, 348. 36. "English Equipment," Report of the Committee. English Journal 2:3 (March 1913): 178.84; and "Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting:* English Journal 3:1 (January 1914); 54. As examples, see Carrie E. Tucker Dracass, "An Experiment in Library Training in the High School." English Journal 1:4 (April 19121: 221 -31; Iva M. Young, "A New England High- School Library." English Journal 1:9 INovemhcr 19151: 571-76; Emma J. A SCHOOL FOR TIIE PEOPLE 73

13reck. "The Efficient High-School Library.- English Journal 5:1 (January 1916): 10-19; and Editorial. "Go Thou and Do Likewise," English Journal 6:4 (April 19171: 271. 37. Typical questions, both from 1920. asked: "List books that you like and dislike, telling why." "Describe the major or minor characters from any three novels." Ilays, College Entrance Requirements, p. 80. 38. henry Hudson, English in Schools 41881; reissued 1906); quoted by Peter D. Witt, The Beginnings of the Teaching of the Vernacular Literature in thr Secondary Schools of Alassachu.setts (Dissertation, Harvard Uni- versity, 19681, p. 276. 39. Carpenter. Baker, and Scott, Teaching of English, p.182. On Chubb as a fusion of the older and newer approaches. see John R. Searles, Some Trends in the Teaching of Literature Since 1900 (Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1942), pp. 34 ff. 40. Under E. T. McLaughlin and Barrett Wendell, respectively. For the fullest discussion of the types approach and its historical antecedents, see Irvin Ehrenpreis. The "Types Approach" to Literature (New York: King's Crown Press, 1945). 41. Allan Abbott, "An Experiment in High-School English," School Review 12 (September 1904): 550.58. On its influence, see Ehrenpreis, Types Approach, pp. 1-4, 85. The earlier course at Horace Mann had been described by Franklin T. Baker, "The Course in English in the Horace Mann School, Teachers College," Teachers College Record 1 (May 1900): 1-36. Abbott went there in 1902. Bernd, Approaches to Teaching Litera- ture, pp. R2 -86, also comments on the link between the types approach and the liberalization of the course: he quotes Abbott to the effect that "The familiar doctrine of interestin its educational sensewill he seen at the bottom of this plan.' 42. G. Stanley Hall, How to Teach Reading. and What to Read in School (Boston: 1). C. Heath and Co., 18861,P. :32; similarly in G. Stanley Hall. Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relation to Physiology, Anthro- pology, Sociology, Sex, ('rime, Religion, and Education, vol. 2 (New York and London: D. Appleton and Co., 1914;first edition, 1904), p. 444: "Excrescences must be eliminated, the gold recoined, its culture power brought out." 43. flail, Adolescence, vol. 2, pp. 442-44. 44. Allan Abbott. "Reading Tastes of High-School Pupils, A Statisti- cal Study," School Review 10 (October 19021: 585-600. See his earlier "'Entrance English' from the Boy's Point of View." Education 22 (Sep- tember 1901h 78-88. Many "studies" of reading interest followed, though very few were well designed or well reported by today's standards. As examples. see Charles NI, McCann, "High-School Students' Rankings of English Classics," English Journal 1:5 (May 1912): 257-72; and G. W. "The Reading Interests of High-School Pupils," English Journal 8:8 (October 191911 474-87. 45. ('aniline E. Britten, "A Loose-Leaf Textbook in English Litera- ture," English Journal 2:3 (March 1913): 145-50. 46, Hall. What to Read, p. 36. 47. W. R. Ilumphreys, "The Literary Study of the Bible in Michigan High Schools," English fount& 6:4 (April 19171: 209.20; t. W. Gosling, "How the High-School Teacher of English Can Assist in the Exploitation of Pupils' Powers." English Journal 2:8 (October 1913): 51'3-17; and Sarah 74 TRADITION AND REFORM

J. Mc Nary, "Sex Education: The Opportunity of the Teacher of English," English Journal 8:4 (April 1919); 242-47. See also Teaching Social Hygiene through Literature (New York; American Social Hygiene Association, 1920). which reprints two articles on sex education from the April and July 192(1 issues of Social Hygiene 5 (pp263-72: 391-99). 48. Max Eastman, The Enjoyment of Poetry (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913). For further discussion, see Searles, Trends in Teaching Literature, pp. 48-51. 49. Franklin T. Baker. "I ligh School Reading: Compulsory and Volun- tary," English Journal 4:1 (January 1915): 1-8. 50. Fred Newton Scott,The Undefended Gate." English Journal 3:1 (January 1914h 1-14. Scott is the only NCTE president to serve two terms. The first Council committee on speech was headed by Scott, and later by Claudia E. Crumpton. It was under Crumpton that the committee issued a Guide to Better Speech Week (1919). This was apparently highly successful but drew criticism from the organizations of teachers of speech, who -thought the Council was intruding in their areas. A Better Speech Year (1925) was eventually produced in cooperation with the National Association of Teachers of Speech but was less successful. See "The National Council, 1911-36," pp. 820-21: and Donald P. Veith, An Histori- cal Analysis of the Relations Between "English" and "Speech" since 1910 (Dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952). 51. James Cloyd Bowman, "The Use of the Magazine in English." English Journal 5:5 (May 1916): 332-40. As examples of other views, see William Frederick Edgerton. "A Recent Experiment with Magazine Liter- ature.: English Journal 1:5 (May 1912): 278.83; Maurice W. Moe, "Maga- zine l'oetry in the Classroom," English Journal 4:8 (October 19151: 523.25; and Allan Abbott. "A High-School Course in Periodical Literature," English Journal 2:7 (September 1913): 422.27. 52. Stout, High School Curricula, pp. 207 ff., details the growing effects of vocational programs on school organization as well as specific subject-area offerings. 53, Charles W. Eliot, Differentiation of the High-School Course in English," English Leaflet no. 91 (June 1911): 2. In this debate Eliot was paired with D. 0. S. Lowell of Roxbury Latin School against Charles A. Prosser. Massachusetts deputy commissioner of education, and Samuel Thurber, Jr. The debate is s:.mbolic of the fate of English studies, with Eliot from the first period and Prosser who in 1945 would launch the "life adjustment" movement. For egnoments on the debate. see Rosewell, His- torical Surrey of Recomm, .clations.p. 82; James Warren Olson, The Nature of Literature Anthologies Used in the Teaching of High School English 1917-1957 (Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1969; Univer sity Microfilms No. 69.22.454), pp. 26-33: and C. S. Thomas,The English Course in the Iligh School," English Journal 1:2 (February 1912): 84.94. 54. Herbert Wynfred Hill, "The Problem of Harmonizing Aesthetic Interests with the Commercial and Industrial Trend of Our Times," English Journal 2:10 (December 1913); 609-12: and Mabel Fleming,The Myths of Commerce." English Journal 7:4 (April 1918): 270. 55. These courses were being offered in place of rather than in addition to other English work. Leverett S;Lyon, "The Business-English Situation in the Secondary School," English Journal 7:9 (November 1918): 576.86; A SCHOOL FOR THE PEOPLE 75

and Sherwin Cody. "The Ideal Course in English for Vocational Students.," !ing lish Journal 3:5 and 6 (May and June 19141:263-81, 371-80. 56. Carpenter, Baker, and Scott, Teaching of English. p. 169. They point out that the use of pictures in teaching can be traced at least to fifteenth century primers, and that they are used in the teaching of composition us well as literature. They include an appendix, "Dealers in Photographs and Prints." 57. See for example Mary Crawford, "The Laboratory Equipment of the Teacher of English,- English Journal 4:5 (March 1915): 145-51: Julia Davenport Randall, "A Literary Map of London:' English Journal 4:2 (February 1915): 125; Jeanette F. Abrams, "A List of Published Airs for Songs in The Golden Treasury." English Journal 4:6 (June 1915): 387-97; Martha E. Clay. "The Hat Box in Literature," English Journal 5:10 (December 1916): 680-83; and Cornelia Carhart Ward, "The Use of Pictures in the Teaching of Literature," English Journal 4:8 (October 1915): 526-30. 58. There were early silent films of "The Vision of Sir Launfal" and The House of . 'etten Gables, for example. The first English Journal article devoted jo . to movies was Robert W. Neal, "Making the Devil Useful," English Journal 2:10 (December 1913): 658.60. For a favorable view, see Carolyn M. Gerrish, "The Relation of the Moving Pictures to English Composition," English Journal 4:4 (April 1915): 226-30. And for a harsh attack, see Alfred M. Hitchcock. the Relation of the Picture Play to Literature," English Journal 4:5 (May 1915): 292-98. 59. Cecile 13. McCrosky, "The Administration of English in the High- School Curriculum," English Journal 7:2 (February 1918). 108-17. The Illinois survey is cited in llosic, Reorganization, pp. 150-52. 60. Corson's concern with ethics is evident even in his first teaching appointmentas professor of moral' science, history, and rhetoric at Girard College in 1865. He moved from there to St. Johns in 1866, and to Cornell in 1870. On Corson's leadership and influence, see Searles, Trends in Teaching Literature, pp. 44-47'Iv also Hiram Corson, The Aims of Literary Study (New York: Moor Company. 1895). 61. Dumas Malone, ed., Bleat,. of American Biography (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1935); Kenneth Macgowan, Footlights Across .4tnerka (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1929); and Arthur Hobson Quinn. A History of the American Drama from the Civil War to the Present (New York: AppletonCentury.Crofts. 1936). G. Halt. Adolescence, vol. 2, pp. 416, 442. 63. The three most important peaks included 1906.07, when the New Theater, the Robertson Players. and a revitalized Hull House Theater (originating at Addams's Hull House in 18991all were organized in Chicago; 1911-12. with the organization of Thomas Dickinson's Wisconsin Players. the 'toy Theater in Boston. and the summer theater at Lake Forest. Illinois; and 1915-16, which produced the Provincetown Players. Boston's Washington Square Players, and Chicago's Little Theater. All generated publicity and interest. See Quinn. History of American Drama: and Macgowan. Footlights Across America. 64. Thatcher H. Guild, "Suggestions for the High-School Play," English Journal 2;10 (December 1913): 637.46; "Report of the Committee on Plays in Schools and Colleges." English Journal 4:1 (January 1915): 34-40. 76 TRADITIONAND REFORM

85. .1. Milnor Dorey succeeded Guild as chairman of thedrama committee. The library was established under his guidance(Mason,NCTE, 1911-1926,p. 139). "The Play Producer's Notebook" was anirregular but frequent feature inEnglish Journalfrom 1917 on;it was written by members of the committee, often anonymously. For the first, seeEnglish Journal(1:3 (March 1917): 192-93. Darcy had also provided anearlier list in 1915 (pp. 408-071, and aseparate publication in cooperationwith the Drama League ("The National Council. 1911.36," p. 151. For the convention resolution, see "Proceedings of the Seventh AnnualMeeting; Busi- ness,"English Journal 7:1(January 19181; 74. 66. Mary Frothingham Pritchard, "'I'he Value ofStory-Telling in the High-School Course."English ,Journal4:3 (March 1915): 191-931 Percival Chubb, "The Blight of Literary Bookishness,"English Journal3:1 (Janu- ary 1914): 15-27: Allan Abbott, "AHigh-School Course in Drama," Eag lish Journal2:2 (February 19131: 93-98; and Mary Grey Peck, "The Educational Movement for the New American Drama,"English Journal 1:3 (March 19121; 129-37. Peck was appealing for members. 67. The progressive's interest in dramatics is clear in Dorey's career:he later became executive secretary of the Progressive EducationAssociation (1928 -311. 68. Thomas Wood Stevens was one of the mainorganizers of this group in 1913; he edited itsBulletin(1913-211. Interest in pageants declined rapidly after World War I. Lotta A. Clark, "Pageantryin America.' English Journal3:3 (March 19141: 146-53. Play for Children," ' 69. Mary Ethel Courtenay, "Clytie: A Lyrical English Journallt3 (March 1912); 138-45. Over a dozen more of thosehad appeared in the Journal by 1919. 70. A similar movement developed in England atabout this same time. Caldwell Cook's work at the Perse School became knownin America after the publication of hisThe Play Way(19171; he was in the progressive rather than the literary tradition. "Play" in histitle meant play as opposed to work, rather than "play" as "drama." thoughhis methods involved much of that too. Ile and the American enthusiasts seem tohave developed their methods out of similar concerns (there was anEnglish surge of interest in serious non-commericaldrama at this time), but without direct contact. 71. Editorial, the Democratization of Method,"English Journal7:8 (October 19181: 53. Walter Barnes in hisThe New Democracy in the l achingof English(Chicago: Hand McNally & Company. 1923) eventually gave this movement its fullest expression; thehook was a collection of lectures. 72. Editorial. "What IsSocialization "" English Journal7:2 (February 191811 135; W. S. Hinchman, "Reading ClubsInstead of Literature Classes,"English Journal6:2 (February 19171: 88 -95: C. C. Certain, ' "The Trial of (3a ngur),"English: Journal 4:3(March 1915): 152-59; and Alma Allison, rho Social Problems of Our Little Town,And How We Met Them."English Journal5:7 (September 1916): 477-82: Allison was from Madison, Wisconsin. 73. Commission on the Reorganization of SecondaryEducation of the NEA, CardinalPrinciples of Secondary Education,U.S. Bureau of Educa- tion Bulletin 1918, no. 35 (Washington: GovernmentPrintingOffice, 19181. pp. 10-11, ASCHOOL FOE THE PEOPLE 77

74. The Joint Committee had its first meeting in Chicago in November 1912, it) conjuntion with the second annual NCTE convention, The members were Al lac Abbott, Elizabeth G. Barbour, Mary D. Bradford, Emma J. Brock. C. C. Certain, Randolph T. Congdon. Mary E. Courtenay, .losept. V. Denny. Charles W. Evans. Mary B. Fontaine, Allison Gaw. Mary c:.Hall, W. Wilbur Hatfield. Benjamin A. Ileydrick, Helen Hill, Alfred NI. Hitchcock, Mrs. Henry Hu Ist, Walter J. Hunting, William D. Lewis, Orton Lowe, E. II. Kemper McComb, May NlcKitrick, Edwin L. Miller. Minnie E. Porter, Edwin T. Reed, Edwin T. Shurter, Elmer W. Smith. Charles Swain Thomas; and Harriett A. Wood. 75. Rugg. "Curriculum Making Via National Committees." pp. 44-45, called the report "the most forward looking report of any national subject committee up to 1920," For documentation of the extent of its influence, see Edna Ilays, College Entrance Requirements:, Fay, Reorganization Alortnent: and Olson, Nature of Literature Anthologies. All three, though they come at the question from different vantage points. conclude that the point of view of the report was widely adopted. 76. llosic, Reorganization. pp. 69-70. 77. The comparison here is with Hays' summary lists (see Appendix 1111 and the lists of specific titles included in the reports of the subcommittees on literature. 78, The cities were Trenton. Atlanta. New Orleans, St. Louis, Kansas City. Pueblo, Los Angeles, Berkeley, Salt Lake City, Lincoln, Joliet, Cleveland. Detroit, Rochester. and Newton. George S. Counts. The Senior High School Curriculum. Supplementary Educational Monographs, no. 29 (Chicago: Univer'sity of Chicago Press, 19261. 79. See "News and Notes," English Journal 7:9 (November 19181: 609;

j6 6 U. Engleman, "Outside Reading." English Journal 6:1 (January 1917); 6.0-27; Clara Vhitehill Hunt. "The Child and the Book it War Times," English Journal 7:8 (October 19181: 487-96; Allan Abbott, -6The English Teacher and the Vorld-War." English Journal 7:1 (January 1918): 1-6; and Dudley Parsons, "The English Teacher and Patriotism." English Journal 8:2 (February 19191; 154-63. 80, Olson. Nature of Literature Anthologies. pp. 57- 58;.288 -89. See "Thrth Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools: Report of the Committee on English," English Journal 11:5 (May 19221! 307-14 ad E. L. Miller, "College Entrance Requirements in English: A Committee Report.- English Journal 20:8 and 9 (October and November 19311: 626.40, 714-29. SI. W. Wilbur Hatfield, "Summer Meeting of the Council." English Journal 9:6 (June 1920): 353; and Editorial. "What Is English?" English Journal 9:10 I December 19201: 600. 82. llorace Ainsworth Eaton, "English Problems After the War," English Journal 8:5 1May 19191: 308-12: and G. Eunice Nleers. "Specific Aims in the Literature Course." English Journal 8:8 (October 19191: 48S-05. Whatever exists al all exists in some amount. To know it thoroughly involves knowing its quantity as well as its quality. Education is concerned with changes in human beings; a change is a difference between two conditions; each of these conditions is known to us only by the products produced by itthings made, words spoken, arts performed, and the like.. .. To measure a product well means so to define its amount that competent persons will know how (me it is, with some precision, and that this knowledge may be recorded and ustd. This is the general Credo of those who, in the last decade, have been busytrying to extend and improve measurements of educational products. Edward L. Thorndike, "The Nature, Purposes, and General Methods of Measurements of Educational Products," 19181

The standards of our (lay demand that our courses of study be derived from objectives which include both ideals and activities, that we should lankly accept usefulness as our aim rather than comprehensive knowledge, and that no fictitious emphasis should be placed upon the value of formaldiscipline. W. W. Charters, Curilculum Construction, 19232

Every teacher of literature should make or adopt a satisfactory analysis of the higher skills involved in appreciative reading, and should make systematic plans for helping pupils to master these skills. Some people, it is true, are so deficient in the simple techniques of word recognition and sentence or paragraph interpretation as to be incapable of making progress on the higher levels. Professor Gates' book, among others, shows how to pick out these cases, how to discover their difficulties, and what to do for them. Most highschool leachers of English can profitably give considerable time to helping their students learn to read in the real sense. W. Wilbur Hatfield, "Literature Can Be Taught," 19273

This day of crisis and chaos still finds the schools vociferously disclaiming responsibility for social leadership. Not until educational materials and practices are systematically tested with relation to the needs of contemporary life can their be any escape from the banalities that frequently pass for scientific contributions to education, John .1, DeBoer, "Changing Objectives in English," 19321 Chapter IV

Science and the Teaching of English

When teachers of literature turned to the problems of defining goals and methods in thepostwar period, they found themselves in a new and not entirelycomfortahle position. Always hefore they had had unity imposedessentiallyfrom without: first there had been the goal ofwinning a place within the curriculum, then that of redefining thesubject to be free from college domination in "a school for the people."Though they carried through the task of generatinga new framework for their teaching with considerahle enthusiasm, the lack ofa single unifying principle led to many false starts and long periodsof misdirected energies.

Overview of the Progressive Era

The period between the wars wasa time of pedagogical innovation on a grand scale, symbolized if not alwaysled by the Progres- sive Education Association. Teachers ofliteratureresponded throughout this period to many forces thatwere at heart progressive; but they had to respond, too, to the demandsof their own discipline. As a result the great hulk ofteacher.,, and of their leadership within the National Council, thought of theirteaching as progressive, though not of themselvesas Progressives. Yet they had the rhetoric, and the enthusiasm, and movedin many of the same directions. Though at times during theseyears the subject of English would seem to be expanding in all directions at once, two broadmove-

79 80 TRADITION AND REFORM

moots underlay the majority of changes. One was the concern with the application of science to education, with an ultimate focus on efficiency. The other was the movement toward "experience" as the central metaphor of the educational process. In literary studies, that metaphor was realized first as simple vicarious experience through literature, then gradually broadened to literature as "exploration--exploration of self, of society, of the past and present world. The movement toward science and that toward exploration were closely related; they shared roots in the progressive movement as a whole and were often carried forward by the sante men and women in the teaching of English. Each k complex, however, and trill be treated separatelyscience in this chapter. the movement toward literature as exploration in the next. English in its final synthesis as "exploration- was hardly circumscribed. und the countless proposals and counterproposals that had occurred along the way only added to the insecurity of the classroom teacher. One result was a growing professional-disorientation by the thirties, a serious gap between educational theory and educational practice that forced a retreat, a stepping back from the ideal vision of the curriculum at which the profession had finally arrived. This movement away from broad goals toward a narrow locus for the curriculum has its beginning in the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association, its middle phase in concern with general education and language, and its end in what has come to be known as "life adjustment.- These final phases of progressivism will be dealt with in Chapter VI. During the decade following the First World War, educators in all fields became enchanted with the virtue and promise of science, seeing in it the solution to many of the continuing problems of the schools. The areas to which science was to be applied were virtually limitless: they included the determination of educational goals, the validation of procedures, the lowering of costs, and the justification of programs to the public. The teacher, the philosopher, the ad- ministratoreach imitated the scientist; and though in fact their science was sharply limited by their training and the primitive state of the disciplines to which they turned for guidance, their conclusions shapedand continue to shape mucheducational practice.

The Movement in Education

The .Concern with Efficiency The application of science to educational problems took place against the background of a widespread but loosely formulated identification of "scientificwith "efficient.- largely as a result of SCIENCE Ave tint TKAcittst, OF ENGLISH 81

the adoption of principles of "scientific management." by American business. Combat ly, scientific business methods hadconic. to seem the solution to all of the nation's ills; and schools,ever a drain on the taxpayer's pocketbook, were always a tempting target for reform. After 1910 the critics became especially vocal, charging in the InIpliltIr press that schools were costing too Plinth and producing too little. The office of the superintendent. the "front office.' of the school system. bore the brunt of the attack and was responsible for the brunt of the professional response. Though the exactsteps taken varied horn city to city, the net result was a shift in the nature of the superintendency away from that of providing philosophical guidance toward that of educational management. Thiswas to some extent a necessary shift; the rising enrollments were creating school systems of a size and complexity previously unknown, and bringing with them problems of budget, staff, and organization that only managerial skills could handle. Still. theresponse to the pl'eSSureS for efficiency was too extreme, carrying with it the seeds of damage to the teaching profession as a whole. Inmany school sv stems, "efficient.. education came to be identified too closely with "good" education, and broader perspectives to he submerged in the concern with budgets and short-term "results."

Irniert Aleusurenzent Closely allied with the movement for scientific Management was a new concern with scientific measurement, led largely by E. 14. .rhOrnd ike is motives are evident in the quotation at the opening this chapter: to effect rational change in education. it would first br necessary to }MVO accurate measures of the educational "products." Ile and his students concentrated on objective paper-and- pencil measures of "achievement" in the major school subjects. Though the first of these tests did not appear till 1908, they were taken up enthusiastically as the concern with efficiency mounted." Nleasurement got its real impetus, however, from a related focus on dm "resources'' or "abilities" which the students brought with them. Intelligence tests had played a part in psychological investigations at least since flattops work in the 1870s and 1880s, but it was the I3inet scales (1905 -08) and Lewis M. Terman's Stanford re% ision ;1916) that brought the concept of "IQ" into widespread currency, liy the beginning of World War I, the American Psy- chological Association was convinced enough of the value of such measures to offer to prepare a series of group intelligence tests for the arniy. The offer was accepted, leading eventually to the famous Scale Alpha (for recruits who could read English) and Scale 13eta dor recruits who could foil. The army's success in using these two 82 TRADITION AND REFORM

tests to sort out their recruits provided educators with an ohject lesson whose import was quickly realiz.ed. Whatever other issues the data may have raised, it was clear the testswere successful in their original purpose of classification. Teachers realized that if the s3:stematic use of tests could predict performance in oneor another position within the army, it should also be able to predictperfor- mance in response to one or another mode of instruction in the schools. 13y using the tests to formgroups of "similar" students, the school would be able to provide instruction gearedmore closely to their particular abilities. And thisas English teachers and their more scientific colleagues all recognizedwould he more efficient.?

Rebuildingthe Curriculum Given a concern with scientific management, inventories of abilities (the resources), and measures of achievement (the products), there remained the problem of deciding what should be taught (the demand). This task was begun by the Committee on Economy of Time in Education. Appointed, fittingly enough, by the Depart- ment of Superintendence of the National Education Association, it published four major reports between 1915 and 1919." The reports found three ways in which efficiency could be promoted within the curriculum: by the elimination of nonessentials, by the improvement of teaching methods, and by the organization of subject matter to correspond more closely to the realities of child development. The approach to defining the "minimum essentials" of the school curriculum was rigidly empirical: studies of life in the school and in society would show what was needed and -appropriate. Though there was some shifting of emphasis away from what is towards what should be in the later volumes of the series, the overall effect of the committee was certainly to focus educational philosophy on the empirical rather than the speculative, and to locus curriculum on functional skills rather than conceptualor ethical goals. Existing school procedures and knowledge thatwas obvious. functional, and easily measured both receiveda new and important emphasis, not because committee members felt thiswas a proper shift in prioritiesmany explicitly argued otherwisebut because these were the aspects of education which the developing scientific methodology was best able to handle. Franklin Babbitt, professor of educational administration at the University of Chicago and a former student of 0. Stanley Hall, carried the functionalism of the Committee on Economy of Timeto its logical,if extreme, conclusion. His primary concern was the specification of objectives through careful analysis of lifeneeds. As he put it in 1924,' the first task "is to discover the activities which ought to make up the lives of men and women: and along with SCIF:NCF: AND THE TEACIIIEW OF ENG!isti 83

these. the abilities and personal qualitiesnecessary for their proper performance. These are the educational objectives" (p. 9): He had little tolerance for the traditional goalsupon which educators had relied. pointing out that "culture.' -character building,-or other such "vague high-sounding hope andaspirations- (p. 321 would not do. Ills own list of objectivesincluded asan illustration of the kind of statement needed rather thanas a complete set was nothing ifnot specific.It included 821consecutive, numbered points, and a final category of "occupational activities-which were too numerous to he presented in detail. The points he did include ranged from "1. Ability to use language in allways required for power and effective participation in the cmnmunity life" (p. 11)to a series that ran: 129.Ability to care for the hair and scalp. CIO. Ability in care for the nails. 1:11. Ability to care properly for the feet.- 132.Abifty to control sexfunctions in the interestsof physical and social well-being (p. 14). Though Bobbin's specific procedures for curriculumdevelop - meal have an inherent tendency to stress goals whichcan he easily formulated, rather than those whichare most significant, his own discussions of general education placeda singular emphasis on exactly the subjects which were least amenableto the "scientific" analysis of life activities he proposed. Of the nine'lines of training" he thought important for all students to receive,the first three had long been special concerns of the teacher of English: (IIEnglish language: reading, oral and written expression. 121 Citizenship attitudes. judgments and activities. Such) Studies. (3)Literature: English and general (p. 99). And Bobbin stated. too. that of the list of 821specific objectives of education. "it seems that general reading, includingliterature, can serve in some measure in the case of most of them' (p. 00). !hue literature and reading were functional in thegeneral nun- mtinity life nulled some consideration, and Bobbindetailed seven services they performed. The pointswere rather redundant, having in common an emphasis on the value of experiencethrough literature. Litentture takes the readerout of what would otherwise be his little world-, he "relives the human experienceir of other times and other men: his thoughtsare broadened and elevated;his responses tuned to those "who have seen most clearly. and .felt most deeply": he gains nese interests; he fives: "Idle is actionand reading is one mode of action."''' Sucha broadening of life through I he vicarious experience of literature wasas close an approximation to a hmetional goal for lit entry studies asanyone would be able to prat kle. 84 TRADITION AND REFORM

Studying the Curriculum in English

The teacher c)English was well protectedas pressures for scientific efficiency came to bear upon the schools:of the various school subjects, English was one of the cheapestto provide. Its cost per recitation was low, so that other subjects (thehapless classical languages among them) would bearthe brunt of the economic assault on the schools." When Bobbittand others turned to scientific analysis of curriculum goals, English againcame off well: language in its variety of uses inevitably surfacedhigh on any list of "universal needs." Even literary studies,much harder to justify in terms of concrete life-activities,were protected by the widespread belief in the importance of literaturein character development and ethics. Finally, English studiesas they had been brought together by the Committee of Tenwere broad enough to allow an exceedingly wide array of functional activitiesto be provided within one tins, with the teachermaking very few changes in classroom procedures forany one of them. The net effect of the many minor adjustments, however,was sometimes of major importance.

Minimum Essentials

Attempts to formulate minimum essentials forliterature with- ered from the beginning. Ilosicwas a member of the NEA Com- mittee on Economy of Time and prepared theEnglish sections of their reports. Ile managed a long and detailedanalysis of "The Essentials of Grammar and Composition,"but his discussion of literature was short and "confessedlyinadequate."" Only with respect to the actual act of reading did the NEAcommittee have much to say about the efficiency of literarystudies; here the concern was with size of books, length of lines, and color ofpaper." NCH.: had its own Committeeon Economy of Time in English, contemporaneous with that of the NEA; its effortsto deal with literature were no more successful. Of five generalpoints in its final report. only one dealt with literature at all. Thatone was hardly radical, calling simply for "The teaching ofliterature suitable to the age and development of pupils, and the eliminationof those classics beyond their emotional and intellectual reach.The introduction into our courses of such contemporary materialas will give pupils a better appreciation of present-day ideals."" Thisoffered little challenge to the teacher of literature, andwas in line with reforms already proposed in the Reorganizationreport (1917). The real effects of the movement toward essentialscame in language studies. After the reportson economy of time in English, a new committee on "essentials" was appointed under Sterling A. Leonard of the University of Wisconsin. Thoughthe committee SCIENCE AND 'NE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 85

never published a formal report, it had much influence through the writings and speeches of the individuals involved. Leonard himself was led into a study of Current English Usage, puhlished by the Council in 1932. This gathered opinion on a variety of constructions usually condemned in language texts, and found that many were judged acceptable in actual use. Followed by Albert H. Marckwardt and Fred Walcott's Facts about Current English Usage (1938) and Charles C. Fries' American English Grammar (1941), this aspect of the movement toward essentials eventually reshaped the teaching of language and composition in American schools."

The Functional Emphasis Though the movement for minimum essentials raised few prohlems for the teacher of literature, pressures from other subjects seeking to expand their place within the curriculum eventually forced English to defend itself as a functional study. The social studies offered the most direct competition and under the leadership of Charles II. Judd launched a vigorcius campaign to improve their status. W. Wilbur Hatfield. who had succeeded Hosic as English Journal editor and NCTE secretary-treasurer, outlined the challenge in 1922: "Unless it can be made clear, even to the practical mind, that composition and literature achieve results "commensurate with the time allotment," he wrote. "they will surely be replaced by subjects more ohviously useful."" The provision of such proof was the task of the NCTE Committee on the Place and Function of English in American Life. Essie Chamberlain from Oak Park (illinois) High School gave the 1924 convention address which led to the appointment of the committee. Her approach to curriculum construction was essentially Babbitt's: a careful analysis of the social demands on English, and the meeting of those demands through methodology tested by classroom experiments." Under the direction of John NI. Clapp of Lake Forest College. the committee t onducted an extensive survey of the uses to which skills learned in English class were being put by 22,000 people in a range of social positions. The statistical tahles of the final report 11926) provided a profile for the English curriculum to followbut it was a profile in which literature had very little place. It was simply not a part of English instruction about which questions related to "practical- aspects of life could be easily formulated, and consequently little data could be collected ahout it with this sort of approach. Reading was easier to deal with (one had to read newspapers and magazines, business letters and grocery lists), but still only onesixth of the interview form was devoted to reading. Of that, only two of twenty-six specific questions dealt with literary or cultural pursuits.'" Sli ili.AIDTION AND IIEFORII

The Clapp committee considered its taskto be one of "defining the content, snipe. aims, etc. of 'Emg lish' work in schools."In their lists of specific recommendations. the first Madeclear the conimitment to functionalistic

The schools might well devotemore attention to a number of the language activities which according to thereturns are widely used by persons of the many callings and social groups reporting. and which are reported as giving much difficulty. These activities in particular ale: Interviewing: word of mouth inquiries:reports to a superior: instructions for subordinates: conferences. Conversation:with easual acquaintances: at social gatherings: over the telephone. PublicSpeak- ing: informal discussion; preparing addresses. Writing:informal notes and memos Mit one's self: formal notes of invitation.introduction. etc. Reading: legal documents. Listening: toan interview, a conference, or a public meeting tp. Wt.

All of these concerns were takenup by the English program, eventually being fused with language studies derivingfrom Leonard and his successors as part ofa "functional." usage-based program in language and composition. By its very failure to deal with literature,the Clapp committee helped to insulate literature from the extreme formsof functionalism that developed in other areas of the English curriculum. Whilenon- literary activities increasingly followed the outline provided bythe charts of the "Place and Function of English in American Life,"the teaching of literature continued, at least through the 1930s,to follow a different path. Indeed in furnishing objective proof of the value of English instruction, the Clapp report playeda role much like that of the early college entrance requirements: it gave Englisha solid place in the curriculum by casting the subject in terms acceptableto its opponents. while in the process virtually ignoring thataspect of instruction which has taken up the largest amount of the teacher's time, and usually of his interest. The functional emphasis of the Clapp reportwas characteristic of the concerns at the limo itappeared. 01 the other attempts to Mine objectives in English. the best known was Charles S. Montle- tnn's analysis of The Soria/ Objectives of School English 92.1). This was au extensive survey of the goals for English study, using a procedure suggested by Babbitt. In the final list of 1.581 separate -social goals- ranked in order of the frequency with which they had lawn cited, the highest ranking went to correct spelling, the second to t he ability to speak in complete sentences. Number eight was the first ohiect Ivo not related .tot he mechanics of language use: habit of reading for enjoyment literature of the better sort."Pen- dleton's results illustrate a major difficulty in any attempt to derive a value ordering trim a consensus of judgmentsthe top ranking did not result because spelling was the first objective ofmost SCIENCE AND 'ME TEACHING OF ENGLISH 87

adults, but because it appearedconsistently as a minor objective. A program structured around such surveys could easilybecome pre- occupied with relatively trivialconcerns which in themselves were not highly valued by anyone: few wouldargue that accurate spelling was not useful, but few wouldwant to elevate it to the central position it carried in Pendletonsresults.'"

icilio Study

The emphasis upon funetkmalactivities eventually helped to bring studies of motion pictures andradio mum; firmly into the English curriculum. One of themost important influences wasa series of studies sponsored by thePayne Fund between 1929 and 1932, just after the introduction ofsound had radically altered the motion picture experience. The studies.reported in nine volumes. wore conceived and carried through asa related set of investigations of the effects and importance ofmotion pictures. focussing especially on their influenceon children. W. W. Charters of Ohio State was chairman of the research committee:other members came from six other eastern and midwesternuniversities. Their reports, though not specifically concerned withmotion pictures in education. clearly demonstrated the important rolewhich they played in the lives of children."' As Edgar Dale,also of Ohio State, put it in summarizing his contribution to the series,"The effect of motion pictures.. is universal and this fact must be facedin a states- manlike manner by exhibitors andproducers, by teachers, and by parents..." NCTE watched with interestas motion pictures became increasingly popular. citing reportson the size of the national audience, and later of the Payne Fund volumes,in English Journal.n Throughout the thirties. though therewere a few attempts to deal with the movie as a literary experiencecomparable to any other, the emphasis was upon raising standards oftaste, much as it had been in earlier discussions ofnewspaper and magazine studies. The Councils efforts were guided mainly byNewark's William Lewin, who owed his own interest in. filmstudies to his supervisor of. English. Ma>: lerzberg In 1922.Lewin persuaded NCTE to establish a Committee on l'hotoplayAppreciation and then proceededto gic it vigorous leadership. Listsof classic films were developed, standards of appreciation outlinedand finally a nationwide evaluation of the effectiveness of classstudy in influencing taste carried nut. "l'he hitter was more a demonstrationthan an experiment, but it showed that methods used inother English studios could be adapted for films. Thename assigned to motion picturesthat of "photoplay"-- was characteristic ofthe way in which the subject was approached; presumably it also reassuredthe teacher first TRADI't ION AND it 140101

nuturing ""'" unnundhlr ground. IV1931 the work of the WTI.: photoplay committee was well-enough known that Lewin could report that "major producers- were "consulting us as toforthcom- ing. projected. and suggested pictures." offering scripts tothe committee forexaminationbetbreproductiondecisionswere made;' Most of this collaboration centered onproducing motion pictures based on the classic texts of thehigh school canon, for which litiwin's committee then produced study guides. Studies of other media generated comparativelylittle enthusiasm among Englishteachers during the decades between the wars. \ewspuper and magazine studies continuedmuch as they had been before, though with increased emphasis ontheir "functionalism- atter their high standing in theClapp report. Methods changed hicomming either on improving taste or on theconventions of journalism ht hat is the difference between aneditorial and n lead article, and so on);likdio broadcasting also received some attention. though again without muchenthusiasm until just prior to florid War II. At that point interest rosesharply. butit was tocussed on the effects of propaganda rather thanwith radio as a medium of interest in its own right. Max I lerzberg. in a report !non the NCTE Kadin Committee,reflected the prevailing attitude ben he conuminted that "censorship, exceptof a very discreet sort, is much less valuable thanthe .estoblishment of a critical attitude. in which the good will be properly praisedand the had perceived andperhaps- avoided.'

Eva/awl/1,g Mc Selections fur Study The relatively minor changes resulting from the attempt to specify minimum cssentiala and htnctional activities Airthe teaching of literature did not mean that it would not feel the pressurefor 011601CA'; it simplv meant that efficiency in literarystudios would Mint' to focus on the proper gradeplacement for the selections chosen for study. One approach developed out of studies ofreading comprehension and will be discussed in the next section. The other sought to tat inventories of existing attitudes asproviding an ant horit at i e "consensus." The first of these studies were mentioned in theprevious chapter; they derived From the interest inchild study and helped to challenge the appropriateness of the collegiate model of instruction for the high school course in literature. They were notthought of as pro tiding a basis for organizingthe English course, though they did have some influence on the selections suggestedfor outside reading. Under the influence or Robbitt. however. this changed; student interests were elevated into a criterion for the selectionand placement of the works studied. Charles Sumner ('row'sdoctoral project I 192 II at Teachers College. Columlna. was one ofthe first in this tradition. Crow stated explicitly that he wasattemptingto SCIENCE AND THE TEACIIINI:or Estatsu 89

lest and arrange the subject. mutter in a given field.English literature in the high school, in accordance with the pupils' judge- met. of its values given in terms of ends that are generally recognized as socially valuable..." Ile asked 1.999 seniors to rate seventyfour classics on five scales measuring whether the books were interesting. (2) inspiring. (3) artistic. (4) desirableo.e 1own or recomniend to others. and (5) easy to read and understand. Crow's conclusion was that only seven of the seventy-fou frequently used hooks could be called "very effective- in meeting the wilds summarized in the five scaks: ninny titles were not rated as effective on fitly of thorn. (Students ranked only books they had studied intensively in class.) His findings, though frequently cited by later investigators, were hardly surprising to teachers familiar with studies of reading interests. What was new, however, was the shillin emphasis away from discovering where children were (so that their level could he raised), and toward taking the judgment of the pupil as a valid criterion for the end point of the process (the level at which instntion should be geared). Other investigators sought their consensus of opinion front other sources-- high school teachers, courses of study. literary critics. and college professors all had their advocates.'"Hte college entrance lists can be recognized as an underlying influence on many of the results that emerged. In a 1930 survey of 4 "representative" courses or study from different parts of the country, for example, all but seven of the 25 most frequent selections were from the lists of the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English. (All saver exceptions were from the junior high school grades, when) the demands of the colleges seem more distant.) Of the Same 21 selections, grade placements for 10 ranged all the way iron the seventh to the twelfth year; none of the titles hatl'a range of less than three years.'" High school teachers remained for the most part umlisturbed by this lack of uniformity. agreeing with John Haney of Philadelphia when he asked. "Why should our insistent standardizers demand that all sorts and conditions of .leachers should instruct im a prescribed manner allsorts and conditions of pupilsr " What teachers did suggeist in the name of interests was the adaptation of the classic texts to make them more palatable. Again, this movement began in response to Hall's urgings during the prewar period. After the war it became more frequent, reinforced by an assumption that there were "essential- and "nonessential" parts to literary works, Thus a teacher from a llackensack (New Jersey) high school could urge unblushingly that the "Solution of Rorke" was to "Reduce the speech from seventy-eight to forty-two pages. Burke should have done that himself," And -another front South Philadelphia could make Coipus "somewhat less of a bore and an affliction': by reducing "they plot to its elementsstripped of its philosophy, its ethical note, its poetry. What is Comas but the I) TR A DI TION A NI) REFORM

baldest and crudest of melodramasrI: Everyone knew that children enjoyed melodrama. The startlingthing in such bowdler- izat ions was the great enthusiasm with whichthey were carried out; nobody questioned whether the skeleton remainingwas really the groat work of literature that demandeda place in the curriculum in the first place. Discussions of such radicaladaptations were published throughout the twenties and thirtiesas practical teaching suggestions.

Heading Skills

One aspect of the study of literaturewhich lent itself well to scientific study was the analysis of thefunctional skills involved in reading. As part of the general testingmovement, the measurement of reading achievement actually began ratherlate: Courtis' standardized silent reading test in 1915was the first to appear. The many investigations which followed were especially importantbe- cause they suggested that silent reading wasmore efficient than oral reading in both speed and comprehension. thiswas at variance with the emphasis which English teachers hadbeen placing on oral reading and oral expression, but they adaptedto the new concerns quickly. Judd and Buswells Silent Rending:A- Study of Ifs Var- ious Types (1922) was especially influential, focussingattention on the variety of different skills whicha mature' reader usesthe difference between skimmingnewspaper headlines. reading a light poem, and appreciating a complex novel, for example." Dovetailing neatly with the anniments that Allan Abbott andothers had been advanring about genre studies, the book also helpedto propel the types approach into a new prominence. Finally studies of reading turned their attentiontoward the level of comprehension which could be expectedfrom students reading the currently popular selections. Two studies,one from 'leachers College. Columbia. and the other fromClark University, used similar procedures and arrivedat similar results. Short "representative" passages were taken from literary workspopular in the high school: comprehension questionswere constructed for each passage: and the tests were administered toa sample of students. T. W. I don completed hisleachers College study first (1925). Using selections from The Spy. -The Destruction ofSennacherib," Julius Caesar. and The .0rigia of Species in orderto be able to compare results from different literarygenres. he testbd the comprehension of ninth graders and concluded: '"I'heaverage reading comprehension as compared with the total comprehensionPossibilities of the selections used is so IniAliore that it isvery hazardous to proceed on the assumption that students in the ninth gradecan read well enough to nanprelwnd and appreciateliterature merely by read- SCIENCE: AND THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 91

ing."-" His results also suggested that there were real differences in the difficulties generated by the different genres. again provid- evidence in support at' the types approach. Mary C. Burch. in a slightly later but more extensive study 119281, recorded the responses of students in grades 7 to 12on a similar test. She also concluded that the existing placement of texts was appropriate for only 25 percent of each grade level. but found that the differences within each grade were greater than the differences between it and the five others studied. Following Crow's lead. she used the voluntary reading preferences of the students to determine the proper range for school teaching." Though the results of these and other, less extensive examinations of the correspondence between the abilities of students and the difficulty of conventional materials were hardly encouraging. the result was paradoxic-Ily to give teachers of literaturea new confidence that they ifindeed have an objective. quantifiable subject matter. just like the rest of the teaching world. This attitude is apparent. for example. in the quotation from Hat 1927 odiiorial at the beginning Of this chapter: there the teaching of literature was directly equated with the teaching of "the higher skills- of reading. and both placed within the tradition of scientific study. NCT concern with practical reading skills continued.but except for occasional and short-lived flirtations,it soon became a separate concern from the teaching of literature.By. the early thirties. with attention in reading studies shifting toward physiological defects in disabled readers and that in literature toward the puwiskni of "experience.- the teaching of reading in the high school had come to mean almost exclusively remedial work,'"

The Focus on the Individual

Ability Groups Demunds for efficiency and economy. "objective- measures of achievement and intelligence, and a burgeoning, heterogeneous school population combined during the twenties to createa new awareness of individual differences. Ability grouping was one of the first and most lasting responses. This spread quickly after the war. with an original conception that was perfectly blameless: teachers thought it would be easier to provide individualized instruction if their classes were homogeneous. From the beginning, however. the concern with grouping students into "inferior- and -superior- classes carried with itthe danger of poor teaching. The earlier development of business Eng- 92 "'KA MT ION Aso If Eroam

lish curricula had at -least begun with the premise that the students in them were interested in other work than that in the regular English class: the new division placed the emphasis on their imibillty to do the same work. Thus a trend quickly developed in which the gifted classes were given an enriched curriculum, the "slow" groups a strong close of drill and "minimum essentials,- This downgrading of activities for the low group and the shift of teacher interest is apparent even in the earliest articles on ability grouping in English: by the 1930s, partly in response to studies of gifted students by Terman and others, it was deeply ingrained." Superior classes clearly became the prerogative of the superior teacher. As the head of the English department in one New York City high school put it, "Gifted students thrive under the leadership of distinguished minds." Slow students, even to a New Jersey teacher obviously devoted to them, "[call] forth everything that the teacher has to offer in tact, sympathy, and understanding." The point to note is that they do not call forth interest or excitement.

The Ihilton Ilan leachers of English treated ability groups as a means to greater efficiency: they alic, thought of them as a compromise with the ideal provision of a completely differentiated program for each student. '"I'lw highest social efficiency." wrote Hatfield in 1925. "is evidently to he attained only by giving.each individual with 011 his peculiarities the training he most needs. So we have ability grouping.. which carried through to its extreme becomes individual, instruction."'" The ."Dalton" or "contract" plan represented one attempt to :any through to that desirable extreme. In essence, the plan involved each student meeting with his teachers and making a "contract- to do certain work within a given period of time, usually a week. The terms of the contract could he varied to meet the needs of the pupil. but its value was specified in advance so that each student would know whether he was working for an A. a 13, or a C, and would have some measure of choice in the matter. Although the plan was really an offshoot of work done before the war at San Francisco State Normal College, it was first systematically put into practice by Helen Parkhurst in Dalton, Massachusetts. Both Park- hurst and Evelyn Dewey used the name of the latter town in popularizing the approach, thoeith the precise formulation varied almost Ingo school to school!' With its focus on individual effort, the Dalton plan was criticized by some teachers as violating "the social nature of English instruc- t ion" being particularly detrimental in the teaching of literature." This objection was circumvented by including some contracted group work. allowing students to discuss what they had read with one ;mother as well as with the teacher. By the late twenties, the SCIENCE AND THE TEACHINGorENGLISH 93

Dalton plan was running smoothly enough to produce some rhap- sodic evaluations, like that of a teach& from the South Philadelphia I I igh School for Girls:

The recitation has truly. but unobtrusively passed. Group work,supervised study, socialized study, and projects both individual and cooperative have become automatically the means by which the learning process is carried on. Learning to do by doing; learning that learning is a slow process; learning that mastery is possible and that nothing else ii-lacceptablethe goals of education have come within the conscious gyn.!) of boo h lcaClumrs and si tuitints.

In t he end, the critics rather than the proponents of the contract met hod triumphed. The early concernthatthe contracts put undue emphasis on individual work at the expense of group activities had been easy enough to overcome. By the early thirties. however, teachers were beginning to recognize that the goals inherent in the Dalton plan were out of harmony with the general goals of literature instruction. The interest of a student working to fulfill a contract in literature would be an interest engendered by desire to fulfill the contract; it would not bean interest in the story itself. Teachers began to find that the contract could even serve to stifle rather than arouse interest;once the contract was fulfilled, the student would simply stop reading, Finally. the contract had from the beginning placed too much emphasis upon quantitative rather than qualitative differences in the work required. The difference between an A and a B usually lay simply in the amount of work done. so that an A-student would do all of the work of t he B-students, and then some. It was not enough that he do the same work better. Proper individualization of in- structkm, on the other hand. needed to emphasize qualitative differences in students and the work they should be doing. Hatfield rang the death knell in a 1932 editorial, though he continued to print defenses of the method for some years following: "Let the teacher, if he will, work out the contract as his idea of what he vi ants the pupils to do. Rut let him find some more soMal and humane method of dealing with impressional le.plastic human beings.''"

IV, Work The "mastery unit" was another approach to the problem of inch vidualizing instruction that in the end developed in a rather different direction. Henry C. Morrison popularized the term in his book. 11w Practice of Teaching in the Secondary School 11926). A "unit" to him consisted essentially of all of the activities and materials necessary to bring about a given change in pupil behavior. to "inculcate the 'understanding,' for example,that the 91 TRADITION AND RKFORM

colon is a signpost pointing to an enumeration.- Each student mould proceed through a unit at his own speed, movingon to the next only after he had demonstrated mastery. It wasan approach which dovetailed neatly with the concern for minimal essentials. butitalso suffered from the problems of that approach when applied to English: literature was not easily broken downinto "units" for mastery. at least not in thesense that Morrison was using those terms. Hatfield. though initially pleased with the implication of purposefulness in all of the activities introduced into the unit. quickly depled that though "such notionsare decidedly comfortable." the underlying conception of growthwas inadequate. People do not grow by the accumulation of the separate, completed units of skill that / Morrison's analysis implied. The production model from industry could not he so directly applied to teaching." The Mastery unit. like the Dalton plan,. enjoyeda brief vogue and then dropped front view. "Units," however. became ingrained in the educational vocabulary. where they remain to this day witha meaning quite different from that which they originally bore. Instead of a discrete set of materials witha limited, specific behavioral goal toward which the individual student couldprogress at his own pace. "unit" came to he used to describe virtuallyany set of activities centered around one common focus. Talk of mos- wry in Nlorrison's sense had very little meaning with activities of this sort. Leonard V. Koos. associate director of the National Survey of Secondary Education carried out by the Office of Education, discussed some of the findings of the survey before the 1932 NCTE convention. Ile pointed out-that 71 percent of the nation'ssecon dory schools were using homogeneous grouping for English classes. It higher percent than fir any other subject in the curriculum. IQ was the most frequent criterion for forming the groups. Ile noted, tom that "unit-assignments" were among the most frequent pre- visions tor individual differences. (hough both the Dalton plan and the Morrison planin schools reporting. to use them with unusual success" deviated widely from the plans described by the origi- nators. Must such teaching, though it continued to go under a variety of names, had by 1932 come to represent simply a sequence of related activities, usually with a definite beginning and definite end. which could be used with a single student or, more usually, with a class."

tAitietitTesting

In addition to using intelligence and achievement scalesto divide students into homogeneous groups. teachers of Englishgave increasing attention to the use of "new type"or "objective- exami- nations for diagnosis and evaluation. Though they had difficultyin adapting such tests for the teaching of literature. teacherswere soon won over by arguments about- the reliability, fairness, and SCIENCE AND THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 95

(101101113' (they were easy to correct) of the objectivetests.'" As with many aspects of themovement for efficiency and scientific methods. however. it was the "minimumessentials" and "functional" reading skills that ultimately receivedLhe most attention. The history of objective testing in Englishduring this period hot II in literature and in otherareas of the curriculumis somewhat unusual in that both liberal and conservativeviews of teaching cOuld unite, though for differentreasons, in support of tests, To the conservatives, testing wasa way to keep up standards and insure the place of discipline andmemory work." To the liberals,it provided the teacher witha way to diagnose pupils' weaknesses and thus to better meet their needs. ThatHatfield undertook to edita series of "Practice Tests- whichwere commercially published and advertised in theEnglish Journal isas clear an indication as anything of his point of view. Equallysignificant is a series of "diagnostic" tests of reading abilityput together by John J. DeBoer, theJournal'sassistant editor and resident radical. His rationale was explicit: "Teachers of Englishand instructors respon- sihle for the educational guidanceof high-school youth .cannot provide competent counsel withouta fairly comprehensive knowledge of the mental and educational characteristicsof the pupils placed in their charge. "" The more conservative view of testing was represented by the College Entrance Examination Hoard, which in the spring of1929 appointed a Commission on English to undertakea major study of the English examination. Charles Swain Thomas of the Harvard Graduate School of Education was named chairman; hisrelatively conservative eastern college view dominates the report (though II:afield was also a member of the commission). The finalreport. published in 1931 asExamining the Examination in English.is a fascinating portrait of attitudes both toward testing and toward scientific method in general. The report began by dedicating itself to scientific method. The commission members decided that, although they could havemade pronouncements "ex cathedra," that would be "wholly unsatisfactory." Indeed. they felt they were in a unique positionto avoid "subjective conclusions." Not only did they have availablefor study the accumulated data of twenty-eight years of testing by the CEEB, but also a mass of data from other agencies. Andmost important of all. "There were readily at hand methods of objective estigation which the recent years have refined and. validated. '''" Most- of the report, however, was hardly scientific. Therewas an historical study of the form of the Restricted and Comprehensive examinations over the years. and tables of the topics and options that Intl been provided; old examination hookletswere informally reviewed to ascertain that both kinds ofexams had been fairly scored: one chapter devoted itself to aims of English study; another dealt with the conditions of administering and the details ofscoring 913 T RA Da ION AND It EFOHM

the essays. The science in the study consisted of questionnaire surveys of students and teachers about various aspects of the testing program and their English classes, aml of a correlational study of the predictive value of the Scholastic Aptitude Test. (SAT), the Restricted and Comprehensive examinations inEnglish. and school grades. These scientific analyses were all relegated Lc)an appendix and largely ignored: many of the resultsare not. mentioned anywhere in the report- Still, they were the commission's claim to science and objectivity, and they' were published in full.. Much to the chagrin of the- commission, Lhe results of their ,rorrelational analyses consistently indicated that Lhe best predictor of college achievi'ment was the SAT, next. the school record. then the Comprehensive, and finally the Restricted examination in En- glish. The problem with this in the commission's view was that the SAT was a mechanical examination which did not "Lest the candidate's ability to paraphrase or Lo make a prikis,or La interpret the subtler qualities of a poem read at sight.- Faced with Lhe evidence that the SAT was a better predictor. of college performance in English, the commission finally rested on iLs humanism: question is not so much a result. reducible Lo statisticsas ii is a cletorminalion to retain in American education certain factorscon- tributing to civilization and culture rather than to Lhe mechanical efficiency of Lhe American college student."' In the end their recommendations suggested abandoning Lhe restricted examination. but asked only minor changes in the cherished comprehensive essay test..' While rejecting the objective examination for theirown purposes. the commission managed also to conclude LhaL Leachers of English "cannot. afford to ignore Lhe value of these tests in classroom work.- Indeed the report. devotes a whole chapter (written primarily by Thomas) to the educational value of examinations in the classroom.The purposes of such a testing program (to bea "recurrent- practice throughout the year) were several: ii would give the teacher diagnostic information; ii would help "systema- tize- instruction; and it would serve Lo motivate students by giving them an impartial record of achievement_ There was an inherent fait h that all students would achieve, and thus be able Lo bask in t heir Own reflected glory; the effects of such objective proof of their own Mobility on students who might. continually fail were hardly considered.

Experimental Method

Studies of reading interests and of comprehension skillswere essentially static: they could say something about present. condi- SCIENCE ANDTimTEACIIING OF ENGLISH 97

lions but were at best only suggestive about- how to make things better. Indeed they could even help perpetuate the status quo: Burch, for example, explicitly used her discoveries about what the st talents were reading on their own as a criterion for determining what they shmdd be reading in the school. Experimental studies of alternative teaching methods, on the other hand, did offer a way tou ant progressive improvement of methodology through the oh- jective determination of the most effective procedures. The path toward sound experimental study in the teaching of English was not an easy one, however: indeed, a cynic might Men wonder if the number of false starts from pseudoscientific. improperly designed "studies" may not have done more harM than all the good from bettor projects. Teachers quickly picked up the terminology of science: every change in curriculum became an "experiment": every fluctuation in student behavior hecame "significant": all procedures. were "evaluated." Yet only a few made- even an attempt to use an experimental design, and the best of those had serious flaws. The first experimental study of importance in the teaching of literature was Nancy Coryell's doctoral project (1927) at Teachers College, Columbia," It was set in the context of a growing debate about the most successful way to approach literary works in class. Two different philosophies had long been evident: on the one .hand there were teachers who lauded the benefits of allowing students to read extensively on their own with only minimal discussion of the works and no close textual analysis; this approach had become especially preValent among teachers concerned with socializing class procedures and with insuring student interest. On the other hand there were those who felt appreciation was an earned achievement, the result of careful study and thoughtful analysis; here the emphasis was on extended study of a few books, with at least several weeks of class discussion devoted to the thstpils of each. Intensive study had of course been the approach at the end of the nineteenth century, where the emphasis had been philological and rhetorical: though the form of the analysis had been much -modified over the years, the value of some sort of careful class study was not usual:ly questioned. NCI'E had focussed so much attention on extensive for "home" or "independent") reading to bring it into wider use as an adjunct to, not as a replacement for, class study The two appioaches were considered to be complementary, and both had had their place in the Reorganization report.'" As extensive reading became more and more accepted.:how-tArgr, and as the goals of instruction turned toward breadth of i:x4perienc/t.,, voices began to be heard arguing that extensive reading should' replace, not supplement, intensive study. I t was this question that Coryell addressed in a year-long experimental- comparison of the two procedures, As she summarized it, her extensive reading classes 9i TRADITION AND iiIFORM

involved "the rapid reading of a comparatively largeamount of literature with general comments and discussion in class";the intensive reading class concentrated on "the detailed, analytical study of the minimum of literature required by the syllabus" 1). The reading for the extensive group was setup to parallel but exceed the work clone in the other classes: if the or read four of the Idylls of the King. the other read eleven, and five thousandmore lines of Elizabethan poetryand so on through the syllabus. The experiment involved nine eleventh grade classes in one school, including one extensive reading, one intensive reading, and one control group at each of three ability levels. Testing included a fairly extensive battery of standardized tests of reading and comprehension, but the major focus was on a final examination which Coryell constructedto cover only the hooks studied by the intensive readers. Finding at the end of the year that the two groups had progressed equally, Coryell drew the conclusion that the extensive readers "probably learned five times as much again, which they hadno chance to use on the examinations, "" Coryell's study is of considerable importanceas one of the earliest examples of relatively careful application of experimental procedures to the study of the teaching of literature. The results could hardly be ignored and prompted considerable debate betweenproponents of the two approaches, a dehate that by the end of the 1930s endedup at about the point where Coryell had begun: a situation of uneasy coexistence,'" It is indicative of the general level of pedagogical science that the study was never questioned on its merits; throughout the debates the proponents of intensive study tended to ignore rather than challenge her results.' The study certainly could have heen faulted at a number of points: only a few teachers and a few classeswere involved, and these were obviously More enthusiastic aboutthe "experimental" extensive reading approach; the measuring instrument, though testing only content from the books all had studied, was dearly weighted in its emphasis toward 'the goals which had governed the studies of the extensive readers: and the results after all simply indicated that there wasno difference. not that the extensive readers had done better. Later studies tended to substan- tiate these results, but Coryell's work by itselfwas not that conclusive." Literature was certainly the most difficultarea of English instruction to investigate with experimental methods: itwas simply too difficult to measure objectively results thatwere framed in terms of "appreciation," "attitudes," or lifelong habits. Yet the situationin language and composition seems to have been little hetter: there were few true experimental studies. and those tended to have serious faults. In 1961. an NCTE committee began a review of the entire field of research in written composition: they found only five studies SCIENCH AND THE TEACHING OF ENCLISD 99

out of the hundreds reportS that met most of their criteria for sound investigation.'" The situation in the teaching of literaturewas certainly whrse.h"

Settling Down

The twenties began with a burst of enthusiasm about benefits that would derive from the application of science to the problemsof English, but the proffered benefits were slow in coming, andnot alt to the liking of teachers. Many studies,- firmly under the control of those car* ill; them out, did tend to support and reinforce tendencies underway in English; Coryell's project falls into thiscategory to the extent that the measuring instrumentwas weighted towards the -procedures in her experimental group. Yet itwas not too long before English teachers began to learn that studies affecting their field would not always be under their control. Perhaps the most effective agent in educating teachers to the dangers of poorly conducted research was a series of studies of class size, in Englishas well as other subjects. Comparing pupil achievementon a few easily measured variables, these studies seemed to indicate that small classes had no distinct advantages over large; insome cases the students in them did not even do as well. Administrators, always underpressure to cut costs, quickly used these studies as justification for large-scale jumps in the number of pupils per teacher." Such studies eventually made Melt leadersaware that teachers of English might not make the world's best scientists, and scientists might not know how to make the world's best teacher of English. limey Belle Inglis emphasized this point in delivering her presidential address to the 1929 NCTE convention: "Sayover to yourselves the names of the really great teachers of historyor your personal experience. Did they spend hours humpedover correlations? Many of the antagonisms between the two fields could be saved ifeach were given due place and recognition, and persons fitted bynature and disposition for the one were not forced into the other. "s' Ayear later I latfield, spurred by administrators' reactions to the studies of class size, was less sure that the current set of "scientists" deserved such "due place and recognition." He granted that scientific investigation is -obviously necessary":

Necessary but more difficult than educational "scientists" have usually realized. A few loosely- conducted. slightly supervised experi meats with large and small classesseemed to show no great advantage in the small classes. Immediately the majority of administrators and, VI` suppose. of professors of education, leaped to the conclusion that Classes everywhere, under all 'sorts of teachers, might safett; he nude 100 TRADITION AND REFORM

larger.... we do not realize the complexity of the teaching-learning wilt ion, The number of "variables" to lie controlled in the experiment rt tho tamiliar "parallel groups.' type is dangerously large.. we are credulous. unduly credulous. Scientific experiment is a new magic which sounds logical.Ithas not yet been used enough to produce contradictory results.''

I lis conclusion that class size could not be studied apart from other issues of curriculum and instruction represents the balance of opinion today." Still the scientific orientation had been deeply ingrained:- the skepticism that developed was really a sign of the increasing sophisticlition of teachers and their leaders about such approaches. They did not reject science. but they did begin to move to control it. A Committee on Research was organized: annual summaries of research in English studies were prepared for the English Journal; and reviews of new studies began to point out the faults and limitations as well as the conclusions reached."' By the mid-thirties science was clearly no longer viewed as the solution to all the ills of the teaching of English, but it was just as clearly seen as one of the tails that would be put to use in the search for solutions to those ills. SCIENCE ANIt TIM TEACIIING ENGLISII 101

CI IA PTE II IV NOTES

I. EdwardL.Thorndike. "The Nature.Purposes. and General Methods of Measurements of Educational Products." in National Society for the Study of Education. SeventeenthYearbook(Bloomington: NSSE. 1918). Cited by Lawrence A. Cremin inThe Transformation of the School INew York: N'Mtage Books, 19016 p. 185. 2. W. W. Charters,Curriculum ConstructionNew York: Macmillan Co.. 19231, P. 4. 3, W. W. Illatlieldl. "Literature Can Be Taught."English Journal 16:8 (October 1927): 648.49. The reference is to Arthur I. flatesThe bnprorement of Reading ItiewYork: Macmillan Co.. 1927). 4. John .1. DeBoer. "Changing Objectives in English...English :Journal 21:5 (Nlay 1932): 403-0.1. 5_ On the efficiency nun ement, see especially Raymond E. Callahan. Educationand the Cult of E, ficiency(Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1962). 6. National Society far the Study of Education.Thirty-Seventh Year- book: Part 11. The Scientific Movement in Education Illloomington:NSSE, 1938). p. 57. 7. The army program is summarized by Cremin,Transformation of the School.pp. 186-87. On ability grouping in the general context of providing for individual differences. see Roy 0. llillett inProvisions for Individual Differences, Marking. and Promotion.Monograph 13 of the National Survey of Secondary Education. Bureau of Education Bulletin 1932,no. 17 I Washington: Government Printing Office, 1933). 8. All tour were distributed as yearbooks of the National Society for the Study of Education:Minimum Essentials in Elementary-School Subjects, Fourteenth Yearbook. Part I 11915);Second Report of the Coin:Wiley on Minimal Essentials in Elementary- School Subjects.Sixteenth Yearbook. PartI (19171:Third Report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education.Seventeenth Yearbook. Part 1 11918): andFourth Report of the Committee on Economy of Time in Education,Eighteenth Yearbook. Part II 119191. 9. Franklin Bobbin,How To Make a Curriculum(New York: Hough- ton Mifflin Company. 1924). This book and his earlierThe Curriculum 11918)were frequently cited by teachers- attempting to formulate a curricu lum for literature throughout the twenties and thirties. 10.Ibid.. pp. 76 -79. 1 I. English was cheaper than the other languages because, asa required course. more students took it and class sizes were larger. 12. NSSE, Fourteenth Yearbook, I: p. 147. 13. NSSE, Eighteenth Yearbook, the section was by W. S. Gray. 14. "Report of the Committee on Economy of Time in English,English Journal9:1 (January 1920): 32-34. IS. For a chronicle of changing attitudes toward language, see Raven I. McDavid. Jr..ed.. An Examination of the Attitudes of the NCTE Totrard Language.Res.-arch Report no. 4 (Urbana. NCTE. 1065). This provides very little interpretation or reference beyond NCTE journals. On Leonard's cotmnitt cc. see "The National Council. 1911-36.English Journal25:10 (December 1936): 805-29. 102 Timorous Aso It Ennio

In 'Challenged,- Editorial. English doarnal 11:9 (November 1922): 5s 1.s5. See also "Social Studies as the Core," News-and Notes, English diewnal 9:5 (May 1920): 295;96. During 1922 considerable attention was (let (god to increasing required English from three to four years. Statements in support were or en obtained from Vice President Marshall. (Max .1. Ilerzberg. "Four Years of English in Secondary Schools.- English Journal 11:1 lApril 19221: 236-39.1 ITEssie Chamberlain. "Curriculum Building in English." English fuming 11:1 (January 1925): 1-12. "Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the Nat lona! council of Teachers of English.- English donna', 14:1 (January 1925): -17-7(1. On her earlier interests. see her "The Possibilities of Class- room 415periment.English Journal 10:$ 1 (October 19211: 427-38. 15, John NIantle Clapp. 771e Place of English in Aniericon Life, Report of an Investigation by a Committee of the National Council of Teachers of English (Chicago. NCTE. 1926). Summarized us ''Report of Committee (in Place and Function of English in American Life.- English Journal 15:2 I February 19261: 119-3;1. 19. Charles S. PendletmL The Social Objectives of School English ash% illy; IV the author. 19211. Other investigations with goals similar to those (1I the Clapp report included .1. W. Searson, "Meeting the Public Ikmand.- English: Journal 10:6 (June 19211: 327-31; and a report from the Chicago English Club. "Out of School list's of English.- English Journal 22:6 (tone 1933): -166-71. 2(1. The summary volume was W. W, Charters,: Alotion Pictures and Youth (New York: Nlacmilltin Company. 1933). Twh of the studies have recently been reprinted as NB of the Literature of the Cinenut series. Edgar Dale, Children 's attendance au Alotion Pictures. and Wendell S. i)ysinger and Christian A. Itticktnick. The Emotional Responses of Children to (ha' Alotion PictureSituation (New York: Arno Press and the New Yorh Times, 19701. These originally appeared in 1935 and 1933. respectively. 21, Dalt% Children's Attendance at Motion Pictures, p. 73. 22. See "Movie Madness.- English Journal 21:9 (November 19321: 773-74. The early history is reviewed in a 1935 editorial, "Bow Much Analysts of IthotoplaysTs English Journal 24:3 (March 1935): 241-42. 'the pioneering work was (lone by Max Ilerzberg and Edgar Dale, 23. Al illiam Lewin. Photo/day Appnk-hrtion in American High Schools (Neu York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 19341. The study was later criticized on the grounds that the teachers were not competent to conduct film studies. judging from the preferences (ley reported. See kV. Illat field]. "Teachers' Literary Judgment.- EngimIt .lonrnal 23:9 (November 1034): 75. 21. William Lewin. "New Photoplays." English Journal 23:6 (June 19:111: 509. There was also sonic interest in student-made films. See 'lardy H. I:inch, "Film Production in the School A Survey.- English Journal 25:3 I.Alay1 9393: 116571. 25. SIT Nlabel A. liessey, Report of a Committee of the MTE on the Use of the llogozinv in the thigh School English Classroom (Chicago: NCTE, 19351; Eleanor Morison. "The Newspaper of 'Today," English Journal 1(1:3 (March 19271: 192-99: and William W. Wallenberg., "Getting Truth Irma Your Newspaper.- English Journal 2(1:5 May 1937): 363-68. 26. Thi was part/t- because radio was treated as part of the speech. curriculum. The early work of the Radio Commjitee focussed on arranging broadcasts of literary works. including a series- of Shakespeare's plays between 19:- 6 and 193$. in conjunct km with t he American School of the Air. Seit:set: Ami Tim Th Aclitm: or Ennitsii 102

See \lax .1. 111_971:erg. "Listen In!English Journal 25:9 (November 19361: 775: and 26:10 Illecenther 19371: :427-28. On radio andspeech, see F. 11. Lum English 'Teacher and Radio Broadcasts.- EnglishJournal :33:6 (tune 1934): 478.85. 27. Max .1. Herzberg. Radio and the English 'handier(Chicago: Mit. 19371. p. 2. See also I. Keith 'Eyler.The listening Habits of Oakland (California) Pupils... English Journal 25:3 (March19:381: 206:15: and I. Keith Tyler.What ('an We I /o About the Radio?English Journal 27:7 iSeptenther 19381: 556-66. 28. Charles Sumner Crow. &filtration of Englishljteraturedn the High School. Contributions to Educationno. 1.11 (New York.: Teachers College. Columbi'i University, 19241. p 29. Step for example Earl liudelson,Our Courses of Study in laiterr t English .h artful12:7 (September 19231: 481.87: FranKes Mary Ilughes. -What Do IlighSchool Teachers SayAbout the Classics at Present Ilsed?- English duurnal 13:5 (May 1924):331-35: Stuart-Noble, "A Unified Sequenct. in High-S(7_1mM Literature.English Journal 13:5 (May 1924)7:150.52: and John NI. Stalkner and Fred Eggan."American Novelists Ranked: A PsychoIngical Study,- English Journal18:4 (April19291: 293.307. One survey was used as the basis ofa basal reading series: Ilerbert Bruner. "Determining Basic Reading Materials Througha Study of C hil- drt.it's Interests and Adult Judgments," TeachersCollege Record 30:4 (January 19291: 285-309. 30. Erna B. Conrad and Katherine Hickok."Placement of Literary Selections for Junior and Senior High Schools.-English Journal 19:5 (May 193111: 377-84, 31. John L. Haney, "Standardization in English.- Englishdonor& 11:4 I April 19221: 214-21. :12.Ilubert A. Wright:, "The Solution of Burke.-English Journal 12:5 N I ay 19231 :117.21: and Abner A. NI iller. -StreamliningCmtins.English Journal 21:7 (September 19351: 580-82. 33. See Nila Banton Smith..4mricun RendingInstruction (New York: Silver. Burdett and Company. 1934),pp. 155.58: National Society for the Study of Education. Twentieth Yearbook. II11921): and ('harks II. Judd and (My T. Buswell, Silent Heading: AStudy of Its l'arions Types, Supplementary Educational Monographs (Chicago:University of Chicago Press. 19221. :1-1. Theo. W. II.Irian. Comprehension Difficulties of A'inthGrade Students in the Study of Literature, Contributionsto Education no. 189 (New York: Teachers ('allege. Columbia University,19254 pp. 71.72. He annmarized his results in -16: coniany in the'reaching of High-School Literature.- English Journal 16:2 (February 19271:114-19. 33. Mary Crowell Burch. -Determination ofa Content in the Course in Literature of a Suitable Difficulty for Junior and SeniorHigh School Sttalents.- Genetic Psychology Alonograph.4 4 I NM4.2 and 3): 1928. 36. One major burst of interestcame in the late 1930s, after the conclusion of a federal study of silent readingin New York City. This was reported by Stella S. Center and Gladys 1.. Personsin Teaching /high School Pupils to Read (Chicago, Ill.: MTh!.19371. :37. Seetouise Anderson. ''English for the Inferior Sectionof the Ninth (frade... English Journal 12:9 (November 19231: 61116:Cora Lehr. "En. (;fish with a'IIigh 1Q. Class.- English JIninul 14:10(December 19251: 742.53: Mabel C. Dermans. "Experiments with GiftedChildren." English Journal 20:7 (September 19311: 540-47: Prudence 'I'.Limphean. "What 1(1 I TRADITION . %NI) REFORM

Cie). eland Is Doing tor Superior Students.- English Journal26:9 (November 19:171: 723-28. !III den ).arise Cohen. "English for the (lifted," English d attract, 2:3 1March 19351: 208-II; Ruth Axton! Stewart, -Dedicated to the Low IQ." thattwal 24:3 IN larch 19351: 204-07. Stewart was admittedly talking itlaan an extreme case: her class had an average IQ of 76. The same ,ittittales were evident in teachers of students in the 90 to IOU range. however. See Lou L. Lidirant. "Differentiated Teaching of Literature." English Journal 20:7 (September 19311: 548-56. :M. The Social Conception." English Journal 14:5 (May 192511 414-15. )n the early work, see Cremin. TransThrmation of the Schord. p. 296. Ii was popularized in Evelyn Dewey, The-Milton Laboratory Plan New )(Irk: IC.I'. Dutton. 19221. and in Ilelen Parkhurst's Education on the Milton Plan 119224 Dewey's description was based on observations in Dalton and in two British schools that had adopted the approach. 11. Marion C. Sheridan,An Evaluation of the Dalton Plan." English .1 ournal (September 1926: 507-13. 42. 01W e Ely I lart -The Dalton Plan vs. Individualized Instruction," English Journal I&:2 (February 19291: 168-70. 13. Clyde Db.:song and Mary Champe Ilissong, "English under the I bilk in English iota-nal 19:1(1( Wcenther 19301: 822-24. Con- t met.... Editorial, English Journal 21:11) 11 hwember 19321: 842-43, 44. "What Should a 'Unit'. in English Be?" English Journal 22:10 1December 19331: 844-45. Morrison himself addressed the 1930 N(11: convention ("The Cleveland Meeting," English Journal 20:1 'January 1931 I: 564 For an earlier and more favorable reaction, see "Units' in Learning.' English Journal 16:10 IDecember 19271: 816-17. n. Leonard V. Koos. "The National Survey of Secondary Education. English Journal 22:4 (April 19331::303 -13. The full report of this aspect of. the sun ey is in 1611E41., Provisions for Different-es. Mi. See .1. 'Pressler, "The New Type of Examination." English Journal 9: I 0 (December 19241: 709-15. 47. Thus Mabel S. Satterfield and Salibelle Royster argued that pupils wadi! gain "mental discipline" and learn "to know the events of .Silas 3/arlier" by being given objective tests. "The New-Type Examination in English.English Journal 20:6 (June 19311: 490-95. 48. John .1.Deliver, "A College Qualifications Test in Reading," English .biurnal 21:s Il)rtuber 1932): f3!9 -41. /le was given editorial support for the project in the same issue. 49. Commission on English. Examining the Exam in English, I larvard Studies in English. vol. 17 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer- sity Press. isrso, p. xii. 50. Ibid.. pp. 153-54. 51. This is one of the indications of I fat field's lack of influence on the report. Ile complained editorially that the commission :should have heeded its own findings and abandoned Ony special exam in English. -College Ent ranee xaminat ions," English Journal 20:9 I November 19311: 770-71. 52. See "Report on College Entrance English Exam." News and Notes. English Journal 20:9 INovemher 1931): 774-75.This notes Thomas' chapter with special approval. 53. Nancy (1111mon.Coryell. An Evaluation of Extenshm and Intensive Thaehing of Literature, Contributions to Education no. 275 (Now York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 19271. SCIENCE AND Tar TEACIIINOor Exousti 105

:I I.thlt- relief ion of the Joint Committee's attitudewas the fact that Extensive Reading" was dealt with in a chapter of itsown. separate from the chapters on the teaching of literature. On theReorganization report. see (limiter 111. 55. This was in a report to the 1927 NCTE convention. "The1927 Council.-English Journal17:1 (January 1928): 57-81. 56. The extremes of the two points of viewwere illustrated by the debating positions at one convention. John Gelman. "The Valuesof Required Reading."English Journal19:8 lOctober 1930): 663-42: and Mary E. lame. "Ittptired !Wading Versus Free Reading,"English Journal1.9:8 (October 19301: 649-51. The editor suggested they be readas "a joint contribution." 57. The Commission on English(Examining tin Examination in Eng- lish, p, 261 wastypically dismissive:."Miss Coryell's study reveals certain advantages of extensive reading, but this doesnot imply that a real appntiatitm of literature can be secured without very close and detailed work upon selected masterpieces." 704. Other studies supporting-free reading are summarized by JamesR. Squire in "English Literature." in theEncyclopedia of Educational Re- .searrh,4th ed.. ed. Robert L. Ebel INew York: Macmillan Company,1969). pp. 461.73. 59. Richard Braddock et al.Research in Written Composition(Urbana, Ill.: N("I'E, 1963). When Purves and Beach carried outa similar survey of investigations in the teaching of literature, they found flaws in virtuallyall the studies examined. Alan C. Purves and Richard Beach,Literature and the Reader no.sramh in Response to Literature. Reading Interests,and the Teachi«g of literature(Urbana. Ill.; Nell:, 19791. 60.Itis indicative of the state of affairs in literature that whenthe National Society for the Study of Education devoted itsThirty-Seventh Yearbookto the scientific movement in education, it included chapterson the teaching of handwriting. spelling. Englishusage and readingbut none on literature. 61. Important early Ipre-1925) studies were conducted by Calvin0. Davis in the North Central Association and Paul It. Stevensonat the University of Illinois. See Callahan,Munition and the Cult of Efficiency. pp. 232-39, 62. limey Belle Inglis. "Retrospect and Prospect."English Journal 19:1 1.1anuary 1939): 11-21. 63. Editorial, "Pedagogical Research."English Journal19:8 (October 19311: 665.66. 61. See William S. Vincent, "Class Size." in Ebel.Encyclopedia of Ednott intuit Research,pp. 141.46. 65. See Walter Barnes, "English Research and the National Council." English Journal 2:1:1(January 19340: 9-18: Committee on Research, "The Contributions of Research to Teaching and Curriculum-Making in English, Juituary. I933. through June, 1934."English Journal 23:9(November 19341: 71S-31; and Dudley NI lies. "Class Size in tligh-School English." Book Review.English Journal 21:1(January 1932): 77-78. The Miles article was a review of a study by Dora V. Smith (soon to be NCTE president) in which her results were attributed to the "intelligence. vigorouspersonality, and profound enthusiasm" of Smithand hence could not be generalized, The aim of leaching literatureisthe utmost possible broadening and enrichment of young people's experience, and their better appreciationor valuing of all experience, rather than of books alone. Sterling Andrus Leonard, Essential Principles of Teaching Reading and Literature, 19221

In the common ..chools, al least, the social basis of literature trill become established by the ;mportunilies of a civilization on trial.,. The introduction of democracy into industry; the use of wealth for the welfare of the people; the protection of womanhood and childhood against the rapacity of individualism gime mad; the final eradication of mob rule and lynch law; the elimination of brutality and injustice in our cowls and penal institutions; the growth of a world state in which war will be as extinct as the private duelchildren are not only to understand these movements, they are to learn to desire them with studied intensity. John J. De Boer, "The Materials of the English Curriculum," 19322

Our major task in the ordinary school is to leach all our pupils to read ordinal), matters with ordinary intelligence and to express ordinal), thoughts with reasonable clarity,This emphasis upon the practical enforces very directly our responsibility as leachers of a tool subject.. . Our English cultist should embody experiences... analogous to the expected general experiences of life, Charles Swain Thomas, Presidential Address to the NCTE, 19353

The state course of study in English is liberal in tendency. ... Handicaps lo the practical use of the rouse in schools throughout the stale are chiefly a paucity of book supply, local insistence upon more formal elements of instruelion. lack of preparatiim on the part of leachers in point of view and in knowledge of the kind of materials sponsored by lie course, and fear Mot the Regents' examinationsorcollege entrance requirements will differin emphases from the slate come of study. Dora V. Smith, after surveying instruction in New York State, 1941'1 Chapter V

A Framework for Teaching

During the decades between the First and Second World Wars, teachers of English were searching for a new and coherent framework around which to structure their teaching. The concern with scientific method was one aspect of that search, but, as in the progressive movement in education as a whole, it was never the only one. In the teaching of literature in particular, the answers which science offered wetslow in coming and unsatisfactory when they arrived. The writings and speeches of William Heard Kilpatrick of Teachers College, Columbia, provide the best single example of the problems toward which teachers of English soon turned their attention. Many cited Kilpatrick directly as they sought to rational- ize and defend their own approaches: others less overtly but no less ohviously reflected his emphases and concerns, and sometimes even his solutions. As a disciple of Dewey and student of Thorndike. Kilpatrick was himself a blend of the forces that led to the redefinition of English instruction: his concerns were scientific, philosophical. psychological, reformist. And if that blend were improbable, so would be the blend within the teaching of English. In this chapter, the discussion will focus on the elaboration of a metaphor of experience and later of exploration as the heart of the educational process. Important contributing topics will include the project method, the redefinition of the value of literature in terms of "vicarious" and later of "ordered" experience, the emergence of radical social goals in response to the Depression, and the synthesis of all these elements in a series of "pattern curriculums" offered in the late 1930s. Other important movements which began during the twenties or thirtiesin particular the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association, a new interest in semantics, and the New Criticismculminated somewhat later and will he discussed in the next chapter,

107 1118 TRADITION AND REFORM

The Project Method

The Method Proposed The project method was Kilpatrick's methodological solution to the many demands on the progressive teacher. He outlined it briefly in Teachers College Record in September 1918, and elaborated it in more detail in a later book, Foundations of Method (1925). Accept- ing the progressives' rejection of mental discipline and their concern with moral and ethical development, he also pointed out that the method of teaching could itself convey important lessons to the student, lessons which have nothing to do with overt subject matter. Since in a democratic society "the typical unit of the worthy life" is "the purposeful act," Kilpatrick argued that this should also be the "typical unit of school procedure. "' Though in many ways this view of education was philosophically rather than psychologically derived, Kilpatrick carefully justified it in psychological terms. Here his analysis followed Thorndike in stressing that learning results from the Law of Effect: "any movement of mind or body that succeeds (or brings satisfaction) has for that reason a better chance of being used again." The virtue of the purposeful act as the basis of education is that it insures the working of the Law of Effect; the fulfillment of "purpose" brings satisfaction and thus forges the necessary bonds between stimulus and response." The project method was Kilpatrick's way of institutionalizing the purposeful act, and he described four kinds that could claim a legitimate place in the curriculum. One was the project to embody an idea in external form, as in writing a letter; the second, the project whose goal was simply to enjoy something, as in hearing a story; the third, to solve a problem, as in deciding why New York City has outgrown Philadelphia; the last, the project to attain a skill, as to bring one's handwriting up to grade 14 on the Thorndike scale.' The project that quickly came to dominate the literature did not really correspond to any of Kilpatrick's four categories; it might best be called the project to complete a task, as to make posters for a local show, to publish a school newspaper, or to build a model of the Globe theater. Even Babbitt in his functionalism had paid tribute to the value of -experience" in describing the uses of literature and reading; Kil- patrick. by placing the "purposeful act" at the heart of the educational process. made experience and education virtually synony- mous. As he put it, the "psychological order isthe order of experience, of democracy. and consequently of learning." And it was experience which would bridge the sometimes awesome gap between subject matter and child, between the world of the sophisticated adult and that of the naive schoolboy: AFRAMF.WORK FOR TEACIUNO 109

The subject -mutter of the curriculum is race experience,the picked winnings of the race, the bestways mankind has yet devised of meeting its problems. .. The child has experience. the race has experience. The child's experienceis. of course. ehildish: but merely small. the beginning, the it is race experience. germ: the fuller form we see in the

Thus the project method, andeducation itself, could ultimately he seen as the broadening of experience, openingup the child's view until it could encompass the full"race experience": "The bestway in which 1 can now conceive thecurriculum itself is asa series of experiences in which by guided inductionthe child makes his own formulations. Then theyare his to use."

Tim Response

English teachers were in general quitereceptive to Kilpatrick's exposition of method. Hosic providedan outline of the "Problem- Project Method" in the November 1918issue of English Journal (only two months after Kilpatrick'sRecord article)," and the Journal followed up with many examples ofthe successful use of the approach during the next severalyears. W. Wilhur Hatfield, a colleague of flosic's at Chicago NormalSchool and his successor at NCI'E, also undertook to explain andillustrate the method; he considered it most appropriate for the teachingof writing, however, and did not deal with literatureat all." By the end of the 1920s, the project method,the prohlem method, unit instruction, and the Dalton planhad become, in application, virtually indistinguishable. Yet eachof the approaches had, in its original formulation, madea unique contribution to the rapidly evolving methodology. What the projectmethod did for the teaching of literature was to bring experiencewithin the curriculum. Though the activities would eventually bearlittle relationship to those Kilpatrick had envisioned, they would heplanned and carried out to broaden and extend the student'srange of experiences in the way that Kilpatrick had argued.

Toward Experience

Literature and Experience Teachers' first response to the emphasis on experiencewas to treat literature as a "vicarious" experienceof the events described. As Hosic described it in his doctoral dissertation 119211. in thisview literature "enlarges and enriches theexperience of the reader and 110 TRADMON AND REFORM

extends his knowledge of life."" The roots of this emphasis are complex those whom Mimic cited as in essential agreement included Arnold, St. Beuve, Corson, Hudson, Baker. Babbitt, and Charters. The change during the twenties was to shift the focus from the past cultural experience Arnold had defended toward the present experience of the child himself. Sterling A. Leonard. in a textbook published a yearafter kiosk's study, gavethe concernwith vicarious experience its fullest statement. Throughout, he emphasized the life embodied in the books studied, rather than their "literary" characteristics. As he wrote in his preface, the "fundamental and central idea" of his discussion was that "children's reading of literature should be always an achievement of realized, true, and significant experience." lie explained further on, however, that he meant "true in the largest sense, of giving a right idea of relations between people in actual life, and between thoughts and acts and their consequences according W. natural law and social order." He meant that the vicarious experience offered must be a traditionally moral experience an assertion soon to cause trouble for the progressive teacherof English." What Leonard was doingwasfusing the emphasis onvalues that had been so important during the reorganization period with the emerging focus on experience. The underlying argument was simple enough: if literature is moral and also provides a vicarious experience. then the morality of the literature must come from the vicarious experience itself. Teachers fresh from the propaganda campaigns of the war had little doubt that literature's effects were quite direct. Secure in this belief, an NCTE committee on international relations attacked the "far reaching and pernicious influence" of Tennyson's "Charge of the Light Brigade"; they thought that the unquestioning obedience of the soldiers was the wrong kind of experience for schoolchildren to have." A similar acceptance of the power of vicarious experience led to an interest in biographical studies. As Martha Shackford of Wellesley College put it in arguing for teaching the life of Goldsmith: "lie gives balance and sanity; he saves us from dangerous complacence. His life was touched with pain and loneliness, but he was not dismayed. By living his life over with him our hearts ought to be softened and purified.'" Yet by the middle of the decade the ethical approach to literary experience was raising as many problems as it had solved. The early twentieth century had produced a host of new writers who challenged the very foundations of literary taste as well as the conventions of society. With the ethical orientation in literary studies, the orienta Lion which said in effect that the morally good was the aesthetically beautiful, there was really only one verdict which could be reached about these writers. I tarry T. Baker of toucher College pronounced it in 1923: A FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING 11

If we know anything worth knowing aboutpast literature, we can say something sensible and often helpfulabout that much over-praised novel,Alain Street,or about the blatant productions of the Vulgarian School of versifiying, headed by Vachel Lindsay,Carl Sandburg, and a few nondescript immigrants. and sponsoredby strong-minded ladies like Harriet Monroe and Amy Lowell. . The most noticeable feature of their curious volumes is that they need theservices of a delousing station. If there is one especially prominent"note" in American minor poetry at presentand all of itis minor poetryit is the noteof complacent vulgarity.''

Baker's arguments illustrate the predicamentin which the progressives in English found themselves. Concernwith modern authors was a basic tenet: so was an emphasison the system of values implicit in the work. The immediateresponse was to postpone judgment, studying the new authors withoutattempting to introduce them into the high school curriculum.English Journal,for example, began to be more systematic inits attempts to inform teachers about developments in the general field ofliterature. Percy Boynton of the University of Chicagowas commissioned to provide a _series of scholarly articleson "American Authors of Today": the first appeared in September 1922. Though theJournal had published earlier articles by literary critics, the Boyntonseries was the formal beginning of a practice which continuedunbroken for nearly forty years: it eventually brought such distinguishednames as Louis Untermeyer, Ezra Pound, Theodore Divisor,Vachel Lindsay, Mark Van Doren. Zona Gale. and J. B. Priestleyto theJournal'spages" During the Depression especiatly, whenmany literary magazines went bankrupt, these were often original studies ofsome import rather than simply overviews ofcurrent opinion for teachers. Gradually the need for new techniques ofcriticism began to be clear. Llewellyn Jones, editor of the literaryreview of theChicago Et-eningPost. provided a lengthy reformulationin a two-part article on aesthetics in October and November of 1925. Acknowledginghis debt to Ogden and Richards. andto Ainslie's translation of Croce,' he defined art as "a complete and successfulexpression of it part of lifeperhaps a very small partexperiencedas one experience in which all the factors hang together.-Itis this coherence which distinguishes art, not any "parochial-moralism or didacticism. Jones proposed two standards for judgingart. The first was the extent to which the artist was "sincerely givingus experience" and not "trying to prove a point, put overa thesis or generalization: in short indulging in propaganda." Notice thatwhat Jones has done here is to continue the emphasison experience while purging it of a direct relationship with value.s. His secondcriterion was whether the work had achievedform:"that is. whether all that is not essentialto 112 TRADITION AND REFORM

the experience, all the accidentals that surround it in real life, have been purged away, so that the work has unity and affects us as a single organic whole." Again, this continues the concern with experience but makes it dependent upon form rather than content. Such an analysis destroyed the basis on which literature had been justifying its place in the curriculum, but Jones presented a new function which it might serve: "...although we repudiate the heresy that art must teach us moral lessons, we must admit that major art does have an educative function:itreconciles us to existence by presenting existence in an ideal Inot a morally ideal but an intellectually ideal) light: as something that hangs together. that is not anarchic. "'" This analysis provided teachers with the ideal solution to the problem of twentieth century literature. Its emphasis on experience continued the easy link with the methodological and philosophical proposals of Kilpatrick and Dewey. At the same time, by substituting intellectual order for moral value it justified the approaches of the new authors. The process of assimilation was not easy. especially for teachers in whom the previous approaches were thoroughly ingrained. but the direction was at least clear. Increasingly during the twenties and throughout the thirties, discussions of literature were phrased in terms of the experience which the work under study would provide. One should not conclude, however, that "experience" was in any sense to become a developed critical approach: rather it was the underlying goal toward which the various approaches were oriented. The study of types, for example, was stressed by many of those who wanted to treat literature as experience. Leonard used it to structure a high school course that would group together experiences presenting similar sorts of difficulties in reading and interpretation." After Mabel Irene Rich provided teachers with an anthology organized by types in 1921. complete with a laudatory introduction by James Fleming Hosic, the study of types emerged as the first widely accepted alternative to the study of single classics from the college entrance lists.'" Historical studies received support from teachers who argued that in order to experience fully a work of literature, it was necessary to understand fully the social and cultural milieu in which it originated.'n Teachers whose concerns were more direcjy pedagogical turned to the instructional unit as the major way to insure that students would achieve a proper "experience." Some suggested units focussed on a central reading, the experience of which would be enhanced by a plethora of other activities organized around it. Others focussed the experience instead on a single concept (e.g. liberty, patriotism), often in the process revealing a continuing concern with the inculcation of a very particular set of values. A FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING 113

Countercurrents

The movement toward literatureas experience remained a movement away from the formal study of literature,even after the structured nature of the experience becamecentral to its justification. Throughout the period ofconcern with experience, however, there were strong countercurrentsurging other emphases. One such voice was raised by Joseph M.Thomas of the University of Minnesota. seventh president of NOTE.In his address to the 1919 convention, he paid full tributeto the criticism that had been directed toward early forms of literarystudy: but he went on to argue that the abuses of the past were nocause to abandon the great tradition. Ile had only causticcomments for English teachers who

.6. have given up trying to interest the student in what they think he ought to be interested in, and areexperimenting ina vain effort to find what he will like. They have not foresworn English, but havedefinitely abandoned literature. Instead of the Spectator. they read theLiterary Digest: the local newspaper has replaced Lincoln and Franklin.Milton and Tennyson have been given up for something "peppy" in theway of new poetry. And I even hear of schools in which the Saturday Evening 'Past is studied in English. They have sold their birthright fora mess of Potash and Perlmutter:'

The major point that Thomas and others who sounded thesame call were making was that while the goals of those seeking to reconstitute the literature curriculum were laudable, the direction that hadbeen taken in search of those goals was doomed to fail. Martha Shackford, another unconvinced college professor, made her point in theprocess of describing the properly educated "freeman" in anotherarticle. in her view it was necessary to enforcea discipline and concentration that the high school lacked: ". . until a child learns intellectual courage, the necessity of hard work, the fundamental significance of attacking and overcoming difficulties, he willnever progress from the amoeba stage of intelligence." This was an argument for mental discipline, dressedup in the new vocabulary of "intellectual courage,- "responsibility," andprogres- sive social orientation. It is thus especially interestingto note that tribute is paid to the experience approach in its manifestationas cultural history: the discipline Shackford advocatedwas to come from viewing literary works as "products ofa very comprehensible social and political condition in eachage, interpreted by individuals with imaginative insight, yet deriving much from thetendencies of the previous age..." Another major voice of reaction was that of Harvard's Irving 13abbitt, chief proponent of the American humanists. Hisemphasis 11.1 Tams:1'10NAND REFORM was much the same as Matthew Arnold's, placing in literature functions previously assumed by religion, family, and social class. Pointing out that "the old education was partly humanistic, partly religious; the new education is humanitarian, concerned; that is, less with making wise individuals than with improving society as a whole," he asserted that teachers must decide whether "our education, especially our higher education,isto he qualitative and intensive or quantitative and extensive." Babbitt opted for. the former alternative, asking teachers to "ignore certain equalitarian fallacies that are now being preached in the name of democracy.'"' This social conservatism, coupled with a lack of interest in modern studies, prevented Babbitt and the humanists from being widely accepted in the schools or the universities; but they kept alive a tradition of attention to great books and great ideas that eventually reemerged in the writings of Mortimer Adler and others in the 1940s. Concern with student interest also continued as an element of the experience approach, though Kilpatrick found it necessary to draw a distinction between "a state of interest" in which children would "be always and merely" amused, and "active interest" which would be conducive to growth on the part of the child. A similar distinction prompted Lou L. LaBrant to protest against "the practice, much more common than our publications would indicate, of using the carving of little toy boats and castles, the dressing of quaint dolls, the pasting of advertising pictures, and the manipulation of clay and soap as theteachiag of English literature."If such devices were really necessary to insure interest, "The remedy would seem to he in changing the reading material rather than in turning the literature course into a class in handicraft." Hatfield followed LaBrant's article with an editor's note suggesting that there were "two modern points of view," and pointed to another article in the same issue supporting such activities.' It would be a long time before teachers would willingly give up the "aids" they had developed. Another part of /the experience philosophy that provoked reactions was a concern with "guidance" through literature which some teachers, especially in the juniiiNligh schools, used to replace their earlier concern with ethics. This was already evident in articles on sex education at the end of the reorganization period, but reached its height in the late twenties. It was put into perspective by Howard Nlumford Jones in 1929: I meet Susie and Willie seriously debating with all the earnestness of their naive young souls the question of whether a nice girl can afford to stay away from a petting party; and I wonder whether the experiences of Maggie Tolliver in The Mill on the Floss will guide them in their solution: I do not recall that she petted. though she seems to have gotten herself even more seriously involved than do modern girls who pet; and inmind goes hack to the ManualofCoursesof Studywhich declares in all seriousness that the study of theclassicswill help Susie AFRAMEWORK. FOR TRACIIINCI I 15

and Williein the interpretation of problems of thinking andconduct that meet the individual in his daily lite.... And with Susie and Willie before my mind. I am tempted to in u nnnr. in t he language of AISmith. "liologny!'"' Jones argued instead for starting with the child,not with the literature, choosing Kipling and Sherlock Holmes,if that would interest them, rather than Milton and Jefferson.

The Social Perspective

As the forces of fascism began to stir in Europe, andthe pangs of Depression began to be felt even in America, literatureagain found a didactic function. One strong influencewas the vigorous school of Marxist and left-wing writing and criticism- whichflourished inter- nationally, and which was led in Americabysuch men as John Dos Possos, Michael Gold, and Joshua Kunitz. Formany of these men, content, rather than form. again became the onlycriterion of excellence. In the words of V. F. Calverton,editor of Modern Quarterly and a leading spokesman of the left, the goalwas to build "a new society which will embody, like Soviet Russia today,a social, instead of an individualistic, ideal.- EnglishJournal, in keeping with its policy of informing teachers of allaspects of the current literary scene, assiduously brought thesemen to its pagescarefully counterposed with editorial comment andmore conservative points of view, but there nonetheless for allto read and ponder.." Most teachers of Englishwere ready to heed the implicit social orientation that these writers were offering. Ina time when established institutions did seem to be faltering, andjust distant enough from the previous world war for the disillusionmentit had generated to have faded, the original progressiveconcern with social progress could reemerge. if anythingmore radical for its long suppression. One focal point for the social theoristswas Teachers College, Columbia. There a group of educators underthe leadership of W. H. Kilpatrick eventually forged an unusualmeasure of intellectual cohesion. The fullest statement of their creedwas The Educational Frontier (1933), a yearbook produced for theNational Society of College Teachers of Education bya committee dominated by the Teachers College group. The task of educationas it was presented there was "to prepare individualsto take part intelligently in the management of conditions under which they live, to bringthem to an understanding of the forces whichare moving, to equip them with the intellectual and practical tools by which theycan themselves enter into direction of these forces."" In sucha program the focus of study would be upon current social issues andproblems; in many ways it was a return to Dewey's earliest concerns. TRAM run,: AND It 1-7-0101

The social perspective so evident in The Educational Frontier was not limited to the Teachers College group, even though it is usually identified with them. Indeed, the basis was quite broad, reflecting a strong national movement towards socialism in the late twenties and early thirties. The President's Committee on Social Trends, set up by Herbert Hoover in 1929, placed a similar stress on the need to reconstruct society's value system:

The clarification of human values and their reaffirmation in order to gin' expression to them in terms of today's life and opportunities is a major task of social thinking. The progressive confusion created in men's minds by t he bewildering sweep of events revealed in our recent social trends enact find its wunterpart in the progressive clarification of men's thinking t.nd feeling, in the reorientation to the meaning of the new trends. To the American Historical Society's Commission on the Social Studies in the Schools (1034), it was the public schools which should ease the birth pangs of socialized society. educating its students for the end of the "age of individualism and laissez-faire... Even the NEA was willing, as it viewed the national situation in 1932, to endorse a commitment to social reconstruction through education,"' The reconstructionist point of view took as its starting point Dewey's observation that "education is the fundamental method of social progress and reform"; its end point was radicalism. George S. Counts challenged the Progressive Education Association in a 1932 address. "Dare Progressive Education Be Progressive?" in which he argued the need for education to emancipate itself from the middle class, reaching for political power to lead the nation to socialism. He argued, too, that indoctrination of students would be a necessary part of the struggle toward the desired goals. The Social Frontier, the major journal of the reconstructionists (with Kilpatrick as chairman and Counts as editor), dealt squarely with the ideological issues raised by such approaches. Founded in October 1934 to give more effective voice to the group, its pages chronicle the increasingly radical rhetoric that eventually split the movement and helped to plunge progressivism as well as the reconstructionists into disfavor, By February 1936, the journal had turned to the rhetoric of class warfare as the means to the collectivism which was the major social goal. In so doing it lost many of its supporters; this was further than even most of the Teachers College group were willing to go." The social reconstructionists, whether laying out basic tenets in The Educational Frontier or arguing on the pages of The Social Frontier. had a strong sense of mission and a fervent belief in the power of education as an instrument for good. Though the group to a large extent centered around Kilpatrick, they gave little attention to the specifics of curriculum and method that would have been needed to directly influence current practice. Their accomplishment was AFRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING 117

instead indirect: they reawakened thesocial consciousness of the progressive teacher. the belief in reformand progress that had originally given progressive educationits name. Certainly the rhet- toric of the social reconstructionistswas accepted by teachers of English during the early 1930s. Stella Center.of John Adams High School in New York City. assessed ''TheResponsibility of Teachers of English in Contemporary AmericanLife" in her presidential address to the 1932 NCTE convention. Theresponsibilities were broad:

If tariff walls mount to incredible heightsand our political leaders pursue a policy of eighteenth century isolation, it lies especially in the province of English instruction, bya program of reading and discus- sim. to develop a feeling of world solidarity andto create better international understanding."

Why this was "especially the provinceof English instruction- was not quite clear; presumably the answer lay at leastin part in the long ethical tradition which had most recentlyheen reflected in the work of E. Estelle Downing's NCTE Committeeon International Under- standing. This committee was reorganizedat the same convention and the cause of peace was takenup with renewed zeal. The Council announced that together with the NEA itwas "officially sponsoring the peace movement in the schools." Journalarticles, convention sessions, anda major first for theCouncilofficial resolutions were enlisted in the crusade on which "the futureof the world depends.- " Yet at the same time teachers ofEnglish rejected the call for indoctrination. When George S. Countschallenged the schools to build a new social order, Hatfield agreededitorially that there would indeed be great changes in societyduring the lives of the students: the proper way to prepare them, however,was hy training them to thinknot by imposing thoughtsupon them. And when a few years later a language workbook includedan advertisement for a telephone company, John J. i)eBoer, assistant editor of the EnglishJournal and long a backer of thepeace movement, editorialized on the dangers of propaganda in the schools: "Thispropaganda in behalf of a private utility is so obvious it would not be alarmingwere it not typical of other influencesmore insidious. Pressure groups of various kinds constantly besiege the schooland frequently invade the classrooms with viewpoints inimical to publicwelfare." His answer, like I latlield's to Counts,was to point out that "Not suppression but exposition should be the guiding principleof American education."1" Ultimately, teachers of English rejectedthe plea of the social reconstructionists because theysaw other values implicit in their subject matter. Thus Oscar J. Campbellwarned in his 1934 NCTE presidential address that "The greatest dangerin such a time as ours is that one's mind may be completely capturedhy the immediate and Its THAorrum AND REFORM

pressing. Values which are not obvious are in danger of becoming obscured or lost. Our duties in a rapidly changing world can hest be discharged if we remain cognizant of the nature of our subject and of those deeper regions of personality to which it brings life and energy." And two years later Dora V. Smith, addressing the same body in the same capacity, felt it necessary to ask. "Are we willing to give boys and girls a share of the attention we have devoted to English as a subject and to the indisputable claims of the social order ?''" It was time, in other words, to return attention to the children who had been somewhat out of view since the Depression had begun.

Patterns for the Curriculum

AnExperience Curriculum In November 1929, at the instigation of the new president, Ruth Mary Weeks, the Executive Committee of NCTE appointed a Curriculum Commission to develop a "pattern curriculum" that. would illustrate the best current practice and thus provide a stable reference point in the midst of the rapidly shifting instructional concerns. Over one hundred Council leaders served on the commission's fourteen subcommittees, together with representatives from the NEA, the American Association of Teachers Colleges, the National Association of Teachers of Speech, the National Associ- ation of Journalism Advisers, the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, and the Southern Association. of Colleges and Secondary Schools. The undertaking was in many ways more ambitious than any of the earlier efforts to define the scope of English instruction, for what the commission had in effect to attempt was a new synthesis. The earlier reports on Englishfrom the Vassar Conference of the Committee of Ten and from the National Joint Committee on Englishhad gathered together a consensus of contemporary opinion; the new commission had to forge such a consensus where none existed, to plan a new and largely untested shape for the teaching of English. The task was carried through with enthusiasm and a certain measure of success. Responsive to the many different forces that had been reshaping instruction, and aware that there had been few systematic attempts to embody the emerging principles into coherent practice, the Curriculum Commission made no pretense that the result was in any sense a national prescription for English instruction: indeed the Commission thought it abundantly clear that any "attempt to create a single curriculum suited to pupils in environ- A FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING 1.19

menu; so different as are to be found in the United States would be folly."" The final report. AnExperience Curriculum in English 11935), was rather intended as a pattern that othergroups could take as a starting point in developing a curriculum to fit theirown particular circumstances. The report began with the premise that " Experience isthe best of all schools. . . The idea/curriculum consists of well-selected experiences."The process of selecting those experienceswas the process Bobbitt had outlined and the Committeeon the Place and Function of English in American Life had illustrated:it was to "survey life, noting what experiences most people have."And it was one step more: it was necessary to look, in thesesame surveys of life, for the "desirable possible experiences they miss"(p. 3). In deriving this no longer strictly empirical display, the commissionwas break- ing no now ground: their unique contrihutionwasan attempt to weave the selected experiences into a coherent curriculum stretching from kindergarten to college. The "radical progressive unit-was taken as the basic element around which to structure the curriculum. Thiswas the commission's attempt to revitalize and focus thesomewhat nebulous unit that had emerged from the blend of Morrisonunits, projects, and contracts. As they put it, a unit "meansan organic wholewhich is at the same time both astructural and a Anctionalpart of a larger organic whole" (p.. vii, fn. 1 I." Units lastedanywhere from five to fifteen days, and were themselves organized intowhat the commission termed "experience strands," each of whichwas a series of similar types of experience "arranged like broadeasy stair steps in a reasonably steady progression of intellectualdifficulty and social maturity" (p. viii). The final report divided the various experiencestrands into several sets, including Literature Experiences,Reading Experi- ences. Creative Expression Experiences, Speech Experiences,Writ- ing Experiences, Instrumental GrammarExperiences, Corrective Teaching, and Electives. Thesewere in general the work of different subcommittees working under different chairmen,and were quite varied in the extent and direction of the changesthey embodied. Probably the most progressiveandmost widely attackedstand taken in .4nExperience Curricular:was the abandonment of formal grammar in favor of functional instruction. The pointwas made bluntly: "There is no scientific evidence of the valueof grammar which warrants its appearanceas a _prominent or even a distinct feature of the course of study." The only concessionmade at all was the inclusion of the study of grammaras a formal system among the suggested electives for high school seniors (pp. 228,289)." The curriculum in literature was equally liberalin conception, placing its emphasis upon pupils' experiences,upon informal discussion, upon 'broadening horizons and refiningperception. Experi- I TRADITION AND REFORM

races which might be "harmful- were to becarefully excluded, including ''such horror or sex experiences as the immature cannot sustain without shock and warping of their natures,- as well as "sentimentality. glamorous presentation of evil-doing, inconsistent characterization, misrepresentation of moral cause and effects, and contravention of natural laws." With these exceptions, individual experience would be enlarged in as many directions as possible, allowing no one concern, however ardent its advocates, to circum- scribe the literaturecurriculum:"theinculcation of knowledge or ethical ideals, the posing of social problems. the cultivation of the power to perceive beauty, or the mere provision of an escape from trying actuality am, all of them, too narrow objectives" (pp. 19-20). Yet when faced with the task of providing a pattern curriculum in literature, the commission found itself subverted by the very conventions it had established for the final report. The chief reforms it was advocating for literary studies (unlike those in grammar) lay in the way each work was to be studied; they did not involve the sequence or. Lo any large extent. the works that would be used in the first place. The ideal classroom approach was seen as one of wide reading and little discussionmuch like the method Coryell had used with the "experimental" group in her recent and controversial dissertation, Faced with the need Lo provide a sequence and organization (and little else), the report showed no clear preference for any of the various methods of organizing materials, and no clear conception of how the "experience units" differed from any other approach. Thus the majorexperiencestrands were an astonishingly traditional blend of currently popular approaches: A. Enjoying Action B. Exploring the Physical World C. Exploring the Social World H. Studying Human Nature E. Sharing Lyric Emotion F. Giving Fancy Rein G. Solving Puzzles (e.g., mystery stories, B. Listening to Radio Broadcasts Enjoying Photop lays

Within these strands there are sample units on animals, heroes, and. humor; on allegory, epic, and myth; on the origin of man, the effect of inventions, and industrial expansion; on rhythm, figurative expression, -and characterization; on patriotism and brotherhood; and many, many more. In spite of the rhetoric, the units do not in any significant way lead toand were not meant to lead to important experiences through literature. What they do attempt is to provide the functional skills that were considered prerequisite to the actual experience of A l'aAmEwoatt Foil TEACHING 121

literature. The experiences that are offered, on the kindest judgment, are better than the earliest philological approaches; but they are artificial and lifeless in their own way. Thus the final unit in the strand Enjoying Action has as the Primary Objective (the "ultimate goal- of such study), '"I'o enjoy adventures whichare more interesting because their backgrounds are so different fromour own environ- ment.- For Enabling Objectives, it offers '-ro visualize clothing, weapons, houses. and other details of the background. To note peculiarities of speech and social customs, if thereare any. To catch some of the attitudes and ways of thinking which are different from ours" 44). Even the list of Typical Materials is traditional, including. among others novels by Scott, Cooper, Dickens, and Stevenson that had been on the college lists at theturn of the century. Or again, we can take a unit that sounds more promising, Number 6 in the strand Exploring the Social World. This offersas its Primary Objective, "Fo observe the effects of widening trade horizons on our daily lives-; for Enabling Objectives: "Tosee how new frontiers and new customs were the direct result of the desire of man to increase his trading area; to catch some idea of the need for invention, investigation, and discovery; to note the organization of big business and the resulting efficiency andeconomy which it implies- ip. 19). Here the materials are less traditional, including wintman's Hear America Singing," Andrew Carnegie's Own Story, and Norris' The Octopus. Yet even in this unit,among the best in the series, the concept of experienceseems completely unrealized. The student will,if the objectives are successfully pursued, gain a certain measure of knowledge; he will not, however, have been given any inkling of the peculiar virtues of literature in conveying that experience. (One might question whether, given these particular objectives, literature really hasany peculiar virtues.'

Conducting Experiences in English. Even as the final report was being presented to the November 1935 convention, some of the problems were recognized. Dora V. Smith, not herself a member of the Curriculum Commission, noted that method and content had not heen clearly synthesized in the literature sections. Two years later, the Council saw fit to organizea new committee under the chairmanship of Angela M. Broening to provide illustrations of how the materials in the first report could be translated into action. The focus of the problem was clear in the title chosen for the second volume, published in 1939as Conducting Experiences in English.'" By the time Conducting Experiences was puhlished, An Exper- ience Curriculum had been widely emulated.. Textbooks were already 122 'PHA IHTION AND REFORM

purporting to embody the approach, and courses of study across the country had been modified in keeping with its principles.'" In the new publication teachers were shown how to put the materials to work. In literature, the connection between method and content was tightened by recognizing the centrality of the reader's response: "Ile takes as much of the book as he can, rewriting it, as it were, in the imagery of his own experience." The goal of the teacher in this process would be to foster a "natural, vital discussion of the experience shared by the author."" The heart of the book, however, was again the specific illustrations of "conducting experiences." These were, as in the earlier report, a mixture of approaches ranging from the excellent to the banal. One of the best of the literature units was the first offered: it outlined a sequence of lessons following a heavy storm, during which eighth grade students discussed their reactions, read poetry, and eventually wrote their own poems. But most of the literature activities, like those inAn Experience Curriculum,failed to make dear how experiencewithwas leading to the desired experience throughthe literature being studied.

A Correlated Curriculum The Curriculum Commission attempted to formulate a program for English that could function within schools as they were presently organized. It lauded experiments designed to end "the artificial separation of one subject from another," but left the full exposition of such a program to a subcommittee which became virtually independent. This committee produced a separate report,A Corre- lated Curriculum,in 1936. Rather than presenting a curriculum, the committee analyzed a spectrum of programs ranging from partial to total correlation. The general approach was cautious: faults as well as virtues were noted at each stage of the continuum. UnlikeAn Experience Curriculum, which was presented as a successful pattern to be emulated,A Correlated Curriculumwas seen as describing an experimentone deserving widespread testing to answer the questions it raised, but one whose generalizability still needed to be evaluated. The committee was especially careful to preserve the traditional virtues of English instruction; indeed, among its lists of criteria for evaluating attempts at correlation was one that asked if the tested values of any subject would be lost, and another that asked if the degree of subjectarea competence brought about by departmentalization would be reduced in the new program," The movement toward correlation gained its support from the most progressive schools and will be dealt with in more detail in the next chapter. Among its many roots, one of the most important was the growing influence of the Gestalt psychologists. These empha- A Fit Anti:we:tit FOR TEACHING 123

sized the importance of the total pattern or .gestalt" in psychological processes, a concern which teachers generalized into aconcern with "world pattern" and "unified experience... To provide this total perspective, teachers argued, it would be necessary for the curriculum itself to be unified through integration or correlation of the traditionally disparate suhject areas. The NCTE committeegave another reason for correlation in its discussion. The exigencies of the Depression economy had forced cuts in school budgets: itwas hoped that "curricular consolidation" through correlation would circum- vent "curricular curtailment" (p. 11). Initial reactions to the report were not favorable, Franklin Bob- bitt. in a review for English Journal, attacked A Correlated Curricu- lum for a "dislocation in the order of investigation." "We believe," Robhitt wrote, "that the department of English must takecare of matters more fundamental than correlation before it can be ready to prepare anything more than a merely descriptive account of relatively unevaluated practices, such as the present investigation." Itwas the "basic assumptions of the department, as ably represented by the committee," that needed "re-examination, reorientation, and careful reformulation." Perhaps surprised by Bohbitt's reaction, the English Journal solicited a second evaluation, this one from L. T. Hopkins of Teachers College, Columbia. The second review, though considerably more favorable, found the same problems with the report that Bobbitt had delineated: the starting point remained English, and correlation remained a device to aid in the learning of that subject. There would he no fundamental change in the educa tional process. Indeed. Hopkins questioned the basic assumption that "synthesizing parts or elements into a complex whole will satisfy the needs of pupils for wholeness or unity in theirexper- ience..." And if that assumption could be soundly questioned, the approach would have little left to recommend it.

Literature as Exploration: The Final Synthesis The many different forces which had been shaping the teaching of literature were in the end successfully synthesized not by NCTE, but by Louise M. Rosenblatt writing for the Commissionon Human Relations of the Progressive Education Association. In contact with leaders of the Council but drawing more heavilyon leading social scientists, her magnum opus. Literature as Exploration (1938), dealt at length with the proper role of and approach to literary studies." Like the Council's Curriculum Commission, Rosenblattrecog- nized a distinction between experience through and experience ofor with literatureand like them also she considered the experience through literature to be of central importance. But she did not accept the premise, stated explicitly in An Experience Curriculum, that the teacher's attention would focus primarily on the experiences with 121 THADITIoN ANDREFORM

literature. since these could be manipulated in a way that the others could not. Indeed, Rosenblatt concluded that none of the currently popular ways ofusingliteraturewhether to increase social awareness, broaden the range of information, or develop sensitivity to literary formwere likely to lead to an "intimate personal response" (p. 701. Rosenblatt had no illusions that such a response could be easily aroused; it would require an approach infinitely more complex than any of the approaches teachers were accustomed to taking. The complexity, in her view, stemmed directly from the fact that "There is no such thing as a generic reader or a generic literary work; ... there are only unnumberable separate responses to individual works of art" (pp. 32-33). Thus it is the response of the student rather than the content of the work of literature which becomes the object of the teacher's attention. It is this response which must be challenged, refined, enlargedby the process of reflection upon the response and upon the elements in the work which provoked it. In the end it is not important that a student be able to distinguish among the various literary forms: it is important that he learn to respond maturely to progressively more complex writings.Literature as Explorationis not a pattern curriculum in the sense of the Council publications, and in many ways the approach outlined does not lend itself to formulation in those terms. What emerges, finally, is the picture of quiet discussion, "a friendly group, come together to exchange ideas" (p. 83). This group, much more than the materials they use, is the heart of the educational process. The importance of such an exchange of ideas was also dealt with at length by Rosenblatt. Though discussed from a number of different perspectives, the goals offered were essentially those of acculturation, the development of socially accepted and socially valuable modes of thought and patterns of reaction. "Any individual born into a society must somehow.. 'learn not only its language, its gestures, its mechanics," she wrote, "but also the various superstructures of ideas, emotions, modes of behavior. moral values, that that particular society has built up around the basic human relationships" (p. 2231. A pluralistic, democratic society such as the United States can offer, of course, no one simple pattern, but neither does literature. Indeed one function of literature would be to illustrate the many different ways of life open to any individual. Rosenblatt was careful to point out-that what she proposed was not simply a continuation of "the old notion of 'character building through literature' "a tradition to which her concerns are obviously related. That older tradition, however, had been prescriptive, providing "a series of models of human behavior to imitate" (p. 294). The new view of the teaching of literature would help the student to experience many models, good and bad, and to learn to deal critically and intellectually with the emotional reactions they would necessar- A FRAMEWORK FORTEACHING 125

ily arouse. It was truly to be. in the terms of her title,anexploration of the reader's own nature, during which he would gradually "become aware of potentialities for thought and feeling within himself, acquire dearer perspective, develop aims anda sense of direction." Viewed in this way, literature hada "very real, and even central" role in the "social and cultural life ofa democracy"; it was to engender the cultural patterns and modes of behavior that would control that society's future.'"

The Effect on the Schools

The Course, of Study For some direct evidence of the -extent to which classroom procedures were changing in response to thesenew concerns, we can turn to Dora V. Smith's monographInstruction in English(1933),. prepared as part of the National Survey of-Secondary Education.'" Smith analyzed 156 courses of study from 127 cities in 35states, and visited 70 schools that presented "unique features ofcontent or method." I ler findings indicate that whilesome of the changes in educational theory were carrying over into the schools, others certainly were not. Methods of instruction at the time of thissurvey reflected a mix of traditional and progressive approaches. Smith notedwith approval a widespread provision for individual differences, either throughpro- viding for separate tracks or by varying the work aroundsome central core. The unit method of instruction had also become widespread, and seemed to have furthered progressive teaching. Smith claimed that it had been "exceedingly beneficial" inhelping teachers concentrate on the literary work asa whole, leading to "broader discussion. to less emphasisupon meticulous detail, and to the seeking of wider relationships both in literature and with other forms of expression" (pp. 59-60). Though lengthy philological analysis of texts was no longer common, too much time continuedto he devoted to single works. As much as nine weekswas given over to the study of a single text in some classes, witha mode of four weeks for such selections asJulius Caesar, Macbeth,andAs You Like It. VIii le noting a general policy of promoting wider individual reading and a definite trend toward so-called "Free-reading"programs in the western states, Smith offered little evidence that suchprograms were in widespread use. More positively, the time had clearly passed when the yearly lists of college entrance texts could dominate thecourse. Rather than the uniformity of earlier surveys, Smith found only eight textscommon I 26 TRADITION AND REFORM

to the courses c,{ study of; even one-fifth of the schools. The use of literature anthologies, which will be discussed in more detail in the next section of this chapter, had also become common, forming the basis of the required course in 50 percent of the junior high schools. At the senior high schonl level they more often servedas supple- ments to the study of separately bound classics. This reflected the continuing legacy nf the examination syllabus: 50 percent of the schools had found nn other organization for theircourse, continuing to present "mere lists of classics for study" (pp. 47-49). Of the thirty most frequently used texts, none were contemporary. Comparing her results with an earlier survey of cnnditions before 1900, Smith fnund that nnly theBunker Hill Orationhad vanished from the course: "Otherwise the lapse of 25 to 40 years has made little change in the requirements except to add a few more titles in kind plus the nineteenth century novel" (pp. 50-52). Yet this lack of change should not have been surprising, given the conservatism in this respect of the recommendations of the National Joint Committeeon English. The only other majnr change was the\ appearance of American literature courses as part nf the eleventh gradeprogram in the majnrity of schools. The main alternative to the organization by lists of classicswas the study of types or genres. With its roots in "appreciation" and new impetus froin studies nf reading, this had heen adopted by 47 percent of the high schools and 22 percent of the junior high schools. While Smith noted nptimistically that therewas "evidence in elassmom practice that some teachers are able to followa course of study organized by types without undue stresson form and technique," it was clear from her comments that such stresswas a very real danger (pp. 47-49). Finally, Smith found that the real or imagined strictures of the college continued to have a pervasive influenceupon the literature curriculum. Though preparation for college was at thevery bottom of the list of objectives presented in the courses of study, in practice teachers were conditioning their teaching tn the college demands: "No impression remains more vivid after conference with hundreds of teachers throughout the country than the fear under which they labor because nf the requirements (real or imagined) of the institution higher up" (p. 74). One must wnnder, however, about the extent tn which this "fear" gained impetus frnm the comfnrt nf teaching the old and familiar. The process of change isnever easy, and the - demands upon the teacher during These decades were many and complex. Just a few years later, Dr. Smith again had the opportunity for intensive assessment of the program in English, this timeas part of the Regents' Inquiry Into the Cost and Character of Public Educa- tion in New York State.° A representative sampling of fifty-one of the state's communities was selected for extensive achievement A FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING 127

testing in the spring of 1936; schools in slightly more than half of these communities were then visited during 1937. This investigation, relying less upon courses of study and more upon the results of actual testing and classroom visitations, was even less encouraging. Although New York had a recent and liheral statewide course of study, some 60 percent of the teachers reported that it was the textbooks available, not the course of study, that determined what went. on in the classroom. And the book supply, though varying considerably from school to school, was in general quite limited; most programs made use of a single literary anthology for each year's course. Indeed, the movement toward wide or extensive reading lone of the hopeful "trends" in the earlier study) was one of the major casualties of the intervening years of depression. Schools with curtailed instructional programs could not afford the invest- ment in new materials that any substantial broadening of the literature program would have implied. Smith did find a "wholesome emphasis upon the reading of literature selections themselves and not upon facts ahout books, their authors, and the literary periods from which they come." New instructional approaches--the project method, socialized class procedures, small group workhad not fared well, however. Intensive reading of a single selection by the whole class was the usual situation, and the approach hardly progressive: "Question and answer procedures with the teacher in command, and recitation around the room of sentences written out at home the night before represent by far the most common activities of the average high/ school English class in New York" (pp. 251-53). Indeed, the study raised serious questions about the individualization of instruction. Attention given to individual differences had become "largely administrative." with materials and activities tending to differ "in amount rather than kind." "Attention to individual need had very little place in the classrooms visited,- Smith complained. "General regimentation of pupils was the rule: individualization, the exception.' (pp. 154-57). The study pinpointed teacher training and teacher load,in addition to inadequate bark supplies, as the most important obstacles to implementation of an effective English program. Though the majority of teachers in New York schools had completed at least a 13.A:, the programs they had gone through seemed in many ways inadequate. Most had emphasized "academic English," with little of the breadth necessary to implement a progressive program. Anglo- Saxon and Middle English, rather than contemporary literature, speech, library training, or literature for adolescents, were the sorts of college requirements the teachers had had to fulfill. The extracurricular programs presented another real obstacle in some schools, absorbing so much of the teacher's time that formal classes were devoted to "deadly and uninteresting routine." With TRADITION AND I (EFORNI

some understatement, Smith pointed out that such a situation "suggests the need of reconsidering the areas in which it is desirable for teachers to spend their best energies," especially since the "ideal" fusion of extracurricular and curricular activitieswas "far from realized." Though many schools visited had flourishingpro- grams in drama, journalism, and debate, these were carried on for the most part in isolation from the English, class, even whenrun by the same teacher 1P, 227).

TheLiterature Anthologies Smith's studies suggest that by the end of the 1930s, the teaching of literature was to a large extent dominated by the literature anthology rather than by statements of goals or courses of study. Anthologies produced for the general reading public rather than for the schools date from the first days of the republic but reacheda peak alter improvements in printing methods in the nineteenth century. These were often "gift books," elahorately bound and illustrated, and presenting quite extensivesometimes exhaustive collections of complete works. Almost all forms of organization for modern school anthologies had their forerunners in these early commerical bookssome were organized chronologically, others by types or themes; still others presented the works of a single nation, region, period, genre. or author.'" As long as the college entrance lists dominated the teaching of English, however, there was little room for a school anthology. The carefully annotated editions of the set texts reflected the demandson the English course more adequately, and they were also more economical: with the lists changing regularly, these editions allowed the school to buy just the newly-appearing selections and to continue to use texts held over from-previous years. About 1920, however, this situation began to change. The progressive emphasis on wider reading made it more important to increase the number of selections, while the gradual adoption of the comprehensive examination of the College Board freed the schools from the domination of the Uniform Lists. Classics continued to be taught, but instead of changing the titles each year. a school could add an anthology to supplement and broaden. the course. The leaders of the progressive movement in English supported this emphasis; for example, Walter Barnes, twenty-first president of NCTE, defended the "book of selections" as an economical way of offering many satisfying experiences close together. At least thirteen of the twenty-two Council presidents between 1917 and 193b helped to edit the anthologies of one or another major American publisher; so did Hatfield, never NCTE president but secretary-treasurer for most of this period.'" In involving themselves in these projects, they were giving tacit support to the use of these hooks in the schools. Finally, the A FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING 129

restrictions on budgets brought about by the Depression propelled the anthology from an increasingly important supplement to the separately-bound classics into the very center of the literature program with whatever classics were to be studied bound within the anthology covers. In this way a single purchase could provide materials for the whole course, materials that could he used over and over again with new groups of students. These collections were at least a moderately progressive force throughout the twenties and thirties. They were responsive to the broader movements for reform and provided teachers, in the absence of any other widely accepted formulation, with a set of materials arranged in a coherent order for use with their classes. Publishers began by experimenting with a variety of formats for their collections. The L. W. Singer series(1927-31) was at the conservative end of the spectrum, offering essentially the College Board texts conven- iently bound in one volume; Scribner's Literatureand Livingseries (19251was at the other extreme, giving a prominent place to modern writers and social values. Most, however, tried to strike a commercially more profitable balance between these extremes, so that teachers with a variety of views. could comfortably use them. One lloughton Mifflin text went so far as to include selections and study aids for two completely separate courses, one "general" and progressive in orientation, the other "college entrance"- and decidedly academic.'" The most successful collection was the Scott, Foresman Litera- tureand Lifeseries(1922 - 1924).which managed to synthesize these taw points of view. It carefully included all the required college entrance texts, but "woven into the great Book of Literature itselfwas "abundant material for the study of contemporary literature and for the study of prose reflecting current thoughts and problems." Two devices were used to foster the synthesis. One was the rather obvious expee::nt of including both "academic" and experience- oriented questions for each selection (without dividing them as such). The other was to organize the selections in order of increasing difficulty and sophistication. The net effect was to increase the traditional emphases in the last two books, the functional or socially oriented selections in the first two." Most of the early anthmv.;ies emphasized the study of types or chronology, but this began to change as teachers became more concerned with "experience." One of the corollaries of the experience approach had been the need for greater breadth and variety in the selections presented, and as the scope of the anthology increased, the use of types as a method of organization offered a less and less coherent focus. By the mid-thirties, thematic units organized around important personal or social goals dominated the seventh to tenth grade anthologies, while formal and historical studies continued to he the rule for the last two years. It was common, however; to find 130 TRADITION AND 'INFORM

the various approaches nested withinone anothera thematic unit in which the materials were all of one type,or a genre study -in which the selections were presented chronologically." (Many of the illustrative units in An Experience Curriculum represented exactly such a blend.) In addition to the shift toward thematic units, the anthologies clearly did respond to pressures for more and more modern literature, even eroding the dominance of the CEEB selections. Of the ten most frequently anthologized authors in the period from 1917 to 1934, for example, all had been represented on the CEEB lists between 1917 and 1934; but between 1935 and 1945 the CEEB authors yielded four of the top ten positions. The newcomersWalt Whitman, Carl Sandburg, Robert Frost. and Emily Dickinsonre- flected the growing interest in American literature and its institutionalization as the eleventh grade course. " More important than the slight changes in emphasis in the selections was the major shift in breadth, The highly conservative Singer series provides a dramatic illustration of the anthologies' response in this respect: the first edition of the tenth grade volume in 1928 had contained only eight selections; the 1935 edition of the same volume offered seventy-nine. Though few others shifted quite so rapidly. most series did increase both the number of selections and the number of authors represented. However these works were being handled by the classroomteacher,their merepresencein the course represented a significant change in the program in literature."

Perspective: The Years between the Wars

The decades that fell between the two world wars were a time of change and experiment within the teaching of English. The period began with the liberation of the subject from overt control by the colleges; but that very liberation, as the leaders of the profession came to realize, raised prohlems of even greater magnitude than the ones it solved. When the teaching of literature had first come into the schools, it had had a coherent if somewhat eircumscrihed function, and it. had had a methodology, albeit a borrowed one, that had given it the aura of a systematic study. Indeed, without this demonstrable function and method it is doubtful it could have won a place as more than an ancillary part of the curriculum. But the function was artificial and the method was borrowed, and both were cast off when the teaching of literature hegan to assert its role as a high school subject. The search for a new function anda new method was begun in the rhetoric and enthusiasm that marked the Progressive Era in education, and if the leaders of NCTE were only A FRAMEWORK FOR TEAMING 13I

occasionally themselves comfortable in the company of the leaders of the progressive movement, preferring in general a more moderate and subjectoriented position, they were buoyed by the optimism and sense of mission that pervaded the movement as a whole." Whether arguing the values of science or elaborating the details of t he experience curriculum, they rarely questioned the intimacy of the relationship between educational theory and educational practice. Yet it was in the very nature of the task they had set themselves that a gap should develop. The teaching of English had become a national enterprise, involving a multitude of teachers, each of whom, if change were to be effective, would have to be not only convinced that the change was workable. but also taught how to implement it. But the leaders in the teaching of English had no panacea to offer to the teacher of literature: they were themselves engaged in the often painful process of reformulating goals and methods, and trying to reestablish meaningful limits to the universe of English instruction. As often as not. the limits proposed broadened rather than circumscribed that universe, moving the boundary ever outward through socialization to social understanding and finally to acculturation. As Robert C. Pooley put it in 1939:

Within twenty years we have had to meet, study. and assimilate several new psychologies, at least one new sociology, and a score of isms. We have had to grapple with such concepts as "the child centered school," the activity program. the socialized recitation. the project method. integration, correlation. two and three-track plans, and the unit plan. The progressive movement has waxed fat in the last two decades. All these movements and schemes have added immeasurably LO thescienceand art of teaching. But they have also bred doubts, fears, and insecurity where once there was confidence."'

The insecurity expressed itself in many ways. only one of which was the reliance upon the argument that "the colleges require it" to justify continuing with old methods of teaching. Indeed, as the English Journal and the CEEB did their best to point out, the colleges did not require the kind of preparation that was being justified in their name, in gmneral accommodating their requirements to the changing philosophy of secondary instruction. Still, reaction set in as the thirties waned: Dora V. Smith's 1936 presidential address to the Council was even challenged by an Ohio teacher protesting against "the forcing of the liheral methods on entire city school systems.' By the end'of the thirties such protests, coupled with the sobering findings of empirical studies of current practice, hrought a new and more realistic perspective on the problems of teaching literature. Rosenblatt's study helped too, for it presented the coherent and systematic explanation of the place and function of literature in American life that had heen lacking: and the expertise and knowl- 132 'worm*: A Mu It Kroam

edge that would be required to carry out her program were all the more evident for the competence with which she had treated the issues.As early as 1936. Dora V. Smith, writing for the Ninth Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc- tion of the N EA, provided one description of the task that lay ahead." -The fundamental question," she noted, is "what are the chances of success in the schools of our country today" limited by "narrow prescriptions in the Curricula, with methods conditioned by desks nailed to the floor, and with an examination system which takes cognizance chiefly of facts and skills?"

.. we can begin by determining to approach literature as itig approached by intelligent, cultured people in everyday life. We can .,ol pleasure in reading first: we can aim constantly at enjoyment the development of hunger for more. We can test the success of our program by the desire of boys. and girls to continue more reading of the same sort under their own direction. We can associate books with ever-widening interests and increased understanding of human nature and experience.... we can at least begin to break with the traditional program of literary chronology and technique ... and relate literature to the limitless interests of life itself (pp. 165-691. Even at that, the task that remainedlWas large. A FRAMEWORK FOR MAIMING 133

CHAPTER V NOTES I. Sterling Andrus Leonard.Essential Principles of Mocking Thmding and Literature in the intermediate Grades card the High School( Ph ila delphia: .1. H. Lippincott Co., 1922). p. 335. 2. John .1.Delloer. "The Materials of the English Curriculum." Editorial. English Journal21:1 (January 1932); 68-69. 3. Charles Swain Thomas, "Variables and Constants,"English .1 ournal 25:2 (February 19361; 101-13. 4. Dom V. Smith,Em«duating instruction in Secondary School Eng- lish.A Report of a Division of the New York Regents' Inquiryinto the Character and Cost of Public Education in New York State(Chicago: NCTE. 19411, p. 120. 5. William I loard Kilpatrick, "The Project Method."Teachers College Reran)19 (September 1918): 319-35. Ii. William Ileard Kilpatrick.Foundations of Method: Informal Talks on That-king(New York: Macmillan Co.. 19251. p. 69. This hookwas dogmatically connectionist in its psychology,a position which Kilpatrick later abandoned. See his introduction to Hilda 'rabiesThe Dynamics of Education(London: Kogan Paul. Trench. Trulmer. 19321 Apparently Kilpatrick never revised his own book because he rejected thepsychology on which it was based. See James R. Squire, vd., ANew LookatProgressive Education.1972 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curricu lum Development (Washington. D.C.: ASCD, 1972),p. 145, fn. 10. 7. Kilpatrick. "The Project Method." 8. Kilpatrick,Foundations of Method.pp. 302, 274, 310. 9. James Fleming I losic "An Outline of the Problem-Project Met hod. EnglishJournal 7:9 (November 1918). There is some evidence that Hosic rather than Kilpatrick first presented the method (Squire. .4New Look at Progressive Education,p. 142. fn. 9). The term had been used inEnglish Journalas early as February 1918, in an editorial which found "much promise in the so-called project method." Editorial, "What IsSocializa- tion?"English Journal7:2 (February 19181: 135. 10. Hatfield saw in it the "fundamental unifying principle ofmethod" that American education had always lacked, and called forarticles illustrating its successful application. "Speaking of Platforms,"English Journal9:7 (September 19201: 420-21; "Saving the Project."EnglishJournal 9:8 (October 1920): 476-77; and "An Exposition of Method."English ,lournal 11:6 (June 1922): 370. As examples, see Mariette Hyde. "Projectsin Literature."English Journal9:7 (September 19201: 01-06; Charles Robert Gaston. "Pegasus and Kit.".English Journal12:2 (February 1923): 83: Ilelen L. Items, "The Project of a Journey,"English Journal13:2 (Febru- ary 19241: 133-36; May' R. Pringle, "Comparison in Method,"English .journal14:4 (April 19251: 303-10. I I. James Fleming I Jamie,Empirical Studies of School Reading.Con tri. butions to Education no. 114 (New York! Teachers College,Columbia University, 19211. 12.Leonard, Essential Principles,.pp. 5, 31. 13. E. Estelle Downing, "What English Teachers Can Do to Promote World-Peace,"EnglishJournal 14:3 (March 19251; 183-92. 'rhe committee was very active, providingJournalreaders with lists of materials and examples of teaching as well as offering programs at the annualconvention. 131 TRADITION AND REFORM

Until the early thirties, when a reformist attitude again became popular. they provoked little response from teachers ma an I DO committee itself. 14. Martha Hale Shackford. "Deserted Goldsmith." English imam(' 9:2 (February 1921)1: 103.08. 15. Harry '1'.linker. "The Criticism and Teaching of Contemporary Literature." English Journal 12:7 (September 1923): 59.63. 16. Editorial. "Our Own Reading." English Journal 11:6 (June 1922): 369. Percy II. Boynton. ''American Authors of Today." English Journal 11:7 (September 19221: 383-91. The first was about Edwin Arlington Robinson. Boynton eventually collected the articles into a book which was itself well received I"Our Own llorn." English dournal 13:7 IStiptember 1921): 5011. Council pride in his and later contributions is reflected in "The Nat ional Council. 1911.36.English Journal 25:10 11 )(Tend ler 19361. 17. Grant 1). I). Ainslie translated many 01Croce's works, including The Essence of .4 est head. (19211 and Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic. Ogden and Richards's The Meaning of _Meaning appeared in 1923. Richards. Ogden. and Wood's 'Ii.- Foundations of tlesthetie was in its second edition by 1925. 18, Llewellyn Jones. "Aesthetics and Contemporary Literature," Eng- lish Journal 14:8 and 9 (October and November 1925): 583-91, 665 -75. 19. Leonard. Essential Principles. pp. 394-95. Wilbur Hatfield also used it. with his college freshmen. -Instead of the Survey,'' English Journal 20:10 (December 19311: 840. 20. Mabel Irene Rich, Study of the Pl'ypes of Literature (New York: Century Co 19211. On the influence of Rich's anthology and its sequel. Classified Types of Literature (New York: Century Co., 1926), see Irvin Ehrettpreis, The ''Tvpcs Approach'. to Literature (New York: King's Crown Press. 19451, pp. '89ff. Similar comments are in John Muth Bernd's Approaches to the Teaching of Literature in Secondary Schools. 1900-1956 (Dissertation, University of Wisconsin. 1957; University Microfilms No. 24.260. pp. 140 ff. 21. See Henry Seidel Canby, -The State of American Criticism." English Journal 13:10 )December 1921: 705 -09: Grant Overton. "On. Morality and Decency in Fiction. English Journal 18:1 (January 19291: 14-23. Both were concerned with the relationship between literature and culture. (Canby was editor of the Saturday Review of Literature: Overton of ('ollier's.) Teachers used the approach most frequently with Shakespeare. E.g.. Winifred! Smith, "Teaching Shakespeare in School," English Journal 11:6 (June 19221: 361-64: Emily Fanning Barry. "Avenues to ShtlIttillearit" (stet. English Journal 28:7 (September 1939): 556 64. 22. Joseph M. lhonuts. "The Inhibiting Instincts," English-Journal 9:1 (January 19201:1-21. He should not be confused with Charles Swain Thonms, who though very active did not become N.CTE president till 1935. 23. Martha Hale Shackford, "Shall We Change Entrance English?" English Journal 14:2 IFebruary 19251; 98-107. 24. Irving Babbitt. "English and the Discipline of Ideas." English Journal 9:2 (February 1920): 61-70. On the humanist movement in general, see Wellek. "Literary Scholarship." in American 'Scholarship in the Twentieth Century, ed. Merle Curti (Cambridge: !hit-yard University Press. 19531. pp. 117-18. 25. Lou L. LaBrant "Masquerading.- English Journal 20:3 (March 19311:2.1.1 -46: Gertrude M. Woodcock, "Stagecraft as Motivation in Ivan. AFRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING 135

hoe,English Journal20:3 (March 1931): 246 -19; and Kilpatrick.Founda- tions of Method. pp.138.40. 26, Howard Mumford Jones, "The Fetish of Classics."English Journal18:3 (March 1929); 221-39. For the opposing view,see Mabel C. lermans, "Directed Reading in Social Adjustment."English Journal17:3 (March 1928): 219.28. 27. After an article of Robert Morss Lovett anda second by Michael Gold, Hatfield received so many reader reactionsthat he had to protest that personally he did not like Hemingway (the subjectof Lovett's article) or Gold's variety of criticism. but publishedthem "primarily as information. and secondarily as is stimulus to fundamental, catholicthinking." Editorial, "Hemingway and Gold,"English Journal22:3 (March 1933): 340-41; Robert Morss Lovett. "Ernest Hemingway."English Journal21:8 (October 1932): 609.17: Michael Gold, "The Education of John DosPassos," English .Journal22:2 (February 1933): 87-97; V. F. Calverton. "Left-WingLitera- ture in America,"English ,Journal20:10 (December 19311: 789-98. 28. See Lawrence A. Cremin.The Transformation of the School(New York: Vintage Books, 1961).pp. 229-30. 29. Cited in The ProgressiveEducatorand theDepression.C. A. Bowers (New York: Random House, 1969),pp. 23.34. 30.English Journalnoted the magazine's debut and provided information on subscriptions. '"I'he Periodicals."English Journal23:10 (December 1934): 857. See Cremin, Transformationof the School.pp. 230.3l; and Bowers.Progressive Educator and the Depression,pp. 15, 44. 108. 31, Stella S. Center. "The Responsibilities ofTeachers of English in Contemporary American Life,"English Journal22:2 (Fehruary 1933): 97-108. She received a standing ovation. "The Memphis CouncilMeeting," English Journal22:2 (February 1933): 143-59. 32. Stella S. Center, "President's Message,"English Journal21:3 (March 1932): 240-41: John .1. Delloer, "The Technique ofTeaching Peace," English Journal22:4 (April l9331: 325-26; "The Boston Convention," EnglishJournal 26:2 (February 1937): 131.39; and Essie Chamberlain, "International Mindedness Through Books," EnglishJournal 22:5 (May 19331: 282.91. The resolution asserted that teachers of English"have the serious responsibility of explaining realisticallyto their pupils that war is not a glamorous and romantic experience, but ratheran ugly, cruel, costly, and barbarous method of attempting to settle nationaland international disputes," Council efforts on behalf of thepeace movement continued till the brink of the war. The International Relations Committeeeven published an anthology of peace-oriented stories and articlesbycontemporary figures such as Hemingway, Roosevelt, Lindbergh, and VanLoon. Ida T. Jacobs, ed.. Warand Peace: An Anthology.Bulletin 3 of the International Relations Committee of the NCTE (Chicago:, NCTE, 1937). 33. Editorial, "Dare We?"EnglishJournal 22:1 (January 1933): 67; and John J. Definer, "Propaganda in the Schools," English Journal 25A (April 1036); 325. Propaganda analysis became an increasingconcern toward the end of the decade. 34. Oscar J. Campbell. "English: Its Domestic and Foreign Policies," English Journal 24:2(Fehruary 1935): 100.10; and Dora V. Smith, "Amer- ican Youth and English,"English Journal 26:2(February 1937): 99-113. :15. W. Wilbur Hatfield, chairman.An Experience Curriculum in En- glish. A Report of the Curriculum Commission of the National Councilof 136 TanvertorgAND liEFORSI

'Teachers of English (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 19351, p. v. 36. The "radical-progressive unit" had been discussed earlier. "Units in Learning,"English Journal16:10 (December 1927): 81.6-17. 37. For a discussion of the reaction to these aspects of the report, see Raven I. NleDavid, J r.. ed.,An Examination of the Attitudes of the NCTE toward Language.Research Report no. (Urbana, Ill.: WIT, 19651. 38. "Comments on the Curriculum Report,"English Journal25:4 (April, 19361: 321-21. Angela NI. Broening, chairman,Conducting Exper- iences in English.A publication of the National Council of Teachers of English (New York: I), Appleton-Century Co., 1939). 39. An appendix to the report listed eighty-three courses of study from all parts of the country which embodied the experience approach: some, however, had been issued prior toAn ExperienceCurriculum. For other reactions. see, for example, Annette Mann, "Does the Experience Curricu- lum Idea Work?"English Journal27:2 (February 19381: 173; and "An Experience Curriculum in Action,"English Journal27:8 (October 1938): 693. Broening, ConductingExperiences,pp. -6. 1. Hatfield,An ExperienceCurriculum, p. 11. 42.. Ruth Mary Weeks, chairman. A CorrelatedCurriculum(New York: I). Appleton-Century Co., 19361, pp. 6-9, 285. 13. "A Correlated Curriculum Evaluated," Books,English Journal26:5 (May 19371: 417-20. I lopkins's review was printed first. Bobbitt's second. 44. Louise M. Rosenblatt.Literature as Exploration.For the Commis slim on I luman Relations of the Progressive Education Association (New York: I). Appleton-Century Co., 1938). 45. Ibid.. pp. v-vi. This point of view was not limited to the PEA. A Joint Committee of Twenty-Four of the MLA and NCTE endorsed a statentent on the aims of literary study drafted by Louise Rosenblatt, I Toward Mumford Jones, and Oscar James Campbell. It saw literature as a way to "self-reliant and well-rounded personalities." Though the committee asked for the -widest possible distribution," little notice was taken of the statement. Later statements from the MLA Commission on Trends in Education, however, did continue to affirm its basic principles. Statement of the Committee of Twenty-Four, "The Aims of Literary Study,"MLA 53 119381: 1367-71. 46, Dora V. Smith,instruction in English,Office of Education Bulletin 1932, no. 17. National Survey of Secondary Education Monograph no. 20 (Washington. D.C.: Government Printing Office, 19331. 17. Smith.Evaluating instruction in Secondary School English.See also Dora V. Smith, "Implications of the New York Regents' Inquiry for the Teaching of English,"EnglishJournal 28:3 (March 1939): 177. 48. The best discussion of the early traditions is in Bibb's dissertation, though her concern is with those devoted to American selections. Among the very early texts, she cites Matthew Carey's SelectPoem-, Chiefly American (17911, Evelyn Itezek Bibb.Anthologies of Amerl Literature, 1787-1964(Dissertation, Columbia University, 1965: University Microfilms No. 66-17281. 49, The comparison here is with the lists provided by James Olson of editors of the anthologies he studied. Other Council presidents during this period also produced teaching materials, but concentrated their efforts in language and compositon rather than literature. James Warren Olson, The A'FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING 137

Nature of Literature Anthologies Used in the leaching High School English1917-1957(Dissertation.University of Wisconsin. 1969; University Microfilms No. 69-22.4541. Walter Barnes. 'The Bookof Selections: Its Value in Teaching Iligh-School Literature."EnglishJournal 8:.4 (April 1919): 248:53. 50. Olson,Nature of Literature Anthologies, pp.87-108. 51. Olson, Nature of LiteratureAnthologies.pp. 91-105: Bernd, in Approaches to leaching Literature,comments similarly on this series. 52. Olson.Nature of Literature Anthologies,pp. 109-15. Rich's 1921 anthology. for example, was chronologically organizedwithin each genre. 53. Olson,Nature of Literature Anthologies,pp. 91. 180. 54. In Olson's study. for example, the number of authorsnot un the CEEB lists doubled, the number of selectionsrose from 3.132 to 5.865. and the number of selections appearing in onlyone anthology almost tripled from the first (1917-19341 to the second (1935.1945) period(pp. 174-79). 55. James Fleming !Usk the Council's firstsecretary and founder of English Journal.illustrated the moderate position in a retrospective article published in 1932. Ile accused the progressives of "bayinglived by faith. not by sight. yet acknowledged that teachers owed them"Such real advances as education is now making.- "In the lungrun," he concluded, "the moderate position is most likely toprove tenableand safe." The Council always had some members whowere very much a part of the progressive movement J. Milnor nervy and John Del3oer,for example, each went on to head the Progressive Education Associationafter periods of active service to NCTEbut as flask put it,the Council was ''an organization of collective thinking" and always had equallyactive conservative members balancing the most liberal view. It wouldhe fair to say, however. that Hosic, Hatfield, and the Councilas a whole were more progressive than they cared to admit. James Fleming nosh:,"The National Council after Twenty Years,"English.lournal21:2(February 19321: 107-13. 56, Robert C. Pooley, "Varied Patterns of Approach inthe Teaching of Literature,-English Journal28:5 (May 1939): 242-53. 57. Myriam Page. "The Other Side,"English Journal26:6 (June 19371: .10.4.1. 58. The importance of Rosenblatt's bookand of its implicationswere recognized immediately. Thus Hatfield reviewed it himselfas soon as it appeared. beginning with the sentence,"Literature as Explorationfills the thoughtful college or secondary-school teacher of Englishwith shame, fear, and resolution." Malcolm S. MacLear madeA similar point in "What's Wrong with Us English Teachers?English Journal28:8 (October 1939): 655-63. (W. Wilbur Hatfield. "A Fresh View of LiteratureTeaching," Books.English Journal27:7 1Septemher 1938): 618-19.) 59. Marquis E. Shattuck, chairman,The Development of a Modern Program in English,Ninth Yearbook (Washington. D.C.: Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction of the NEA, 1936). No one present at that fast conference (of the Eight-Year Study! will ever fowl the honest confession of one principal when she said, "My leachem and I do not know what to do with this freedom. It challenges and frightens us. I fear that we have come to love our chains." .. No one of the group could possibly foresee all the developments ahead, nor were all of one mind as lo what should be done. The Story of the EightYear Study, 19421

Neither this book nor any other can say how a page should be readif by that we mean that it can give a recipe for discovering what the pagetrolly says. All could duand that would be muchwould be to help its to understand some of the difficulties in the way of such discoveries. I. A. Richards, How to Read a Page, 19422

Communication is one of the five or six most crucial services of war. It is one with which a half-dozen major agencies in Washington are now urgently concerned, for home front and battle front alike, following the rime imperative concern with military mobilization and war production. It is plainly the one in which our seventy-five thousand teachers of English can make the special war contribution we have been looking, hoping, walling for. Lennox Grey, NCTE second vice president, 19433

The field of literature past and present is a vast one, almost as large in scope as occupational, health, and community living areas. Thebasic-course teacher would have to become familiar with this strafed& in order to weave the reading (poetry, plays, novels, biographies, essays, etc.) into the current areas of concentration. English Journal review of Education for All American Youth, 19454

One of the joys of teaching is the opporlunity to influence the development and growth of the young sludent. There are few experiences that evoke the glow the teacher feels in seeing a young person mature in language power, in human Melons, in the personal satisfaclions which may be derived from increased good taste in reading and listening, and in the power to use words wally and in writing so as to achieve adequate ad/us/ment for himself and his teen-age friends. Commission on the English Curriculum, 19565 Chapter VI

Narrowed Goals

The expansion of the English curriculumaround the metaphors of experience andexploration was followed bya conscious narrowing of thescope and goals of instruction during the ensuing decades. Much of this occurredwithin the context of a movement toward "general education" thatcame to prominence simultaneously in the colleges andsecondary schools of the late thirties." In part hecause the Depressionleft them with little else to do. students who would previouslyhave dropped out early were remaining through the high school andeven into the college years. This created a new band of studentsfor whom neither vocational nor college-preparatory training would be appropriate;for these "general" students anew kind of education was needed. As the Progressive Education Association's Commissionon Secondary School Curriculum put it, this would be"general education" education of post elementary grade intended to foster goodliving. It rules out conventional planes of professional preparationand scholarship for its own sake when theseprove extraneous to the single purpose of helping the student achieve a socially adequate andper- sonally satisfying life in a democracy.'

How to educate for this "socially adequate and personallysatisfy- ing life in a democracy"was the major problem faced by the progressives during the 1940s and 1950s. Two major,complementary responses developed. The first involveda narrowing of the initial progressive concern with the social needsof the student into a concern with adolescent problems, in particular theproblem of adjusting to the demands of the adult World.This narrowing will be the subject of the first part of the present chapter.

139 HO TRADITION AND REFORM

The second and complementary response was to focus on language and communication skills. This also developed as part of the general education movement, but it had deeper roots in academic traditions of language study, in particular in the general semantics movement and the work of the New Critics, Both of thesethe one originating in response to the use of propaganda in the First World War, the other in the complexities of twentieth century poetry emphasized the difficulties inherent in skillful use of language, with a concomitant need for close, analytic study if the reader or listener were not to be misled. The entry of the United States into World War 11 hrought the functional aspects of such language studies once again into the foreground. relating all of them to a central concern with "communication skills." As a War Depart- ment spokesman explained the army view over NBC radio,

13v English. the Army.means skill in reading, writing, speaking, and listening, and above all, understanding what is read, written, spoken, and heard. Army men and women must be able to communicate clearly and accurately by any media: they must he able to understand the orders they give us well as the orders they receive.'

Under the pressures of war, such a drastic reduction in the scope of insttuction generated little rebuttal. Even the American Associ- ation of Colleges agreed that "educators are not prepared to assert to military authorities that the 'intangible values' of a liberal arts education would make soldiers better fighters."' Under such pressures, spelling lists and vocabulary exercises proliferated, and reading skills became again an important concern of the secondary school teacher of literature. Even as the new and narrower focus of instruction was developing. it generated a reaction among those who favored the traditional educational emphasis on intellectual training and cultural heritage. Critics of the progressives' provided a discordant undercurrent from 1940 on, laying a foundation for an academic revival which eventually wrested the initiative in educational reform away from the progressives and returned it to college faculties of liberal arts. This academic revival will be discussed in Chapter VII.

Progressivism as the Conventional Wisdom

The Eight-Year Study During the 1940s and 1950s, the educational policies of progressive education were widely accepted by American educators. The most highly publicized working out of these principles within the context of general education was the so-called "life adjustment NARROWED GOALS 141

movement"; during this time the center of educational innovation shifted from the Progressive Education Association (PEA) itselfto the National Education Association (NEA) and the U.S. Office of Education I USOE), Still the origins of the movementcan be traced directly to the experiences of the thirty schools involved in the Eight-Year Study of the PEA. It was in these schools that the educational experience was gradually redefined in the terminology of mental hygiene and personality development. The genesis of the study was the 1930 convention of the PEA. during which it became apparent that the major Impedimentto wider experimentation with school curriculum was fear that graduating students would not he able to fulfill college entrance requirements. In response to this concern, the association appointeda Committee on College Entrance and Secondary Schools, laterre- named the Commission on the Relation of School and College. It was this commission, under the chairmanship of Wilford M. Aikin, director of the John Burroughs School (Clayton, Missouri), which proposed that students in a group of leading secondary schools be exempted from the normal entrance requirements,so. that the schools would be free to reformulate theirprograms. Over three hundred colleges, including many of the nation's most prestigious, accepted the proposal; supporting fundswere provided by the General Education Board and the Carnegie Foundation.'" Thirty schools were eventually invited to participate. Though they included a disproportionate number of private and laboratory schools; such large city systems as Denver and Los Angeleswere also part of the group. The study began in 1932 andran till 1940, with the commission from the beginning providing counsel and comfort buy conscientiously avoiding prescribing specific curricula. Indeed until 1936, when a staff of three curriculum consultantswas appointed, the schools had to rely entirelyon their individual and pooled resources in developing new approaches. A series of five reports issued in 1942 presented the results of a major follow-up study of college performance as well as extensive descriptions of the problems that had arisen and the attempts that had been madeto solve them. Perhaps in part because, as one of the reports described it,the problems of mastering and using thisnew freedom straightway turned out to be so difficult, complex, and engrossing that the original problem of college entrance requirementswas almost lost sight of and forgotten," the reports providea detailed picture of the evolution of the courses of study in the schools," Though the individual schools began and ended their curriculum reform at very different points, there were certaincommon threads of considerable interest, The most important for English involved experiments with "fused" or "core" or "correlated" coursesthe kind toward which NCTE had turned its attention in its 1936 volume (discussed in the previous chapter). Almost all of the thirty 112 TRADITION AND REFORM

schools experimented with a combined socialstudies-English course, almost. always organized chronologically, and all abandoned the attempt after a few years of experimentation. The initial fused course at most of the schools attempted to juggle andreorder traditional content in the two subjects, bringing the topics covered into line with one another. Social studies tended to dominate, and many of the values of both subjects as traditionally taught seemed .as the NCTE committee had worriedto be lost. Rather than returning to the traditional organization. however, most schools reorganized the core sequence around topical focuses. This "core" tended to be somewhat eclectic: at one of the schools it embraced such diverse topics as Vocational Guidance, War and Peace, and International Literature. This mixture served as a transitional stage in which the old and new concerns stood side by side;it moved from there to what became in a great many of the schools the final focus of the core: the life problems of the adoleseent.'2 The transition to adolescent "needs" as the organizing principle was aided by the work of two derivative PEA commissions: the Commission on Secondary School Curriculum, organized as an offshoot of the Commission on the Relation of School and College in 1932. and the Commission on Human Relations, itself a 1935 outgrowth of the Commission on Secondary School Curriculum. The individual reports of the Thirty Schools make clear that the work of these commissions provided the impetus for the jump from a focus on important themes to a focus on themes important to adolescents. One influential document was a summary of "Typical Points of Focus of Concerns of Adolescents" prepared by the Commission on Human Relations and reprinted in the final reports of the study. Six main topics_were outlined: Establishing Personal Relationships, Establishing Independence, Understanding Human Behavior, Establishing Self in Society, Normality, and Under- standing the Universe. All but the last (which was usually ignored as programs evolved) dealt with very specific adolescent problems; typical topics included "Longing for more friends of own age "; "How late to stay out": "Shame over lowly origins"; and "Bully- ing." Altogether there were over 40 topics and 140 subtopics in the outlineand these were presented only as a typical, not as an exhaustive list.'1 The Commission on Secondary School Curriculum translated these concerns into specific programs in a series of publications between 1938 and 1941. The first. Science in General Education 11938), was important in the transition from "fused" to "core" courses. Offering a broader base than English and social studies alone, the science report generated courses such as "Everyday Problems" as the last stage of the evolution. The sophomore course in the Altoona (Pennsylvania) schools was typical of the sequence that evolved: it included Orientation to the New School, Family NARROWED GOALS 143

Relationships. Consumer Problems, Communication,and Conser- vation, of Human and Natural Resources. By thisstage of their evolution, very few of the corecourses in the more experimental schools showed any concern with the personaland social reform that had been so important in earlier stagesof progressivism." The reports of the Eight-Year Studywere published in the middle of the war andwere largely ignored. That is not to say, however, that the study itselfwas without impact on teachers of English. It was simply that that influencecame from the separate writings of the teachers in the various schools, workingon committees and writing for journals throughout the period of the study. Most of the concern that had prompted the NCTEreport on correlation, much of the emerging focuson adolescent needsthese first appeared in articles noting authors' affiliationswith one or another of the schools of the Eight-Year Study. (Itis an interesting aspect. of the general distrust of the progressives inthe Council leadership that, while other projectswere often noted, the participation of these schools in the Eight-Year Studywas rarely ac- knowkdged.l''

Life Adjustment The view of education that was emergingfrom the Thirty Schools and from the various commissions of theProgressive Education Association became during the 1940sthe conventional wisdom of the professional educatorsof the "educationists"as they would be called by their critics in the early1950s. The Educational Policies Commission of the National EducationAssoci- ation, created in 1936 to speak withan authoritative voice on important educational issues, fell firmly inline with the PEA's focus upon the adolescent in a series of reports in themid-forties: Education for All American Youth11944),Educational Services for Children(1945), andEducation for All American Children(1948). The first of these became the chief statement of the lifeadjustment movement. th The commission used the device of sketching theeducational programs in the mythical communities of American City and Farmville to present their proposals. They foresawa much closer integration of school and community than hasever been attained, with national, state, and localprograms supplementing one another to provide a full panoply of educational and healthservices. The curriculum itself centered on a "common learningscourse running throughout the secondary schoolprogram, and even somewhat beyond, providing a core of general educationthat followed the pattern that had emerged from the Eight-Year Study. Rather than a simple fused or correlated course, "common learnings"repre- 111 TRADITION AND REFORM

sented a complete restructuring of subject matter to focus (mostly through science and social studies) on topics suchas choice of vocation and problems of family living. The dominant concern with adolescent problemswas finally taken up by the U.S. Office of Education and given the ill-chosen name by which it has since been known: "life adjustment." The USOE became involved in January 1944 when the Vocational. Division began a study entitled "Vocational Education in the Years Ahead." The 150 vocationalists who carried out the study recognized a fundamental unity of purpose with the general education movement, as it had been working itself out in terms of the life experiences of the adolescent student. Charles Prosser used the final conference of the USOE study to offer a resolution that read in part:

It is the belief of this conference that the vocational school of the community will be better able to prepare 20 percent of the youth of secondary school age for entrance upon desirable skilled occupations: and that the high school will continue to prepare another 20 percent for entrance to college. We do not believe that the remaining 60 percent of our youth of secondary school age will receive the life adjustment training they need and to which they are entitled as American citizens." This led to a series of conferences between representatives of general and of vocational education, to formulate an approach to the problem of educating the neglected 60 percent. Eventually a Commission on Life Adjustment Education for Youth was established to carry out a vigorous "action program." Its focus remained on what the earlier conferences had called "functional experiences in the areas of practical arts, home and family life, health and physical fitness. and civic competence." In spite of occasional disclaimers, the emphasis in hoth name and activities was on "adjustment," "conformity," and a stable system of values. The traditional concern of progressive education with the continuing improvement of both the individual and his society was submerged and ultimately lost in this formulation.

The Rejection of Correlation The response of English teachers to the "life adjustment" movement was a paradoxical resistance to the outward form and capitulation. at least by a broad segment of teachers, to the underlying emphases. The genuine distrust of the core curriculum so evident in the report of the NCTE Committee on Correlation in 1936 was maintained from the first experiments.with a fused social studies- English course to the final "common learnings" of the Educational Policies Commission. Again and again, when the teacher of English NARROWED GOALS 145

attempted to go that route he found the peculiar virtues of his subject matter being quietly subvertedand it hardly mattered whether he defined those virtues as "practical English skills," "liberal education,- or "exploration of self and society." Though an occasional teacher of English reflected the enthusiasm of the thin ties, no one during the decade of the forties managed a convincing description of a working program that circumvented the problems that the Committee on Correlation had foreseen." The objections to the core course were succinctly summarized in a 194(1 response toEducation for All American Youth(1944) prepared by Mark Neville, second vice president of the Council. Neville was English department chairman at the John Burroughs School in Clayton, Missourithe school which had provided the initial impetus for the Eight-Year Study as well as its director, Wilford Aikin. Neville's review, presented as a sharing of experiences with Farmville, outlined the evolution of experiments with fused and core courses at the Burroughs School. The major experiments had involved a fused course and a second series called the "Core Course and Broad Fields" in which the broad fields were English, social studies, science, math, foreign languages, and the fine and practical arts. In the end it was the relatively traditional broad fields that came to dominate the curriculum: the core was gradually rejected by teachers. students. and parents alike. The most important objections involved some large gaps between the theory of correlation and its actual working out in practice. English skills, the responsibility of all teachers in the core curriculum, were hard to emphasize as they developed during the content work; teachers found that rather than achieving the integrated and'comprehensive view that was sought, the program became stilted and artifical. Students in the course rejected it as "too broad in scope and too shallow in depth": they preferred the broad field courses. and eventually the core was reduced to an elective. Looking back on the whole experience, Neville concluded that the real accomplishment of the years of experiment had been to revitalize the individual subject areas. Though there were many cases in which English could be improved through discussion of content from other fields, the goal of developing "pupil personality, thinking processes, group adjustMents. and concepts of living" could not be reached simply by correlating." Other reactions of English teachers toEducation for All Ameri- can Youthwere equally firm in their rejection of its major curriculum implications. They attacked the lack of explicit provision for literature (as Marion Sheridan noted, depending on one's predispo- sition, literature could either be read into the report or out of the course):-the neglect of subject matter (that is, language skills and knowledge of literature); and the reliance on the artificial unity of subject matter instead of the real unity of the teacher who has I TRADITION AND REFORM

successfully integrated his own knowledge. In general such attacks on the core were successful: a study at the end of the decade by a USOE worker quite sympathetic to the movement found that nationally only 3.5 percent of the course offerings in the junior and senior high school represented even the least ambitious forms of correlation, and these were concentrated in a few geographic areas. Over 90 percent of the core courses she did find, however, involved some blend of English and social studies!"

English as Adjustment

Afeeting Adolescent Needs Even as they were vigorously resisting the curriculum proposals of the "life adjustment" movement, teachers of English were em- bracing rather indiscriminately the new focus on meeting the personal and social needs of adolescence. Teachers were already well conditioned to the implied empiricism, the inventory of activities now redefined as psychological conflicts or needed -competencies." They were ready too for the reestablishment of boundaries for their subject; the almost. universal perspective of the previous decade no longer seemed feasible. Finally, by accepting adolescent needs as the focus of the curriculum, teachers were continuing their tradition of concern that the school serve the child, not the subject-oriented demands of the college. "Needs" as they came to he defined by teachers of English covered a wide spectrum that began with problems of family life and ended in international relations. The characteristic concern at all points of the spectrum, however, was with the solution of practical problems of living. When the focus of instruction was shifted in this way, English at the personal end of the spectrum of needs became guidance. This had antecedents in programs suggested at the end of the reorganization period, and again in the late 1920s, but those early attempts had failed to win many converts. Teachers had recognized that the early proponents were naive in their choices of materials, and too limited in their goals for an age in which "experience" and "exploration" were central. By the late 1930s. however, the limited, antiprogressive goals of adjustment were very much in keeping with the emerging spirit in education, while the materials and methods could claimnot always accurately support from neo-Freudian psychology. Sarah Roody, department chairman at Nyack High School, New York. was a leading advocate of this approach. Describing it in 1947. she began by asserting that the "lessons" to be taught through "true- to.Iife" literature were very simple and could he NARROWED GOALS bri

expressed "chiefly in nontechnical terms"implying.of course, ,that there was a more esoteric body of knowledgehehind her suggestions. The lessons she had in mindwere really a catalog of psychoanalytic explanations of behavior: studentswould learn' about the "fundamental motives from whichthe actions of all human beings spring." about the "ways in whichmany people try to evade reality." about "life.problemS,' normality. andmaturity. And finally, of course, they would learn "howto develop the kind of personality one would like Lo have."" If sucha program sounded more like a course in psychology or guidance thanone in English, that was the intent. Article after article proclaimedthe special need for the teacher of English, particularly theteacher of literature. Lo provide guidance through the emotional conflictsof Lhe adolescent years. As a librarian from Baltimore described it, the job ofLhe teacher or librarian wasone of suggesting stories "very much as- physicians prescribe sulfa drugs, by familiarizingherself with old and new productions in Lhe field. by prescribingas best she can, and by keeping a sharp lookout for reactions. ""'

Human Relations

The social end of Lhe spectrum of needswas dealt with under the general rubric of "human relations." The'common thread in such studies was a concern with Lhe smooth functioningof Lhe various groups which make up the world; Lhe focus ofany given discussion ranged anywhere from the .adolescent cliqueto international relations. This movement, too, had antecedents, allloosely related to Lhe early progressive concern with educationas an instrument of social reform. This concern had been carriedthrough the years between Lhe wars in the work ofgroups such as the NCTE Commit- tee on International Relations and, later, in thearguments of the social reconstructionists. Rut itwas Hilda Tuba who gave the movement a focus and brought it to its fullest expressionduring the mid- forties. To understand Lhe sorts of activities that emerged, it is useful Lo look first at her Dynamicsof Education (1932). which can be seen as the revision of Foundations of Method11925) that Kilpatrick never undertook. Taba based herarguments on Lhe Gestalt psychologists' explorations of thestructured nature of perception and cognition. abandoning Thorndike'sbehavioral op. mooch. This, as Kilpatrick noted inan introduction to Tuba's hook, allowed Lhe purposeful act to he joined in theservice of "an all pervasive structure building." Thisstructure building was crucial;it enabled Taba Lo conclude that educationshould be concerned with these grander structures ratherthan with Lhe sorts of behavioral units that Babbitt,among others, had attempted Lo detail. Instead, education would "endeavorto reach, through the 148 TRADITION AND REFORM

specific. and by the immediate qualitative context of the specific. the general, and the fundamental." In a sense, it was "the great idea" which she stressed, the idea which would provide a superor- dinate structure capable of subsuming ever-wider ranges of concrete experience. 2' Racial strife, which produced the Detroit riots in July1943, provided the immediate context for the application of Taba's general ideas to a major project in human relations.' The National Conference of Christians and. Jews, concerned by the increasing evidence of intolerance and the lack of coordination among existing groups, provided funds to the American Council on Education to support a Project on Intergroup Relations, with Taba as director. The project staffwhich for the first months consisted of Taba alone but later grew to eightwere clearly in the tradition of Kilpatrick and the social reconstructionists, though milder in their rhetoric and more temperate in their goals. (Taba herself had worked with Counts as well as Kilpatrick during the thirties.) As 'Taba and her staff described it in the summary volume(1952),their project offered a model for the development of educational solutions to social ills."When the project hegan, the lack of methods and materials for dealing with problems of human relations made schools reluctant to undertake such studies even when they were convinced of the need. Much of the effort during the two and a half years of the main project was therefore directed toward filling this gap, with cooperating schools deliberately chosen to provide a heterogeneous sample of local and regional problems in intergroup understanding. In all, some250projects were undertaken in72 individual schools in 18 school systems. In keeping with Taba's concern with conceptual structures, however. prohlems in human relations were approached preventively, by attempting to develop general attitudes that would. subsume and Prevent more particular prohlems of intergroup relations. Rather than studying minority groups, for example, the project staff decided to focus on what they called "common areas of living" family, community, American culture, and interpersonal relations. Within these familiar areas. more powerful concepts could be generated through studying such recurring phenomena as "acceptance and rejection. inclusion and segregation. prejudice and discrimination"(p. 72).Taba consistently emphasized the importance of process in learning. in particular that the natural progression in discussion or other learning activities should be from the concrete and specific toward the abstract and general!' The Project on Intergroup Relations did not develop a specific curriculum in human relations. Its focus was instead on "action projects" organized at a local level, with the project staff helping schools to devise materials and activities related to theirown particular social prohlems. To train as many teachers as possible in the techniques necessary to develop and test their own materials,a NARROWED GOALS 149

,series of summer institutes was organized;one was held in 1945. three in 1946, and oqe each in 1947 and 1948. Some 260 peoplewere involved in these summer sessions where,as the project staff summarized it, they "prepared instructional units, workedout methods of studying children and communities, drewup plans for student guidance and for school activities, and preparedstrategies for community action" (p. 31. The work of these institutes, of the project staff, and of the cooperating schools ledto a long series of publications on human relations and intergroup education;these presented teachers throughout the country with practical,-school- based approaches for all age levels and inmany different curriculum areas.'(, Nevertheless there were major difficulties in the approach Taha and her staff advocated. The fundamental problemwas naivetea national naivete, not Taba's alonewhichsaw racial problems in the limited context of attitudes and dispositions rather thanas manifestations of deeper institutional and economic forces,The concern was real enough, but the methods and assumptions were but a mild prelude to the civil rights movement which began almost as TaInt's project finished its work. Simply to make people aware of the problem, to bring it out into the open asan issue to he dealt with rather than ignored, helped create an atmosphere in whichthe real roots could eventually be discovered and attacked. Moreimme- diately, there.was too much similarity between the project's list of "common areas of living" and the lists of adolescent needs that were simultaneously emerging in"life adjustment." While this correspondence certainly made it easier for human relationsstudies to be taken. up by the schools, it also made it easier for Taba's underlying concern. with social reform to be short-circuited;the broader concepts she sought were often submerged in the specifics of present needs. The pressures to preserve a limited and detached perspective were real and strong. George H. Henry. a Delaware English teacher turned principal, illustrated both the inherent reformist tendencies in human relations and the contravening communitypressures in a 1947 article describing "Our Best English Unit." Students in his school, prompted to reveal their real areas of interest and "need,: had turned tothe colored question" as a prohlem of considerable magnitude in their lives. The teacher and Henry had supported that interest, allowing the students to begin for the first time to explore the implications of racial attitudes and policies in their community. They never finished the unit; it was brought to an end by the school hoard after a torrent of public resistance." That therewere not more such conflicts was due simply to the reluctance of teachers to deal at all with ethical questions, especially in the atmosphere of suppression and censorship that developed as the Cold War began to capture the national imagination. 150 TRA DITION ANDREFORM

Organizing a Curriculum around Immediate Needs The rejection of the core curriculum left teachers of English with the question of how to organize a curriculum designed to meet the new demands. One of the earliest attempts to solve the problem was that of the Stanford Language Arts Investigation,(1937-40), carried out under the guidance of the Stanford University education faculty with financial support from the General Education Board. II. D. Roberts.1937president of NCTE, was senior author of one of the reports. English for Social Living(7943).As he put it in the overview, "In the approach and throughout the work emphasis was given to teaching the language arts as a vital part of human living, and to the consequent replacement of routine and traditional teaching programs with those designed and tested to meet specific personal and social needs."'" The report suffered from the faults that would plague virtually all attempts at curriculum reformulation during this period. The guiding philosophy of meeting needs was so oriented toward the immediate school situation that it provided no guidelines for se quence or scope in the curriculum, Rather than an outline of a program, English for Social Living was primarily a collection of activities undertaken in different schools by different teachers, grouped together under such general areas of concern as "democratization of the classroom," "building of personality," and the need to "study and serve the community." Ultimately this focus on general problems ran the danger of ignoring the particular strengths of the subject area which it was attempting to revitalize. English for Social Living, like Education for All American Youth, gave precious little attention to literature. Lacking any external principles by which to determine scope and sequence, the accepted practice gradually deteriorated into a "multiple approach" in which the only criterion was that students be kept interested. Though virtually any method might be of use, the materials themselves were determined on the basis of the particular needs manifested by the class. These were to he determined by a process that represented an unsystematic revival of the child study movement, usually involving a simple report from the class to the teacher, Dwight Burton, for example, in an early article presented the results of asking his students to write about the problems they were having. Like most of the products of the life adjustment movement, his inventory of needs was both specific and lacking in emphasis on the moral and spiritual side of life. He ended up with six major categories: relations with parents, relations with other adolescents, problems of personality, school problems, relations with brothers and sisters, and "miscellaneous." The first of these was illustrated in detail, with examples ranging from "1. Father 'horns in when friends gather at the house," to"30.Home respon- NARROWED GOALS 151

sibility with father deadcauses unhappiness." The "second step" in curriculum construction,as Burton presented it, was the selection of a "basic list" of novels "closelyattuned to real adolescent problems. "`" Though Burton's articlewas one of the first by a teacher of English presenting suchan inventory of needs as an explicit basis for selecting the themes to be studied in theliterature program, it was by no means a lone example. During the nextten years English teachers would be offeredmany similar inventories, from other teachers as well as from such professionalsas the chief of children's service at the University of MichiganNeuropsychiatric Institute!" Implicit in these surveyswas a new stress on the use of themes instead of chronology orgenres to organize the course of study. Thematic organization did not originateduring "life adjustment"; it had been a minor part of the experienceapproach throughout the previous twenty years. Under thepressure of meeting adolescent needs, however, themes shifted froma convenient organizational device leading to units providing similarexperiences (about boats, soy. or animals or regional literature) and becameinstead the focus of instruction: students neededto learn about family problems, the generation gap, or hrotherhood. Thematicorganization in practice differed little from earlier approaches, butit became the favorite method of organization in "life adjustment"classes and produced a few methodological variants of itsown. Bertha Hand lin, head of English at the laboratory schoolat the University of Minnesota, wrote in 1943 of themes as a way to allowmembers of a class to read different books and yet all be ahleto contribute to the same class discussions. Dwight Burton's suggestions,based on his teach. ing at the same school,were similarly focussed on selecting books whose themes were clearly relatedto important issues in the lives of teenage students. Although organization bychronology and by types dominated the high school course in thelate 1930s,by the 1950s organization by themesor topics (which in practice became indistinguishahle) had relegated hothto a less important role."

Selecting Materials

In a curriculum basedon immediate needs, the teacher served a resource center, providing the as t book to meet the need ofthe moment. One way to accomplish thiswas to redefine the values of the traditional works in the jargonof "life adjustment." just earlier they had heen redefined as in terms of experience. Asusual, there was no end to the flexibility ofany given work: Macbeth was be taught as an example of what to happens when we are "willingto get our desires at all costs ": the object lessonprovided would help students "begin to achieve self-control and self-direction." Upfrom 152 TRA orrioN AND REFORM

Slaverywas presented as a good way "to understand how people with handicaps feel and Rolstimulate us to face our own handicaps he they large or small." "The Ransom of Red Chief" was paired withTorn Sawyerin a unit to help students "understand themselves and the younger members of their family better." "Love" became "a natural subject for discussion" after a class had read. "The Courtship of Miles Standish,"Silas Marneroffered a "store- house of information necessary for understanding friends, family, and one's self. "' Teachers more fully committed to general education and "life adjustment" provided bibliographies organized around the major focuses of adolescent needs:The Reader's Guide to Prose Fiction 11910) was the earliest and most comprehensive. Produced for the Committee on the Function of English in General Education of the PEA Commission on Secondary School Curriculum by Elbert Len- row, head of the English Department at the Fieldston School,. New York City, the book was a topically.arranged bibliography with a lengthy introduction setting forth the author's view of literature in the secondary school. Lenrow's emphasis was very close to Rosen- blatt's, and he abbreviated his own discussion somewhat by refer- ring the reader toLiterature as Rxploration(1938). He was, however, more concerned with classroom procedureswith the question of which books to use with whom, and to what end. Accepting the general principle that literature was a means by which the student could explore both himself and his society, Lenrow noted that "the novel is par excellence the medium for the artist who would portray with amplituile both the macrocosm and microcosm of modern life." He accordingly limited the selections in his bibliography to prose fiction, quite a common approach throughout the period of "life adjustment. "'' Lenrow assumed that students would "identify" with literary characters, manipulating their identifications "in such a way as to derive unconscious satisfactions, either of deprivations and inhibit- ions, or of goals. aspirations, ideals, and the like." It was only through such identifications that adolescents could "carry on those attendant and subsequent processesexploration of self and formulation of attitudes and goals and outlook on life," To facilitate identification. Lenrow suggested books corresponding to the student's own situation. Contemporary works were more likely to show such a correspondence, but classic texts were alloWed some place if taught by a skillful teacher." His concern with presenting realistic life situations led Lenrow to confront "the troublesome question of how much frankness in hooks is appropriate for. adolescents." Here he presented three major arguments against censorship. First, if the reader is really unsophisticated, he will not react to the implications of the "realistic elements," Sucond, if he does understand, it is butter that his questions be answered "through serious literary NARROWED GOA IS 153

works rather than through devious and possibly distorted sources."- Finally, adults usually underestimate the amount of knowledge adolescents already possess: "Those whim sentimental peopleare anxious to 'shield' could often turn about and give instruction." Lenrow was well aware, however, that many teachers.and schools would reject his argument that adolescents should havefree or nearly free access to mature books. Even one of the librarians who worked with advance copies of the bihliography had been ohligedto note that many of the titles listed were prohibited in her lihrary because of "Frankness or 'ohscenity' " (pp. 47-48). The bibliography itself was an effective working out of the principles laid out in the introduction. Some fifteen hundred novels were included, with annotations designed to give a student or teacher a quick idea of whether a book would he interestingor appropriate. Only 17 percent of the titles had been puhlished before 1900: a third were classic texts "which have stoodor are standing the test of time," There was a great range in number of titles listed under the categories; some such as "Birth Control" hadnone: others like "Family Life" had fifty to sixty. Adheringto his belief that the books included should be appropriate and worthwhile,even if not classic, Lenrow made no attempt to "fill in" under-represented categories: indeed, the entire list of bookswas chosen hefore the topical arrangement was begun. The resulting bibliography was a valuable reference work for- teachers who accepted its general principles. Likeno other source t hat grew out of "life adjustment.," it offered an extensive list of materials organized according to specific topics of instruction. All it lacked was sequence, but that was deliberate sincesequence was to come from the problems of each student at a given point in time. In spite of its thoroughness the book was not widely used by high school teachers, largely because its annotations and. classifications were frank and direct, dealing with questions that were usually edited out of school editions. The seemingly safe topic, "Adoles- cence." for example, included Gide's TheCounterfeiters(annotated as an examination of "the young Olivier and his delicate lover Edouard ") as well as arkington's innocuousSeventeen (p.1191. More dangerous topics such as "Psychology of Sex"were not less " Of considerably more influence was a later bibliography, Reading Ladders for Human Relations(1947).' This was a product of a committee of school librarians working under the general direction of Margaret Heaton, one of Taba's staff members. In retrospect, and in comparison with TheReader's Guide to Prose Fiction(1940), the original editions of this pamphlet seem slender and unimpres- sive: but it represented a coherent application of Taba's general principles, as the introduction pointed out, Three points about the book are important. First, the hooks chosen for inclusion, though 154 TRADITION AND REFORM

few in number, were standard school texts; hence they were acceptable and accessible to a majority of teachers. Second, the topics under which they were organized were related to the general topics that the Intergroup Relations Project had chosen to emphasize, so that though not particularly impressive on their own they could be seen in the perspective of that larger framework; typical lists were based around Patterns of Family Life, Differences between Genera- tions, and RurahUrban Contrasts. Third, and probably most im portant, the selections were organized in "ladders" of ascending difficulty. Though strongly reminiscent of the "broad easy stair steps" ofAn Experience Curriculum(1935), these ladders were derived directly from Taba's theoretical concerns. She had argued earlier (1932) that education should be a continuing process of reconstruction of experience' a principle that found expression in a stress on the importance of a cumulative program achieving its purpose through reconstructing experience at ever more advanced levels, rather than through a concentrated but short-term effort. The reading ladders. though they involved relatively fetv selections and even fewer levels of maturity, did imply that a curriculum could be constructed out of familiar materials that would be relevant to the 'new demandsandstill be coherent and sequential. It was this implication of sequence that virtually all other attempts to place personal or social needs at the center of the curriculum had lacked, and which teachers of English took fromReading Ladders. The success of this pamphlet, which-has continued to be revised and expanded to the present day, i, perhaps the best testimony to the wisdom of Taba's approach to curriculum reform. Studies of reading interest, with their roots in the child study movement, also continued to be used to select teaching materials. This approach was more tolerated than motivated by life adjustment theory, but it culminated in George Norvell's definitive survey, published in 1950 asThe Reading Interests of Young People.'" As supervisor of English for New York State,- Norvell systematically collected students' responses-to works studied in class. Over a twelve-year period he gathered data on L700 selections taught to over 50.000 students by 625 teachers. Each book was rated on a three-point interest scale; 1.590,000 such reports were gathered. tabulated, and used to calculate "interest saves." The tabulated data, in addition to providing an authoritative reference about the interest level of individual titles, allowed a number of generalizations about taste in literature. There was very little shift in interest levels between grades eight and eleven, only two percentage points for most selections. One of the most impor- tantbut neglecteddiscoveries was that there were few differences between the reading interests of superior, average, and weak pupils. Content, rather than reading difficulty, seemed to be the major determinant of interest: neither age nor IQ made a marked NARROWED GOALS 155

difference, though sex wasan important factor. Norvell described the content factors he found:

The special factors which arouse boys' interest in reading materials,as revealed by the current study, are: adventure (outdoor adventure,war, scouting), outdoor games, school life, mystery (including activitiesof detectives), obvious humor, animals, patriotism, and male rather than female characters. Unfavorable factors for boysare: love, other sentiments, home and family life, didacticism, religion, the reflectiveor philosophical, extended description, "nature" (flowers,trees. birds, bees), form or technique as a dom;nant factor, female characters (p. 61. A sirrwar list was provided for girls, together with the suggestion that the points of overlap be used to restructure theprogram of common reading around topics that would be of interest to both. Norvell hitnself used the results to compilea series of anthologies for I). C. Heath.

Literature for the Adolescent It was almost inevitable that the focuson narrowly defined adolescent needs would soon prompt and cultivate an extensive body of literature dealing thematically with the specific problems toward which teachers were turning their attention. The first serious professional attention to "adolescent" or "transitional" literature stemmed from Dora V. Smith's concern that the literary preparation of teachers gave too little attention to the literary interests of high school students.'" By 1930 she F :d organized one of the nation's first courses in literature for adolescents as part of the teacher training program at the University of Minnesota. Her program generated only moderate interest, however, till adolescent needs began to emerge as a focal point of the curriculum during the. 1940s. Though Smith's original emphasis had been on good books suitable for children, the forties saw the development ofa new literary, genre with its own authors and highly specialized audience of "adolescents" as defined by the "life adjustment" educators. Dwight Burton was one of Smith's students and became a leader in the movement to legitimize these works as part of the program in literature. Beginning to write ahout them in the late forties, he continued his interest after moving to Florida State University and assuming the editorship of English Journal in 1953. Under his guidance, the Journal devoted considerable attention to such works. Bibliographies were offered on "Books to Promote Insights Into Family-Life Problems"; the lead article of literary criticism was replaced once or twice a year with an article dealing specifically with adolescent literature; reviews of new titles were included as a regular feature of the "Books" section." I56 'TRADITION AND. REFORM

The results of this attention were decidedly mixed. On the one hand a number of good books did begin to receive serious attention from teachers, especially in the junior high schools. The Yearling (1938), The Diary of Anne' Frank (1950), and The Catcher in the Rye (1951) are among the better examples of what came to be. considered appropriate adolescent literature. The problem in the movement was the rigid definition of books that would be interesting to adolescents as books that dealt with the specific (and often rather superficial) life problems reported when students were asked. "Now, what- is bothering you today?" As 'Richard Alm of the University of Hawaii noted in a sympathetic review of the move ment. "The last twenty years have seen not only the coming of age of the novel for the adolescent but also a flood of slick, patterned, rather inconsequential stories written to capitalize on a rapidly expanding market."" Since the interest in such literature was formulated exclusively in terms of the problems dealt with, there was nothing to caution the teacher against bringing such formula novels into' the curriculum along with others of some independent merit. Indeed, because justifications were formulated in terms of the problem rather than its solution, there was little attention to how the popular adolescent novels solved the problems they posed. As a much later analysis pointed out, the formula-plots had a number of common implications:

(1) Immaturity . . is somehow to be equated with isolation from the group. (2) All prohlems can he solved and will be solved successfully.

(3) Adults cannot help you much. . . (4) Solutions to problems are . .either brought about by others or discovered by chance. (5) -Maturity entails conformity." Such implications. which were shared by . many other activities suggested at this tine, eventually engendered the violent and . effective reaction against the "life adjustment" philosophy which is discussed in Chapter VII.

Develnping Cnmpetence in Language

Language and Communication If one aspect of the general education movement was a concern with adjustment, a second sought to insure that the general student would have the "competence" necessary to meet the varied demands of life. As this emphasis was worked out in the teaching of NA !MOWED GOAIS 157

literature. it merged with studies of semantics anti, ultimately, with the principles of the New Criticism to providea broader definition of reading skills. Carried to their logical conclusion, the principles Of this movement implied the study of literatureas form quite divorced from experience or adjustment, butat least until the mid-fifties such broader implicationswere carefully ignored. Most discussions of the experience approach to literature had assumed that students, if given the appropriate book, would in fact he able to understand what theywere reading. Rosenblatt's discus- sionin Literature as Exploration(1938) had questioned that assumption by posing the task of the teacher in terms of helping the student reflect upon and thus refine hisresponses. The discussion she provided, however, had few examples of how thiswould be done; what she did offerthe example of sophisticated adultcon- versation about booksimplied quite a high level of initialre- sponse, The twenties and thirties, however, alsosaw the beginnings of a new body of scholarship concerned with language as a vehicle for conveying meaning. Originally prompted by theuse of propaganda during World War 1, the work of I. A. Richards. C. K.Ogden, and Alfred Korzybski sought to explicate howsystems of meaning operate and, as a corollary. how meaning can be distorted." In the late 1930s. with war drawing near, Americans becameespecially interested in such studies, especially as they related tonewspapers, radio, and film. An Institute for Propaganda Analysiswas set up which took an active interest in schoolprograms; later a Harvard Committee on Communication providedmore sophisticated suggestions for school work. 1. A. Richards, both through his writings and through. his work with teachers (hewas involved in the Harvard Committee. for example) had by far the greatestinfluence on school programs, but other forces also contributed to the methods that evolved. S. 1. Ilayakawa'sLanguage in Action(194.1) was especially influential in bringing the term "semantics" intopopular parlance; through his work semantics becamea topic in its own right in the English curriculum, oftenas part of the analysiS of propaganda or advertising." The earliest full exploration of the implications of thesenew language studies for the teaching of literaturewas provided by the same PEA commission that had sponsored Sciencein General Education(1938) andLiterature as Exploration(1938). Its Com- mittee on. the Function of English in General Education understood its charge to refer to the nonliterary aspects of language studies. putting its work in the traditions of grammar, rhetoric, andcom- position rather than of literature. The final report,Language in General Education(1940). was nonetheless to share the fate of earlier studies in these traditions: though conceived and presented 158 TRADITION AND REFORM

as a separate discipline, it was taken up by many teachers as a useful technique for the study of literature." The report began fully in harmony with theconcerns of "life adjustment." It talked of achieving "optimum development ofper- sonality"; of helping the student "find his place and his direction"; of providing the general education "that alone could be justified in the schools of a democracy." For this committee, however, sucha charge implied that all children must be given thenecessary tools for successful living; and the prime tool, that without which all others would be useless, was language. As the opening paragraph put it, the committee centered its work "around a concept of language as an indispensable, potent, but highly fluid set ofsym- bols by which human beings mentally put their feelings andexper- iences in order, get and keep in touch with other human beings, and build up new and clearer understanding of the world around them" (p. 3). This would be studied as a system of oral and written communication, requiring the techniques of "critical thinking": "classifying, sorting, ordering, clarifying experience" (pp. 61-63). The sorts of activities which the committee envisioned were illustrated at a number of points, though no attempt was made to offer a pattern curriculum in the various semantic concepts. Though there were some inconsistencies in the report, the committee clearly did not think that the techniques of reading could be developed incidentally. At one point they even described the language "textbook of the future" as a series of graded exercises (p. 156). A few pages later it was suggested that such teaching could instead arise naturally in the course of other studies. One suggestion pointed out that when a class "runs across the sentences: 'His whole life was devoted to one cause... His devotion ultimately proved to be the cause of his death,' " the shift in meaning would be easily recognized (p. 161). Though one would be hard pressed to defend such an example as improving the students' reading of that particular passage, it does illustrate one way in which semantic studies were absorbed into the curriculum. Richards himself provided more convincing illustrations of the usefulness of close and rigorous scrutiny of the semantics ofa text. He was careful to put the emphasis on the act of reading, however, rather than on such generalizations as "meaning shifts"; as he pointed out two years after the report of the PEA committee, "The belief that knowledge of linguistic theory will make a mana better reader comes itself from... a misunderstanding." In How to Read a Page (19421," he illustrated at length the techniques involved. One example came from R. G. Collingwood's Metaphysics, the first line of which read "Among the characteristic features of a pseudo- science are the following." Richards' reading began;

Line 1. The unpleasant flavor of pseudo spreads to make characteristic features anthamong reek with the same scorn. C'haractoristic is very NARROWED GOALS 159

ready to take it. Nine times out often when we say **characteristic of her, isn't it ?" we arenotadmiring. Features when theycease to be portions of the face or ofa landscape, and become abstract, tend to suggest a sort of nondescript, what -you- may- call-'em character.If we were favorably inclined we would bemore likely to say characters, qualities, attributes, or marks. Among, ofcourse, reflects the implication that there are any number of other nastyfeatures (pp. 59-80). Aftercarefully dissecting the rest of CoRingwood's argument, Richards concluded that in fact it didnot hold together. Teachers of literature immediately graspedthe implication that reading is hard work, full of obstaclesto be overcome on the way to appreciation and enjoyment. As the head ofthe English department at Metamora (Illinois) Township High Schoolput it in1944, "The act of reading occurs when the readersurmounts the obstacles in his way": his solution was touse a reading program to replace that in literature "which the majority of the students couldnot read." Most teacherswere not so ready to abandon literature altogether, preferring instead to replace talk of"experience" and "breadth" with "small, intensive studies... that can operate to make all reading more meaningful" the justification,incidentally. that Richards used for the exaggerateddetail of How to Reada Page. Such an approach to the teaching of Englishwon immediate favor for the same reasons that the principles of "lifeadjustment" were so quickly adopted: the goals were precise and limited:the content was clear: and the philosophy indicateda continuing concern with the needs of the student. These reasons alone wouldhave insured that some such attention to languagebecame important after1940:the exigencies of war speededup the process. When an NCTEcommittee working in the months just beforeAmerican entry into World War II prepared a list of "Basic Aimsfor English Instruction in American Schools.- its, firstpoint was that language "is a basic instrument in the maintenance of thedemocratic way of life." Though it also included attentionto other goals, the NCTE committee followed the lead of Language in GeneralEducation (1940)in placing the emphasis on the "four fundamentallanguage arts: reading, writing, speaking, and listening."'" This emphasis on the unity of the languagearts was furthered by programs set up in some colleges to meet the problem of illiteracy in the armed services.. Theseprograms usually united departments of speech and of English under the blanketterm "communications." Lennox Grey of Teachers College. Columbia. helpedto popularize this term among secondary school English teachers.Outlining the background in "An Urgent Letter"(1943)published while he was second vice president of NCTE, Greyfound antecedents for communication studies in prewarconcern with propaganda, in studies of the mass media, in the work of EdwardSapir and of George 11erbert I OD TRADITION AND REFORM dead, and in courses in communication that had appeared in experiments with a core curriculum. But the real impetus came from the importance of communication in a nation at war. Grey success fully focussed NCTE's efforts around communication, even securing a Board of Directors resolution to that effect at the 1942 convention. When the USHE (with NCTE prompting) later called a two -day conference on English in the Victory Corps, the list of goats that emerged placed effective communication ahead of all other concerns.' After the war, the concern with communication and with the "four fundamental language arts." continued as a separate. though not a conflicting, emphasis from the concern with adjustment. Both nuivements could and did point toLiterature as Explorationas providing the fullest expression of their philosophy: the difference was in which chapters they chose to stressthe goals of acculturation or the techniques of careful refinement of response. The rap- prochement. between English and speech. however, was less successful, though NCTE continued to emphasize speaking and listening as part of the English program. After a 1947 meeting about communications programs in the freshman college course was jointly sponsored by NCTE and the Speech Association of America. the Iwo organizations again went their separate ways. The Speech Associa- tion founded a National Society for the Study of Communication during the following year, and NCTE countered in 1949 with a permanent Conference on College Composition and Communication as part of its own organizational structure..

Reading. During the 1940s. teachers of English as well as of reading began to take a new interest in the problems of the relatively mature reader. Propelled in part by the new evidence of how difficult accurate reading could be, this concern. led eventually tothe inclusion of "developmental reading programs" in many secondary schools. The methods adopted in these programs were strongly influenced by the remarkably successful training units set up during World War 11 to teach illiterate inductees to read. " In these programs, instructional materials were based primarily on the adventures of "Private Pete" and his friends, who were introduced in _carefully graded films, comics, and basic texts which kept as closely as possible to the experiences and vocabulary of army life. Postwar schools attempted the same sort of match by selecting materials to meet life needs (sometimes reconceptualized in Robert HavighursCs terms as "developmental tasks") and by grading the selections using statistical measures of "readability." These measures derived from studios by William S. Gray and Bernice E. Leary (1935) and NARROWED GOALS 161

seemed to offer a,scientific precision of the highest order.'' Even before the wartime programs. Reader's Digest encouraged a siniilar approach. To many secondary school teachers it seemed to provide contemporary writing on topics of general interest while insuring that the materials were ofan appropriate level of difficulty. Though for adults habitual reading of Reader's Digest might bea rather limiting experience, for children in developmentalprograms it offered just enough challenge and diversity to insure continued growth of skills. In 1941 the Digest issueda school edition with a supplement of suggested questions and activities prepared by Stella Center and Gladys Persons, both of whom had beenvery active in NC'l'E. Initial experiments comparing classes using these materials with others not using them seemed to bear out the claims which had been made for the program and certainly helped to bring the materials into wider use." The Digest edited its materials to a standard format, simplifying and clarifying as it thought necessary to "get themessage across." A similar motivation led to a revival of interest in simplified editions of popular novels. As one summary described them. "Long expository passages, tedious descriptions, and turgid narrative sections have been telescoped. The impatient readermay now get on with the tale." The "scientific" readability indices were of considerable importance here, the object being to produce texts appropriate for a given grade level. Still, the list of books that were eventually offered teachers in "simplified" editions is rather astonishing: Black Beauty and Pinocchio stand with Ivanhoe and Les Miscrables among those submitted to the editor's blue pencil." The other aspect of the army programs which had considerable influence on schools was the concern with careful specification and orderly sequencing of component skills. Readingwas broken down into such factors as "word attack," "sentence comprehension," "reading speed," "phonics." and "vocabulary." each of which could be separately drilled through workbooks and study exercises. Dean William S. Gray of the University of Chicago, longa leading figure in the field of reading. was coeditor of Bask Reading Skills for High School Use, a workbook covering such topicsas phonics, vocabulary, and dictionary use. Many other publishers offered materials following a similar format. At a somewhat less mechanical level, Reader's Digest extended the editorial approach of its magazine to a series of texts, Reading Skill Builders and Secrets of Successful Living. Science Research Associates later used thesame concept of controlled level of difficulty and accompanying comprehension questions to structure its Reading Lahoratory,a kit of individualized reading lessons. Such materials found quite wide acceptance, especially in the junior high school and with lower track students." 162 THADITIllry A Ni ) REFOIn

In spite of their popularity, such approaches failed to recognize certain limitations in the "science" which supported them. In particular they tended to ignore two important lessons that earlier experience should have taught them: (1) the range of ability within a given grade level is as wide as the range between the high school years. so that a difficulty index ot, say, "grade 6" has very little meaning, and (2) interest level is of more importance than the linguistic and syntactic elements that were used in arriving at measures of "readability."

The New Critics

Changes in Literary Theory The concern with language and 'meaning which led the high schools to emphasize communication was part of the development of a new school of literary criticism with many of the same antecedents. The "new criticism" (as John Crowe Ransom called it in 1941) was a general reaction against the impressionistic and sentimental criticism that prevailed during the early twentieth century. It was simultaneously a movement that attempted to provide techniques and a rationale for discussing the modern poets Eliot. Auden, Yeats,. and Pound, among many otherswho seemed to violate the now traditional Romantic and Victorian literary precepts." To deal with the new poets and to escape from the impressionistic focus on "message," the New Critics turned to studies of the language and form of literary works, especially of poetry. How a poem means, rather than what a poem means, became the first question to be answered; questions of meaning were held to he inextricably intertwined with questions of form. These critics simultaneously excluded from the area of primary -concern questions of history, biography. or ethics; their special task was to explore the structure (and hence meaning) and the success lend hence worth) of a given piece of literature, with the success itself being judged on the basis of structural principles, The men who can be grouped together as the New Critics range from 1. A. Richards and T. S. Eliot to Allen Tate, Cleanth Brooks, and Robert Penn Warren; they differed markedly in the details of .their approaches and in the general evolution of their points of view, Nonetheless they shared the initial focus on the work itself and owed allegiance to the same intellectual and critical traditions. T. S. Eliot is generally viewed as the forefather of the New Critics, and his was the first strong voice urging that attention be turned NAIIIIONVF.11 GOALS 16'3

back upon the poem itself. I. A. Richards,with his semantic and psychological interests, is primarily responsiblefor the methods that were taken up to carry out El Hot'sconcerns. His Principles of Literary Criticism (1924) and Practical Criticism(1929) tied the evolving critical theory into the broadstream of concern with semantics and language studies,a natural and fruitful union.'" The twenties and thirties, however,were years of development in which the New Critics were evolving techniques andexperimenting with approaches; academic scholarshipremained dominated by other approaches. The late thirties and fortiessaw the flood of influential books that eventually moved theNew Critics into the dominant position which they have held since.Cleanth Brooks' Modern Poetry and the Tradition (1939), JohnCrowe Ransom's The New Criticism (1941), Beni: Wellek andAustin Warren's Theory of Literature (1949), and Brooks' TheWell Wrought Urn (1947) ,provided a theory and technique which graduallyreplaced the .earlier emphases. Though Brooks couldwrite in 1943 that the New ritics "have next to no influence in theuniversities," by 1953 'Wellek was observing that such interests completelydominated the younger staff members and would inevitablycome to dominate graduate training." The single most important influence in transformingsuch critical theory into classroom practice was UnderstandingPoetry (1938), an introductory anthology for college students compiled by Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren. Thebook was a thorough illustration of the implications of the New Criticismfor instruction in literature, and was carefully designed to insure thatits purposes could not be subverted. The opening "Letterto a Teacher" directly attacked previous methods of teaching:

This book has been conceived on the assumptionthat if poetry is worth teaching at all it is worth teachingas poetry. The temptation to make a substitute for the poem as the object of study is usuallyoverpowering. The substitutes are various, but the mostcommon are: 1. Paraphrase of logical and narrativecontent: 2. Study of biographical and historical materials: 3. Inspirational and didactic interpretation.

In place of the three "substitutes" fora poem, the editors offered their own list of principles that "a satisfactory methodof teaching poetry should embody ":

1. Emphasis should be kept on the poem asa poem. 2. The treatment should be concrete and inductive. 3. A poem should always be treated as an organic system of relationships. and the poetic quality shouldnever be understood as inher- ing in one or more factors taken in isolation.'" TitA0E110N ANDREFORM

Brooks and Warren were well aware that such an approach was not common in the colleges. and hence gave their anthology a highly unusual form. Instead of a collection of poems with perhaps an introduction and "questions for study," the' presented elaborate, illustrative analyses of the way a poem should he read. One might say that the book provided both the materials for study and the lectures on themlectures which would have the effect of educating the teachers aswell as the students (a fact which Brooks and Warren were diplomatic enough not to point out). Selections were arranged in a rough scale of complexity that began with simple narrative and ended with complex studies in metaphor and ambiguity. The analyses focussed on each poem as a whole, however, taking into consideration all of the various elements that together made up the structure. Brooks and Warren explicitly rejected earlier attempts to concentrate on literary form through such studies as "figures of speech" or "metrics," arguing that the effect of a work "can only he given accurately by a study of the relations existing among all of the factors" (p. xiv). The book was widely used. and was soon folloWed by companion volumes,Under standing Fiction (1943) andUnderstanding Drama(1996).

The New Critics and School Programs The first use ivhich high school teachers would make of the New Criticism was foreshadowed by -Allen Tate in a 1990 review of Modern Poetry and the Tradition (1939). One of the major conclu sions which he drew was that "modern poetry is difficult because we have lost the art of reading any poetry that will. not read itself to us. ..Y. The implication that literature offered special problems of reading, that indeed it required close study before one can expect, to appreciate it, was of course directly parallel to the conclusions that were being derived from studies of semantics, and served to reinforce them. This concern with reading techniques was not in conflict with the concurrent stress on adolescent needs, but by the end of the forties it was gradually becoming clear that there was a fundamental antagonism between the basic principles of the two movements. As long as teachers responded only to the concern with the full range of meaning, they could apply the techniques of the New Critics with little problem. When they also took up the criteria of value based on formal coherence, the doctrine of needs (with its stress on content) and that of the New Critics were in serious conflict. Even here, however, the full extent of the incompatibility was somewhat ameliorated by the fact that one was primarily interested in prose, the other in poetry. If there was any doubt in teachers' minds about the true import of the concern with form, it must have been thoroughly Aispelled Netaitowan GoAis 165

when the 13ollingen Prize "for the highest achievement in American poetry in 1948" was awarded to Ezra Pound for his Pisan Cantos; the resulting controversy was covered in detail in the English Journal. The f3ollingen Prize was awarded by the Fellows of the Library of Congress in American Letters, withmoney provided by the I3ollingen Foundation. In 1948 the Fellows included Leonie Adams, Conrad Aiken, W. It Auden, Louise Hogan, T. S. Eliot, Paul Green, Katherine Anne Porter, Karl Shapiro, Allen Tate, and Robert Penn Warrena highly respectedgroup dominated by proponents of the New Critics. Although Pound was an expatriate American under indictment for treason, the jury concluded that

.. permit other considerations than that of poetic achievement would destroy thy significance of the award and would in principle deny the validity of that objective perception of value on which any civiliwd society must rest.

"tick a statement was a clear and direct challenge toany theory of literature which granted a place to what was saidas well as how it was said in establishing a hierarchy of literary values. It provoked an angry, even savage, reaction led by the Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Robert Ili Ryer; WK. first articles"Treason's Strange Fruits" and "Poetry's New Priesthood"were published with editorial (indorsements in the Saturday Review of Literature. .111113/or's attack charged the New Critics with "sterile pedantry" and a "blurring of judgment both aesthetic and moral': he prophe- sied that the award had "rung down the curtainon the inglorious Age of Eliot with all its coteries and pressure groups."" Rather than the end of an era, however, the award of the Bollingen Prize to Pound marked the emergence of the New Criti- cism as the established and conventional wisdom. Hillyer's vilifica- tion, though initially tapping a current of uneasiness about the nward,was soon criticized by such varied sourcesas the Net' York Times, the New Republic, the Hudson Review, and the Nation. The mon he had been attacking were now the grand old men of letters: Eliot. Pound. and Ransom, for example,were all in their sixties. -Modern poetry,- concluded a December 1948 article in Poetry, "is in fact in secure possession of the field, and its heroesare aged men with a long public career behind them.-"' Though the New Critics were beginning to dominate scholarship and criticism during the 1950s, the rhetoric of "life adjustment" dominated the high schools. Though younger teachers trained in the New Criticism in their college programswere beginning to come into the schools. the much earlier report on Language in General Education (1940) represented the most extreme statement of their views that received anything like widespread support. Critical theory which emphasized form as theessence of literature, and UM TRADITION AND REFORM

which derived standards of value from the coherence of that form, had no place. It would not be until the early sixties, when the life adjustment movement had been thoroughly discredited anda new generation of teachers had assumed control of the Englishprogram, that the implications of the critical theoryas well as the reading techniques of the New Critics would begin to affect high school programs."'

The Changing Curriculum

The NC'TE Curriculum Studies

The most elaborate attempt to outline the form and substanceof an English curriculum to reflect postwar concerns was that of the Ne'll'E's Commission on the English Curriculum. Organized in1945 under the general direction of Dent V. Smith, the thirty-one- member commission worked througha series of subcommittees involving some 150 other teachers and scholars to producea series of five reports. These illustrate both the implications of "life adjustment" for instruction in English and the striking inability of the movement to provide a coherent set of principles to give order and structure to the curriculum." The first report of the commission, issued in 1952, presentedan overview of the curriculum from preschool through graduate school, as well as an outline of the general approach to curriculum study which had been adopted. The commission's description of howto make a curriculum is interesting for what itsays about the functioning of the commission itself: most of the emphasis ison insuring a wide representation of the various interestgroups in the community, and of having them arrive together ata mutually acceptable consensus. It is interesting to note in this description how much the process has changed from its earlier formulations. Though the Clapp report is mentioned briefly, there isno serious attention given to empirical specification of life demands. Indeed, the "desired outcomes" of the program have become part of the process of consensus in the first stagepart of the "platform" of the Curriculum Commission itself.It is probably inevitable with such an approach that the goals arrived at will be both global and unsystematic. And as Bobbitt had pointed out manyyears before, imprecise formulations of what, the schools were trying toaccom plish would be of little value in organizinga curriculum. Even the illustration of the process provided by the commission shows these problems. A goal such as "Personal Values" is given such "specific" subtopics as "1. Development of personalitya sense of belonging and of being accepted," and "6. Establishment of enduring and worthwhile personal interests."'" NARItOWEDGoers 167

The empiricism which in earlier curriculumdiscussions had focussed on the list of goalswas now turned toward the description of characteristics of the students, Suchan approach was essentially static: it provided a description ofa given point in time, and very little else.If such a descriptionwere the most that could he available, then the teacher would haveto be constantly and individually making similar assessmentslearningthe characteristics of each student so that he could definethe "needs" toward which instruction should be directed, The activities suggested as relevant "experiences"to be included in the curriculum would then be thosewhich could be seenas reflecting the specified goals ata level of difficulty suitahle to the outlined characteristics of the student.Given the global nature of the goals and the static nature of the descriptionof the students, virtually any kind of activity couldfind its place as a valid "experience" in the curriculum, and theexperiences themselves could in turn serve as the setting forany numher of practical English skills. Thus, for example, "Correctusage" and "FormS, of Introduction" were both listedas incidental Iearnings derived from the outcome "Development of personality"(p. 621. The task given Volume Iwas global; later volumes were to give practical guidance at each curriculum level.Angela M. Broening, who had edited the earlier report, ConductingExperiOnces in Eng- lish 119391, was head of the ProductionCommittee for Volume Ill, the secondary school report. This volume(1956) had the benefit of several more years of life adjustmenttheory, and is even more explicit in its acceptance of the generalphilosophy. The Production Committee for Volume 111 saw studentsas shaped by two sets of forces. The first was external, and embodiedthe demands that a complex and rapidly moving modern worldmade upon its citizens; the second was internal,reflecting thechanging physiological and psychological nature of the organism. Thesewere explicated with a detailed list of characteristics, subdividedinto one section of Physi- cal, Mental, and Emotional Characteristicsand another section of Language Characteristics. Physical characteristicsreflected recent attention to growth curves and physiological influenceson behavior. Twelve- to fifteen-year-olds, the committee noted,"undergo internal changes involving the heart, gland, and honestructure; the heart grows faster than do the arteries, thus causing strainon the heart and often conflicts and emotional upsets."The list of "language characteristics" treated languageas an incidental activity: the first characteristic listed, for example, is "Desireto have fun, a fact which manifests itself in language expressionrelated to sports, amusements, and humorous situations."KS When the committee turned to the problemof appropriate activities for the curriculum, it became clearthat incidental teaching of His 'Ennuino% AsaREFORM

the language arts really justified virtually any activity with which the teacher might feel comfortable. Thecommitteeemphasizedunit Leaching as the best approach Lo building up a curriculum, but their definition of unit was rather all-encompassing: "All that is meant by the term here is that varied activities in the language artsare developed around a central theme or purpose, clear and significant Lo .the student" 69). The Production Committee and .the Curricu- ium Commission itself, because they stressed needs narrowlyde- fined as immediate problems and left the language arts usinciden- tal. never did attempt to limit what would he "clear andsignificant." Literature was dealt with in two sections whose differing titles emphasize the Lwin strands of psychological needs and essential skills Lhat were part of general education. One section was called "Meeting Youth's Needs through Literature," the other, "Develop- ing Competence in Reading." Neither section offered much more Literature as . than a series of echoes of the fuller discussions in Exploration, .4n Experience Curricalum,and the professional liter- attire during the ensuing two decades, Literature was tobe taught for "discovery and imaginative insight"; it would "meetthe needs of youth and promote growth"; "general traits as well asindividual characteristic); must be taken into consideration"; "studentsdif- fer"; literature can provide "broadened thinking andexperience": it is a "source of pleasure" and can aid in forming "moralvalues:'" The phrases are glib and are offered with little elaboration or defense, The section on reading skills is striking in its disregard of the kinds of skills which the New Critics were stressing. The important skills it did list for reading literature were "Evaluating truth to human experience"; "Discovering theme or central purpose";"Re- lating detail to central theme or purpose of the selection";and "Followingdifferent typesof phit structure." Points of importance in the reading of poetry included rhythm, rhyme."word color," figures of speech, and "Inechanies." The general level. ofinstruction is indicated by the final sentence;"Practice and groupreading and discussion of poetry will make the inverted sentence patternfamil- iar:1'i IL is indicative of the general emphases that Max Eastmanis cited in the bibliographyfor the literature section: W.S. Gray (extensively) in the bibliography for reading: RichardS,Brooks, and the other New Critics in neither. The ultimate difficulty was that the curriculumspecifiedby the commission lacked a set of structuring principles. Themembers found their metaphor for education in the concept of"growth," which involved "a definite sequential pattern" whosedimensions were clear enough: "The normalchild grows .constantly more complex, more effective, and more mature in each of hispatterns" (p. al). Yet they had no theory of cognitive ormoral development which would allow them to state any more specifically the natureof NA [MOW ED GOALS 169

the "growing complexity," the changes involved, or even the natural next stage of development. Instead, all they could offer was the static delineation of what the child is like at a given point in. time so that activities could be structured to change him. Any number of activities,unfortunately,could he justified as "more difficult." "more complex," or "meetinga need," and all kinds of activities were offered."'

The Nurse of Study In 1959 Arno Jewett, English specialist .at the .U,S. Office of Education, published a survey of 285 courses of study from 49 states, the District of Columbia. the Canal Zone, and Hawaii. His findings suggest that such guides reflected the emphases evidenced in the work of the Commission on the English Curriculum, though he felt that the guides described programs that were "less traditional, more flexible, and more closely geared to local needs" than those of schools not engaged in curriculum work."' Jewett found that "almost all" of the courses included in -the survey provided a definite sequence for the curriculum, with topical or thematic units almost totally replacing lists of Classics as the method of organizing the work. Units often cut across the language arts, attempting- to provide (as the Curriculum Commission had suggested) a wide base for incidental- teaching of language and communications skills. Topics varied greatly, but "the importance of student interest as a means of facilitating and strengthening learning" had been "generally accepted." The junior highyears tended to stress thematic units organized around the interests and needs which various traditions of research on adolescents had delineatedanimal stories, adventure, and mystery from reading interest studies. for example, and family life, growing up, and making friends. About half of the junior high curricula included develop:tient& reading programs." In the upper grades, Jewett found a much more traditional pattern. but most programs had been modified to include several different approaches. The most common pattern in grade 10was the study of types: but in grade 11, with its now-traditionalcourse in American literature, a wide variety of units were being taught: "Chronological, thematic, regional, literary, works of famousau- thors, American ideals and principles, and various others" (pp. 65-66). In the twelfth grade program the traditional course in English literature-had begun to lose ground and was being replaced by a variety of electives. The most frequent substitute, however, was a course in world literature in which English literature played a substantial and usually predominant role. Some 13 percent of the courses of study included a required world literature course in grade 170 TRADITION AND REFORM

12. andanother10 percent offered it as an elective. Smith in 1932 had found virtually no attention to such studies. Jewett also found that schools were incorporating the concern for language and communication that had developed during World War II. Over half of the courses of study that he examined included such studies, those published earlier focussed on propaganda analysis and critical thinking while later courses emphasized semantics and the nature of language.

The Anthologies Jewett's findings indicate that those in charge of the courses of studyin general the more active and dedicated teachers in a given communitywere responding to the emphases in the professional literature, Courses of study. however, are only one of the factors influencing what actually happens in the classroom; in this period as in the previous one, the literaryanthology is at least as important. Two detailed studies of anthologies areavailable, one in general sympathetic and the other part of the reaction against the program of secondary education that developedduring the postwar period. Together they provide quite a complete picture of the program in literature which the anthologiesrepresented. The more sympathetic discussion is James Olson's summary of trends between 1946 and 1957. He found a gentle evolution rather than a major shift from the pattern that had been deveicped during the 1930s. Those series that had not yet reorganized their ninth and tenth grade texts around thematic or topical units did so; and the topics themselves were shifted toward the more immediate needs and interests of adolescents. In the eleventh and twelfthgrade volumes, the major change was the introduction of a thematic unit in contemporary literature at the beginning of the volume before returning to the standard chronological presentation for the rest of the text." The increasing concern with practical problems of living was evident in both the organizing themes and the editorial apparatus provided. The 1950 Singer anthology dropped its opening unit on "The Short Story," replacing it with one titled "Understanding Ourselves and Others"; a subtopic covered "Family Portraits and Problems." The parallel Scott, Fon mian text introduced a unit titled "Families Are Like That" in an edition issued the following year. Even the anthology titles began toreflect the new orientation: Harcourt, Brace and Co. started aLiving Literatureseries in 194Th Holt followed in 1952 with one more explicitly titledRead UpOn Life." Responding to the concern with human relations, the anthologies also hegan to give attention to world literature. Some combined it with the study of English literature in the twelfth grade; others NARROWED GOATS 171

issued separate volumes. An ungraded Harper andBrothers text, World Neighbors. illustrateseven in its title the limitations on the goals for such studies. The preface emphasizedworld peace and domestic harmony, and the selections themselveswere surrounded with "practical" study questions, After readingBernier's "The Divided Horsecloth," for example, studentswere asked: "Besides teaching married couples how to treat theirparents, what does the story teach parents concerning theirmoney ?" Synge'sRiders to the Sea demonstrated the "comfort" of religiousfaith but also illustrated "stupid beasts Who allowa it alignant nature to dominate their lives."'' As in previous periods, therewas considerable difference in emphasis from series to series, with thosecollections designed most specifically for upper-track and college-boundstudents maintaining the most traditional focuses, and those for vocationalstudents or the lowest tracks going furthest in the direction of"life adjustment." One can conclude from Olson's survey that "lifeadjustment" brought no major change in the organizationor content of high school anthologies. They continued toexert a moderately progres. sive influence on the curriculum throughboth their increasing attention to modern literature and their continuingde-emphasis of studies of form and technique. There isno indication that the anthologiesany more than the Commissionon the English Cur- riculum of the NCTE or the statecourses of studyhad responded to the implications of the New Criticism:even the conservative editions for college-bound and upper-track studentsemphasized older methods of scholarship: biographicaland historical studies, the characteristics of genre, and rhetorical devicespredominated. A trenchant and detailed critique of the anthologiesby James Lynch and Bertrand Evans documents exactlywhat was happening to literary values. As a status study rather thana history, it treats the form of the anthology as a given in need ofchange, rather than as an evolving set of materials. To choose texts for study,the authors solicited informationon state adoptions, surveyed practices in two hundred cities, corresponded with publishers,and checked their results with practicing teachers. They concludedthat their final list of seventy-two texts represented all ofthose in major use. The sample overlaps Olson's but includes only fivefrom the forties and some fourteen editions published between1958 and 1962: most of these were minor revisions of earlier texts, however,so that the Lynch and Evans statistics probably providean accurate picture of the texts Olson surveyed."' Their report,High :Jahool English Textbooks(1963), is a good illustration of the fundamental antipathybetween the emphases that had been developing in the secondary schools andthe emphases of the New Critics. The task of the English teacheras Lynch and Evans saw it was "the teaching of the reading ofliterature" 172 TRADMION AND REEDRM

Ip.5). Their emphasis was firmly on literature as literature: anthologies "should be the repositories of the very best ever thought and written in the spirit of the humanistic tradition and the Anglo- American heritage; whatever does not fulfill these criteria has no place in an anthology, regardless of grade level or the kind of reader to whom it might be directed" (L),409). Given the professional emphases over the preceding fifty years, it wag inevitable that the anthologies would not fare well intheireyes. Literary valueshad not been the primary emphasis in the selection of .materials; much of the "very best ever thought and written" had been deemed inappropriate; the second best had often been found useful. Lynch and Evans made a number of major criticisms of the anthologies, documenting each point somewhat repetitively as they took up each genre in turn. Their major charge was that the selections Were inadequate and "second-rate," placing too much emphasis on such "currently popular topics as the space age, electronics, travel, and communication"; attention to "information, 'real-life' adventure, and social behavior"; selection for "sociological or historical reasons." To these considerations Lynch and Evans counterposed "ideas and the exercise of thinking logically and critically," "literary quality," and "promise of permanence" (pp. 64-73). In the anthologies' treatment of each genre Lynch and Evans found a core of "respectable quality" which filled out the lists of most frequently printed selections." These, however, were a very small percentage of the total; the frequently anthologized short stories. for example, made up only 4 percent of all short story selections, Observations of the remainder led Lynch and Evans to conclude that "the short story is not commonly regarded as a serious literary genre, but rather as an attractive short piece easily handled by the teacher and appreciated. by students with a minimum of teaching." The mist frequent sources of the stories were, in descending order, The Saturday Evening Post, Collier's, The New Yorker. Scholastic Magazine, The Atlantic Monthly,Esquire. ('osmopolitan. This Week. Story, Boy's.Lije, Seventeen, Harper's, American Girl, andLadies' Home Journal.Seventy-three percent of the selections appeared in only one anthology and were "commercial" or "formulary." To 'Lynch and Evans the results were a disaster:

the principal criticism to be made is not thatsuchstories are not to lathreadingbutthat as entertainment they do not deserve a place in the textbooks prepared at considerable expense for high school class. rooms. 'I'n give such stories as much space as more enduring works of genuine literature is at once to blur distinctions between the gmarand tile mediocre ft hereby frustrating the development of taste). (pp. 38- 21b. NARROWED COALS 173

Their parenthetical note is of particularinterest, since it is a direct contradiction of the assertions of theexperience approach. The question of the processes involved in thedevelopment of taste is the central pedagogical issue, but ithas never been successfully addressed by proponents of either point of view. Their second set of criticisms dealt withalteration of selections, a practice that had reached such proportions that nearlyhalf of the selections in some textswere not presented in their original form. Many of the alterations representedunacknowledged "silent edit- ings"; others involved major omissionsnoted with a simple ellipsis or misleading footnote (p. 442), Such changeswere a source of continuing irritation to Lynch and Evans,who contended that they violated the duty of the anthologyto present "the work as the author wrote it"a necessary firststep, of course, if the techniques of the New Critics were to he applied inteaching. Another general point of criticismwas the domination which the system of organization seethed to haveover the selections included. As many as three-fourths of the volume'sseemed to have been organized before the selectionswere picked. Topical (thematic) and chronological patterns of organizationwere the chief villains here, because hoth imposed a set of extraliteraryconsiderations on the materials to be used. The ,study foundtoo that such topical and chronological anthologieswere the dominant forms, the first in grades 9 and 10, the second in grades 11and 12. Lynch and Evans blamed the overemphasison "miscellaneous nonfiction" directly on the use of topical units, which ledto collections "that are more accurately described as socially therapeuticthan personally and humanely educative" (pp. 79.80, 410).Again, of course, what they find offensive is a result of thesuccess of the anthologies in responding to the concerns the secondary school. Lynch and Evans also criticizedthe fact that over half of the selections were from the twentieth century;literature written before 1800 was hardly represented at all. Lookingfor a reason, they found that the "correlation between thetopical organization and proportion of recent literature is obviouslyvery high," from their point of view providing another bit ofdamning evidence against this approach. Their worry about the displacementof "major authors in the Anglo-American tradition" also ledthem to object to the emphasis upon world literature insome collections: "It is at least questionable whethera high school student inadequately read in the poetry of his own culture is prepared to undertakethe study of another" (pp. 113, 150-58). The last general criticism that Lynch andEvans had to offer dealt with the tone adopted by the anthologists:in particular the "fear of difficulty** and the "deliberate cateringto the adolescent mind even to the point of embarrassment." 174 TRADITION AND REFORM

Pieces are chosen because they lie within the narrow boundaries of the teen-age world, and their heroes and heroines are Dick and Jane just a few years older. now dating instead of playing, going to a dance instead of the local fire station, saying "round, round, jump the rut, round, round, round, jump the rut, round, round" instead of "Jump, Spot, jump," but otherwise hardly different. The "image" of the American Boy that emerges is of a clean-cut, socially poised extrovert, an incurious observer of life rather than a participant, a willing con- former, more eager to get than to give:a bit of a hypocrite but a rather dull companionaxon-adjusted youth not much above a moron. And the "image" of the American Girl? She is the one who likes the American Boy (pp. 412-13).

It was to end the catering to that moron, to restore the anthologies to the state of "textbooks, tobe studied in and taught from,"that the, criticisms ofHigh School EnglishTextbooks were ultimately offered. It should he clear that what Lynch and Evans were challenging was not the anthologies' success at the task undertaken, but the definition of the task itself. In asensethe fact that their study needed to be conducted at all is the strongest testimony to the domination that had been achieved by the progressive movement.

Summing Up: Literature in the Progressive Era

Lynch and Evans conducted their study in the early sixties, safely in the midst of a vigorous collegiate reaction against such trends: they were professors at Berkeley themselves. The attacks were on "life adjustment." and the narrow focus on adolescent needs. but since these were the final stages of progressivism it was the movement as a whole that was eventually discredited. The loss of the impetus toward reform and progress, with its concomitant de-emphasis of academic achievement, provided the rallying point for a variety of forces to unite against the unfortunate image of a brave new world filled with legions of school children in gray flannel suits, an image which "life adjustment' managednot without justificationto bring upon itself. The attack on "life adjustment'. would simultaneously end John Dewey as the basic reference point for educational thought: he and his followers became the villains instead of the heroes in the new educational rhetoric. Yet though the name was discredited, the progressives made many solid and continuing contributions to the teaching ofliteraturein American schools. Any list will ofnecessity be limited and thus misleading, but the following points give some sense of their accomplishment, NARROWED GOALS 175

Ill They effectively ended the limitation of theliterature curriculum to the nineteenth century canon of classictexts, opening the way for the inclusion ofmore, and more modern selections as well as for important examplesof world literature. (2) They documented the widerange of individual differences in ability and achievement thatcould be expected within any high school classroom, and experimentedwith ways to provide a meaningful programin literature for all students. (3) They recognized the importanceof student interest inany successful program inliterature; they developeda wide variety or techniques to insure thatinterest would be present; and they described patterns of interestsin children and adolescents that remain valid today. (4) They began the debate aboutthe nature of the development of taste and discrimination, recognizingthat it is the essential question which should shape thecurriculum in literature. (5) They gave Englisha place at the heart of the curriculum and defended literary studiesas a part of English even when unable to define their values preciselyor well in the face of demands for social relevance, efficiency,or adjustment to life.

The failure of the progressiveswere also major and contributed to the rapid rate at which their views ofthe curriculum would fall from Favor. (I) In turning from literary scholarshiptoward the relationship between the student and literatureas the basis for the cur- .riculum, they abandoned the oldpattern before they had developed a new set of practical criteriafor determining the relative value and the proper orderfor classroom studies. They sought growth inresponse without a useful philosophy of what growth entailed. (2) In part because of their lack of structuringprinciples, they allowed the program in literatureto be dominated by peripheral activities often having littleto do with "literary values": in the end the rhetoric,at least, gave literature a function which other activities could anddid fulfill as well. (3) In their concern with general educationfor the general student, they adopted a condescending positionthat removed virtually all "striving" and challengefrom the activities suggested, especiallyfor the nencollege-bound students. They allowed their empiricismand pragmatism to narrow their definitions of needs to the pointthat they were trivial and dull. 171; TRADITION AND REFORM

(4) In their fear of college domination they lost touch with scholarship in their field, thus setting the stage for confrontation with the New Critics, rather than the reconciliation and acconv nodation that might have revitalized the movement. NARROWED GOA IS 177

CHAIM:It VI NOTES I. Wilford M. Aikin, The Story of the Eight-Year Study (New York: Harper and Bros., 19421, p. 16. 2.I. A. Richards, How to Read a Page: A Course in Efficient Reading with an Introduction Lou Hundred Great Words (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1942). p. 10. 3. Lennox Grey. "Communication and War: An Urgent Letterto English Teachers," English Journal 32:1 (January 1943): 12-19. 4. Frances Broehl, "The Teacher of English and Education for All Americanr Youth." English Journal 34:7 (September 1945): 403-06. 5. Commission on the English Curriculum, The English Language Arts in the Secondary School (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 19561,p. 15. 6. "General education" is a term that has been used tocover a multitude of sins; almost all approaches to education have beenencom- passed under the term by one writer or another. Discussion here will follow the Fifty-first Yearbook of the NSSE in denoting by general education the concern with the nonspecialized student with specific personal needs to be met through the schools, and in considering it an alternative to "liberal education." by which will be denoted a more subject- and culture-oriented program. See also the discussion of the Harvard report at the beginning of the next chapter. National Society for the Study of Edification, General Education, Fifty-first Yearbook. Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 19521. See also NSSE, General Education in the American ('allege. Thirty eighth Yearbook (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939). 7. Cited by Elbert LenroW, Reader's Guide to Prose Fiction: An introductory Essay, with Bibliographies of 1500 Novels Selected, Topically ('!ossified-and Annotated for Use in Meeting the Needs of Individuals in General Education. For the Con-mission on Secondary School Curriculum (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 19401.p. :1. 8. "Summary and Report," English Journal 33:1 (January 19441: 49-52. The speaker was Brigadier General Joe N. Dalton. 9. "Summary and Report," English Journal 32:5 (May 1943): 285-87. The statement originated in a committee of the American Councilon Education =twos later accepted by the American Association of Colleges. For statements of the relationship between general education and English before the war, see Lou LaBrant. "The Place of English in General Education." English Journal 39:n.1Muy 1940): 356-65; and Dora V. Smith, "General Education and the Teaching of English," English Journal 29:9 (November .19401: 707-19. 10. On these developments, see C. A. Bowers, The Progressive Educa- tor and the Depression (New York: Random House. 19691,pp. 216 it, and Lawrence A. Cromin. The Transformation of the School (New York: Vintage Books, 1961). pp. 251 ff. 11. Thu series was titled Adventure in American Education and published by Harper and Bros. (New York) during 1942, It included Wilford M. Aikin, The Story of the Eight-Year Study: H. H. Giles et al., Exploring the Curriculum: Eugene It. Smith et al., Appraising and Recording Student Progress; Dean Chamberlain et al., Did They Succeed in College? and Thirty Schools Tell Their Story. The quotation is from Chamberlain.p. 'viii. t78 TRADITION AND REFORM

12. See Giles, Exploring the Curriculum, and Chamberlain, Thirty Schools. for more detailed discussions of this evolution, the first from the point of view of the curriculum consultants, the second from that of the individual schools. 13. Giles, Exploring the Curriculum, pp. 315 ff. 14. Ibid., especially pages 4 and 44. See also Chamberlain, Thirty Schools, pp. 6 ff. 15. The Curriculum Commission which produced An Experience Cur- riculum (1935), for example, included at least nine members who were involved in the Eight-Year Study, though the PEA was not among the organizations asked to name an official representative. 16. At the time of the release of the first of these reports, the commission included, among others, the presidents of Harvard and Cornell; the U.S. Commissioner Of Education served as an advisory member. Cremin. Trans- formation of the School, p. 329; Bowers, Progressive Educator and the Depression, p. 220. 17. Cited by Cremin, Transformation of the School, p. 334. See also Life Adjustment Education for Every Youth, U.S. Office of Education Bulletin 1951, no. 22 (Washington. D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1951; first ed.. 1948). 18. English Journal carried many articles arguing the pros and cons of integration from the mid-thirties till the mid-forties. The largest concentration of conflicting points of view was gathered together in two 1945 series: "Our Readers Think: About Integration," English Journal 34 (November 1945): 496,502; "Our Readers Think: More About Integration," English Journal 34:10 (December 19451: 555,59. The tide of opinion was clearly against the concept. 10. Mark Neville, "Sharing Experiences with Formville," English Journal 34:7 (September 19451: 368-72. 20. Marion C. Sheridan, "Life Without Literature," English Journal 37:6 (June 1948): 29197: Grace S. Wright, Core Curriculum in Public High Schools: An Inquiry Into Practices, 1949, U.S. Office of Education, Bulletin 1950, no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office; 1950). See also Grace S. Wright. Core Curriculum Development: Pmblems and Practices, U.S. Office of Education Bulletin 1952. no. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952). 21. SarahI.Randy, "Developing- Personality through Literature;" English Journal 36:6 (June 1947): 299.304. She referred her readers to Schaffer's Psychology of Adjustment, Howard and Patry's Mental Health, and Mental Hygiene News. One of the most frequently cited early articles in this tradition was Mitchell E. Rappapores posthumously published "Literature as an Approach to Maturity." English Journal 26:9 (Novem- ber 1937h 705-14. 22. Margaret Edwards, "I low Do I Love Thee?" English 'Instruct' 41:7 (September 1952): 335-40. 23. Hada T0lia, The Dynamics of Education: A Methodology of Pro- gressive Educational Thought (London; Regan Paul, Trench. Trubner and 19321. See especially pages xvi and 257. 24. Hilda Tabu, Elizabeth Hall 13rady, and John T. Robinson. Inter- group Education in Public Schools (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1952). NARROWED GOALS 179

25. The strategies which Taint developedcontinue to he an important model of the process of discussion. SeeRobert I.. Trezise,The Hilda Tuba Teaching Strategies inEnglish and Reading Classes," English Jourpal 61:4 (April 1072): 577-80. 26.. Publications up to 1952 are summarized ina lengthy bibliography in the final report. The only one to be widely cited by English teacherswas Iteadirn!. Ladders for Human Relations(19471, which will he discussed on pages. 153-54. An WIT Committee on InterculturalRelations was active fmm 1943 till late in the decade. Itsmajor accomplishment wasa special issue of English Journal (June 1946)on racial and religious tolerance, with Louise Rosenblatt as guest editor. Themast impressive part of the volume was the names of the contributors; they includedThomas Mann. Edna. Ferber. Horace Ka lien, Ruth Benedict,and Ernst Kris. 27. George II. Henry. Our Best English Unit,"English Journal 36:7 1September 1947): 356-62. 28. Holland D. Roberts, Walter V. Kau Bermand Grayson N. Many- er. Ms., English for Social Living (New York:McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1943). pp. 11-12. 20. Dwight L. Burton. "Booksto Meet Students' Personal Needs." English Journal 36:9 (November 1947):469-73. 30. Ralph D. Itabinovitch. "Our Adolescentsand 'Their English Journal 44:5 (Nlay 19551: 261-67. The directorof the Child Guidance Clinic of the Catholic University of America hadtalked of "hihbotherapy-as early as the 1944 convention ("The Columbus Meeting."English Journal 34;2 (February 19451: 102-061. See also GeorgeRobert ('arisen. "Literature and Emotional Maturity," English Journal38;3 (March 1949): 130-38; 0. R. ('arlson. "Deep Down Beneath, Where ILive," English Journal 13:5 1May 1954): 235-39:. Don M. Wolie, "Students'Problems: A New Survey Made Espedally for Teachers of English."English Journal 11:4 (April 1955): 218-25. 31, Bertha Ilandlin. "Group Discussionof Individual Reading, .En- glish Journal 32:2 (February 1943):67-73; Dwight Burton. "There's Al- ways a Bonk for You." English Journal 18:7 1September1949): 371-75; Robert C. NIcKvan. "Students likeThematic Udits,- English Jaurtud 45:2 (February 1956) :82 -8'3; William G. Fidone.HO Theme's the Thing," English Journal 48:9 (December 1959):518.23. On glum status of themes by the 1959s, sue the discussion of lewett'4survey later in this chapter. 32. Verona F. Rothenbusli. "DevelopingActive, Thinking Citizens," English Journal 2214 (April 1943):188-95; Nellie Mae Lombard, "Atner- icon Literature for Life and Living,"English dourtud 33:7 (September 1944): 383.84; "Report and Summary."English Journal 39:5 (May 1950): 280.83. Lombard's coursewas inspired by 11. D. Roberts and English for Social tiring. Lettrow, Reader's Guide to Prose Fiction.p. 15. Ilk school uas one of the thirty in the Eight-Year Study. at Ibid., pp. 10-24. 115. This sect ion included.among at hers, Iluxley's /WV 'aunt er Point. Anderson's Winesburg, Lawrence's The Iblinhow, and l)reiser's Sister Carriebooks of merit huta far cry front the standard high school canon. 180 TRADITION AND REFORM

36. Hilda Tuba et al., Reading Ladders for Human Relations (Washing- ton. 1):C.: American Council on Education, 19471. This was prepared during the summer of 1946. A revised and enlarged edition followed almost immediately. published by ACE in1949. Recent editions have been cosponsored by NCTE. A companion volume explained the rationale and teaching procedures in more detail: Hilda Taba, Literature for Human Understanding (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1947). 37, Tabu, Dynainics of Education, p. 223. She summarized the goal of her method as "a continuous reconstruction of the total social and individual experience through self-directed activities," 38. George W. Nowell, The Receding interests of Young People (New York: I). C. sleuth and Co., 19501. See also his What Boys and Girls Like to Read (Norristown, N.J.: Silver Burdett Co., 1958), and an earlier summary report, "Some Results of a Twelve-Year Study of Children's Reading Interests," English Journal 35:10 (December 1946): 331-36. 39. James Warren Olson, The Nature of Literature Anthologies Used in the Teaching of High School English 1917-1957 (Dissertation, Univer- sity of Wisconsin, 1969; University Microfilms No. 69-22.4541, 259, 40. Smith explains the origins of her program in "Extensive Reading in Junior High School: A Survey of Teacher Preparation," English Journal 19:6 (June 1930): 449.62. Surveys of teachers in two summer sessions indicated they were unfamiliar with such materials; the course on "juvenile literature" followed. Courses on children's literature date back much further. 41. See Richard S. Alm, "The Development of Literature for Adoles- cents," School Review 64 (April 1956): 172-77: Jean DeSales Bertram, "Books to Promote Insights into Family-Life Problems," English Journal 45:8 (November 1956): 477.82; Learned T, Bulman, "Biographies \for Teen-Agers," English Journal 47:8 (November 1958); Emma L. Patterson, "The Junior Novels and How They Grew." English Journal 45;7 (October 19561; 381.87. Earlier, see Isabel V. Eno, "Books for Children from Broken Homes." English Journal 38;8 (October 1949): 457-58. 42, Richard S. Alm, "The Glitter and the Gold," English Journal 44:6 (September 1955): 315-22. 43. Barbara Martinet/. "PopularBut Not Just a Part of the Crowd: Implications of Formula Fiction for Teenagers." English Journal 60:3 March 1971); 339-44. 44, See W. H. N. Ilotopf, Language, Thought and Comprehension: A Case Study of the Writings of L A. Richards (London: Itoutledge and Regan Paul, 19651; Douglas Waples, Bernard Berelson, and Franklyn R. Bradshaw, What Reading Does to People (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1940). 45. The Educational Director of the Institute for Propaganda Analysis addressed the 1939 NCTE convention (Violet Edwards, "Developing Criti- cal Thinking through Motion Pictures and Newspapers." English Journal 29;4 (April 1940): 301(17). Paul Diederich reviewed LanguageinGeneral Education for the Harvard Committee ("The Meaning of The Meaning of Mea»ing." English Journal 30;1 (January 1941): 31-36, S, I. Hayakawa spoke on propaganda, analysis at the 1938 convention ("The St. Louis Convention," English Journal 28:2 [February 1939): 143-50). See Lou: guage in Action New York: Harcourt. Brace, and Co., 1941). Natutowsn GoArs 181

48. Commission on Secondary School Curriculum,Language in General Education.A Report of the Committee on the Function of English in General Education (New York: D. Appleton.Century Co.,1940). The conunittee stated that its primary debt was to I. A. Richards, who had advised it and;read drafts of the report. Rosenblatt's book was.endoSedas the proper approach to literature (p. vi,fn. 2); she was not on this committee but also acted as an advisor. Lou LaBrant, who wasa member of the committee, has emphasized to me that the committee's language studies were seen as separate -from literary work, though completely compatible; they were not meant to supplant it. Cf., however, Edward Gordon's comments ten years later: "Interpretation of poetry is a further extension of the general language work;itisanother, complex and concentrated, example of emotional communication" ("Teaching Students to Read Verse,"English Journal39:3 IMarch 19501: 149-54). 47..1. A. Richards.How to Read a Page. p.19- 48. Charles 13, Hodgman, Jr., "A Nigh -School Program,"English Journal-33:1 (January 1944): 35-40; Edward J. Rutan, "Meaning in Literature Study,"English Journal33:9 (November 1944): 505-07: and Basic Aims Committee. "Basic Aims for English Instruction in American Schools."English Journal31 :1 (January 19421: 40-55. 49. Lennox Grey, "Communication and War: An Urgent Letter to En- glish Teachers."English Journal22:1 (January 1043): 12-19: "The Council Meets in Wartime.-English Journal32:2 (February 1943): 104 -05: and "English in the Victory Corps,"English Journal32;8 dune 1943); 393-99. See also Planning Commission, "English Instruction and this War."Eng- lish Journal31:2 (February 1942): 87-91, 50. Paul Witty was especially frank about the influence of thesebn his own thinking:Reading in Modern Education(Boston: 1), C. Heath, 1949); pp. 10-11, 194.201. Another important presentation of the developmental approach was Constance NI. McCullough, Ruth M. Strang, and Arthur E. Trax ler'sProblems in the linpeorement of Reading(Nee, York: McG raw- lill Book .Co., 19481. This discussed reading skills all theway from "Prcrending. Experiences in Preschool Years" through "Higher Levels id Graduate Study." 51.ItobOrt .1, Havighurst, "Characteristics, Interests. and Needs of Pupils That Aid in Defining the Nature and Scope of the Reading Program," inAdjusting Reading Progranzs toIndividuals, Supplementary Educational Monographs no. 52, ed. W. S. Gray (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941), pp. 53-59. These tasks were cited by Witty. Reading in Alodern Education,p. 13. William S. Gray and Bernice N. Leary.What- Makes a Book Readable?(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935). 52. See Samuel Beckofi, "The Rainbow,"English Journal32:6 (June 19131: 325.30: Herbert A, Landry, -Teaching Reading with theReader's Digest,- English journal32:6 (June 1043): 320-24. 53, Olive Eckerson, "Give Them What They Want."English Journal 113;:iymber 19471: 523-27; Daniel J. Assuma, ''A List of Simplified Classics."English Journal42:2 (February 19531: 94 if.; John R. Kinzer and -Natalie R. Cohan. "How Hard Are the Simplified Classics?"English Journal 4(1 :4 (April 1951); 219-11. 54. M. Agnella Gunn et al.,What We know about High SchOol ReadinglUrbana. NOTE, 1958). See especially Helen I lunlon's article, 182 TRADITION AND REFORM

"What Does Research RevealAbout Materials for Teaching Reading?" 55. See Rent(Wellek. "Literary Scholarship, in American Scholarship in the Twentieth Century, ed. Merle Curti (Cambridge: Harvard Univer- sity Press, 19531: Clarence I). Thorpe and Norman E. Nelson, "Criticism in the Twentieth Century, English Journal 36:4 (April 19471: 165-73; Wil- liam Van O'Connor, "A Short View of the New Criticism," English Journal 38:9 (November 19491: 489-97; David Daiches,The New Criti- cism. English Journal 39:2 (February 19501: 64-72. Wellek's discussion is the fullest: the others are interesting as examples'of contemporary roue- than; to the growing importance of the New Critics, Daiches is particularly perceptive about the weaknesses as well as the strengths of the approach, and foreshadows later disillusionment, 56. These bOoks had the curious fate of being virtually ignored by high school teachers for some twenty-five years, and then becoming basic points of reference at a time when their approach was already somewhat dated. Richards's Practical Criticism in particular became a common reference during the period of academic reform discussed in the next chapter. Principles of Literary Criticism (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trulmer and Co.. 1945; first published 19241; Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment (London: Kegan Paul,- Trench, Trubner and Co., 1946; first published 19291. 57. Wellek, "Literary Scholarship... p. 123. Wellek refers to Bmoks's continent in the course of his own observations. 58. Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren, Understanding Poetry: An Anthology for College Students, rev. ed, New York; Henry Ilolt and Co.. 1950; first published 19381, pp. xixv. 59. Allen Tato. "Understanding Modern Poetry, English Journal 29:4 (April 10401: 263-74. Brooks dedicated Modern Poetry and the Tradition to 'fate. 60. "Report and Summary,- English Journal 38;7 (September 19491: 405.07 (jury quotation, p. 4061; 30.3 (March 1950): 170-71; and 39:5 (May 19501; 28'3- 61. "Report. and Summary , "- English Journal 39 :3 I March 19501: 170-71. 62. For a good example of the assimilation of the "skills" defined by the New Critics (in fact citing the 1950 edition of Understanding Poetry), see Rosemary S. Donahue. "A Problem in Developmental Reading," English Journal 42:3 (March 19531: 142-47. For an early example accepting their principles more fully. .see Herman 0. Makey. "Why?" English Journal 38:10 (December 19491: 554 ff.; and "In the Literature Clans." English Journal 39:7 (September 19501: 360.66. As examples of programs during the period of transition. see Elizabeth Williams, 'teaching Judg- ment of Prose Fiction." English Journal 47:8 (November 19581: 95-99; David NI: Litsey. "Comparative Study Of Novels, English Journal 48:3 (March 19591: 149-51. 03, Volumes Ito V were titled. respectively. English Language Arts (19521. Language Arts for Todays Children (19541, The English Lino:nage Arts in the Secondary School II9564, The College mingling of English (19651. The Education of Mothers of English for American Schools and Colleges (19031. MI were published by Appleton-Century- Crofts. New York, The much-delayed Volumes IV and V are of a different period and emphasis. NARROWEil GOALS 183

64. The English LanguageArts,pp. 62-67. 65.The English Language Arts 66. Ibid.. 123-29. in The Secondary School,pp. 16.20. 67, ibid.. 180.87. 68. In spite of their shortcomings.the books were in step with tional thought at the time they educa- appeared. Volume Iwas named one of the "Outstanding Educational Booksof the Year" on the PrattLibrary List, and Volume 111 in generalprovoked favorable comment, Summary,"English Journal e.g., "Report and 42:7 (October 1953): 400; "TheSignificance of The English Language.4rts in the Secondary School," 46:5 (May 19571: 286-93. English Journal The advocacy of a 'multiple approach" without clearstandards for including or excluding activitieswas also typical. See J. N. (look, Multiple Approach," "The English Journal37:4 (April 1948): 188-92; andWal- ter Loban. "Teaching Literature:.A Multiple Approach," 45:2(February 1956): 75-78+. English Journal 69. Arno Jewett, English Language Arts inAmerican High Schools, U.S. Department of Health,Education and Welfare, Office Bulletin 1958, no. 13 (Washington, of Education 1959). p. 5. D.C.: Government PrintingOffice, 70. Ibid., pp. 31-39, 50 ff. 71. Olson,Nat are of Literature Anthologies, 72. Ibid., pp. 246-49. pp. 246.47. 73. Ibid., pp. 258. 273-77. 74.. James J. Lynch and Bertrand Evans,High School English Text-- hooks:.4Critical Examination 1963). (Boston: Little, Brown andCompany, In their false liberalism, the progressiveeducators confused discipline with legimeritation, «nd forgot lhal true freedomis impossible without minds tnade free by discipline. Mortimer Adler, How to Read a Book, 19401

l'he issue in American education today is notdrawn between those who believe in scholarship but are indifferent to goodleaching, and those who believe in good leaching but are indifferent to scholarship.The issue is drawn between those who believe that good /coshingshould be directed to sound intellectual ends, and those tette are content todethrone educational values and eullicale the techniques of teaching for Their ownsake; in an intellectual and eulluniteacuum, Arthur E. Bestor, Educational Wastelands, 19532

The ultimate result of these pressuresThe greaterheterogeneity of pupils, the increasing complexity of our society, the development ofmodern media of communication, the proliferation of tesponsibilities of theEnglish. teacheris that English as a subject is in danger of losing still moreits central focus. In too many locales English has become all things toall students. The lines of the discipline have blurred, and the proper path forpreparing its teachers has faded. NCTE Committee on National Interest, 19013

It is obcious that random patching of the existingcurricula, though it may have a practical look, is no longer practical. Theonly thing that is practical now isto gain a new theoretical conception ofliterature. Most of our difficulties in the leaching of English result from animniature scholarship that has not properly worked out its 01141 leachingprinciples. Northrup Frye, in all address to the Modern Language Association, 1963'1

that the English . the primary motivation for this curriculum lies in the fact program in most Nebraska schoolslacks a planned, sequential, developmental pattern. Thu frequently one teacher has nonotion of what her students have done in English in previous years or what they be expected to do in succeeding years. Consequently, each teacher feels that shemust educate her students in every area of English at once... ,She cannot possibly do so. Nebraska Curriculum Development Center, 19655 Chapter VII

An Academic Model forEnglish

The excesses of the "life adjustment"movement eventually provoked a reaction which(petitioned the tnost basic principles of progressivism in education.111 concern for the childled to school programs with no clearpurpose or structuring principles, then perhaps these principlescould be reestablished by returning attention to the subject matter. This was the underlying premiseof the academic resurgence which-dominatedsecondary school instruction from the late fifties tillthe late sixties. Thisresurgence, though limited in itsown way and relatively short-lived, forced both progressives and theiropponents to formulate their goals and methodologies with a rigmr, and:precision that had been lacking throughout much of the "lifeldjitstment"period. As one result, the study of education became once again a respectahle endeavor,one in which academicslas well as educationists were willing themselves. to engage

Criticsof the Schools

The Academic Critics

Fundamental criticism of the progressivemovement was beginning even as the movement hit its zenithin the late 1930s; the sources were primarily university scholars concerned aboutwhat they saw as a lack of intellectual rigor andhistorical perspective in the evolving school programs. Maintaining thedistinction made in the previous chapter, these criticswere the proponents of "liberal" as opposed to "general" education. One of the earliestinfluential critics was Robert M. Hutchins, inauguratedas president of the University of Chicago in .1929. Ina series of lectures at Yale in

185 I8(1 TRADITION AND ItgrODAt

1936, later. published asThe Higher Learning in America(1936), Hutchins outlined a program which placed its emphasis on discipline and culture as a prescribed body of knowledge, summed up as the "Great Books."6 This was in turn popularized by Mortimer Adler in his somewhat polemicalHow to Read a Book(1940). A professor of law rather than of literature, Adler first taught with Mark Van Doren at Columbia and later with Hutchins at Chicago. Blaming the progressives in general and John Dewey in particular for what he saw as "the almost total neglect of intelligent reading throughout the school system," Adler is interesting for his fundamental unity of purpose with most of the progressive movement. To him, too; reading was "a basic tool of good living," one "intimately related to the art of thinking wellclearly, critically, freely." Education in general and reading in particular were "a means toward living a decent human life." Even the list of questions that Adler thought should he asked by a reader were basically compatible with progressive doctrines: "What in general is being said?. . flow in particular is it being said?...Is it true? What of it?"' Adler in the end differed from the progressives he was criticizing on only one important point:whatshould he read to achieve these goals. And his answer was simple: the Great Books, and only the Great Books, were vorth spending time on. They alone would teach the reader to read well, and until he could read well there would be no sense in reading widely. Adler was well aware that the Great- Books (he included a lengthy list in an appendix) were considerahly more difficult than the standard school fare, but he defended this difficulty as providing the necessary discipline without which true freedom of the mind could never be achieved. Van Doren, whom Adler acknowledged as a shaping force in his own education, was himself commissioned by the Association of American Colleges to prepare a discussion of liberal education during the midst of World War II. His book, far more scholarly and reasoned than Adler's popularization, recognized the fundamental unity in goals with the progressive educators, but like Adler split with them on what it was that should be studied. As Van Doren put it, progressive education failed at being "perfect" precollege education by neglecting two things: "The deep resemblances between human beings, calling for a fixed program of learning which no child may evade, and the importance of the past." And like Adler, Van Doren pointed to the Great Hooks program as a good model to follow.' Two Harvard committees appointed by president James 13. Conant provided similar discussions of secondary school programs: first The Training of Secondary School Teachers Especially with Reference to English(1942), and laterGeneral Education in a Free Society(1945). Both reflected an awareness of conditions in Amer- AN AeADEMIC MODEL FOR ENGLISH 187

ican secondary schools and a healthy appreciation of theprogressive efforts at reform; both, however, came down squarely in favor of a more academic and intellectually rigorous curriculum than seemed to be emerging. The NCTE in particular was castigated by the Committee on the Training of Secondary School Teachers for having "ended whatever monopoly the classicsstill enjoyed" through a series of reports that exhibited "a decreasingpower of discriminating between books of permanent worth and books ofan ephemeral nature." Rather than a leisure timeor recreational activity, the committee saw reading as a difficult and disciplined subject, one that would "challenge" the mind and thus make it "grow."" Both Harvard committees traced the ills of education to the expanding school enrollments of the early twentieth century, enrollments that had grown so fast that the liberal arts faculties had gladly relinquished their traditional responsibility for teacher training. The result, inevitably, had been a widening chasm between school and college people, the one poorly trained in subject matter, underpaid, and without time to pursue their own continuing education; the other isolated from the schools, unconcerned with methodology. and luntil much later in the century) safely protected from the problems of "mass" or "general" education. Asa result of this split, education lost touch with its earlier humanistic roots, though these continued to flourish (the Darvard committees hoped) in the university liberal arts faculties. The goals of secondary education, in this view, were now too oriented toward practical and vocational ends; there was a need to re-emphasize the ethical and cultural heritage through a return to "great authors" and "great books."'" The implicit and explicit criticism of progressive education offered in the early forties by proponents of liberal education set the stage for the later and more volatile criticism that would in a remarkably short time make progressive education a term of derision, and John Dewey a scapegoat. Lack of intellectual rigor, neglect of common culture, avoidance of questions of values, and the control of the schools by an isolated and ingrown school of education these would he the rallying points for critics who would fail to recognize any fundamental unity of purpose with progressive education. Much of their criticism simply missed the point, continuing a long tradition of talking past one another that hadgrown up between the schools of education and the liberal arts faculties." The Great I3ooks course is itself the hest single example of this: critics of progressive education claimed that such books were beingne- glected, while in fact the progressive theorists could claim self- righteously that they had already !mined that the way to full appreciation of these classic texts was indirect, through the lesser and more ephemeral works that they had been assiduously bringing into the curriculum. In fact the progressives may have been in 188 TRADITION AND REFORM

danger of losing sight of their ultimate goal, concentrating on the ephemeral as an end in itself, but since the issue was put not pedagogically but on the basic principles, neither side benefited from the wisdom of the other.

A Crisis of Confidence As "life adjustment" became more popular, such criticism in- tensified. Some hint of the changing tone is evident in the titles chosenthey progressed from Van Doren's simple Liberal Educa- tion (1943) to Bernard Idding Berns Crisis in Education (1949) and, in the same year, Mortimer Smith's And Madly Teach. By 1953 the transition from criticism which acknowledged many points of contact with the progressive movement to outright confrontation was nearly complete; that year produced Albert Lynd's Quackery in the Public Schools, Arthur Bestor's Educational Wastelands, Robert Hutchins's 7'he Conflict in Education, and Paul Woodring's Let's Talk Sense about Our Schools. Rudolf Flesclis Why Johnny Can't Read with its subtle linking of progressivism and communism followed soon thereafter. Such efforts were eventually institutionalized through the Council on Basic;Esiucation, founded in 1956 with Bestor and Smith among the directors." The major charge which the critics brought against the progressive movement was anti-intellectualism; all of the other points they would make could eventually he brought back to the fear that the progressively-educated child would not be the intellectual equal of his forebears, his mind weakened by "lollipops" instead of "learn. ing," the "discipline" of content replaced by the triviality of "life adjustment," Here was the heart of the loud protests that would be made about the "educationists," who progressed in the rhetoric from an innocent (if unfortunate) product of the rapid expansion of the schools to an interlocking and self-serving directorate with a strangle- hold on the system of public education." The harsh rhetoric of the academic critics opened the way for a varied and unlikely coalition of forces. Conservatives seeking ways to reduce school budgets, superpatriots outraged by the social reconstructionists and fanned by McCarthy, parents disturbed by the implications of "life adjustment,- old-line teachers who had never embraced progressive doctrines in the first place, and young teachers to whom progressivism meant resistance to new modes of scholarshipall came together in their criticism of the schools. The sins of the progressives had been many, and as the attack gained in intensity the tendency to look at their virtues grew weaker and weaker, The final blow was Sputnik. Launched in the fall of 1957, it became a symbol of the failure of the schools and a milestone marking the end of one era and the beginning of another," It also AN ACADEMIC MODEL FOR ENGLISH 189

provoked its own period of national soul-searching, summed up in ViceAdmiral H. G.. Itickover's Education and Freedom (1958). "Life adjustment" and John Dewey were his scapegoats, engineers and talented youth" his Chosen People, and high academic standards the road to salvation. "Only massive upgrading ofthe scholastic standards of our schools," Rickover wrote, "will guaranteethe future prosperity and freedom of the Republic.'" Congressfollowed with a new infusion of federal fluids through the National Defense Education Act of 1958an act which carried in its title an ever - present reminder of just exactly what it was that hadprompted federal concern. With the passage of the NDEA, English found itself taking a definite second place to math and science, the new "core" curricu loni for producing Rickover's nation of engineers. it was a sobering -experience, but one that gave the many factions within the teaching of English a common cause. In their attempts to reassert the values of English, however. teachers of English did have some powerful allies. One of the most important was Harvard's James B. Conant, who returned from a sojourn as ambassador to Britain to provide a series of trenchant critiques of the schools. The first of these, The American High School Today (1959), examined the comprehensive highschool, an institution which Conant viewed as the proper embodiment of the American commitments to excellence and to democracy.After visits to a, selected sample of schools, Conant offered twenty-one "RecommendationsfortheImprovementof American High Schools." These were designed in large part to improve the preparation of the academically talented students by substituting a more rigorous program in the basic subjects, including English.He asked, among other things, for subjectby subject ability grouping (instead of the across.theboard tracking that then predominated), the use of an academic honors list, advanced courseswith specified prerequisites. special classes for the highly gifted, more emphasis on composition, and four years ofEnglish for every student. The general implications of Conant's recommendations for English were clear: an important place in the curriculum. butone requiring some substantial changes in approach."

English as a Discipline

Concern for the Talented Though Sputnik in 1957 crystallized public opinion and thus serves as a convenient benchmark forthe beginning of reform, in fact the underlying reemphasis of academic achievement was al- 190 TRADITION ANDitEFORM

ready well underway. One ofthe early forces was a revival of interest in special programs for "academicallytalented" students in reaction against the preoccupations ofthe progressives with the "general- courses and "life adjustment.-Concern for the academically talented was given considerableimpetus by experiments sponsored by the Ford Fund for theAdvancement of Education. Established in 1951, the Fund forthe Advancement of Education experimented with two approachesto break the lockstep progression through the secondary schoolgrades. The first, early admissions, received considerable publicityduring 1951 and 1952 but never hecame very popular: high schools protestedthat they were being stripped of student leaders,and colleges worried about the social maturity of the early adrnittees.The second experiment, advanced placement, was initiated in1952: it became popular with Ivy League schools and theirprep school feeders, insuring steady if not spectacular growth. By 1955 itwas well enough established to be taken over by the CollegeEntrance Examination Board, with the first exams under CEEB auspicesbeing given in the following year." The Advanced Placementprogram was simply a. series ofexam- inations: there was no syllahusor prescribed course of study. Nonetheless, like all examinations, it developedan established form and series of emphases that couldnot help but shape high school teaching. Indeed, its influence often extendedfar beyond the limited number of students directly involved, leading to changesin methods and materials at all levels ofthe curriculum.'" From the beginning English wasone of the most popular advanced placement subjects, and the emphases in itsexamination were those that characterized t he next wave of reform.Textual analysis and literary criticism on the model of the New Criticswas the most important aspect of the exam; very little attentionwas given to the philosophical or ethical dimensions of literature. The advanced placement model ofspecial attention to intellecr tually gifted students offered the publicschools one relatively direct way to respond to the growing criticism of progressiveeducation. Arno. Jewett, USOE specialist in languagearts, told the NCTE convention in 1952 that neglect of the fastlearner was "the hasis for much of the honest criticism ofour educational efforts:. To demonstrate a lowering of theaverage instructional level, he used statistics on the increasing proportion ofchildren of high school age remaining in school until graduation.'"Jewett was tapping sucha general concern that the Council'sExecutive Committee voteda few months later to estahlisha Committee on English Programs for High School Students of Superior Ahilitylto help teachers provide for these "neglected" student:i. The finalreport of the committee did not appear until 1960, when itwas brought out as a joint AN ACADEMIC MODEL Fog ENGL:ISII 191

publication of NOTE and the NEA's Project on the Academically 'I'alented Student, but its emphases are those of the mid-fifties when the committee was most active." The report makes it clear that the teacher of the academically talented should have a special status wjthin the high school faculty. The arguments parallel those that had arisen during the initial enthusiasm for ability grouping during the twenties: the students are brighter than the average; therefore the teacher must be brighter than the average, with a better preparation in literature and &broader cultural background. As a corollary, he would need a lighter teaching load and extra financial support for advanced preparation. The special competence of academically talented students was generalized to all aspects of school life. In addition to advanced placement exams, accelerated. or "enriched" classes, and early admissions, they would be encouraged to make reports to the class, to serve as chairmen of student committees, to conduct book fairs. to do creative writingto do, in fact, virtually anything out of the ordinary. It is very difficult, however, to understand the peculiar qualifications of the academically talented to read announcements over the loudspeaker system, or why families of superior studentsand not of all studentswere to be given advice on activities to broaden a student's interests (visits to places of historical or cultural interest, trips to museums, or evenings at the theater). Most of the activities suggested for these students were exactly the kinds of undertakings that the progressives had urged foreveryone. The third point that emerges from the report is a direct con- sequence of the extent to which the concern for the academically talented pupil was motivated by criticism of their academic preparation: the model for academic work was the college curriculum. so the proposed changes in high school programs followed very closely what went onor was thought to go onin college classrooms "Achanced work" was the single answer to the problem of what to offer the academically talented, and this meant intensive reading, the Great Books, and literary rather than personal focuses for the curriculum. Often the courses simply adopted one of the introductory college anthologies.

.4New Curriculum Model The programs which began to appear for academically talented students differed fundamentally from those developed by the "life adjustment" movement. Where the progressives had come to stress immediate needs and the characteristics of the student, the new programs placed their emphasis on long-term goals and the nature R32 TRADITION AND It EFORM

of the subject. At the same Lime, liberal arts faculties became involved in curriculum reform in a way unparalleled since the late nineteenth century. when the college had also served as the model for the high school program. As early as 1951, the University of Illinois Committee on School Math set the pattern that late!: efforts would follow: scholars working to develop new programs that would stress concepts fundamental to the subject areaor the "discipline" as it came to be called. Though educators were usually involved at various stages of curriculum development, it was subject area rather than educational principles which determined the scope and sequente of the new curriculum. The University of Illinois project was followed by the Physical Sciences Study Com- mittee (1956). the School Maths Study Group (1958), and by various other efforts in science and math.!' AL the same time, the National Science Foundation (NSF) developed a model for inService education based on summer institutes. Founded by act of Congress in 1950 as an independent body to oversee nisearch and training in scientific and mathematical areas, the NSF funded a series of institutes for college Leachers during the summer of 1953. These were extended to the secondary school level the following year, again directly -involving liberal arts departments in problems of Leacher training and curriculum development. Interest in academic reform in Englishaside from the initial response to the problems of the academically talentedbegan more slowly. On a regional level, a series of annual conferences on the Leaching of English grew out of the Yale Master of Arts in Teaching program during 1955. Under the direction of Edward Gordon and Edward S. Noyes, these conferences offered an academic view of English and stressed three separate components: language, literature, and composition. This "tripod" became the major metaphor for English during the ensuing period of academic reform. Literature at the Yak conferences was dealt with using the approaches of the New Critics, with .Cleanth, Brooks: and other distinguished faculty members helping teachers assimilate the new point of view." Of more significance nationally, the Modern Lan- guage Association IMLA) became involved in secondary education for the firs( Limp since the turn of the century, as a result of the Foreign Language Program (1952-58) funded by the Rockefeller -..Foundation. Under the directitm of MLA Executive Secretary ;NV illiatn Riley Piltker, this pTogram led to many reforms in foreign 1/4anguage Leaching and culniinated with the inclusion of funds for foreign languages in the National Defense Education Act of 1958. Parker's successor at MLA, Georg,' Winchester Stone, Jr., turned MLA efforts toward the teaching of English at about the same time that the leadership of NCTE, with J. N. Hook of the University of Iliina serving as its first full-time executive secretary, began to rea he principle's on which English programs were based. AN ACADEMIC MODEL. FM ENGLISH 193

The Basic Issues Conferences The first important manifestation of .renewed scholarly interest in secondary school English was a series of "Basic Issues" conferences held during 1958 with funds from theFord Foundation. In the atmosphere of mistrust and suspicion that had developed between academic and education departments. MLA initially proposed to sponsor such a series without directly involving other professional organizations who might have been presumed to have an interest. After NCTE protested that MLA, with its college orientation, lacked the competence to deal adequately with secondary school teaching, the conferences were eventually funded under the joint sponsorship of the American Studies Association, the College English Association,. MLA, and NCTE: the series brought together twenty-eight teachers of English for three three-day and-a final one-day meeting to consider and define the basic issues in the teaching of English. The conferences reduced the initial mistrust among the leaders of the organizations involvedand produced two short but important reports that were widely distributed: "The Basic Issues in the Teaching of English" (1959), and "An Articu- lated English Program: An Hypothesis to Test" (19590 The first of these reports was presented as a "sharpening" of points of disagreement within the profession, but a clear point of view radically different from that of the progressives emerges from the leaflet as a whole. The most important assertion was that English must be regarded. asa "fundamental liberal discipline," a body of specific knowledge to he preserved and transmitted rather than a set of skills or an opportunity for guidance and individual. adjustment.: As -such, the importance of specific works, of the technical vocabulary of the literary critic, and of sequence deter. mined by the logic of the subject matter could be opened for debate in a way that was impossible when the subject was defined in terms of the needs or interests of the student. College professors of English rather than of education or psychology became the body of expert opinion of most importance. in curriculum development, and national leadership through the professional organizations became the natural way to bring Such scholars into the process of curriculum development. Because the basis of the curriculum was felt to lie in the subject matter, such experts could provide guidance of a nearly universally applicable sortin contrastwith tho dictum of the NCTE Commission on the English Curriculum ,:hat the curriculum must emanate from the needs of the Studeitt in his particular local community. The Basic Issues conferences, not surprisingly, turned t& the programs for the academically talented tosharpen some of the issues they presented. To the extent that there was anyevident concern for individual differences, the paradigmusually followed MI TRADITION AND REFORM

was quite consistent: "What can we do with the best students? If such an approach is good for them itmust be good for everyone. How should we modify itso we can use it with the less gifted also ? "" It was, a very handy mode/ for theacademics to follow, since with it pedagogical issues could for themost part be ignored. Whatever sequence andmanner of presentation were chosen. the academically talenteli student would be ableto handle it; thus the construction of a fiinctioning model of the academiccurriculum was not an insurmountable problem. When itcame time to modify the curriculum for the less able, howeveraprocess that was really neglected for most of the sixtiesit would take radicalreform rather than simple modification to producea viable structure: The most important issue in the minds of theconferees was that of providing a curriculum that would be"sequential and cumulative from the kindergarten through the graduate school."Such structure would be the key to insuring that English-the-school-subjectih fact remained English-the-discipline. Withoutthe structure, there would be nothing to preventa return ofthe present curricular disorder" with its ad hoc activities and,even after the advent of "life adjustment," its virtually unlimited scope!" Theconferees were uncertain about the proper basis for thesequence they hoped to develop, presenting their own conception Mthe second leaflet, "An Articulated English Program: An Hypothesisto Test." Echoing the Yale Report of 1828. they portrayed the literaturecomponent of. the English program as "a continuous furnishingof the mind." The skeleton course they providedwas distinctly traditional, beginning with the simple literary forms of folklore, legend,and fairy tales in the early elementary years, progressing throughmyth and legend in the upper elementary grades, and the bac,kgttnindsof the Wes- tern cultural heritage (through, for example. selections fromHomer and from the Bible) in junior high school.The high school Would be the place for an emphasis on intellectual developmentand "mastery of certain blocks of knowledge" importantto the literary heritage. Though the conferees stopped short of proposinga return to set books (calling it "probably inadvisable"), they proposedthat the curriculum introduce all students to certain specificvarieties of literary experience, Thus for the novel, they deemedit "necessary and practicable to insist that novels of the followingkinds must be read":

Simple narrative(e.g.. Robinson Crusoel Picaresque novel (Lazarillo de Torrnes) Historical novel(A Tale of Two Cities; The Great Meadow) Novel of manners(PrideandPrejudice) Rildungsroman(David Copperfield; Jane Eyre) Novel of ideas(The Scarlet Letter; Arrowsmith) Psychological novel(The Red Badge of Courage) AN ACADEmIc ;UMW.ran Escusa 195

The same years would also be used to introduce the student to Plato. Lucretius. Cicero, Augustine, Dante, and Montaigne. "What a foundation for students entering college!" the conference ex- claimed, "And what a challenge to those who are not. "2The entlmsiasm was high, and only time would temper it with reality.

The Spiral Curriculum The most influential discussion of sequence again came from the sciences, this time from a ten-day conference called at Woods Hole by the National Academy of Sciences. Under the chairmanship of Ilan-aril's Jerome Bruner. the conference brought together physi- cists, biologists. mathematicians, psychologists, educators, and historians "to consider anew the nature of the learning process, its relevance to education, and points at which current curricular efforts have raised new questicns about our conceptions of learning and teaching." Bruner's final report as chairman,The Process of Education (1960, presented a detailed and lucid argument fora curriculum that concentrated on providing a sense of the structure of the discipline (that is, subject) under study; it also developed a concept of sequence through a "spiral" curriculum. As envisioned by Brun- er, the curriculum would be based around the central ideas of the discipline. ideas which would be returned to again and again at successively higher levels of complexity. In such a program, the student would progress from an initial intuitive knowledge toan eventual explicit formalization of basic principles: In keeping with the academic and intellectual nature of the reaction of which Woods Hole was a part. the emphasis at all levels wason "scrupulous intellectual honesty," which as developed by Bruner implieda discovery or inductive approach to learning. The child would learn. physics by doing the kinds of things a physicist does, being faced with the same sorts of choices and learning to make those choices by the rules of inquiry that govern physics, at evermore complex levels. "We begin," Bruner wrote in the most-quoted line from his book, "with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development" (p. 131. Though the Woods Hole Conference began as a project in science teaching, it attempted to deal with the full range of humor, learning; Bruner carefully interspersed examples from the study of English in his final report. lie talked explicitly of building "an ever more complex and mature understanding of the literature of tragedy." for extra*, and of "the great themes." Many of the later attempts to build an academic curriculum in English would try to implement 13runers ideas." 196 TRADITION AND REFORM

The Commission on English The first major formulation of an academic curriculum in English was provided by the College Entrance Examination Board, whichin the fall of 1959 appointed a Commission on English to "propose standards of achievement" and "to suggest ways of meetingthem." The commissionwhich liketheBasicIssuesconferences was dominated by college teachers wasactive overapproximately a five-year period and set the tone of reform during the first half of the decade. With only sixteen members and two full-time executive staff, it was a small enough group to deliberate effectively; with James R. Squire from NCTE, George Winchester Stone from NBA, and the prestige of the College Board behind it, it was also destined to be heeded. The fullest expression of the commission's point of view was its final report, Freedom and Discipline in English (1965). This indicated very little development since the Basic Issues conferences. The commission continued to use the tripod of language, literature. and composition as the basic image of the English curriculum, and though the legs of the tripod were weakened by attention to oral language activities, the discussions and recommendations in the final report were presented separately for each of the three original "legs." The discussion showed the same lack of clear structuring principles that had weakened the earlier conferences' attempt to outline a sequence for English, indeed bearing a striking though certainly unintentional resemblance to the earlier NCTE curriculum commission in its reliance upon a "consensus" curriculum." Given that the report was the work of sixteen people. the striking of some sort of consensus was probably inevitable. Still it stands in rather disturbing contrast to the emphasis on an intellectual and academic approach to English as a disciplineand thus presumably a study governed by more rigorous principles than consensus implied. The commission was in fact able to formulate language studies in somewhat more rigorous t$rms, but literature as a "liberal discipline" lacked an organizing theory. Here the commission proposed no more than reliance upon the teacher as a "professional'- -that is, as one who had himself through long exposure come to "know" literature, and thus who, because of the depth and rigor of his training, would be able to select appropriate works and discuss them in appropriate ways. (Here lay one of the motives behind the choice of title: the teacher would be free to choose what to teach, but his choices would be governed by disciplined training.) Though the commission was not able to deal with the problem of what to read, it had little doubt how that reading should be carried out. The New Critics were fully and uncompromisingly adopted in the commission's dismission, which included an outline of "funda- AN ACADEMIC MODEL ton ENGLISH 197

mental questions the 'teacher must face as he prepares for class and then must teach his students to face as they study the work with him": I. Questions about the text itself A. Questions of form 1. What is its kind? 2. What are its parts? 3. flow art the parts related? B. Questions of rhetoric 1. Who is speaking? 2,What is the Occasion? 3. Who is the audience? Questions about meaning 1. What meaning has each word in its particular context? 2. What do the diction and grammar of the text tell us about its purpose? 3. What is the paraphrasable content of the work, its "statement"? 4. What intentionhigh seriousness, irony. comedy. and the like is apparent and how is it made apparent? 5. What part of the meaning is sacrificed by paraphrase, by substitution of words other than those used by the author? H.Questions of value A. Questions about personal response B. Questions of excellence fp. 58) The majority of the questions hinge around close, analytic attention to the text; only one topic deals with personal response, and it shares the general heading of "Questions of value" with a second point, "Questions of excellence," which before the writings of the New Critics had rarely been seen in the school syllabus. Because it had to place such a heavy emphasis on the profeS- sionalisin and training of the individual teacher, the Commission on English devoted a considerable part of its endeavor to improving the training and working conditions of teachers of English, Of the fourteen specific recommendations in the first chapter of the report. for example, all but three dealt with certification requirements and teaching conditions; most were quite specific, urging that the teacher "be assigned no more than four classes a day" or that his preparation include-as a minimum "one course in the psychology of learning" (p. 111.24 The commission's greatest success, however, came not from its recommendations in Freedom and Discipline, but from a series of institutes during the summer of 1962. The twenty institutes followed the model of Taba's human relations work and of similar institutes in other disciplines, providing 868 secondary school Eng- lish teachers with a six- to eight-week program of graduate work in 198 TRADITION AND I{EFORNI

language. literature, and composition. The quality of the institutes was. as the commission itself noted. inevitably uneven, but they did succeed in involving a number of distinguished university faculty members directly in the problems of school curriculum, as wellas in reinvigorating the teaching of many of the participants. The model set by the institutes was widely followed, with many of the original host institutions continuing the program on their own in later years. and others beginning -them. Finally, the model they provided was taken up by the U.S. Office of Education when government funds became available three years later.'" Recognizing that the institutes could at best reach a small minority of practicing teachers, the commission found other ways to attempt to reeducate more substantial numhers. Freedom and Discipline was of course one such effort, and it was unusualas a curriculum statement in that well over a third of its pageswere devoted to "Examples of Criticism" that would demonstrate directly how useful the suggested critical approach could be. A somewhat earlier report (1963) had taken much the same tack by providing a set of sample questions for end-of-year examinations in English, together with carefully graded student responses. Teachers were invited to focus attention on the questions as illustrations of "the skills and understandings" that ought to be required, and on the annotated compositions as a way to improve their own theme grading. Like all of the work of the commission, the questions and answers emphasized close analytical reading and writing. Finally, the commission prepared a series of kinescopes which were circulated free to interested schools and professional groups, illustrating "tested classroom procedures.""

Federal Support for English

The Struggle for Funds The Commission on English began its efforts at a time when national curriculum reform had largely neglected English. (The commission was appointed just as the earlier College Board Com- mission on Mathematics was completing its work.) By the time its work was done, a massive infusion of federal funds was in the pmcess of effecting reform on a broader basis than even the College Board could have managed. The funds did not begin spontaneous- ly, however; they were the result of a vigorous and sustained effort by a number of national organizations. Most of the battle involved the simple need for publicity. Though NCTE had had a Committee on Public Relations since immediately after the First World War, during the ensuing decades the major AN ACADEMIC MODEL FOR ENGLISH S99

Council efforts had been directed toward other members ofthe English teaching profession; very few of its publicationswere meant for the general public, or even for the rest of the educational community. Under J. N. Hook (appointed in1952),the Council began to explore more directmeans of generating publicity and improving the professional standing of the teacherof English." One of the most obvious publicly-orientedprograms was the Achieve-- ment Awards, begun in the1958-59academic year. This sought to identify outstanding high school English students,honoring both the student and his school with publicity inlocal papers and announcements to college admissions and scholarship offices. The Council also begat) a drive to increase the size ofits membership, taking public stands on issues suchas teaching load. It documented its position with studies which seem-ldto prove with scientific rigor that it was physically impossible for the Englishteacher adequately to teach the number of pupils he couldordinarily expect to be assigned."Yet such activities were lost in the tide of national reaction to Sputnik,a point painfully demonstrated when Congress approved the National Defense EducationAct of1958 without including any funds for English. A dramaticpresentation was clearly needed, and two years later it was offered byan NCTE Committee on National Interest chaired by Hook'ssuccessor as executive secretary, James It. Squire." Produced ina record-break- ing twelve months,The National Interest and the Teaching of English(1961) was a direct and shrewd presentation of the importance of English to the national welfare, coupled witha startling documentation of instructional inadequacies. Thereport made no attempt to discuss the sometimes subtle issues ofconcern to the profession; it was enough to define Englishas "language, literature, and composition" and to delineate the twin issues ofarticulation and teacher preparation as "so important andso large that they can be undertaken only by a nationally supported program..- The committee defended its assertions witha carefully prepared array of facts, some previously availahle and others gathered specifically for the report. The important position of English in high school programs was easy enough to demonstrate;over90 percent of all pupils were enrolled in one or another Englishcourse, and graduation requirements in the majority of states demanded four years of study. At the same time the demand fur teacherswas outrunning supply by some 27 percent, with school populations expanding while the number of prospective English teachers graduating each year was holding at a level below that of the early fifties,' flow well were teachers being prepared tocarry out the task set. them? The committee's surveys found that between 40 and60 percent of teachers in junior and senior high schools lackedeven the minimum level of preparation required fora college major. Nearly half the college programs did not requirea course in methods of 200 'TRADITION AND REFORM

teaching English: only one-fifth specified a course in contemporary literature or in literary criticism. One-fourth of all elementary school teachers the first and perhaps most important teachers of 'Englishwere not even college graduates. Other-sections of the report concentrated upon such crucial problems as workload, book supply. and the high cost of the remedial instruction which colleges were forced to provide. (The committee's estimate: 510.114.736.62 a year.'," This first National Interest report generated widespread national attention: Look magazine for otw commented approvingly and called it "a rallying cry for reform." It was distributedtogether with a strategically brief overviewto all members of Congress and to other influential government figures. Still, Congress continued to resist placing English on an equal footing with the "defense- subjects of the earlier bill, though during 19(31 it did open up some sources of funds fur research and curriculum development in IgIng-- fish under an amendment to another act." Thus the Committee On National Interest was forced to continue its work, producing another major report. Tlw National Interest and theContinuing Educa- tion of Teachers of English, in 1964. This second National Interest report followed the same general tOrmat as the first, with data organized and presented to generate support for reform. While the first study had concentrated upon preservice training, the second emphasized continuing education; again the findings were startling. Only 50 percent of the English teachers surveyed in a national sampling had majored in English: a third had not majored in a subject even related to English.Over 45 percent were required to teach at least one other subject; one-fourth met 150 or more students each day. Only half the teachersfelt comfortable with their own preparation to teach literature, a third with their preparation to teach composition. and 10 percent with their preparation to teach reading, Yet 30 percent had not taken a course in English in the last ten years; over half worked inschool districts that required no evidence of professional growth in their subject area; most had never had the opportunity to confer about their programs with a college specialist in English or English education, with a trained local supervisor, or even with a fellow teacher. Only 800 English teachers a year were receiving any form of financial assistance for graduate study, whereas during 1962 the National Science Foundation alone had supported institutes for 40,800 teachers of science and mathematics, 90 percent of them from the elementary and secondary school. To combat these defi- ciencies, the Committee on National Interest again called for a massive program of federal aid, coupled with supporting activities at state and local levels." With strong support from the U.S. Office of Education, the Commi.ision on English, the Modern Language Association, and AN ACAPEMIC M001.3.joltEN61.1S11 201

other professional groups, the National Defense Education Act was finally broadened in October 1964 to provide funds for English and reading. as well as for many other previously excluded subject areas. In recognition of NCI'E's long and active campaign for such legislation, both Squire and Council president Albert Kitzhaber were invited to witness the signing of the amended legislation into law. In one sense Llw ultimate expansion of federal support to other subjectsor its withdrawal from those already being fundedwas probably inevitable. Education, even in a defense-minded Congress, could not long be defined primarily in terms of technology and science, and when the trauma of Sputnik began to recede in the national consciousness, the limited view of education implicit in Lhe original NDEA was bound to be challenged. In the end the greatest benefit of the battle for federal funds was probably not the funds themselves but the spirit of professional unity which the fight. itself produced. Teachers from school and college, specialists in eduCation as well as the liberal arts, worked together toward a common goal in a way they had not done for many years: it produced at least within the national organizations a sense of profession and of the ability to bring about change that was sorely needed and that would help them maintain control over the massive influx of funds that would soon be forthcoming." .

The First Programs In Septenther 1961 Congress authorized the expansion of the Cooperative Research Program of 1954 to include limited funding of projects in English, thus initiating the flow of federal funds. A conference called by the USOE the following February outlined the scope of activities of the new program, which became known as Project English; J. N. Hook was named as first coordinator. The initial efforts followed closely the suggestions of the Basic Issues conferences and of the National Interest reports Hook acknowledged both of them as shaping forces on his own thinking. Agtivi- ties MI into three somewhat different categories: basic and applied research (over thirty Projects were funded in the first year alone); curriculum study centers to produce new materials for classroom use: and conferences and professional meetings designed in general - to increase professional involvement and in particular to outline needed areas of research to guide future funding. During its first yettr of operation, Project English expended some S400,000 of federal funds, and the figure grew spectacularly thereafter.'" Though a number of highly significant research studies were supported by Project English, none during the early years concerned themselves more than peripherally with literature. Composi- tion, reading, and language skills were the primary focusespartly 202 TaAorrION ANR REFORM

because of congressional restriction, but more importantly because response to literature remained a difficult and intractable area of research," The curriculum study centers, however, were a different matter. Virtually all gave at least passing attention to literature: many based their major efforts around it. The over two dozen centers that were eventually funded operated independently and with diverse emphases: there are certain generalizations, however, which can safely be made about most of them, with the realization that there were important exceptions.'= The majority of the centers epitomized the "academic" approach to curriculum construction outlined at the Basic Issues confer'sices and again inFreedom and Discipline in English.They were staffed with a combination of liberal arts and education specialists: subject matter rather than methodological concerns predominated.. Most of the centers did not attempt to develop a radically new curriculum, instead elaborating established conceptions of English into fully developed curriculum structures. The main issues which each center had to confront were thus organization (or "focus") and sequence. The question of the organization of the course of study was substituted at most centers for the first of the basic issues from the 1958 meetings: "What is English?" hecame in practice "What structure can best hold the legs of the tripod together?" As in the contemporaneousFreedom and Disciplinereport, language, literature, and composition were .the major elements of the programs developed at most centers, though the interrelationships might be stressed in the "overview" and other dimensions of English studies given some passing attention. A few centers moved one or another of the studies to the center and treated the remaining "legs" as concentric, relPi d studies, but whatever focus was chosen, the unvarying point of view was that such studies were carried on for their own sake, not for any presumed utilitarian values. Viewing the subject as a set of basic principles with their own inherent logic and sequence, it followed that the curriculum in English would have the same form and structure for all students. As G. Robert Carlsen put it in a review of some of the materials produced, the work of the centers reflected "The original meaning of the wordcurriculumas a race track having a single beginning point, a single course to run for all racers. and a single outcome.'"' For answers to the problem of sequence, the centers turned preeminently to the work of Harvard psychologist Jerome Bruner and Canadian literary scholar Northrup Frye. Bruner's work offered both the pedagogical justification for building a curriculum around one or another conceptualization of English as a discipline, and an answer (in the "spiral curriculum") of how to address the questions of sequence. What Frye offered was the conceptualization of Eng- lish needed to lit it into Bruner's mold: a series of basic structuring principles that could be discussed at increasingly complex AN ACADEMIC MODEM SOK ENGLISH 203

levels. Frye's own attempt ata synoptic theory of criticism, outlined in most detail in TheAnatomy of Criticism(1957), stressed an analysis of conventions and archetypes; inparticular he presented a theory of "pre-generic modes" within which, heargued, all works of literature took their place. His four modes--Comedy,Romance, Tragedy, and Ironywere takenas important structuring elements by many of the curriculum studycenters, often serving as umbrel- las to justify thematic units. Noneof the centers heeded Frye's own suggestion that if our "immature scholarship" workedout its own "elementary teaching principles," theproper sequence would involve a shift in the center of gravity fromone school of criticism to another as the child progresses. Frye postulatedthat the insights of the linguists would be most useful in creatingkindergarten and first grade programs; the New Critics woulddominate theupper high school and lower collegeyears; and his own concern with myth and archetype would gravitate towardthe junior high school grades." Frye recognized muchmore fully than those who turned to his writings for guidance that English lackedthe kind of comprehensive theory required for an effectiveuse of Bruner's principles, and that any attempt to base a curriculumon one of the less comprehensive bodies of theory that did exist would betoo narrow for a kindergarten through collegeprogram. The curriculum study center at Florida State was one of the few thatcame to such a realization early in its work, abandoning Bruneras "too hazy"; most simply used the haziness to find support for theirown particular positions, thus delaying till the late sixties seriousattempts to redefine the structuring principles of the discipline." Anyone looking at the final products ofthe two dozen centers in the hope of finding in eacha new conception of English would be disappointed; but such an expectation wouldbe unfair as well as ill founded. Federal fundswere approved in September 1961; by April 1962 the first six centers hadbeen funded; the rest followed quickly. All were conceived ofas three- to five-year projects. Com- ing into existence so rapidly,the centers inevitablywere established at universities where interestwas already high and, often, where programswere already underway. What thenew funds did in most centers was allow them to more thoroughlyand morequickly develop curriculum models that had alreadybeen formulated. There was no time for the fundamental rethinkingor even the basic research that might have generatedradical change. Yet what the centersdid accomplish was important enoughtheyproduced the first sets of academically oriented materialfor the high school course, involving university professors of the liberalarts once again in the process of curriculum development inEnglish. The process of developing thecourses of studywasin the end probably more important than the materialsthemselves, A few 20.1 TRADITION ANS/ REFORM

centersNebraska was the prime exampleplanned their work as part of statewide curriculum revision, snthat some programs functioned on a wider basis within circumscribed geographic areas. Still, many centers simply closed their offices at thecompletion of their work, filing the requisite reports with theU.S. Office of Education. Others offered their materials to commercialpublishers, from whom they gradually became available. Bythe time they became available, however, the academic course in English waswell established and the focus of professional concern wasmoving in other directions. The specific approaches developed bythe various centers were nn longer needed because thegeneral point of view had already been assimilated by most teachers. (The two centerswhose work was an exception to the general academic approach are discussed in the next chapter.)

Changing Programs

Literary Values and the Threat of Censorship One of the major shifts brought about by thefirst wave of academic reform in English involved the basis for selecting materials, Literary values were to prevail over all otherconsiderations, leading to the use of selections far moresophisticated than the usual high school fare. This in turn created new pressuresfor censorship of school materials. Censorship in programs in literature usually focussed nn oneof two issues: political ideology or sex.The first became a problem during the late 1940s, when the first major gaps wereopening up between the values of society and those of the progressiveeducators. The threat of communism,exaggerated by the tactics of Senator Joseph McCarthy and the House Committee onUn-Amer- ican Activities, became the excuse for a widespread waveof restriction of instructional materials. Mark VanDoren, a Roman Catho lie, found his books banned as communisticfrom the library of Jersey City Junior College; some NCTEmembers lost jobs in California for refusing to sign a loyalty oath; SeniorScholastic was banned from Birmingham, Alabama, The Nationfrom the schools of New York City: and the American MedicalAssociation attacked the schools for having "conducted an active,aggressive campaign to indoctrinate their students .. withthe insidious and destruc- tive tenets of the welfare state:. Such pressureprompted reactions from many professional teaching organizations;NCTE went nn record as early as its 1948 convention with aresolution urging that the principles found in the Constitutionof the United States should be completely practiced in everyclassroom in America." It set up its first committee on censorship atthe same meeting.'" AN ACAUEMIC Moma. FOR ENGLISH 205

As the wording of the 1948 resolution suggested,initial reactions to censorship relied simply on the extra-professionalconsiderations of the constitutionally 'protected freedomto dissent. This was because until the late fifties and early sixties,English teachers used very little that could be found objectionable. When they did,they were rebuffed by their seniors in the teaching profession beforethe public had much chance to object. As lateas 1936 a student of Charles Swain Thomas at Harvard offeredan article on literature and sex in which he urged the teaching ofsuch "advanced" novels as The Scarlet Letter and Women in Lore, only to meeta stiff wave of rebuttal from professional leadersacross the nation." And even. the 1956 report of the NCTE Commissionon the English Curricu- lum carried a cautious note about. book selection,urging teachers to avoid works that might disturb youthful minds."Elbert Lenrow's arguments in The Reader's Guide to Prose Fictionsome fifteen years before had obviously made little impression. Attitudes did change, however, stimulated inpart by the land- mark 1933 Supreme Court decision in theUlysses case, the rising sales of "pocket" books with their oftenexplicit stories, and the stream of frank's war novels that emerged from WorldWar il. As the New Critics became the acknowledgedliterary authorities, and as the writers of the early twentieth century gainedtoo much age and respectability to be ignored, professionalleaders began to urge the inclusion of more and more works thatcould be expected to provoke unhappy reactions fromsome dements of the community. Teachers as insecure in their own professionalpreparation as those surveyed by the Committeeon National Interest were hardly prepared to resist the direct personal attackwhich often followed; the first reaction of many teachers and librarianswas simply to remove a challenged book as quickly as possible. Yet capitulation to thecensors could only gm so far, and some dedicated teachers resisted thepressures from the beginning though they sometimes lost the battleanyway. A 1963 survey of the schools of Wisconsin found that the list of censoredbookswith a few exceptions"would make a relatively good [reading list]to recommend to high school juniors and seniors." Specifictitles brought under attack during a two-and-a-half:yearperiod included the Bible, The Canterbury Mks, The Catcherin the Rye. A Dictionary of American Slang, Fail-Safe, and ATree Grows in Bron/dynseventy-eight titles in all from 606 returnedquestion- naires. During the same period, seventeen magazineuwere the subject of censorship attacks, and in eightcasesincluding Life and The Atlantic Monthlythe magazineswere removed from circulation,'" Such pressures led the professional organizationsmost directly involved lin particular the NCTE and the AmericanLibrary Asso- ciation' to take steps to protect and educate theirmembers, In 206 'I'RA DITION AND REFORM

addition to a continuing series of resolutions on freedom-to-teach and freedomLo-read; NCTE committees prepared a number of more extensive discussions, including procedures for English departments to follow to guard against such attacks, case studies of specific incidents, and lengthy discussions of the values of some of the particularly vulnerable works." Defenses against censorship during the sixties still cited the issues of liberty and freedom of thought that had marked the first reaction, but two new arguments were added out of the changing professional orientation. One focussed on literary values and principles of criticism, the other on the professional nature of Lhe judgment of whether a hook should or should not be used with a given child at a given time. The literary arguments were based on the importance of context in evaluating any given phrase or incident; according to the New Critics, a literary work was an entity unto itself, one that could not be legitimately fragmented nor its pieces individually examined. Thus Holden might visit a prostitute inThe Catcher in the Rye, but the incident was moral rather than immoral because of the part iL played in the total meaning of the work. A second part of the literary argument focussed upon the place of each work within Lhe literary tradition. Thus Lhe NCTE Committee on the Right to Read could protest indignantly that

Becimse of outside pressures many English teachers cannot carry out their central responsibility: teaching the cultural heritage of Western civilization. Hawthorne. Thoreau, Whitman, Twain, Hemingway. Faulkner. to take just .a few American examples, either are omitted completely or are inadequately represented in the high school curial. lum ("The Students' Right to Read," p. 10).

The decisions on whether or not a book was a legitimate part of the cultural heritage and whether objectionable elements were indeed redeemed by context were ultimately professional decisions. Confidence in the Leaching profession would have to be quite high to accept Wayne Boeth's argument, for example, that "The skill required to decide whether a work is suited for a. particular teaching moment is so great that only the gifted Leacher, with his knowledge of how his teaching aims relate to materials chosen for students at a given stage of development, can be trusted to exercise it."" Creating just such trust in Lhe professional competence of the Leacher of English was a major goal of the period of academic reform, but the pressures of the late 1960s and early 1970s insured that censorship remained a continuing professional concern. In- creasing student unrest, with a concomitant assertion of student rights. liberal treatment of controversial political and sexual topics in hooks and popular media, and the continuing agitation for the rights of minority groups made it inevitable that the selections by teachers who wished to remain topical and current would risk AN ACADEMIC MODEL FOR ENGLISH 207

offending one or another segment of the community.Claude Brown'sManehild in the Promised Land aswell as Joan Baez's Daybreak havebeen among recent targets. Some of themost effective censorship in fact comes from withinthe school. The Wisconsin survey found thata high proportion of the incidents wereinitiated by fellow teachers, librarians,or supervisors. And even a1969English Journalarticle written in mild "jive" provoked a number of angry letters. Whether because they wishto protect the school from any possibility of publicpressure, or because they personally object to certain politicalor moral viewpoints, people inside the school as well as from thecommunity at large seem destined to continue their efforts at censorship.'''

Other Materials

The academic approach of the early shalesalso led to a redefinition of what could legitimately be consideredto be literature in the first place. Lynch and Evanswere not alone in their outrage at the travesties (as they saw them) committed in thename of "life ailjustment," Both the adolescent novel andthe anthology had come under attack by the end of the1950s.The common objection was that these books, in attempting to serve nonliterary goals,had abandoned literature altogether; they lacked the"flesh and blood" of the classic. as Stanley Keglerput it in discussing the related genre of "simplified" works. In place of anthologies,most authors urged a curriculum based around the increasinglypopular paperback books. The revival of interest in paperbacks datedto the "quarter books" of the early forties, but during thefifties and sixties their popularity among teachers rose sharply. One reasonwas the found-. ing of a series of book clubs like the WeeklyReader Children's Book Club (which began in1953)and the Teen Age Book Club, which by the 1956.57academic year could boast sales of six millionvolumes. The availability of standard literary selectionsin paperback editions made them a natural resource for the academicallyoriented teacher. with a corresponding shift in emphasisfrom their value in outside reading to their use in theprogram for direct class study." Finally. the emphasis on literatureas a matter of form and technique led. to a redefinition of the role of the"public arts" (as they came to be called). Throughout the periodof "life adjustment," studies of radio, movies, television, andjournalism had followed more or less the lines of therest of the curriculum in literature and reacting. Units were offered thatwere to help "develop maturity," meeting the needs of youth exactlyas would the units of more standard selections. Otherteachers, responding to the skill emphases, would attempt to "raise standardsof taste," to make students -better" or "moreintelligent"consumers of the 208 TRADITION AND REFORM

products of the popular mocha. Soup operas and pinup girls -simply had to be suppressed. Gradually, however, as the emphasis in the teaching of standard literature shifted, so did that with the public arts. The film in particular began to be presented as a legitimate discipline, with its own rules and conventions quite distinct from other art forms. As one author protested. to apply strictly literary modes of analysis to motion pictures was like talking about the "musical qualities of a statue.-- Though Max Herzberg and a few others had presented such arguments many years before, it was only as the academic emphases began to he apparent in other areas of the English curriculum that the study of film, radio, television, or journalism began to emerge as important in its own right. One of the strongest proponents of the academic view of popular culture was Patrick Hazard. RadioTV editor of Scholastic Teacher and a teacher himself, he initiated a column, "The Public Arts," in Engli.sh Journal in1956. This presented trenchant critiques of current programing, bibliographies of materials for teachers, and, always, an emphasis on the artistic successes and shortcomings of the several media. His columns kept the media firmly in perspective: at the same time, he urged their fuller consideration by teachers of English. By the mid1960s NCTE could point to a series of publications dealing with most aspects of popular culture, each treating its suhjeet as a legitimate field of Study rather than simply as one of the utilitarian chores that English teachers had ever been willing to shoulder."

The Humanities Course Most of the changes discussed so far were the result of the work of academic scholars. with assistance From teachers..,only to the extent that the teachers were convinced of the value of the academic point of view. A second and quite different "academic" tradition was more directly related to the teacher's as opposed to the scholar's view. This was the so-called "humanities course." In general, these courses emerged out of a much earlier concern with world literature us part of the "total heritage" of the American student; in the earliest forms it reflected the desire to build the friendship with which the early NCTE committee on international relations had been concerned. In 1926 the Lincoln School at Teach- ers College, Columbia University, iptrodaced a world literature course that can be seen as a forerunner of present programs: in 1931 the English committee of the North Central Association 'recommended the teaching of,some literature from other countries. Inte- rest remained low, however, till the concern with human relations during the forties and fifties led to the introduction of such courses in a number of seltools. Often, the evolution of the course of study AN ACADEMIC' MODEL. FOR ENGLISH 209

was strongly influenced by Morthner Adler and the "liberal education" critics, fat whose lists of Great Books translations of classical texts figured prominently. Throughout. the fifties an earl) form of humanities class as world literature held its own in the schools; Jewett reported it in 20 percent of the programs he surveyed." Two forces assisted in transforming these courses into their present form, and in popularizing the label "humanities" in place of the earlier course titles:One was the John flay Fellows program, after I95$ under the directorship of Charles Keller, chairman of the history Department at 'Williams College. (Keller had also directed the Advanced Placement program during its first two years under College Board auspices.) The John Hay program,. which provided _ yearlong fellowships for a carefully selected group of high school teachers to continue their studies, produced a high proportion of the teachers who popularized the humanities approach, experimenting with it in their clasSes and discussing the results in journals and at professional meetings. The second force was the Council for a Television Course in the Humanities for Secondary Schools,. formed in 1957 by a group of teachers from the Boston area. With Floyd Rinker as executive director, and with funds from the Ford Fund for the Advancement of Education, the group enlisted the aid of an impressive series of scholars and performers to prepare a series of television programs on the humanities. The programs that resulted were widely distributed by Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, becoming in this form rather than their televised versions the core of many new programs. There was little uniformity in the outward shape of the humanities programs of the sixties. Like the correlated and fused courses that preceded them, some were organized chronologically, some around "cultural epochs." others around themes, "Great Works," orin a newer developmentaround elements of artistic form (with aoemphasis; on a'variety of media). In spite of this variety, most of the programs had roots in the ethical tradition of English study with a ''social conscience" rather than "scholastic competence" was one way Keller phrased it. Almost inevitably the programs were interdisciplinary, often involving a "team" of teachers from several subject areas, in particular from English and the social studies."' Both of those aspects have deep roots in earlier progressive programs, a parallel that has been noted by some critics. The chief difference from the earlier programsand itis an important one was the level at which the humanities courses were pitched, Though virtually all of its proponents talked of the importance of such studies for all students, the practitioners (with a few vocal exceptions) directed them at the college-bound classesa trend readily explicable by a look at the proposed content. Though the length and organization of the list varies greatly, the titles included would usually be quite secure on any listof "Great 210 TitaorrmsAND REFORM

Books-; sometimes it was from exactly such lists that they were originally chosen. Emphasis, as in all other parts of the ,academic reform, was on subject matter first, with virtually no attention to the characteristics of the student. (Such characteristics Were of course being given a kind of backhanded acknowledgement by limiting the course to advanced students, usually college-bound seniors.) On the other hand, the academic emphasis insured that the courses remained very much within the humanistic tradition; they were as a whole less subject to the practices ofusingthe art forms studied as vehicles for historical or sociological studies. (Whether the history teachers found their conception of historical studies being subverted is another and quite different mattert" Almost all humanities courses have relied on paperback books as the core of materials for study: there were no humanities anthologies. Very often (again on the college model) students were asked to purchase their own paperbacks, filling them with notes and mar- ginal comments as they wished. A high proportion of the schools involved also used the humanities sequence as a means to introduce film studies into the curriculum, a trend more evident in those courses that focussed around themes or elements of art than those that chose some version of the chronological or cultural-epoch approach. The dangers in the humanities course were exactly those of the integrated curricula of the thirties and forties: superficial coverage, "intellectual indigestion," neglect of important skills, and a broad-. ening of the course beyond the competence of the teacher. Criticism on all these grounds was Leveled against one or another of the humanities courses of the sixties, together with new charges that they used works too difficult for the high school student to discuss meaningfully that many, indeed, provided little time forany discussion. Both charges were at least indirectly the result of the extent to which the humanities course took college programs as a model. offering the same works for study and using the same lecture mode of presentation. The latter trend was fostered by the enthusiasm for large group instruction and team teaching as a way to meet the multidisciplinary demands of most humanities courses; the simplest way to insure adequate treatment of history, for example. was to ask a history teacher to lecture all the students about the particular topic under study. (And similarly for art, music, religion, philosophy, or whatever.) Though such lectures were an interesting reinforcement of the image of teacher-as- scholar. some critics have questioned whether they serve any other useful function."

The National Study of High School English Programs The ferment of the early 1960s also led to the National Study of High School English Programs, directed by James It. Squire and AN ACADEMIC MODEL FOR ENGUSill 211

Roger K. App lebee. This study was designed to bean ekamination- in-depth of 158 schools selected because of their outstandingpro- grams in English; the usual questionnaire data was followed up with extensive classroom observation, interviews with staff,and talks with students. Teams of observers from theUniversity of Illinois were trained for the visits, which usually lasted.two days and included observations of as manyas twenty classes 4t a single school. School visits for the study properwere spread over two and is half years: the academic years 1963-64, 1964-65.and the first half of 1965-66. Initially designed as ameans to "ascertain the ways in which stronger schools are already achieving importantresults in English." the study in the end becamean extensive record of the initial stages of the academic approach to the teaching of English.'" To summarize the complex and detailed findings of theproject as briefly as possible. teachers in the outstanding schools Were professionally oriented. Some 72 percent hada major in Englishthe figure rises to 82 percent if related fields suchas speech and drama are included): another 19 percent had minored in the field. Fully half had master's degrees. Compared with those in theslightly earlier National Interest surveys, the staff in the project schools were more likely to belong to professional organizations,more likely . to subscribe to English Journal, and more likely to he provided opportunities and incentives for continuing education. Fully20 percent of the teachers received locally sponsored aid to continue their studies. The organization and supervision of the English department as a whole also had a strong influenceon resulting programs, so much so that the project staff call6d two special conferences on the role of the department chairman and published the ensuing recommendations in a separate report."1 The classroom visitation yielded a numher of results which startled the project staff. One was the finding thata. average of 52 percent of actual class time was devoted to the study of literature rather disturbing in the age of the tripod but quite ili linewith the previous history of the subject. In general, literature received slightly less attention inthe early years of high school, and considerably less in courses for terminalas opposed to academic students. but even with these students over 40 percent of the time observed was devoted to literature. In the traditionallymore academic private schools the figure reached 83 percent. The lackof attention to other aspects of English was especially disturbingto project observers, because they found little real effortto relate the various aspects of English studies one to another. As Dora V. Smith had found in her far less extensivevisitations during the thirties and early forties, classeswere overwhelmingly teacher-dominated. Though teachers professed to emphasizedis- cussion, observations of more than 1,600 classes showed thatrecita- tion and lecture dominated; discussion and Socratic questioning 212 TRADITION AND Rh:FORM

together accounted for only 2:3 percent of class time observed. Observers also found virtually no evidence of group work or the use of audiovisual aids. A slight increase in discussion was evident between the tenth and twelfth grades, paralleling an increase in attention to literature and a shift away from formal studies of grammar and usage;classesforterminal students, however, showed higher percentages of recitation, lecture, and silent work, with corresponding decreases in discussion or other student activities. Such findings, though the staff of the National Study found them distressing, were fully in accord with the academic model for English instruction, with its glorification of the college class-room and lack of interest in most aspects of progressive methodology. The course in literature directly reflected the academic emphases of the years immediately preceding the study. Though use of the single anthology was still the most frequently observed practice. anthologies were liberally augmented by supplementary texts, especially paperbacks. Over 50 percent of the teachers rated close textual study as of "great importance" in the teaching of literature, though observers were distressed to find that many teachers were having difficulty translating these beliefs into successful practice. The specific selections chosen for study were in general more distinctly literary than during the "life adjustment" period, but the effects of censorshipreal or only threatenedwere veryevident; as one result, observers found evidenceof a deliberate de-emphasis of major twentieth century works. Using a checklist of fifty titles that had been reported as significant high school reading experiences by gifted college students, augmented by a few others whose appropriateness had been questioned, observers used card catalogs to check whether or not they were available in 84 ofthe school libraries. OnlytwoThe Scarlet Letterand .4Tale of Two Cities were available in all of the schools.Exoduswas available in only 83 percent;The Crapes of WrathandThe Ugly Americanin 75 percent;The Once and Future Kingin 65 percent; andThe Sound and the Fury. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man,Franny and Zooey, andThe Strangerin less than half. Though it had been expected, the preponderance of modern fiction among the books of limited availability was nonetheless disturbing. In one of the more memorable collections an observer found six biographies of William Faulkner but not one of his work& In large part because of such limitations, nearly three-fourths of the students found the school library inadequate for their reading needs, turning instead to the public library or paperbacks. The National Study, designed to discover the strengths of ongoing programs, also highlightedtheir weaknesses; foremost among these were the provisions for terminalstudents. Whatever criterion was chosen, the lower tracks were being shortchanged in these academically oriented schools. The teachers assigned to the AN ACADEMIC MODEL POE ENGLISH 213

slow sections were often among the leastadequate in the department; the materials were of lower quality; the teachingtechniques less varied: the amount of time spenton worksheets and seat-work greater. The extent of the neglect of the lower tracks,though again a natural result of the emphases of the precedingyears, became clear during the course of the study ina way that had not yet really surfaced in the professional literature. Though86 percent of the schools used one or another fnrm of trackingwhich affected the composition of classes in English,very few had even begun to face the problem of what to do with their lower tracks."' In general, then, the National Study of HighSchool English Programs suggested little in theway of radical change in professional orientation, though it did make clearthe need to direct attention to instruction in the lower tracks. Theimage of the better programs that emerged from the study was the image which the NCTE and other groups had been offeringsince the Basic Issues conferences in 1958: well-prepared teachers confidentin their subject Matter; a solid departmental organizationgiving scope and direction to the program as a whole;generous supplies nf books and materials: reasonable teaching loads. Indeed, afterexpanding the study to a number of schools which had beenattracting national attention for their experimentalprograms, the study staff felt it necessary to include a ''Cautionary Note" that warned that muchof what they had seen was mere administrative innovatinn,Though occasional programs seemed to offer thegerm of an idea that would lead to useful change, the challengeto the academic ideal of the English program was not destinedto develop from within these ongoing efforts,

High Points and Lnw Points

As has been hinted several times in thecourse nf this chapter, the major accomplishment of the period during whichthe English course was remolded on the academic model was thesense of profession generated among teachers at all levels. Thebattle for federal funds, the attempt to prnvidean academic curriculum through the work of the various curriculum studycenters, the summers of study in the CEEB and NDEA institutes, the renewed cooperation between NCTE and MLAall contributedto the sense that teachers nf English at all levels sharedcommon problems, Concurrent with the new sense of prnfessionwas a new stress by NCTE on upgrading professional standards." Some ofthese activities have already been mentinned in the discussion of thestruggle for federal funds. Others includedstatements on the workload nf the college teacher (1966) and nf the elementary teacher(1967); an 21-1 TitAurtIoN ANDREFORM

Honor Roll for schools reducing the workload of the secondary schoolteacherwas establishedin1962.Preservice training was also of concern. Agitation for improvements in state certification requirements began during the 1950s under the prompting of Eugene Slaughter, Robert Tuttle, and others, and was carried forward in the much-delayed fifth volume of the Commission on the English Curriculum series,The Education of Teachers of English for Amer ican Schools and Colleges(1963). This in turn was a major reference point for an English Teacher Preparation Study begun in 1965 under the joint sponsorship of NCTE, MLA, and the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certifica- tion. Before they were published in 1967, the resulting guidelines went through some twenty drafts and extensive discussions at local, regional and national levels."' All of these activities contributed to the teacher's sense of self-esteem, and with it his confidence in his own competence to effect change. Here the developments in English paralleled a growing militancy within the teaching profession as a whole,highlighted most sharply by the numerous and unprecedentedteachers' strikes which closed schools in many of the nation's cities. Such improvement in the caliber of the profession wasdesperately needed; certainly the lack of it contributed to the failure of the progressive framework for English during the 1940s. It seems likely that the teacher of English in the years to come will remain awell-trained professional. since recent changes have been institutionalizedthrough the system of state certification requirements. The durability and importance of the academic model for English instruction is more in doubt. In their disgust with the excesses of lilt) adjustment'. and the isolation of the "educationists" from the rest of the academic community, the academic reformersignored some important lessons that the progressivescould have taught them. The programs that emerged were developed with little reference to the characteristics of the student or to theimportantissues of interest and relevance, about all of which the progressives had learned so much. As will be clear in the next chapter, the attempt to provide programs that would be viable for nonacademicstudents eventually posed basic questions about the curriculum for the academically talented too. The other major lesson which the progressives could have taught the academic reformers was the need for careful and scientific evaluation of results. Subjective impressions of teachers involved in curriculum reform are almost inevitably highly positive; the excitement and stimulation inherent in the process of changeitself insured that the programs of the curriculum study centers would be successful at at least this basic level. Unfortunately land again with a few exceptions) any evaluation beyond this simplest level was ignored by most of the centers; thekind of careful documents- AN ACADEMIC MODEL FOR ENGLISH 215

Lion of long-term results that had marked the Eight-Year Studywas simply beyond the ken of most of the staff involved in theseefforts. The result was a mountain of essentially untested materials whichno one really knew what to do with Very few of the centers admitted to any failures, but very few carried on the kind of studies that would have told them if they had failed." With federalsupport turning in other directions, and with leaders of. the professiononce again beginning to recognize the importance of the student inthe educational process. it is highly unlikely that there will heany major effort to evaluate these curricula now. Itis because of these failures that the attemptto upgrade professional standards loomsso large. The period of academic reform produced no curriculum materials comparableto the PSSC physics course or the UICSM math curriculum;the shape of English continues to be very mucha private thing, governed by the extent to which the individual teacher responds to changingempha- ses in the professional journals and among his colleagues. To the extent that his professional competence and self-assurancehave been strengthened, the curriculum will continueto develop at a fairly rapid rate; to the extent that theteacher remains unsure of his own professional skills, he will probably continuato cling to those methods and materials with which he ismost familiar, leaving professional leaders to protestas in the past at the slow and difficult pace of change. 216 TuAorrioN ANDlifirDRM

CHAPTER VII NOTES

1. Mortimer Adler, How to Read a Book: The Art of Getting a Lib- eral Education (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1940). p. 82. 2. Arthur E. Bestor, Educational Wastelands (Urbana, Ilk: Univer- sity of Illinois Press, 1953), p. 11. 3. Committee on National Interest, The National Interest and the Teaching of English: .4 Report on the Status of the Profession (Urbana, 111.: NCTE, 1961), p. 26. 4. Northrup Frye, "Elementary Teaching and Elemental Scholar- ship," PAULA 79 (May 1964): 11-18. 5. Nebraska Curriculum Development Center. Introduction to the Elementary Program: ti-6 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1965). 6. Though a Great Books course was conducted by the University of Chicago extension, it was St. ,Johns College which came closest to em bodying Hutchins's ideas in a fulscale course. The concept of Great Books is even older than this, however. See Father W. Farrar, Great Books (('mwell, 1898). On the courses at St. Johns and Chicago, see Daniel Bell, The Reforming of General Education (New York: Columbia University Press. 1966). pp. 13-26. 7. Adler, How to Read a Book, pp. vi-ix. 8. Mark Van Doren, Liberal Education (New York: Henry Holt and Co.. 1943), p. 92. 9. The earlier committee specifically criticized An Experience Curricu- lum, A Correlated Curriculum, and Conducting Experiences in English. Joint Committee of the Faculty of Harvard College and of the Graduate School of Education, The Training of Secondary School Teachers Espe- cially with Reference to English (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1942): General Education in a Free Society.Report of the Harvard Committee (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945). 10. The committee on the training of teachers acknowledged its in- debtedness to an earlier report from the School and College Conference on English. much of which it simply paraphrased (p. 90). School and College Conference on English, Report of the Literature Committee, April 1942; reprinted in Issues, Problems, and Approaches in the Teaching of English, ed. Geort,Te Winchester Stone. Jr. (New York: 'loll_ Rinehart and Winston. 1964; Modern Language Association, 1961). II. These critics provoked little reaction from secondary school teachers. Hatfield reviewed Van Doren's book when it appeared, without, seeing any need to counter the arguments: W. Wilbur Hatfield,The Debate on Liberal Education." English Journal 33:3 (March 1944). 167-68. A brief discussion and longer bibliography on the early criticism of progressivism is given by Lawrence A. Cremin in The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education, 1876-1957 (New York; Vintage Books. 1961). p. 325. 12. The Lynch and Evans study of English textbooks discussed in the previous chapter was among the critiques produced by this group. See Cremin, Transformation of the School, pp. 339-46. C. Winifred Scott and Clyde M. Hill have gathered a representative collection of the criticism and response through 1952 in Public Education Under Criticism (New York: PrenticeHall. 1954). i%ti ACADEMIC NIODEI. FOR ENGLISH 217

13. Arthur E. Hestor's critique. Educational Wastelands was one of the most comprehensive indictments of the "educationists." See the quote at the beginning of this chapter. I-1 Sputnik was only a symbol, however: by 1957 the reform movement was already well underway. (See "English as a Discipline," later in this chapter.) 15.II. G. Rickover. Education and Freedom (New York: E. P. Dutton & ('o., 1959). p. 15. 10. Though the profession welcomed his support for English, there was less enthusiasm for his recommendation that composition should occupy "half the time devoted to English. with an average of one theme a week." This was counter to the emphasis on the "tripod's of language, literature, and composition. James 13. Conant, rh, Amerieun High School Today: A First Report to Interested Citizens (New York: Signet Books. 1964: first edition. McGraw Hill Book Co., 1959), p. 99, 17. Hy May 1958 there were 355 participating schools: English was the most popular subject. Similar programs developed on a state level in some areas. notably in Connecticut. The Connecticut program, proposed by the Association of Connecticut Secondary School Principals and accepted by the University Senate in 1955. involved a college-prescribed syllabus and university approval of the teachers. Daniel Bell. Reforming of General Education (New York: Columbia University Press, 19661, pp. 125,28: John It. Valley. "College Actions on CEEI3 Advanced Placement Examination Candidates." English Journal 48:7 (October 19591: 398.401: Helen J. Estes, "College Level English in High School," English Journal 48:6 I September 1959): 332414. 18. This broader effect on the curriculum has often been recognized. See, for example, Edwin II. Sauer. "Programs for the Academically Talented in English: What Are the Gains'!" English 'Animal 49 :1 (January 1960): 10-15. From the late fifties till the mid-sixties, a high proportion of the new programs described in English Journal were directly or indirectly noted to have begunin advanced placement or college-preparatory classes. 19, Arno Jewett, "l'he Underprivileged in Language Arts." English Journal 42:3 (March 1953) 131-37. Jewett was, like Dwight Horton, a. student of Dora V. Smith, but he developed her ideas in quite a different direction. For a much earlier honors program introduced in Scarsdale. New York, "to give a small group of intellectual higher -ups the opportunities they had hitherto been denied in our sometimes too democratic schools,", see Locyle I look, "English Honors," English Jon rnal 29:1 (January 1910):\ 10.13. 20. Arno Jewett, chairman. English for the Academically Talented Student, Report of the Committee on English Programs for High School Students of Superior Ability of the NC'l'E (Washington. I). C,: National Education Association, 1960). See also "The Talented Pupil: A Special Report." English Journal 47:0 (September 19581: 368-71 t. 21. Hy the 1964.65 academic year. 1,350,000 students were using the SMSG math program alone. Bell, Reforming of General Education. Ill ff. pp. 22. Edward Gordon and Edward S. Noyes. Essays on the Teaching of English: Reports of the Yale Conferences on the Teaching of English (New York: Appletomeentury.Crofts. 19601. 218 'I'RA intios AND REFORM

23. The Basic Issues conferences have been widely heralded as the first recognition by professional leaders of the need to reformulate the curriculum. Shugrue dates his "decade of change" from the conferences. Of the twenty.eight teachers, only three were from high schools. The reports were published in the journals of the cooperating organizations, widely distributed in leaflet form, and reprinted in George Winchester Stone, Jr.'s issues, Problems and Approaches in the Mocking of English. Michael F. Shugrue. English in a Decade of Change (New York: Pegasus, 19681. 24. This is virtually a paraphrase of the discussion of the fourth "basic issue." "What approaches to a literary work are possible and profitable at the various educational levels'?" 25. "The 1308i12 Issues in the Teaching of English." in Stone, Issues, Problems and ,Approaches. 26. Stone. Issues. Problems, and Approaches. pp. 235-38. 27. Jerome S. Bruner, The Process of Education (New York: Vintage Rooks. 1960: first edition. Harvard University Press, 1960). Teachers of English quickly realized the implications of Bruner's arguments. Ruth G. Strickland, writing as NCTE past president, asserted that the report "is as applicable to our teaching of English as it is to the teaching of science and mathematics." ("Couneiletter," English Journal 50:4 (April 19611: 287.88.1 28. The discussion of "Literature" began with u section titled "A Curriculum Arrived at by Consensus" 1pp. 42 ff.). Only three of the sixteen members were high school teachers. Commission on English, Freedom and Discipline in English (New York: College Entrance Examina- tion Board, 19651. 29. Commissioner of Education Francis Keppel credited the work of the commission with improving certification requirements in over half of the states as early as 1963, two years before the final report was published. Francis Keppel,Who Is to Speak for English?" PMLA 79 (May 1964): 7.10, 30. The use of the three legs of the tripod to structure the institute course of study is one of the more direct bits of evidence of how thoroughly the commission accepted the tripod metaphor for English studies. See Commission on English, Freedom and Discipline, p.14: and John C. Gerber, "The 1962 Summer Institutes of the Commission on English: Their Achievement and Promise," PMLA 78 (September 19631: 9-25. Gerber was chairman of the committee of twelve evaluators commissioned by the USOE. 31. Shugrue, in English in a Decade of Change. p. 174, commented, "The enthusiasm of the lecturers and the quality of -their commentary on literature, language. and rhetoric almost redeem the painful inadequacies of the camera work and editing," The kinescopes were low-budget productions. and showed it. See also Freedom and Discipline,p.162: and Commission on English, End-of-Year. Examinations in English for College- Hound Students Grades 9-12 (Princeton: College Entrance Examination Board, 19631. 32. Hook succeeded Hatfield on October 1. 1953, giving the Council the kind of full-time leadership that Walter Burnes had urged as early us 1933. In a sense Ilook's appointment marked the beginning of the Council's attempt to regain control of curriculum development in English. See "Report and Summary," English Journal 42:9 (December 19531: 514-16: AN ACADEMIC MODEL. FOR Ennusii 219

and J. N. Hook. ''The National Council Looks Ahead," English Journal 44:1 (January 1955): 1.9. 33. NCTE passed a resolution on tlw workload of the secondary school teacher in 1957, the first since the reorganization period. A study by William J. ousel, sponsored by the California Council of Teachers of English, was widely quoted and distributed. It paralleled the Hopkins report. also distributed by NCTE but not originating in it. WilliamJ. Dust& "Determining an Efficient Teaching Load in English," Illinois English Bulletin 43 (October 1955): 1-19; and E. M. Hopkins, Report on the flist and Labor of English Teaching (For MLA and NCTE. Lawrence: Journalism Press. University of Kansas. 1913). ;14. Squire succeeded Hook on September 1, 1960, after spending a year as associate executive secretary. Squire providedNCTE with a dynamic and personal leadership through a period of change as significant and rapid as the first years under Hosic. 35. Committee on National Interest, National Interest and the Teach- ing of English. pp. 3, 18-21. . 36. Given the general tenor of the report, one must suspect that the decimal point was used to make the number look larger, rather than for the scientific precision of the estimate. 37. The hook was reprinted in full the volume of congressional testimony on the extension of the NDEA. The Senate. in fact, included English in-the revised bill, but this was deleted in the House. The funds made available came under the Cooperative Research Act of 1954. James It. Squire. "Counciletter." English Journal 50:6 (September 1961); 434-37; Harold B. Allen, -Counciletter," English Journal 50:8 (November 1961): 572.75; and J. N. Hook, "Project English: The First Year," PAHA 78 (September 19631; 33-35. 38. The activities suggested parallel the earlier MLA Foreign Lan- guage Program. Committee on National Interest,The National Interest and the Nntintting Ethos:Min of Teachers of English: A Report on the State of tlw Profession, 1964 (Urbana. NCTE, 1964). See especially pp. 16.27. 49.50, 66-69. 39. Squire commented on this aspect of the activity of these years in his final report as executive secretary, paying tribute as he did so to the efforts of John H. Fisher, his counterpart at MLA. James It. Squire, Eight Year Report of the Executive Secretary 1960-67 (Champaign, NCTE, 1967). 40. Project English was shaped by the leaders of MLA, NCTE, and related organizations through extensive informal contacts with USOE personnel after the enabling legislation had been passed. These contacts were formalized through the Februaryconference. Of the conferences, one of the most important was held at Allerton House at the University of Illinois in December 1962. It resulted in the founding of the Association of Departments of English. to which more than half of the English departments in the U.S. belong. The department. chairmen present at Allerton declared their "willingne %s to share in the responsibility- for the teaching of English." and many changes in programs at their respective colleges followed. On allthese developments, see Shugrue. English in a Decade of Change, pp. 39 ff.; Hook, "Project English: The First Year"; James R. Squire. "English at the Crossroads: Pr The National Interest Report Plus Eighteen,'' English Journal 51;6 (Sep- 220 ThAorrios ANDREFORM

(ember 19621: 381.92; Ralph Flynt, TheU.S. Office of Education Looks at Project. English," PMLA 78:6 (September 1963):30-32: Robert W. Rogers. "Articulating High School and CollegeTeaching of English," English Journal54.5 (May 1965): 370.74 4-. 41. The congressional appropriation impliedprimary concern with read. Mg. composition, and other English skills, butthe announcement of the program inade clear that the USOE would "respect theunity of the discipline in selecting proposals' to support.""Project English: An An. nouncement from the Office of Education,"English Journal51:2 (Febru- ary 1962): 149-52. See Shugrue.English in a Decade of Change,pp. 41 ff., for a summary. of important projects in otheraspects of English instruction. 42. Two of the most important exceptionswere the centers at Hunter College and at the University of Michigan.Both belong to the secondwave of reform rather than to the initialacademic emphasis and will be discussed in the next chapter. 43. On the work of the centers,see in particular Shugrue,English in a Decade of Change,pp. 50 IL; and G. Robert Carlsen and James Crow, "Project English Curriculum Centers."English Journal56:7 (October 19671: 986-03. Status reports prepared by thedirectors of each center were widely distributed; Erwin ItSteinberg. "Research on the 'Teachingof English...PMLA79 (September 1964): 5046; Michael F.Shugrue, "New Materials for the Teaching of Englishfrom the English Program of the USOE,"HULA81. (September 19661:1.36; and Robert Bennett, ed SummaryProgress Report of English Curriculum Studyand Demonstra- tion Centers(Champaign. III.; NCTE, 1966). 44. Northrup Frye.Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays NewYork: Atheneum. 1967: first edition. PrincetonUniversity Press, 1957); and Frye. "Elementary Teaching and ElementalScholarship." 45. As they finished their work,some of the other centers arrived at the same conclusion. As Stoddard Malarkeyof the Oregon center described it in a 1966 address, "Agreementas to what constitutes the 'great and simple structuring ideas' of literatureseems impossible of achievement." "Sequence and Literature: SomeConsiderations."English Journal 56:3 (March 196Th 394-400+. See Carlsen andCrow. "Project English Curriculum Centers." 46, John DeBoer introduced the topic;Lou LaBrant proposed the motion. -See "Report and Summary."English Journal38:6 (June 1949): 355; "The Chicago Convention," English'Marna/ 38:2 (February 19491: 105.08; "Report and Summary,"English Journal40;4 (April 1951): 232- 37; "Report and Summary."English Journal40:5 (May 1951h 285-86; and "Report and Summary."English Journal41:1 (January 19521: 42. 47. Hosic commented that "his conceptionof what constitutes wholesome reading for adolescents differs markedlyfrom my own"; Allan Abbott suggested teachers should"move rather slowly": A. P. Boas commented that Prescottwas talking of "works of post-war disillusion and psychopathic maladjustment which already . . are going out of fashion." Waller Barnes, however, urged "Threeloud huzzas.'"The point is that though there has always been censorshipof school materials, until recently teachers supported it. Joseph 'Prescott,"Sex in Literature,"English Leaflet35 (May 1936): 65.82. 48. The commission worried that"young people . will not see as unsatisfactory (both individually and socially)the pathological or sordid AN ACADEMIC MODE:. PM ENGLISH 221

behavior with which such books deal." Among the specific titles mentioned wereThe Grapes of Wrath. Mr. Roberts,andFrom Here to Eternity.Commission on the English Curriculum,The English Language Arts in the Secondary School(New York; Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1956). pp 184-85. 49. Lee A. Burress. Jr..How Censorship Affects the School,Special Bulletin no. 8 (Wisconsin Council of Teachers of English, 1963). 50. See, for example,Censorship and Controversy: Report of the ('um wit tee on Censorship of Teaching Materials for Classroom and Li- brary(Chicago; NrEE, 1953); Committee on the Right to Read,The Students' Right to Read(Urbana. Will:. 1962): John P. Frank and Robert F. Hogan,Obscenity, the Law, and the English Teacher(Urbana, 1112 Wit 1966); and John Hove, chairman,Meeting Censorship in the School (Urbana,III.: NCTE, 1967). 51. "Censorship and the Values of Fiction,"English Journal53;3 (March 1964): 155.64. The NCTE Commission on Literature has recently echoed this: "No work is in itself proper or improper for the schools, Its suitability mast be judged in terms of its development of the student's intelligence and critical sensitivity, and the effect on the student of the Wok as a whole." "This World of English."English Journal 57:4(April 1968); 583-86. 52. See "Riposte."English Journal58:6 (September 1969): 938.40; Judith F. Krug. -Growing Pains: Intellectual Freedom and the Child," English Journal61:6 (September 1972); 805.13: and Kenneth L. Donelson. "White Walls and !Ugh Windows: Sonic Contemporary Censorship Prob- lems,"English Journal61:8 (November 1972): 1191-98. 53. Stanley B. Kegler, "The Simplified Classic,-English Journal44:8 iNovember 1955): 475-76. One of the first attacks on the anthologies was John V. Warner. Jr.. "Anthologies in the High School ClassroomlNev- yr!"English Journal 48:7(October 1959): 382-87. Many teachers vigorously defended the anthology, prompting a second article from Warner,. "To the Gallows with You, Miss Zilch,"English Journal 40:9(December 1960): 627-29. 54, See John T. Frederick, "The Quarter Books,"English Journal37:5 May 1948): 215-21: Max J. Herzberg. "Down Publishers' Row,"English Journal46:6 (September 1957): 862-65: and Sister M. Harriet, "Let's Use the Paperbacks."English Journal46;4 (April 1957): 202.04, 55, See Helen Fox Rachford, "Developing Discrimination in Radio Listening,"English Journal33:6 (June 1944); 315-17; Sarah Roody, "The Effect of Radio, Television, and Motion Pictures on the Development of Maturity."English Journal41:5 (May 1952): 245.50; and C. 0. liedden, "The Pin-Up Girls at School: What to Do about Movies in the Class- room.**English Journal35;1 (January 1946):41 -43. 56. Richard G. Lillard, "Movies Aren't Literary."English Journal29:9 (November 1940): 735 ff. A brief summary of the changing attitudes from 1912 to 1960 has been provided by Henry B. Maloney. "Stepsisters of Print: The Public Arts in the high School English Class,-English Journal 49:8 (November 1960): 570-79. 57. See Patrick D. Hazard. "The Public Arts,"English Journal45 (September 19561; 367.69: G. Howard ['Meet. "Film as Language."En- glish Journal57:8 (November 1968):1182.86: Robert Meadows, "Get Smart: IA 'I'C Work for You,"English Journut56:1 (January 1967): 121-24; Neil Postman,Television and the Teaching of English(New York: 222 TRADITION AND It F.FORM

Appleton - Century - Crofts, 1961); and Marion C. Sheridan.The Motion Pit-ture and the Timer ing of English(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 1965). 58. See "The Course of Study." in Chapter VI. For some discussion of early approaches, see H. A. Domincovich. "On Literature Considered as One of the Fine Arts."English Journal 30:5(May 1941): 387-91; Lawrence P. She han. "Senior Humanities at Hanford High School,"English Journal 54:9 (December 1965): 836-38: and Irving Marks, "The Great Books Course." EnglishJournal 56:3(March 19671: 447-49. Domincovich was Chairman of the NCTE Committee on International Relations and head of English at the Germantown Friends School in Philadelphia. 59. A 1964 survey found that over half of the teachers describing humanities projects were former John Hay Fellows. Robert W. Homer and Socrates A. Lagios, "An Overview of Humanities Programs throughout the Country.-EnglishLeaflet 63 (Fall 1964): 39-57.English Journal discussions of humanities programs were dominated by John Hay Fellows, dating at least to Sarah Ni. Bush. "A Humanities Program that Works." English Journal40:4 (April 1959): 208.10. In a. 1967 index to humanities programs, over 40 percent usedthe Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Jonathan Corbin. comp,.Annotated Humanities Programs(Champaign. Ill.:NCTE, 1967)- 60, The rationale for team teaching is presented in James L. Stafford, AnExploration into Team Teaching in English and the Humanities, sponsored by the Southern California Council of Teachers of English (Champaign. III.: NCTE, 1963). 61. Humanities programs have been discussed in several places,Eng- lish Journalpublished a series of articles, "Humanities in the High School." in March 1965:English Leaflet,Fall 1964, was entirely devoted to humanities, Jonathan Corbin prepared his annotations in 1967, and a similar pamphlet was prepared the following year by Richard Adler and Arthur Applebee(Annotated Humanities Programs [Champaign, Ill.: NCTE, 19680. Sheila Schwartz has provided a- collection of relevant readings inTeaching the Humanities(New York: Macmillan Co., 19701. 62. See John R. Searles, "Are Humanities Programs the Answer?' English Journal54:3 (March 1965): 175.81; Fred H. Stocking, "High School Humanities Programs: Some Reservations,"English Leaflet63 (Fall 1964): 31-38: and Bell.Reforming of General Education,pp. 227-28. 63. James R. Squire and Roger K. Applebee,A Study of English Programs in Selected High Schools Which Consistently Educate Out- standing Students in English,Cooperative Research Project no. 1994 (Urbana, III.: flniversity of Illinois, 1966). An edited and abridged edition of this report is mord easily available asHigh School English Instruction Today: The National Study of High School English Programs(New York: AppletoCentury-Crofts, 1968). The study included twomain samples selected on differing criteria. Because no differences emerged between the two samples of schools, for the final report results werepooled and discussed as a whole. 64. James R. Squire. Roger K. Applebee. and Robert Lacampagne, High School Departments of English: Their Organization. Adm;nistration, aridSupervision, A Report of the Urbana and Cleveland Conferences, OctoberNovember 1964 ( Champaign, Ill.: NCTE, n.d. 11985P. AN ACADEMIC MODF:I. FOR ENGLISH 223

115. Comments on the lower tracks werescattered throughout the report. See Squire and Applehee, A Studyof English. Programs, pp. 91, 323, 345 ff. 66. 'though these activities have been discussedonly as they most directly affected the teaching of literature, they represented amajor NCTE effort throughout Squire's term asexecutive secretary.The Council's role was vigorous-and effective. See Squire'sEight Year Report and Shugrue's English in a Decade of Change for a fuller account. 67. English Teacher Preparation Study, "Guidelinesfor the Prepara- tion of Teachers of English," reprinted from EnglishJournal 56:6 (Sep- tember 1967): Elementary English 44:6 (October 1967):and College En- glish 29:1 (October 1967). The project is discussed atlength in Shugrue, English in a Decade of Change, and in a special issue ofEnglish Journal 157:4 (April 1968)). 68. See *John Maxwell, "Readiness for NewCurriculum Materials." English Journal 56:9 (December 1967): 1338-41. Perhaps more than anything else, the disadvantaged learner needsto find his men identity and to Male himself to thelarger social community. Where better than through literature can students team to rise above themselvesand to extend the range of theirintellectual and emotional powers? Task Force on Language Programsfor the Disadvantaged, 19651

Response is a word that remindsthe leacher that the experience thing of our own making, of art is a an activity in which we areour own interpretive artist. The dryness of schematicimagery, symbols, myth, structural el ui. should be. passionately relations, avoided at school and oftenat college. is literature, not literary criticism,which is the subject. Anglo-American Seminar on the Teaching of English, 19662

Anxious to validate our subject, we have claimed for it a placeamong the exacting studies presumably stabilized in a realmmore secure than human. Butwemayhave to accept the idea that the human experiences thatget play in literature provide its onlyvalidation. NCTE Commissionon Literature, 19672 Educational objectives pinned to predictable, measurablestudent performance would offer a much- needed basis for measuring program costagainst program effectiveness. Such costccti:ding, in turn, would promote effective allocation more of existing resourcesamong competing educational programs. Leon Lessinger and Dwight Allen, 1969'1

Prom these considerations we derive another concept: accountability.Sc /tool administrators and school teachersalike are responsible for their ance, and it is in their interest perform- as well as in the interests of their pupilsthat they be heldaccountable. President Richard M. Nixon, 19705 But the technology changes the values, and dictatessome of its otvn; no technology is ever neutral.... Our most pressing educationalproblem, in short, is not how to increase the efficiency of the schools; it is howto create andmaintain a hilmane society. Asociety whose schools likely to be humane itself. arc inhumane is not Charles E. Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom, 19706 Chapter VIII

Winds of Change

Earlier chapters have traced the evolution of the teaching of literature in American schools from itsbeginnings in the reading texts of colonial days intoa major subject involving some 10 percent of the nation's instructional effort. During that time professional leaders turned away from the collegesat the beginning of the twentieth century, andswung back toward them during the early 1960s. This is as faras the history of literature as a school subject can he traced with much historicalperspective with, that is, the vision of hindsightto.protect our prophecies. Yet the issues which have been faced in the past continueinto the present, generating during the last few yearsa debate which if it is not hotter in its own right, rages more fiercely for those whose interests are ultimately in the teaching of English in schoolstoday. This chapter discusses three major challengesthat have been offered to the academic model of English in the last fewyears, and looks briefly at the curriculum that is emergingin response. The closing chapter examines the unanswered questions whichwill continue to shape this history in theyears ahead.

The Other Half of theCurriculum

Even as professional leaderswere attempting to formulate an academic program for English, other forceswere at work that would ultimately offer an instructional modelmore in keeping with previous progressive theory. Thecounter-movement began in the

225 226 TRADITION AND RE:1:0101

nation's slums, where teachers quickly found that the academic approach had little relevance. James B. Conant, whose study of The American High School Today(1959)was one of the more important documents in the development of the academic model; also provided an early and widely heralded perspective on the problems of urban education. HisSlums and Suburbs(1961)drew together observations of astonishing inequities in the quality of education for urban and suburban youth. Conant worried that the problem of the cities was more than just an educational issuein tact. "social dynamite"; 'he tried to convey his sense of concern:

For without being an alarmist, 1 must say that when one considers the total situation that has been' developing in the Negro city stunts since World War I I. one bus reason to worry about the future. The building up of a mass of unemployed and frustrated Negro youth in congested areas of the city is a social phenomenon that may be compared to the piling up of inflammable materials in an empty building in a city block. Potentialities for troubleindeed possibilities of disasterare surely there.'

lie documented his observations with details of Negro migration to the northern central cities, of unemployment, and of dropout rates and absenteeism. Conant found that these social pressures were coupled with educational inadequacy. The schools which had money, stable staff, community interest, and relevant materials were those in the suburbs. The urhan slums suffered with antiquated buildings, over- crowded classrooms, and inappropriate courses of study. His recommendations were a remarkably accurate delineation of the direction that inner-city education would move during the ensuing decade: he argued for meaningful courses, adequate financial support, involvement of parents in educational reform, and school decentralization. Battles over each of these were fought in the heinilines of the sixties. Young authors added a personal and anecdotal dimension to Conant's observations by recounting their own experiences in urban schools. Herbert Kohl, Jonathan Kozo!, James Herndon, and Nat Ilentolf, among others, echoed the frustration of many young teachers who had taken up urban education as part of a nationwide concern with the welfare of Black America, This frustration among a highly vocal group of teachers, coupled with a new militancy among local community groups, put great pressure on city school systems to alter their materials and approaches." National leaders in English did not respond to such problems until the middle sixties, when the forces unleashed by the1954 Supreme Court decision on segregation began to culminate at the federal level in the Job Corps (through the Economic Opportunity Act) and the Civil Rights Act of1964,NCTE, prompted by an eloquent address from its incoming president, Richard Corbin, took official note of the problem by using its own funds to establish a WINIi8 OP CHANGE: 227

Task Force on Teaching English to theDisadvantaged in1964. Twentytwo experts in teaching and inthe problems of the disadvantaged were charged with surveying effortsthroughout the nation. In a ninety day effort beginningin March1965,they observed 190 programs in115school systems of sixty-four cities, in general following the lead of the NationalStudy in scheduling pairs of observers for two-day visits to each program.The final report was released thefollowing fall(1965),with extensive discussions of programs from preschool toadult levels." The Task Force attempted to dispel anumher of "widespread beliefs affecting the education of thedisadvantaged"; their comments implied that the educationalproblems of the disadvantaged differed in amount rather than in kind fromthose in any classroom. They found that the subculture of poverty wasjust as diverse and varied as the parent culture; that there wasneed for a variety of language experiences, not simply drill instandard English; that the children were not apathetic and did not offerunusual discipline problems: that inductive teaching could be usedjust as successfully with these children as with any others;and that the teacher of English needed to be just as well preparedin his own subject area to teach disadvantaged children as toteach any others. When they looked at secondary school programsin literature, the Task Force found it resting on "ashaky foundation" (p. 109). The two most prevalent patterns were anemphasis on reading skills and workbook exercises, with a consequentneglect of literary materials. and slavish adherence to inappropriate coursesof study. in one memorahle class, the teacher wascarefully reading Silas Martter aloud to a group of students who could notread it themselves, because it was "required" for allstudents in their grade. The Task Force's only recommendation onthe teaching of literature was "that at all levels ofinstruction the English curriculum for disadvantaged students include appropriateimaginative literature chosen and presented with these studentsin mind" (p. 273), but this was a radical shift from the concernsof the period of academic reform. Two of the Project English curriculum studycenters focussed on similar prohlems. and ultimately produced the mostsuccessful of the new programs. One, under thedirection of Marjorie Smiley at Hunter College in New York City, recognizedfrom the beginning the progressives' lessons aboutthe importance of student involvement and interest as first stepsin English instruction, The other. led by Daniel Fader at theUniversity of Michigan, eventually reached very similar conclusions."' Gateway English, the programdeveloped at Hunter College, focussed its units around issues of personal andsocial significance. Smiley was well aware of the degenerationin the quality of materials toward the end of the progressive eraand took great care to choose selections which would deal maturelyand in depth with the issues raised. The emphasis was on contemporarywriting, including 228 14RAMTION AND RKFORM

many selections by black authors, but traditional selectionswere also included: excerpts from theOdyssey,for example, and some of Aesop'sFables.The program was presented ina series of slim anthologies, with titles which givea good sense of the program as a whole: AFamily Is a Way of Feeling, Coping,andWhoAm I?were typical texts. The teacher's manuals, like thematerials themselves, echoed many earlier innovators. Theysought "to help these children identify the problems and toencourage them to find solutions," "to cast each of the students in a positive 'image,'and to "enable these discouraged youth to identify with individuals,both real and fic- tional, who have coped with problemsnot unlike theirs with varying degrees of success." Even whencarried out with literature of acknowledged merit, such emphaseshad littlein common with those of the academic model. If Gateway English continued theprogressive concern with personal and social problems, English inEvery Classroom, the program devised at the Michigan center, focussedon extensive reading. This program was designed forthe most difficult students of all: a group of delinquent boysin the W. J. Maxey Boys Training School (Michigan). Later thecenter expanded its work to public schools, and theprogram itself (popularized by Fader's 1966 presentation.Hooked on Boob:;)spread to some thirty-seven states and three foreign countries." The basic principles were simple enough:students were to read as much and in as many differentareas of their school experience as possible. To achieve this, the program provideda library of 1,200 paperback books and classsets of newspapers and magazines. These formed the core of the Englishcurriculum and also provided materials to supplement the work in othersubjects. In the process of implementing this approach, Faderrediscovered many educational cliches, but because of theextreme conditions under which he was workingand the obvious failure of otherapproachesthe cliches took on a substance and appealthat under better conditions they might have lacked. The need forevery teacher to be a "teacher of English"; the importance ofrelevant materials: the fact that without interest nothing else wouldfollowthese basic principles of progressive education were rediscovered inmeeting the problems of education in a buys training school. Therewas very little that could forcesuch boys to begin to read; the only hopewas to make them want to. And this Fader did, howevermany cliches he discovered in the process.'1

The British Model

At the same time that progressive methodswere being reestablished in the curriculum of the innercity and the lower tracks, WINDS or CHANCE: 229

professional leaders were becomingaware of another model for instruction which asserted the primacy ofsuch approaches for all students. Though the liberal Americanreformersthe same group who had originally protested against theprograms in slum schools were moving in much the same direction, itwas the schools of England that offered a functioningalternative to the academic model. Initial contacts with British educatorshad begun during the fifties, first through NCTE-sponsoredsummer tours of England and later through a series ofconferences on the problems of teaching English to speakers of other languages(TESOL). As early as 1957, Harold 13. Allen. who had been deeplyinvolved in TESOL programs in Egypt, suggested that a conferenceon the teaching of English as a native language might befruitful. During the following years, a number of Council leAdersvisited British schools,a National Association of Teachers ofEnglish (NATE) was organized in Britain, and a representativeof the British Ministry of Educa- tion toured the Project English studycenters. During 1964 Boris Ford, president of NATE, attendedthe NCTE annual convention. His remarks again led NCTEleaders to consider a joint meeting, which was arranged for the followingyear." The 1965 meetingwas followed by two other projects whichbrought American educators into close and stimulating contact withBritish approaches. The first was a month-long invitationalseminar on the teaching of English, held at Dartmouth Collegein the summer of 1966, funded by the Carnegie Corporation, andcosponsored by. NATE, MLA, and WEE. Approximately fiftyspecialists in English and the teaching of English at the elementary,secondary, and college levels were brought together in an unusual attemptto gain a new perspective on their common problems, Theensuing clash of deeply rooted assumptions about the teaching of Englishwas a cathartic experience for all involved, and sharply alteredthe professional emphases of NCTE leaders.'' At the same time planswere underway to extend the National Study of High School EnglishPrograms to includea survey of outstanding British schools. Teamsof observers visited 42 schools during the spring of 1967;most of the people involved had partici- pated in the earlier American study. As had happened atDart- mouth, the visiting Americans foundtheir deeply rooted beliefs sharply challenged byprograms in the forefront of British education, and (again as at Dartmouth)they came away feeling that the British alternative had much to recommendit." What the British offered the Americanswas a model for English instruction which focussed noton the "demands" of the discipline but on the personal and linguistic growth of thechild. These goals and no others justified the central place of Englishin the school curriculum, and this impliedas had Americanprogressive theory 230 TRADITION AND REFORM

a curriculumstructured around the characteristicsof the child whose growth was to be fostered.American observers were especially struck by these emphases inthe lower forms in British secondary schools (roughly equivalent toAmerican grades 7 to BM there they found "improviseddrama, imaginative writing, personal response to literature,and a large amount of informalclassroom discussion. Instruction is centered on thepupil his interests, Us response, big view of theworld" (p. 52). Subject matter(the "content" of English which had been ofsuch concern to Americans) seemed hardly important to theBritish teacher; its function was to provide the experiences through whichthe child could experiment, testing and strengthening hislinguistic and intellectual skills by using them in a variety of contexts. Indeed. like the metaphor of "growth"itself,it was process or activity rather than content whichdefined the English curriculum for the British teacher. Stronglyinfluenced by the work of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, theRussian L. S. Vygotsky, and the American George Kelly, Britishteachers saw language as imposing a system and an order,offering (in John Dixon's words) "sets of choices from which we mustchoose one way or another of building our inner world."" Hence theteacher must accept the tentative and incomplete response as partof the process of choice, a testing out of a particular modeof thought or expression which it would be perfectly legitimate for thestudent to abandon in mid- stream. American observersfound such an. attitude most dramati- cally evident in written languageinstruction, where British teachers placed a much greateremphasis on the act of writingitself. They often assigned work whichwould never be read by the teacher, in contrast to the Americanpattern of write, grade, revise. In literature. -a similar concern wasreflected in an emphasis on "talk," a term the British used to suggestthe informality and essentially unstructured nature ofdiscussion in which responses were understood to hedeveloping and tentative rather than complete and well formulated. Rather thanthe closure and summing up so often sought bythe better teachers in theAmerican study, British teachers relied on the processof discussion itself for the educative effects they were seeking. The aspect of British programswhich most surprised Americans, both at Dartmouth and during thestudy of British schools, was the emphasis on drama. British teachersrecognized, as had American progressives, that drama wasvaluable both as a method for the study of literature and as a means topersonal development. To act out a scene successfullywhether asimprovisation or as dramati- zation of part of a scriptimplies asophisticated level of response and understanding withoutrequiring an explicit (or cognitive) formulation of response. In a sense thedramatic response is the WINDS OF CHANCE 231

antithesis of the analytic, contentoriented teaching of English against which the British were in the process of reacting. At the same time, drama is the embodiment of the role playing and experiment which are part of the British pedagogy of growth. To take a part in a drama is to take on at least for a moment new linguistic, social, and personal roles, and to do so with all the protection of self that the acknowledged "playing" in drama affords."' Much of the teaching of literature observed during the study of British schools involved drama in one form or another; the remainder was undertaken in a similar spirit of fostering response and involvement rather than analysis and criticism. The work in the last two years of secondary school, where English is a specialist rather than a general subject, was an exception to this; even it, however, seemed to observers to build on the less formal work of the earlier years.) The result was a program which alternately excited and disturbed American observers, who found it "fragmented, uncritical, antiliterary, yet often explosive, engaging, and exciting" (p. 88). Concern with a literary heritage played virtually no role. being dismissed as irrelevant or redefined as a "legacy of past satisfactions" and hence not something that could be dis- pensed as so many grams of knowledge.'" The various critical studies that had found their way into Amer- ican programs were similarly of little concern: the British teachers gave comparatively little attention to close textual analysis, to the study of genres, to literary periods, or to chronology. Instead, the British teachers emphasized a thematic approach and guided individual reading. Unlike their American counterparts, the British were able to pursue these studies in virtually any direction they chose. Protected by a system of education in which schools are funded nationhlly rather than locally, they are virtually free from community pressures. Censorship is very rare: Lady Chatterley's Lover was the text in one class observed by the Americans, and similarly controversial books had a prominent role in other programs. Perhaps the strongest tribute to the British effortsis that Americans have been willing to learn from them. Whereas the National Study of outstanding American programs had led observers to recommend that programs continue to he developed along previous lines, the visits to England led to major recommendations for change. The most important of these were concerned with the relative stress to be placed on formal and on informal, response- oriented studies; in general both study observers and Dartmouth participants were convinced that the British approach was the better alternative, with conscious formulation of critical responses deferred to the later years. "No evidence collected in this study," the directors noted, "suggests that the absence of attention to cognitive processes affects the ultimate literary reactions of British 232 TRADITION AND REFORM

youth'. (p. 1161. More stress on dramatic activities and oral approaches, greater freedom in the use of materials, less rigid curriculum guides, more attention to indirect methods of teaching, and the search for appropriate sequence in the growth pattern of the child are other points that followed more or less directly from acceptance of the general approach. The major effect of the confrontation with British programs has been to reestablish, at least among an influential group of spokesmen for the teaching of English, some of the better parts of the progressive vision. A concern with people rather than content has reasserted itself: the personal and social values of literatUre are once again being explored.'" Yet the men who are leading the movement hack toward these progressive ideals are men who were deeply invoked in developing the academic model. They know its strengths as well as its weaknesses and have insured that it, too, continues to have its influence: they have a continuing awareness of the need for literature which is honest and mature, literature which will challenge rather than merely "adjust" its readers; they are._ seeking to define more clearly its importance in the lives of all of us: and they are attempting to preserve and strengthen the sense of profession that developed in the process of building the academic model. These emphases, of course, are also true to the original progressive vision, but they differ greatly:from the emphases that developed after the Second World War!'

Industrial Models

Even as some teachers began to re-emphasize the traditional values of English as a "humanistic.' or "liberalizing" subject, a second aspect of the early progressive movement was also gaining new momentum. This was the concern with efficiency and utilitar- ianism that first found expression in Franklin Bobbitt's lists of specific objectives and later in Henry Morrison's unit method of instruction, now reconceptualized as "behavioral objectives" and "accountability... Reinvigorated by industrial successes with the "systems am -,ach" to management. as well as by a national mood of austerity and tightening budgets, these approaches have received support from powerful segments of industry and government. The proponents of the systems approach have taken industrial production as their model for the educational process. At one end of the system are the inputs, usually conceptualized as the present achievements, attitudes, and skills of the students; at the other end are the outputs, the skills and attitudes that itis desirable for WINOSor CoANGE 233

students to have. The discrepancybetween input and output de- fines the educational task.Proponents have claimeda number of virtues for this system: it will beefficient instruction, in that it will be possible to eliminateactivities which do not contribute'to the achievement of the specified goals;it will be individualized instruction, since the discrepancybetween input and output will differ from student to student; and itwill provide a measure of theextent to which each district., school,or teacher achieves its stated objectives. It. will also providevery direct cost accounting: the school board will he able tosee which programs are working andhow much they cost. Withina system conceptualized in such terms, it is a short step to considering subcontractingone or another segment of the total program. and indeed exactly such an approach hasbeen tried on an experimental basis.in some versions,a "performance contract" has been an in-schoolsystem of incentives, with salaries of teachers tied to theextent to which their studentsmeet or surpass prespecified performancecriteria. In other versions, the contract has been made withan outside, often profit-making, corporation, again withpayment contingent upon successfulper- formance by the students. In the1969-70 academic year, the first two experimental performancecontracts went into operation; by 1970-71 there were over 100. Initial results from these projectswere not encouraging. in Office of Educationexperiments involving six different companies, the 13,000students in experimental classes did no better than those in conventionalprograms. All six companies lost money; the USOE withdrewits support for further attempts; and the number of experimentsbegan to fall off.n Still the emphasis on carefulcost accounting has received very powerful support and seems likelyto continue, even if experiments with performance contractscome to a halt. President Nixon, in his 1970 Education Messageto Congress. emphasized that schools must be "accountable'. for the results theyproduce, and he did so in the context of reducing expenditures.Congress has reflected similar concerns through its endorsementof the National Assess- ment of Educational Progress, and the USOEhas sponsored large- scale demonstrations of thesystems approach to educational problems. More recently, the Committeefor Economic Development,an organization of 200 business leaders withconsiderable power to shape national policy, has endorsed similarprinciples in a policy statement.Education for the Urban Disadvantaged(1971):

We are convinced that the financialsupport of the schools should be in some way tied to their actual pmductivity,so that a better product. when judged by competent techniques ofassessment, would yield increased support. If this were achieved,we believe the schools would become more inventive. more innovative,more effective, and more productive of good education." 23-1 TRADmoN AND REFORM

The difficulty of providing "competenttechniques of assessment" has led to a concurrent emphasis ondetailed specification of instructional objectives. Here one of the mostinfluential publications has been a brief book byRobert F. Mager, published in 1961 as Preparing Objectivesfor Programmed Instruction. It was reissued the following year with the somewhat moregeneral title, Preparing Instructional Objectives. The content ofthe two editions is identical even in the pagination, but theshift in title recognizes that the specification of "behavioralobjectives" has become somewhat independent of the concern withprogrammed instruction. The objectives that Mager describes are distinguishedfrom other educational objectives in that they are based onobservations of the evert behavior of the learner: to Mager. "A statementof an objective is useful to the extent that it specifieswhat the learner mint be able to DO or PERFORMwhen he is demonstrating his mastery of the objective." Such objectives are the necessarybuilding blocks of a systems approach to education. Thetendency of such objectives is toward greater and greater specificityrather than toward globally stated or long-term golds." Programmed instruction, as suggestedby the original title of Mager's book, has been closely related tothe evolution of behavioral objectives. Though'it hasantecedents in experiments with teaching machines dating back to the1920s, the programming approach gained impetus only After B. F.Skinner and his disciples began to elaborate the pedagogical implicationsof his behavioral psychology. Initial experiments werecarried out almost exclusively in industrial and military trainingsituations, where the aim was to teach a student a particular skill asquickly and efficiently as possible. To a large extent behavioraltechniques were successful in these contexts, whether presentedby machine, through programmed texts. or with the use ofinstructional films or other audiovisual a ids .2' Since the early sixties there havebeen attempts to generalize the success of these training programsinto a model for reform of public education. It was this generalizationthat prompted initial attempts to specify behavioralobjectives. These were to provide the necessary reduction ofgeneral goals into very specific componentskills that could be taught step by step,Each step would be assessed individually, and progress continuedonly when the component had been mastered. The greatdifficulties which programmers encountered in their attempts to findoperational specifications of goals in the educational literature lie atthe heart of the current focus on the objectives themselves. But the researchin programmed learning continues and seems destined to reassertitself as various subsets of objectives become adequately specified. The response of teachers ofEnglish to these movements has ranged from vehement denunciations toconsiderable enthusiasm; a WINDS OF CHANGE 235

middle group have resignedly concluded that since someone is going to write the objectives for English it had better be someone who understands the subject. The most notable example of this position was the Tri.University Project, which included former NCTE executive secretary J. N. Hook among itsdirectors and Robert Mager as a "senior consultant"; many other distinguished figures in English education were involved. Supported by Office of Education funds, the project began as a two-year attempt to write and test behavioral objectives for the high school Englishcurricu- lum. Somewhat skeptical about the applicahility of the behavioral framework to the English program, the project as described by Hook hoped to develop a "carefully prepared, well-reasoned state ment subscribed to by representative leaders in theprofession" that would "guide developers of such objectives and prevent theirmis- use. "'' Most criticism of behavioral objectives in English instruction centers on the measurement problems associated withthe goals which teachers have long cherished, especially for the teaching of literature. What exactly does "appreciation" mean in terms of observable hehaviors? How does one tell if a student has had a "confrontation." or has clarified his system of personal values as a result of what he has read? Supporters of hehavioral objectives have suggested that such concepts can he operationalized if teachers of English accept a hroad definitionof behavior. For example, James Iloetker. then associated with the Central Midwest Regional Educational Laboratory, offered such unorthodox behavioral specifications of objectives as "the students will cut class less often" or "the students will take a walk in the woods." The Tri-University Project used a somewhat similar approach in someof the objectives in its preliminary catalog. These emphasized that "the student volunteers and participates with animation," for example, or that he "defends orally or in writing" the rights of others to read potentially offensive material. Such approaches represented an attempt to preserve within the framework of behavioral objectivesthe kind of behaviors which a humanistically oriented teacher is likely to favor.27 NCTE. through a new Commission on the EnglishCurriculum, adopted a cautious, even slightly negative stance toward theissues posed by behavioral objectives. While granting the value of specify- ing more precisely the goals of the course in English, thecommis- sion offered a resolution to the 1969 annual business meeting urging in part, That those in the profession who do undertake to write behavioral objectives; (a) make specific plans to account for the total English curriculum: lin make an intention to preserve land. if need be, fight Mr, the retention of important humanistic goals of education: and (c) lit; TRADITION AND RkFORM

insist on these goals regardless of whetheror not there exist instruments at the present time for measuring the desired changesin behavior.'"

The papers which the commission chose to publish as a result of a special conference on behavioral objectives reflect thesame cautious ambivalence, with contributions covering the fullrange from enthusiastic support to outright denunciation.

Toward a New Curriculum in English

The late 1960s were years in which. the American highschool underwent a major realignment of values. In response to thenational agony over the Vietnam war, student unrest, escalating problems in the inner city, and a widespread malaiseeven among academically talented students, the emphasis in educational thought shifted gradually but unmistakably away from knowledge ofan academic discipline toward the process of knowing and the dig- nity of the individual. Men who had once led the attackon the progressives shifted their ground,now attacking the dehumaniza- tion of the school that seemed to have accompanied theacademic approach. Charles Silberman, an early supporter of theacademic resurgence, presented one comprehensive critique (1970)on behalf of the Carnegie Corporation, turning to Britain fora constructive alternative. The progressives and John Deweythearchenemies of the late fiftiesbecame once again leadersbehind whom teachers and their spokesmen were proud to march.2' This shift in values has led to its own period of experiment inthe teaching of English. "Relevance" is one focus ofconcern; this is the contemporary version of the progressive educator's emphasison the needs and interests of his students. In this context itis not surprising to find that many of the experiments being offeredare variations upon methods that were central to progressivepeda- gogy. Drama and oral expression, contracts, the project method, unit instruction, student-directed seminars, popular media,contemporary literature and social commentary, minimum essentials, interdisciplinary studyall have reemerged in the past few years.'" There have also been new approaches: simulation techniques ("gaming") and sensitivity training are the more prominentex- amples." How these proposals will evolve is still uncertain. Rather than a new and fully formulated curriculum, theyrepresent the attempts of the present generation of teachers to explore theirown version of the progressive vision. As yet these explorationsare open minded; they have not coalesced around a new metaphor of the educational process nor produced theirown articulated body of WINDS OF CHANGE 237

theory. But itis out of them, and out ofthe many different theorists from whom the suggestionsstem, that that metaphor and that theory will eventuallyemerge. Yet if the new pedagogy remainsuncertain, the pressureson the English course have alreadybegun to break down the traditional five-dava- week. four-year institutionalframework within which that pedagogy will be implemented.The erosion of the institutional form of the course is highly significant, for it marks the end ofa long tradition of high schoolorganization and opens theway for even more radical experiment's than haveyet been proposed. The first attackson the institutional pattern of the high school were sponsored by the Ford Fund for theAdvancement of Educa- tion during the 1950s. Earlyadmissions and advanced placement have already been discussed, but they are, clearly relevant heretoo; both implied that the four-yearhigh school coursewas not inviol- able. Team teaching was another approath which receivedsome support from the Ford Fund; itwas especially popular in humanities programs where the breadthof content required the talentsof teachers trained in several differentsubject areas. Experiments with instructionalgroups of different sizes often evolvedout of these teaching teams: large-grouplectures one day, for example, followed by seminar discussionsthe next.'2 The "Rutgers Plan" was another early experiment that advocatedvariable class size. This emerged froma six-week workshop, held at Rutgers under Ford Fund sponsorship duringthe summer of 1959. This workshop sought ways to allow teachers to workwith students individuallyor in small discussiongroups, without forcing schools to enlarge their faculties. Their proposal, quiteradical for its time, involveda complete restructuring of the timeschedule and the use of "paraprofessionals" as nonteaching monitors.English classes would spend two days a week doingfree reading, in groupsas large as 200; one day a week doingdiagnostic tests and self-correcting homework: one day a week ingroup discussions of student papers; and one day a week in group discussions of literature. Thoughthe Rutgers Plan was not widely adopted,it is important as another early suggestion that class sizeand class groupings might be varied for different instructionalpurposes. 33 The approach which isnow becoming widespread is the elective curriculum in English, but this isa blanket label for a wide variety of different approaches to curriculumreform. Electives themselves are of course not new: a four-year Englishcourse as a graduation requirement hasnever been fully established. Even where students must take four years of English, thesenior course has often offered electives which could be taken eitherto supplement or to replace the standard course. Most ofthe humanities courses discussed in the previous chapterwere offered as electives; so were the world literature courses out of whichthey grew. This form of elective 238 TRADITION AND REFORM never posed a challenge to thetraditional course, however; the choice was usually as much a matter of "tracking" asit was of "electing," with certain courses clearly regarded asthe prerogative of the college-bound and nthersclearly appropriate for the terminal student. During the late 1960s, however, thischanged radically, with the elective curriculum in its variousmanifestations being suggested as a replacement for the junior and seniorhigh school course in English." one source of this shift has been the failureof the academic model for the curriculum to find any widely acceptedstructuring principles. If there is no structure, the argument has gone,then there is no reason to impose one artificiallythrough a four-year, required course of study. Let the teacher teach what heknows best, and the students study the subjects inwhich they are most interested. Courses which have emerged from thispoint of view have °firm been constructed on a looseanalogy with the college curriculum, with highly academic offerings like"Eighteenth Cen- tury Poetry... "Communications," or "TheModern Novel." In spite of such traditionalism, hnwever, a major argumentin support of the elective curriculum has been that it is moreresponsive to the demands of the students, more "relevant," thanthe traditional course. The hope is that ifstudents gre allowed to choose what they will study, their interest and enthusiasmwill increase. In many schools this has been coupled with an attempt todiscover the courses which students wouldlike to have offered, rather than simply giving them a choice among theparticular interests of the teachers. In some of the more interesting experiments,interest groups resulting from a completely elective program ofstudy have been used to replace the traditional agegradeorganization of the high school. Teaching groups may contain thewhole secondary school age range, though more usuallythis is restricted through a "phase elective" system roughly comparab!e to the systemof introductory, intermediate, and advanced courses of the collegecurriculum. The nongraded curriculum was popularized by experiments atthe Mel- bourne (Florid& High School during the earlysixties, but it was only later combined with the elective approach."Where electives have been carried furthest, they have beencombined with radical restructuring of the curriculum as a whole into"shnrt-cores" or "mini-courses" of anywhere from few weeks to a semester in length: these provide students with new sets ofoptions at regular Intervals. Class periods of variahle length, courseswhich meet only a few times a week insteadof every day, and independent study have been natural results of the attempt tofit the institutional structure to the course content, instead of the coursesto the existing institutional frame. Computer-compiledtimetables have been crucial in snme of these programs, overcoming theotherwise WINDS OF CHANGE 239

overwhelming complexities inherent in frequent readjustment of complex schedules)" Finally, proponents of behavioral objectives and programmed instruction have also found that a program of electives is one of the more convenient ways to introduce their approaches, often pairing them with some form of minimum essentials examination. In some versions of such programs, students enter the elective phase only after successfully completing an introductory "basic skills" comse or proficiency examination. In others, the two proceed in concert, with programmed (or "self-paced") instructional units forming part of the work and elected courses forming the remainder. There is usually no choice about the skills program; all students must work their way to a certain level of competence, though instruction is "individualized" in that they can proceed at their own pace. Even this is not universal, however; in some programs a wide variety of self-paced units are offered as electives." At present, elective English is an administrative convenience; it represents no particular pedagogical theory though it has usefully served the ends of several. Because it has no structuring principles of its own, the elective program is volatile. All kinds of new studies and new approaches can find a place in the curriculum, and older studies that have usually taken second place can emerge on an equal footing. Film has become a full-fledged part of the English program in many schools; drama has emerged from its long dol- drums; literatures from other countries are receiving new and more focussed attention. On the other hand, the very openness of the elective approach leaves it vulnerable to charges of frivolousness, triviality, and lack of coherence"charges which emphasize the need for the elective curriculum to be treated as a way to implement a broader pedagogical theory, rather than as an end in itself. Until it is placed within such a larger framework, the elective curriculum totters between the Scylla of the academic, subject-centered approach and the Charybdis of meeting trivial and temporary "needs and interests." 240 TannfrioN AND REFORM

CHAPTER VIII NOTES

1. Richard Corbin and Muriel Crosby, cochairmen, LanguagePro- grams for the Disadvantaged, The Report of the NCTE Task Forceon Touching English to the Disadvantaged (Urbana, Ill.: NCTE, 1965),pp. 273.74. 2. D. W. Harding. "Response to Literature: The Report of the Study Group,"in Response to Literature,Papers Relating to the Anglo- American Seminar on the Teaching of English, ed. JamesR. Squire (Urbana, Ill.: NCTE, 1968), p. 26. 3. William Stafford, Friends to This Ground, A Statement forRead- ers. Teachers, and Writers of Literature from the NCTE Commissionon Literature (Urbana, III.: NCTE, 1967), p. 19. 4. Leon M. Lessinger and Dwight H. Allen, "PerformanceProposals for Educational Funding: A New Approach to FederalResource Alloca- tion," Phi Delta Kappan 51 (November 1969): 136.37, 5. President Richard M, Nixon, Education Message of1970. Cited by Leon Lessinger in "Robbing Peter to Pay Paul: Accounting for Our Stewardship of Public Education," Educational Technology(January 1971), p. 14. 6. Charles E. Silberman. Crisis in the Classroom: TheRemaking of .4merican Education (New York: Random House, 1970),pp. 201.034 7. James B. Conant, Slums and Suburbs (New York: SignetBooks. 1961). p. 24. On the earlier book, see "A Crisis of Confidence"in Chapter VII. 8. Shugrue calls the education of the disadvantaged "the majoredu- cational issue in the United States." Michael F. Shugrue, Englishin a Decade of Change (New York: Pegasus, 1968),p. 142. 9. Corbin and Crosby, Language Progrmas for theDisadvantaged. There had been sporadic attention to such problems earlier.Morris Finder, "Teaching English to Slum-Dwelling Pupils," EnglishJournal 44;4 (April 1955): 199 -204 +; Herbert F. Ostrach, "English and theLower-Class Student," English Journal 52:3 (March 1963): 196.99;and "Riposte," English Journal 52:7 (October 1963): 542-46. 10. For further discussion of these programs,see Shugrue, English in a Decade of Change, and Corbin and Crosby, LanguagePrograms for the Di..advantaged. Progress reports were also included in thecurriculum study center reports. See footnote 43 in Chapter VII. 11. Corbin and Crosby, Language Programs for the Disadvantaged, pp. 112-13. These texts were eventually published by the Macmillan Co. 12. There have been three reports on the program. The first presented it as it had developed at the W. J. Maxey Boys Training School.The second presented a slightly fuller discussion together with theresults of studies of its effectiveness. The third recounts the evolution of theprogram after it was introduced into the Garnet - Patterson Junior High School in Washington, D.C. The reports are, respectively, Daniel N.Fader and Morton H, Shaevitz, Hooked on Books (New York: Berkley Publishing Co., 1966); Daniel N. Fader and Elton B. McNeil, Hooked on Rooks: Program and Proof (New York; Berkley Publishing Co., 1968); and Daniel N. Fader. The Naked Children (New York: Macmillan Co., 1971. The figures on the spread of the program are from Fader and McNeil, p. 21. WINDS OF CHANGE 241

13. 'Fader's program resemblesmost of the other products of the curriculum study centers. in that portions to decide which it is impossible to untangle itsvarious were most important: The "proof"of success offered in the second volume isweak; most of the results in terms of the excitement and can he explained dedication of the teachersinvolved. 14. The conferencewas reported by James R. Squire Purpose: The Teaching of as A Common English in Great Britain, Canada,and the United States (Urbana, Ill.; NCTE.1966). The background is the introduction. pp. i-iii. recounted in 15. The seminar has been widelydiscussed and written about.. official reports were prepared: Two John Dixon, Growth throughEnglish (Reading: National Associationfor the 'reaching of English, bert el.' Muller. The Uses of 1967); Her- English (New York: Holt,'Rinehart, and Winston. 19671, In addition.a series of NCTE pamphlet publications reprinted selections fromseminar discussion papers. Di. James It. Squire and Roger K. Applebee, Teaching Englishin the United Kingdom lUrbana, NCTE, 1969). Jerry Walker of sky of Illinois summed the Univer- up his reactions in a conventionaddress the following November. Ile hadgone to England confident that the British approaches were wrong; became back to say, "Maybe they conversion was typical. "Bach, are right." His Rembrandt, Milton, andThoSe Other Cats," English Journal 57:5(May 19681: 63146. 17. Dixon. Growth throughEnglish, p. 9. The fullest point of view is James Britton's statement of this Language and Learning (London:Allen Lane, The Penguin Press,1970). 18. Over 30 percent of the classtime observed was devoted dramatic activities, compared to speech or to at most 12 percent in Americanschools. On drama. see Dixon, Growththrough English, pp. 37 ff. English. pp. 129 ff.: Squire and i Muller, Uses of Applebee, Teaching English inthe United Kingdom, pp. 197 ff.; andDouglas Barnes, ed., Drama Classmom, Papers Relating in the English to the Anglo-American Seminaron the Teach- ing of English lUrbana. NCTE, 1968). 19. James Britton; "Responseto Literature," in Squire. Response Literature. to 20. There is much evidence of this shift within the teachingof English and within the teachingprofession as a whole. The NCTE Literature issued a statement in Commission on 1967 which directly challengedthe con maim of English as a disciplineand once again talked of its as a "generator of values and insightS" importance and as a part of aprocess of discovery (see the quotationat the opening of this chapter). ly, Charles E. Silberman More general. (Crisis in the Classroom' hasurged a return to more humane values for American educationus a whole. 21. Personally as wellas historically, the British experience to a reassertion of concerns important led many earlier in theircareers. Squire for one had begun withan emphasis on response. In his first article he bad recommended English Journal finger-painting and charcoal sketchingas legitimate approaches inteaching poetry. though such activities favor (luring the period of fell out of academic concern. James It. Squireand Merritt Beckerman.The Release of Expression," 19501: 145-49. English Journal 39:3 (March 242 TRADITION AND REFORM

22. See Daniel J. Dieterich, "Performance Contracts," English Journal 61:4 (April 1972): 606-14: "For the Members." English Journal 61:4 (April 1972): unpuginated insert. 23.. Committee for Economic Development. Education for the Urban Disadvantaged. A Statement on National Policy by the Research and Policy Committee (New York: CED, March 1971), p. 60: Sue M. Brett, The Federal View of Behavioral Objectives," in On Writing Behavioral Objectives for English, ed. John Maxwell and Anthony Tovatt (Urbana, Ill.; NC'I'E, 1970). See the quotation introducing this chapter. 24. Robert F. Mager, Preparing Objectives for Programmed Instruc- tion (San Francisco: Fearon Publishers. 1961): Preparing Instructional Objectives (San Francisco: Fearon Publishers, 1962). See especially pp. xii, 13. 25. For a brief, lucid, and sympathetic discussion of the evolution of programming approach. see W.. Lee Garner, Programmed Instruction (New York: Center for Applied Research in Education, 1966). 26. J. N. Hook; "The Tri-University ROE Project: A Progress Re- port," in On Writing Behavioral Objectives, ed. Maxwell and Tovatt. See p. 76. 27. James Hoetlter, "Limitations and Advantages of Behavioral Objec- tives in the Arts and Humanities," in On Writing Behavioral Objectives. ed. Maxwell and Tovatt. For a preliminary list of objectives from the Triniversity Project, see Arnold Lazarus. "Performance Objectives in Reading and Responding to Literature." English Journal 6111 (January 1972): 52-58, For a thorough attempt to repudiate objections to behavioral objectives, see W. James Popham. "Probing 'the Validity of Arguments Against Behavioral Goals," in Behavioral Objectives and Instruction. Robert J. Kibler, Larry L. Barker. and David T. Miles (Boston; Allyn and Bacon. 19701.. 28. Maxwell and Tovatt, On Writing Behavioral Objectives. p. ix. In the spring of 1971, the commission adopted a "Statement on Accountabil- ity" which similarly urged a broad perspective on goals for English instruction, while at the same time accepting "the broad principle of accountability." Both sides of the debate are presented in further detail in Accountability and the Teaching of English,ed. Henry B. Maloney (Urbana, III.: NCTE. 1972): and Goal Making for English Teaching, ed. Henry IL Maloney (Urbana, III,: NCTE. 1973). 29. Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom. 30. For examples of some of these innovations, see Saralee Amsden, "Have You. Ever Tried Contracting for Grades?" English Journal 59:9 (December 1970): 1279.82; Kenneth R. McCormic and C. Louis Kaupp, An Elective English Program for the Non-College Bound," English Journal 61:2 (February 1972): 277-80; Gary Cavanaugh. "Sanity andBal- ance in a High School English Program."English Journal 61:2 (February 1972); 270-276+; and Deborah W. Manaster; "An Experiment in Student- Run Seminars." English Journal 61:1 'January 1972):113-16. For a comprehensive review of recent interest in drama and dramatics, see James Hoetker, Dramatics and the Teaching of English (Urbana, WEE. 1969). 31. T-groups, deriving from the methods of Cdr.! Rogers. are advocated by Thomas D. Klein in "Personal Growth in the Classroom," English WINDS OF CHANGE 243

Journal 59:2 (February 1970): 235-43. On gaming, see James M. Brew - baker, "Simulation Games and the English Teacher," English Journal 61:1 (January 1972): 104,09; Sarane S. Boocock, Simulation Games in Learning (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. 19681; and Elliott Carlson, "Games in the Classroom," Saturday Review, April 15, 1067. 32. These and other early experiments with the form of the English curriculum are discussed by James It. Squire and Roger K. Applebee, High School English Instruction Thday (New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1968), pp. 204.36, On team teaching, see James I,. Stafford, An Exploration into Team Teaching in English and the Humanities. Spon- sored by the Southern California Council of Teachers of English (Cham- paign, Ill.; NCTE, 1063). 33. The plan was presented by Paul B. Diederich, "The Rutgers Plan for Cutting Class Size in Two," English Journal 49:4 (April 1960): 229-36 -4-, For a negative reaction, see Lawrence Nib lett, "The Rutgers Plan: Not Enough or the Right Kind of Help," English Journal 49:7 (October 1960): 481-82. For a recent review of the use of paraprofessionals, see Howard G, Getz, Paraprofessionals in the English Department (Urbana. NOTE; ERIC, 19721. :14. George Hillocks, Jr., has presented a lengthy appraisal of the elective movement, including details of many different courses. Alterna- tives in English: A Critical Appraisal of Elective Programs (Urbana. 111.: NCTK, 1972)- 35. G. Robert Carlson defends the nongraded elective systempio- neered at the University of Iowa laboratory school in 1960 as providing "alternatives for students who are different minded." "Some Random ObservationsAbout the English Curriculum," English Journal 61:7 (Oc- tober 1972): 1004-09. See also B. Frank Brown, The Non-Graded High School (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:Prentice-Hall,1964); Donald Weise, "Nong,rading, Electing, and Phasing: Basics of Revolution for Relevance." English Journal 50:1 (January 1970): 122-36; and Ann NI, Juelde, "Spontaneity with a Purpose: Elective English Programs," En- glish Journal 61:4 (April 1972): 529-35. 36, See for example Adele H. Stern, "Sorry, Dr. Silberman! Mini- Courses in the High School," English Journal 61:4 (April 1972): 550-54; and Sister Mary Sylvia, "Individualized Education and/or the Mod Squad," English Journal 61:1 (January 1972): 78-80. 37. See John Rishen. "The Changing Face of EnglishOne School's New Program," English Journal 59:3 (March 1970): 524.271 and Vivian Geddes, "1 ndividuaiized Self- Paced English," English Journal 61:3 (Match 19721; 413 ff. 38, See the criticisms offered by Robert J. Fitzgerald after visiting a number of popular programs. Fitzgerald was an early supporter of electives but became disillusioned by what he found. "The New Supermarket: A 'Dystopiani View of English Electives," 'English Journal 61:4 (April 1972): 536-49. This chapter is a summary of a number ofcontinuing problems in the teaching of English. It is a personal statement,not an historical one, but it arises out of the long immersion in historicalquestions that preparing this book required. In a sense, it is a statement ofthe lessons of history, as one person learned them. Chapter IX

Afterword: The Problems Remaining

Teachers of literature have never successfully resisted thepressure to formulate their subject as a body of knowledge to be imparted. The teaching of literature has from the beginningbeen under considerable pressure to formulate itselfas a body of knowledge, a recognized content to be acquired by the student.In the delibera- tions of the Committee of Ten and its Vassar Conference sucha conceptualization was overt, a necessary precondition if thesubject were to take its place beside the other subjects asa true disciplinary study. In later years it was more often covert, emerging not in the philosophy of the subject matter. but in theway in which that philosophy was operaLi. ialized in the classroom.Thus the progressives of the late thirties, who provided the most completerationale for English as a series of experiences rather thana specific set of content, in the end structured their curriculum arounda series of "enabling objectives" which continued to stress knowledge;the "primary objectives" derived from the experienceapproach had little direct influence on the classroom. This stress on content has been in part responsible forthe uneasiness which teachers of English have traditionally feltabout the definition of their subject matter. The Committee ofTen in effect brought together a number of disparate subjects,each with its own body of rules and formal subject matter, and calledthem "English." Beyond the cliche that each of these studies dealswith language, they have no real unity as subject matter; attemptsto interrelate them have been artificial and, for the mostpart, short- lived. Whether the model for the educationalprocess has been growth in language, the four basic skills (reading, writing,listening. speaking), or the three basic disciplines.(language, literature, and composition), some aspect of what teachers consideredto be 245 246 TRADITION AND REEOHNI

important has been lost, reemerging to assert its own values and undercut the basis of the reconciliation. Inevitably, the edges of the subject have blurred and wavered, creating for the teacher of English a perpetual crisis of identity.

The acknowledged goals of the teaching of literature. are in conflict with the emphasis on specific knowledge or content. Part of the uneasiness which teachers have felt with attempts to define their subject matter as a body of knowledge results from an awareness, often unarticulated, that the goals which they seek to accomplish through the teaching, of literature are ultimately not defined by such knowledge, but rather are questions of values and perspectivethe kinds of goals usually summed up as those of a "liberal" or "humanistic" education. At all stages of our history, including those in which the primary goals of education would seem most antithetical to such emphases, teachers have paid at least passing tribute to the broadening aspects of literature. Only rarely have they considered, however, the implications of such an emphasis for the way their subject should be taught, being for the most part content to assume that the humanistic benefits would follow naturally from exposure to the proper content; the repeated observation that the teaching of literature was failing to achieve those broader ends with any significant number of students has usually been mustered during the course of an attempt to substitute one body of content for another, rather than to suggest that it is the stress on content itself that is at fault.

Teachers of English need to make the distinction between knowledge which informs their teaching, and that which should be imparted to the student. Virtually every development in scholarship in English studies has been seen as offering the inevitably proper definition of the content of the secondary school class. Grammar and rhetoric in the eighteenth century, philology in the nineteenth, sociology during the thirties, semantics in the forties, and the New Criticism in the sixties have been taken up and transplanted by enthusiastic teachers; and each has been supplanted in its turn by equally enthusiastic proponents of a newer critical perspective, or, in periods of extreme disorientation, by those who claim thateverythingis valid (and necessary) if we are to give students aall experience of literature. Yet without questioning the value of scholarship, it is legitimate to ask whether such developments in critical theory should be so directly generalized to the presumably less sophisticated studies of the secondary school classroom. There must be some level of Tio: l'imailims Itch :Ammo 247

response to (or knowledge about) literature that intervenes between that of the novice and that of the scholar, and it is presumably with those intervening levels khat a secondary school teacher should be concerned. The generalizations of scholarship and criticism will certainly be of importance in providing teachers with a frame of reference to order and direct their teaching, but a frame of reference for the teacher and a body of knowledge for the student are different things. This over-responsiveness to scholarly emphases has led proponents of virtually all points of view to ask that the secondary program in literature achieve a goal or series of goalswhich in fact have not beenrealized at any level ofscholarship. The attempts at defining a curriculum which fall into this category are endless: the survey course designed to give an historical view of literature, when a comprehensive history of literature has yet to be written: the core curriculum designed to unify the various fields of knowledge, when philosophers and scholars alike have struggled to achieve such a synthesis even for themselves; the spiral curriculum which seeks to build a sequence and scope on the basis of the structure of the discipline, when scholarly views of the "discipline- of English are themselves only beginning to emerge and are often in conflict; the attempt to prescribe critical standards for motion pictures before the medium had evolved or critical theory had built up around it. The quarrel in all of these cases is not with the vision of the teacher as coequal in the struggle to solve complex professionaland scholarly problems; it is with the parochial presupposition (so evident in many,discussions) that the solutions are ready at hand, waiting only for the teacher to have the courage to abandon his outmoded ways and, finally, bring the light and power ofknowledge to his students.

There is a need to reconceptualize the "literary heritage" and its implications for patterns of teaching. The proposition that a meaningful literary heritage may be something other than knowledge of the Great Books has too rarely been entertained. The teaching of literature began as an attempt to introduce students to the best authors and writings of the English tradition, with instruction at times concentrating wholly on biographical and historical data. Such studies were thought to have several justifications: they would provide a common set of reference points for the culture at large; they would teach the student to respect that culture by giving him a sense of his "heritage";and they would improve his personal system of values. Only gradually did the implicit faith in the power of these books begin to be replaced by an awareness that they do not automatically exert their benevolent influence, 248 TaAertION AND it EFORM

Any definition of a literary heritage in terms of specific books or authors distorts the cultural significance of a literary tradition by failing to recognize that what the Great Books offer is a continuing dialogue 'on the moral and philosophical questions central to the culture itself. The usefulness of the heritage lies in the confrontation with these issues which it provides: any acquaintanceship which avoids the confrontation is both trivial and irrelevant, an observation often subsumed in the comment that each generation takes from the past what it needs, reconstructing the literary hierarchy on contemporary terms. Yet even accepting such a need for engagement, there remain difficult questions about what exactly is necessary to achieve the desired goals. Does a sense of heritage require that all readers have experience with the same books? the same authors? some writings from the same centuries? Or can it, as -the authors of the Harvard report on general education asserted, arise simply from contemporary reinterpretations of the central philosophical issues? One could- argue from this point of view that the teacher should turn to contemporary voices not as bridges to works of the past, but because they are themselves the living embodiment of that part of the literary heritage which is of most concern. This is not to deny that the perspective of the past offers important insights into the present, nor that it can deepen and enrich contemporary thought; it is simply to assert that it is the contemporary thought which is of foremost importance.

The teaching of literature is a politicalact. From the time of its use in colonial primers, the power of literature to shape values and beliefs has been recognized and put to use. How it has been used has been to some extent responsive to cultural and political forces, during the nineteenth century shifting from religious doctrine to secularizations of the Protestant ethic, and later still toward the social and political reform of the progressive era. The progressive educators recognized perhaps most fully that literature is fundamentally a progressive force in society.'Not only do contemporary authors tend to challenge and redefine conventional beliefs, but the much vaunted "broadening" of experience that literature offers implies that it is valuable to broaden the personal and social perspectives of the peer culture. To transcend boundariesgeographical, social, ethnic,historical, or moral through literature is a first step toward transcending them in other aspects of one's life. Of all of the approaches to the teaching of literature, that associated with providing students with a sense of their literary heritage is most often associated with a conservative point of view, yet even it is ultimately a disruptive rather than a stabilizing THE PROBLEMS REMAINING 249

element. It would be very difficult to argue that the values which give continuity and stability to a society such as ours are in fact those to be found in the literature of the past. Though we may find continuing attention to certain moral (and political) dilemmas, the resolutions offered by Shakespeare certainly differ radically from thoseof Plato or Sartre, just as the conception of democracy which one can find in the writings of the founding fathers differs in certain basic ways from that which guides our country. today. Ifour cultural traditions were those of stability rather than change, and if our great literature arose out of and reflected those values, we might be able to offer the literary heritage as the stabilizing force it is often thought to be. Instead, the Great Works offer thesame challenges to the parochial point of view as do contemporary writers, though they do not deal with them in contemporaryterms. The moral dilemmas, the shifting perspective, the catholicity of views are implicitly offered to anyone who studies literature at all. These progressive goalsof improving theindividualjand through him, society) may be in direct opposition to the goals ofa hody politic concerned primarily with stability. An implicit recognition of this tension between literature and conventionmay be a contributing factor in the teacher's continuing search forways to define a circumscribed and thus safer body of knowledge. Because the school is locally controlled and vulnerable to communitypres- sure, because the teacher is often a product of that community and that culture, it has simply been more convenient to teach about literature and thus to limit its progressive. impulses.

Language skills have been narrowly conceptualized as an independent and functional aspect of the Englishprogram. Language skills have played a central role in justifications for the role of English in the school curriculum. Whether educating immigrants at the turn of the century or defending the importance of English to national defense during the sixties, teachers have been quick to cite the importance of speaking, listening, reading, and writing in day-to-day life. More often than not, such defenses have provided the screen behind which the teaching of literature could continue to flourish. Yet in spite of the continuing importance of skills to the defense of the curriculum as a whole, there has been precious little consideration of the relationship between the skills of English and the "higher" goals of expression or response to literature. Almost without exception, skills have been treated as subjects for direct teaching, sometimes within a framework of lessons, sometimes as "incidental" or "functional" instruction opportunistically inserted in the course of other work. In language the tenacity of direct teaching is especially clear because of the old and well-documented 250 TRADITION AND REFORM

evidence that grammatical knowledge has no demonstrable relationship to writing ability; but grammar has held its place in the curriculum, protected by the desire of teachers to have something concrete and "useful" to do in their classes. In the teaching of literature, the focus on skills has meant attention to reading, with any special skills involved in the reading of literature lumped together as "higher" reading skills. Yet consider the implications of asserting that the humanistic aspects of Englishbuild onskills.It is then legitimateeven wiseto assert that there is no point in teaching literature when the students have not "mastered" all of the skills of reading. One of the sad results of exactly suchaconceptualization of literature as the culmination of thereadingprogram has been the nearly complete elimination of literary materials from elementary school readers, a trend that has hegun to reverse itself somewhat in response to widespread criticism of the Dick and Jane stories, as well -as the more positive examples offered by such children's authors as Dr. Seuss At the high school level, similar assumptions have led to the rather pedestrian selections that fill the anthologies for !he lower tracks. Considerable evidence has accumulated to suggestif common sense is not enoughthat literary response is not the last part of the hierarchy of reading skills but is indeed primal and immediate. Children's love of word games and nursery rhymes is well known and has often been cited as the first stage of literary development surely preceding the development of reading skillsand the professional literature is fullof anecdotal accounts of non - readerswho, like Fader's delinquent boys, responded immediately and with considerable depth to literary selections far above their "reading level," as well as to artistic presentations through media such as stage or film. Few indeed would assert that it is good pedagogy to provide a tenth grader reading at a second grade level with .a second grade reading text; yet that is the logical conclusion to draw if one accepts literature as representing a set of "higher readingskills," More progress might be expected in the teaching of literature if teachers recognized that it involves a response to patterns of experience not necessarily dependent upon reading skills at all.

Afocus on correcting taste has obscured the need for fostering response. The notion of "taste" in literature is another term which, like "heritage," has suffered from the attempt to define the subject as a body of content, Concentrating on adult standards of mature (or "good ") literature, teachers have conceptualized children's preferences negatively, as something to be exposed in their shallowness and eliminated. This has been most evident in attitudes toward THE 11/40III.EMS REMAINING .251

journalism and motion pictures; these were confronted at least initially as evils lurking just over the horizon, ready to lure the unsuspecting pupil away from his six-foot shelf. Similar attitudes, however. have led teachers of literature to spend many class hours deriding Zane Grey, 0. Henry, or (more recently) James Bond. It is a curiously negative stance for a profession that prides itself on the broadening and humanistic values of its subject matter, a stance that condemns without providing a real alternative; the ready and easy path for the student to follow is to discover the teacher's preferences, a body of knowledge ahout acceptable responses to be learned and used during English class, and promptly set aside thereafter. It is exactly because it produces this result that the stress on taste is antithetical to the underlying goals of instruction. The way to build tasteas has heen recognized by some teachers in all of our historical periodsis to open new vistas rather than to shut off old ones. Everyone reads with pleasure at many different levels; even the sophisticated literary scholar has been known to admit that in (daily) moments of weakness he picks up the comic strips. It is a natural and perfectly wholesome response, and the base on which any more sophisticated response must build. The stress on developing "good taste" through their classes in liter& vure has made teachers overly sensitive to the less distinguished products of contemporary culture. Somehow students always read less than they "used to"; poetry is always "neglected completely"; teaching has obviously "failed" when the second-rate movie draws the largest crowds, and Forever Amber or Love Story tops the best seller lists. Few realize the extent to which each generation has had its formula authors; we are simply more aware of our own because time has dimmed the memory of those that came before. If the teacher has failed. it has been a failure to recognize that the appeal of the second rate involves a legitimate literary response upon which he should seek to huild. The greatest art is structured from the same elements; it differs from the lesser only in the subtlety and complexity with which those elements are put to use. It is this very structural complexity and subtlety, if we accept the one lesson the New Critics should have driven home to us all, which giVes the "great" literature its depth of meaning and significance, and which allows us tc return again and again for fresh insights and new perspectives.

The educative effects of the act of reading need to be defined. Because skills have been viewed as a separate dimension of work in English, often undertaken as a "service" to other areas of the 252 TRADITION AND REFORM

school, there has heen little attention to the extent to which they are a natural result of other aspects of English studies. Though teachers have exhibited an implicit faith that theact of reading is itself educative %hen they have encouraged widereading as an adjunct of their regular program of instruction, therehave been virtually no attempts to formulate what exactly thoseeffects are. Proponents of extensive study have been content with thevague supposition that such work in somesense "broadens" the student; supporters of intensive work have just as assuredly asserted that response follows understanding. Yet this surely is an oversimplification;a reader begins with some sense of meaning, however incomplete, and it is this original response which is refined and guided by theprocess of close analysis and explicit interpretation. But if readingdoes begin with some sense of meaning, the very structural features whichclose reading emphasizes must exerta certain discipline over the reader's response, shaping and controlling his experience perhapsto a greater extent than teachers have recognizedor been willing to admit. The patterned nature ofa work of literature will bring a reader up short if his own interpretation begins to wandertoo far from that which the author intended, though itmay still remain at quite a distance from the scholar's perception of thework, or even from a response that a scholar would acceptas "correct" iin the sense of fully consistent, parsimonious, and nontrivial. Even granting that the response of the novice willmiss much of the complexity and subtlety of the "great works," it doesnot necessarily follow that the educativepower of well-written passages is not strong enough to develop in the student who is reading widely exactly the same sensitivity that the advocates ofclose reading have been concerned with. Since the effects of extensivereading are more personal and less explicitly formulated, they may provoke a response less subject to the "distancing" and loss of involvement that can result from the imposition ofa cognitive, content-centered frame of reference.

Goals for the study of English dependupon prior assumptions about the nature and purpose of education.

Much attention has always been given to the specificationof adequate goals for instruction in English. It has been taughtas a way to exercise the faculties of memory and reason, to teach basic language skills, to provide guidance and adjustment,to introduce the student to the conceptual structure ofan academic discipline. Such goals are often in conflict and can be ordered onlyon the basis of principles which derive from assumptions abouteducation as a whole. If academic subject matter is to be at thetop of the educational hierarchy, goals for instruction must logically bebased THE PROBLEMS (REMAINING 253

in the discipline itself. Any discovery that thediscipline isill defined and somewhat unstable does noralterthis, though it may make the problem more difficult duringthe interim period of attempting to reformulate what Frye has calledthe "elementary teaching principles." Conversely, if thepurpose, of education is personal and linguistic growth, then the goalsfor instruction must be formulated in terms of that growth ratherthan in the structuring principles of the discipline of Englishevenif those principles have been agreed upon. It has always been possible to providean "inventory" of goals (behavioral or otherwise) for English, but suchan inventory con- fuses rather than clarifies the instructional issues:an inventory' in itself provides no way to determine whichgoals are central and which peripheral and derivative. This is theimportance of the perennial question, "What is English?" Toanswer it is to specify implicitly which goals are central and which of lesserimportance. If, for example, English is definedas a set of mechanical skills in language use, a goal such as "good spelling'.may emerge near the top of the hierarchy. It becomes important in itself andinstruction can be focussed directly upon it.This has infact sometimes happened because spelling has been definedas a mark of a good education; students have been tested and drilled inspelling for its own sake. If. however, English is definedas a way to order and understand the world through language, thenspelling becomes a secondary goal. The focus of instruction will beon using language in a significant exploration of the world,with spelling simply a skill which is useful but not central in thatprocess. Though spelling may still be taught directly, such teaching will have to beassessed in terms of its effect on the larger goalrather than simply in terms of improvement in spelling ability.

Sequence in the study of English must derivefrom psychological rather than logical principles.

Nineteenth century pedagogy derived from mental disciplineand faculty psychology represented theextreme oppositeof this point of view: at that time the educational value ofa subject was held to stem from its logical principles, and thesewere taught directly. In the teaching of English the rules ofgrammar, rhetoric, and composition were originally important for thesereasons. Dewey and the progressives emphasized that thiswas improper, that education must be based on the psychology of the child rather thanthe logic of the discipline; but their admonitionswere never widely observed at the secondary school level, The prohlemwas and is that psychol; ogical patterns are far more complex and less fullyunderstood than logical ones; anything more thana metaphorical use of terms like "growth" and "experience" is extremely difficult. 251 TRADITION AND REFORM

This is one of the problems with behavioral objectives: they carry with them pedagogical principles which assume that desired goals can be reached through the acquisition of component behaviors, Though this approach may seem reasonable, it represents a quantum leap in our knowledge about thepsychological processes underlying the teaching and learning ofEnglish. We can attempt. as the Tri-University Project has done, to list the end points of the program; and given the end points we can define a beginning as "where the student is." The territory between these two extremes is vast and uncharted; there is no reason to assume that the best way from one to another will be a straight lineor even that there is one "best" route thatstudents should follow. The most evident examples come from the teaching of compo- Sidon. For many years the classroom emphasis in this aspect of English has been on exactly the sorts of skills that can be most easily formulated in terms of behavioral objectives: correct spelling, good grammar, paragraph form, and the like. All of these are seen as very direct antecedents of what hasbeen viewed as good adult writing. Yet when the mechanics of good writing have heen successfully taught, good expression has not necessarily followed; the one does not grow steadily into the other. In a similar way, within the study of literature the emphasis on the skills of reading has not led, as some have,hoped,into the "higher", skills involved in response to literature. Whether formulated inthe pedagogical terms of W. S. Gray and the/reading specialists or in the literary terms of the New Critics, the attempt to provide the "missing elements" .of the mature response has not been successfulpresumably because the' relationship between the mature response and the elements which make it up has a different psychological nature than those attempts have assumed. 9I'he proponents of behavioral objectives quite rightly assert that if we are going to teach a lesson, we had better know why we are teaching it. Yet to be able to formulate objectives for a course, and in finer grain for any given lesson, does not mean that we can 'specify a sequence of component behaviors that contribute to those goals. Behavioral objectives are the wrong sort of objectives for the teaching of English not because they emphasize behavior, and not because they ask us to be precise about what we -are doing, but because they divert attention from the central problem of establishing and maintaining instructional priorities. They assume that there are clear and precise "steps along the way" to the goals we desire, and that the best way to those goals is to concentrate upon those "steps." But the teaching of literature is a more tentative enterprise than this implies; we know too little about fostering the kind of development we seem to cherish. The very materials with which we are working are so complex, touching upon such different aspects of the child's linguistic and moral development, that they may always resist formulation in the short-term stagesthat behav- THE PROBLEMS REMAINING 255

ioral objectives imply. What we seek to do in English is not to add discrete components of skill or knowledge, but gradually to elaborate the linguistic and intellectual repertoire of ourstudents, a process that is more fluid than linear, morefortuitous than predictable. The defenders of behavioral objectives argue that such complex and humanistic objectives need not be abused but in fact can be clarified and illuminated; but this is naive. The pressures for a. hard content in English are strong, and the balance of instructional effort easily tipped in their favor. On the other hand, there is a clear need for a wellformulated set of goals within a conceptual frame from which the sequence and direction of instruction can be specified. One of the failures of the progressive program in the late thirties was its inability to specify precisely its structuring principles, leaving the "experience curriculum" subject to a continuing loss of focus and gradual erosion. When the principles on which the scope and sequence of instruction are to be based are not clearly specified, it is inevitable that irrelevant activities will claim a place; and itis just as inevitable that, if this second stratum of the curriculum has an internal logic of its -own, that logic will seek to fill the gap in curriculum theory and establish itself in a central rather than a secondary role. Certainly such a filling-of-the-void had much to do with the replacement of experience by adjustment during the forties and fifties, for adjustment had at least a clearly defined end point.

The Next Chapters

English as a school subject is relatively young; its history stretches back barely a hundred years, its place of prominence much less than that. During that time English has responded openly to changing pedagogical and social concerns, assimilating and redefining them as necessary. Though its very openness has led to many false starts and temporary diversionseven a propensity for fads and gimmicksover the long term it has shed the distortions of one point of view after another. Here, too, we may be dealing with the educative effects of the subject matter: the scope of English is too broad, itsinfluence,on those who teach it too consuming, for it to long remain confined within a narrow framework. Today's teachers of English are better trained than their predecessors, with a stronger national organization and a more professionally oriented body of colleagues than at any previous time. Though the shape of the "new English" may be unclear from the perspective of the present, the next chapters of this history, when they are written, will surely describe a curriculum better than any we have seen in the past. This section gathers together important secondarysources and surveys of the teaching of English; those which figured prominentlyin the present study are briefly annotated. The many contemporary hooks,articles, and monographs out of which the history grew are not listed here;representative examples are referenced in the appropriate places in thetext. Dissertations dealing with any aspect of the history of English instructionare included in the bibliography, even when not directly relevantto the teaching of literature.

V 3 b Selected Bibliography

Ackert, Walter Scott. A History of English Studies to 1883 Based on the Research of William Riley Parker. Dissertation, New York University, 1972. University Microfilms No. 72-31,057. Adler, Richard, and Applebee, Arthur N. Annotated Humanities Programs. Urbana, Ill.: NCTE, 1968. Descriptive annotations of programs in all parts of the nation. No summary or evaluation provided in this report. Aikin, Wilford NI. The Story of the Eight-Year Study. New York: Harper and Bros., 1942. Summary of the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association by its areeter. Discusses background and aims. Allen, Don Cameron. The Ph.D. in English and American Literature.'New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968. First chapter discusses development of English studies in American colleges and universities. Anderson, Scarvia. Between the Grimms and The Group': Literature in American High Schools. Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service, 1904. Random survey of course requirements. Beesley, Patricia. The Revival of the Humanities in American Education. New York: Columbia University Press, 1940. Summarizes changes in college programs as part of general education movement. Bell, Daniel. The Reforming of General Education. New York: Columbia University Press, 1966. Includes good discussion of history and current trends. Bennett, Robert, ed. Summary Progress Report of English Curriculum Study and Demonstration Centers. Champaign, Ill.: NCTE, 1966. Reports from the directors of the study centers. Edel Ann Winje. A 1):riptive Analysis of Anthologies for the Tenth Grade as the Texts 2 Related to the Objectives for the Study of Literature as Expressed by National Professional Groups. Disserta- tion, Indiana University, 1965. University Microfilms No. 65.14031. Traces attitudes of MLA, NCTE. CEEB. NSSE. NEA, and NASSP toward "modern" philosophy of instruction in literature. Concludes texts follow major trends.

257 258 TRADITION AND REFORM

Bernd. John Muth.Approaches to the Teaching of Literature in Secondary School, 1900-1956.Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1957. Uni- versity Microfilms No. 24,264. Good discussion of justifications for the various approaches in successiveperiods:classics,historical/ chronological, types. themes, problems, individual reading, correlation. Bernhardt, Norma Woosley.Trends in the Teaching of English Written Composition in the Secondary Schools of the United States: 1900.1960. Dissertation, University of NorthCarolina (Chapel Hill), 1963. Uni- versity Microfilms No. 64-1834. Hessy. Mabel A. Reportof a Committee of the NCTE on the Use of the Magazine in the High School English Classroom. Chicago:NCTE, 1935. 1934survey of magazine use in classroomsof 600 teachers. 1311 h, Evelyn Rezek.Anthologies of American Literature, 1787-1964.Dis- sertation, Columbia University, 1965. University Microfilms No. 66-1728. Traces evolution of commerical as well as school anthology. Best availablediscussion of early forms ofthese books. Billett. Ray 0.Provisions for Individual Differences, Marking, and Pro- motion.LISOE Bulletin 1932, no. 17 (National-Survey of Secondary Education Report no. 131. Washington, D.C.: Government Print- ing Office,1933. Survey of practice in 3,594secondary schools; discusses Dalton, Morrison. project, problem, contract,and other methods. Boring, Edwin G.A History of Experimental Psychology. NewYork: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1929. Discusses changes inpsychology during early twentieth century. Botts, Roderic Chellis.Influences on the Teaching of English, 1917-35: An Illusion of Progress.Dissertation, Northwestern University, 1970. Uni- versity MicrofilmsNo. 71-1799. Bowers, C. A.The Progressive Educator and the Depression.New York: Random House, 1969. Background on social movements and educational reform during the 1930s, especially on the social reconstructionists. Braddock, Richard, etal. Research in Written Composition.Urbana, Ill.: NCTE, 1963. Critical review and summary of research. Broome, Edwin C.A Historical and Critical Discussion of College Admis- sion Requirements.Contributions to Philosophy, Psychology, and Education, nos.3-4. New York: Columbia University Press, 1903. Traces requirements from their origin in colonial colleges. Burd, Henry A. "English Literature Courses in the Small College,"English Journal3:2 (February 1914), 99-108. Report of an NCTE survey. Bureau ofthe Census.Historical Statistics of the United States.Washing- ton, D.C.: Government. Printing Office, 1960. Summarizes censusand Bureau of Education statistics on the growth of the schools; includes estimates of students enrolled in English after 1900. I3urress, Lee A., Jr.How Censorship Affects the School.Special Bulletin no. 8. Wisconsin Council of Teachers of English,1963. Survey of censorship in Wisconsin schools. Butler, Donna, and O'Donnell, Bernard.A Guide to Available Project English Materials,Urbana, Ill.: NCTE, 1969. Abstracts and bibli- ographical information for available materials. Callahan. Raymond E.Education and the Cult of Efficiency.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. Major sourcc on the efficiency movement in educationin early twentieth century. SF:LECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 259

Teaching Carpenter, George Baker, Franklin 1'.; and Scott, Fred N. The of English in the Elementary andthe Secondary School. New York: Longinans, Green, and Co., 1903. Extensivediscussions of trends in the teaching of -English up to 1900.Thorough bibliographies on all aspects of instruction. Clapp. John Mantle. The Place of Englishin American Life. Report of an Investigation by a CoMmittee of theNational Council of Teachers of English. Chicago: NCTE, 1926. Surveyof the uses of English in various occupations and social classes. Clapp. John Mantle. "Report of Committee onPlace and Function of En glish in American Life." English Journal15:2 (February 1926), 110-34. Suntmary of committee report. Cmnmager, Henry Steele, ed. hicauffey's.Fifth Eclectic Reader. New York: New American Library, 1962. Commuger'sintroduction to this reprint edition outlines the history andinfluence of the series of readers. Commission on English. Examining theExamination in English. Harvard Studies in English, vol. 17. Cambridge.Mass.: Harvard University Press. 193. Reviews the history and forthof the examinations set by the College Board. Commission on English. Freedom and Disciplinein English. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1965.Reviews the work of the Commission on English established in 1959. Committee of the Faculty of Harvard Collegeand of the Graduate School of Education. The Training of SecondarySchool Teachers Especially with Reference to English. Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1942. Reviews effect of the expansionof public education upon teacher education; comments on theinfluence of NCTE. Committee of the Massachusetti TeachersAssociation. "English in Secon- dary Schools" The Academy 3 (January1889), 593-609. Survey of Massachusetts schools- and of 50 "important"high schools in other states: spread and characteristicsof course, methods of study. Committee of the Northern Illinois HighSchool Teachers' Association. "English in the High School," TheAcademy 4 (May 1889), 179-200. Report of 1888 survey of national sample of135 schools. Committee of Ten of the NEA. Report of theCommittee of Ten on Secon- dary School Studies, with the Reportsof the Conferences Arranged by the Committee. New York: AmericanBook Co. for the NEA, 1894. Contains the report of the Vassar Conference onEnglish held in 1893. Committee bn College Entrance Requirementsin English. "The Influence of the Ur iform Entrance Requirementsin English," English Journal 1:2 (February 1912), 95-121.Survey carried out by NEA committee chaired by Hosic. Committee on English Equipment. "Reportof the Committee," English Journal 2:3 (March 1913), 178-84-EarlyNCTE survey. Committee on General Education. GeneralEdncation in a Free Society. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UniversityPress, 1945. Reviews changes in the high schools in relation togeneral education. Committee on the High School Course inEnglish. "Types of Organization of High-School English," English Journal2:8 (November 1913h 575-96. Questionnaire survey of nationalsample of 307 schools; class size, organization, emphases, and titles. 2(10 TRADITION AND REFORM

Committee on National Interest. 77wNational Interest and the Continu- ing Education of Teachers of English: AReport on the State of the Profession, 1964.Urbana, Ill.; NCTE, 1964. Secondsurvey on teaching conditions and teacher preparation. Committee on National Interest.The National Interest and the Teaching of English: A Report on the Statusof the Profession.Urbana, III.; NCTE, 1961. Extensive description ofprofessional conditions, including some new data from questionnairesurveys. Committee on Plays in Schools and Colleges."Report of the Committee," English Journal4:1 (January 1915). 34-40. NCTE survey. Committee on Preparation of High SchoolTeachers of English. "Report of the Committee,"English Journal4:5 (May 1915), 323.32. NCTEques- tionnaire survey: summarizes 450responses from 1,500 forms distributed. Conant, James B. TheAmerican High School 'Today: A First Reportto Interested Citizens.New York: Signet Books, 1964. Firstedition by McGraw IIM Book Co., 1959. Reportof school visits with recommendations on the comprehensive high school. Conant, James B.Slums and Suburbs.New York: Signet Books, 1961. Second report, contrasting urban andsuburhan education. Conrad, Erna B., and Hickok, Katherine."Placement of Literary Selec- tions for Junior and Senior High Schools,"English Journal 19:5 (M'ay 1930), 377-84. Summarizes gradeplacement of literary works in 44 courses of study published since 1920; 22 of thesewere state courses. Cook, Albert S.A Brief Summary of the Proceedings of theConference wt Uniform Entrance Reunite:nem:: in English.New York: The Confer- ence, 1899. Official account of the background andearly history of 'the conference. Corbin, .Jonathan.Annotated Humanities Programs.Champaign, 1967. Descriptive summaries ofprograms from all parts of the nation. No summary or evaluation providedin this report. Corbin, Richard, and Crosby, Muriel.LanguagePrograms for the Disad- vantaged.The Report of the NCTE Task Forceon Teaching English to the Disadvantaged. Urbana, NCTE, 19651 Summary of observations of programs at allage levels by a team 22 observers; descriptive rather than statisticalreport. Counts. George S. "Approved High Schoolsof the NOrlh Central Associa- tion of Colleges and Secondary Schools,"inA Study of the Colleges and High Schools in the NorthCentral Area.Bureau of Education Bulletin 1915 no. 6. Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1015. Reports enrollments and subjectsoffered. Counts. George S.The Senior High School Curriculum.Supplementary Educational Monographs no. 29. Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1926. Discusses Englishprograms in 15 "progressive" cities. Cremin, Lawrence A. The Transformationofthe School: Progressivism in American Education.New York: Vintage Books, 1961. Essentialback- ground on all aspects of the progressivemovement. Davis. Calvin 0.A Historyof theNorth Central Association.Ann Arbor, Mich.: NCA, 1945. Dexter, Edwin C. "Ten Years'Influence of the Report of the Committee of Ten," School Review14 (April 1906). 254-69. Contrastscourses of study in 1905 and 1895, nationwide. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 261

Donlan, Daniel Mahaney. Dilemma of Choice: Revolution in English Cur- ricula, 10513-1000. Dissertation. Stanford University, 1972. University Microfilms No. 72-16,712. Douglas, Harl It. and Fi lk, Anna M. "The Classroom Practices of Minne- sota Teachers of High-School English," English Journal 27:3 (March 1938). 252-57. Briefly reported checklist study of methods. Khrenpreis. Irvin. The "Types Approach" to Literature. New York: King's Crown Press, 1945. Most thorough discussion of the evolution of the types approach and its emergence in the high school curriculum. Elson. Ruth Miller. Guardians of Tradition: American Schoolbooks of the Nineteenth Century. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 1964. Extensive discussion of school readers. Emerson, Oliver Farrar. "English in Preparatory Schools," The Academy 5 (February 1890), 104-08. Survey report. Evans, Mae J. "How Much Work Is Done in American Literature in the High Schools?" School Review II (October 1903), 647-54, Survey report. Fay. Robert Sargent. The Reorganization Movement in English Teaching, 1910-1917. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1968. University Micro- films No: 68-12,068. Traces goals and influence of the movement, asa case study in educational reform. Finch. Hardy R. "Film Production in the SchoolA Survey," English Journal 28:5 (May 1939), 365-71. Ford, Paul Leicester. ed. The New England Primer. New York: Teachers College. Columbia University. 1962. Reprint edition with Ford's classic introduction. Garner, W. Lee. Programmed Instruction. New York: Center for Applied Research in Education, 1966. Sympathetic description of the evolution of this approach. Gerber. John C. "Il'he 1962 Summer Institutes of the Commission on English. PIVILA 78 (September 19631, 9-25. Report from the chairman of the team of evaluators. Getz, Iloward G. Paraprofessionals in the English Department. Urbana, NCTE/ERIC, 1972. Review and questionnaire survey 'of schools in Illinois. Indiana, and Michigan. Gibson, James Chester. An Examination of Speech Teaching in Selected Georgia Educational Institutions. 1722-1900. Dissertation, University of Georgia, 1971. University Microfilms No. 72-2485. Giles. II. H.; McCutchen, S. P.; and Zechiel, Exploring the Curricu- lum: The Work of the -Thirty Schools from the Viewpoint of the Cur- riculum Consultants. ishiw York: Harper and Bros.. 1942. Describes the evolution of the core curriculum. Graham. Patricia A. Progressive Education: From Arcady to Academe. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1967. History of the PEA. Grandgent. Charles H. "The Modern Languages." in The Development of Ilartyird University Since the Inauguration of President Eliot. 1869- 1929, edited by Samuel Eliot Morison. Cambridge. Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1930. Briefly describes the beginnings of English instruction at Harvard. 262 TRADITION AND RK$ORM

Grimes. Mildred I,. "These Latter Years,:' EnglishLeaflet50 (Whole number 442: February 1951), 17-36. Recent history ofNew EnglandAsso- ciation of Teachers of English. Grommon, Alfred H. "A History of the Preparation of Teachers of Eng. lish."English Journal57;4 (April 1968), 484-527. Detailed and useful, Gruen. Ferdinand B.English Grammar in American High Schools Since 1900.Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America, 1934. Guder, Darrell 1..The History of Belles-Lettres at Princeton: An Invest),- gation of the Expansion and Secularization of Curricula at the College of New Jersey with Special Reference to tlw Curricula of English Lan- guage and Letters.Unpublished dissertation, University of Hamburg. 1965. Hanson. Charles Lane. "The Early_ years of Our Association," English Leaflet 48 (Whole number 427: March 1949): 33.47. History of first years of New England Association of Teachers of English. Harvard University,Twenty Years of School and College English. 'Cam- bridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1896. Details the changing entrance requirements. Hatfield. W. Wilhur. "Farewell!"English Journal44:5 (May 1955), 288-89. Brief reflections on retiring from the editorship. Hatfield. W. Wilbur. "General and Specialized Literary Clubs," English Journal 15:6 (June 1926). 450-56. Survey report; descriptive rather than statistical. Hays, Edna.College Entrance Requirements in English: Their Effects on the High Schools.Contributions to Education, no. 675. New York: Teachers College, Columhia University, 1936. Detailed history of the requirements and their effects. Hickman. Lucian G. ''The Teaching of Composition and Literature inthe High Schools of Indiana," English Journal 10:3 (March 1921), 142-59. Useful survey report. I lillocks, George, Jr.Alternatives in English: A Critical Appraisal of Eke- tire Programs.Urbana. NCTE, 1972. Review of movement and analysis of 76 program guides. Hoetker, James. Dramatics and theTeaching ofLiterature. Urbana, 111.1 NCTE, 1969. Critical review of current approaches and historical background. Holman; Alfred, Jr.The Teaching of Literature in American Secondary Schools: An Historical Study of the Theories of Literature Instruction. Sitter 1900.Unpublished dissertation, UniversityofCincinnati, 1945. Hook, J. N. "Characteristics of Award-Winning High Schools," English Journal 50:1 (January 1961), 9-15. Survey of schools producing NCTE Achievement Award winners. Hooper, Cyrus L. "Existing Conditions, in the Teaching of English," School Review15 (April 1907), 261-74. Survey report on 70 schools. Hopkins, E. M.Report on the Cost and Labor of English Teaching,For MLA and NC'rE. Lawrence, Kansas:. Journalism Press, University of Kansas, 1913. Focusses on composition. Horner, Robert W., and Lagios. Socrates A. "An Overview of Humanities Programs throughout the Country,"English Leaflet63 (Fall 19641, 39-57. Survey report. Hosic. James Fleming. "The National Council. of Teachers of English," English Journal10:1 (January 1921), 1-10. Reviews early history. SEI.ECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 263

!resit. James Fleming. "The National Council after TwentyYears," Eng- lish Journal 21:2 (February 1932). 107-13.Reviews early history. 1106it. James Fleming, comp. Reorganization of English inSecondary Schools, Bureau of Education Bulletin 1917, no. 2. Washington,D.C.: Government Printing Office. 1917. Report of the Joint Committee on English; reviews history and present status of the teaching of English. Ilotopf, W. H. N. Language. Thought and Comprehension: A Case Study of the Writings of I. A. Richards, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965. Background on Richards's thought and influence. Iludelson. Earl. "English Composition, Its Aims, Methods, and Measure- ment," in National Society for the Study of Education, Twenty- Second Yearbook. Bloomington. III.: Public School Publishing Co., 1923. Surveys aims and methods in 240 high schools. Hodelson. Earl. "Our. Course of Study in Literature," English Journal 12:7 (September 1923), 481-87. Summarizes required and recommended reading in 38 state courses of study. Huston, Jon Reckard. An Analysis of English Grammar TextbooksUsed in American Schools Before 1850, Dissertation,University of Pitts- burgh. 1954. University Microfilms No. 8896. Jewett. Arno. English Language Arts in American High Schools.U.S. Office of Education Bulletin 1958, no. 13. Washington, D.C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1959. Survey of 258 courses of study in current use: examines organization, goals, content. Jewett, Ida A. English in State Teachers Colleges: A Catalogue Study. Contributions to Education no. 286. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. Studies offerings in all phases ofEnglish in 1900 and 1925. Johnson, Clifton. Old-Time Schools and School-Books. New York: Dover Publications. 1963. First edition 1904. Antiquarian view of early texts, copiously illustrated. Katz. Michael. The Irony of Early School Reform: Educational Innovation in Mid-Nineteenth Century Massachusetts. Cambridge. Mass.; Har- vard University Press. 1968. Discusses motivation behindmid-century extension bf education; high school as instrument of social control, Kelly. Louis G. 25 Centuries of Language Teaching. Rowley, Mass.: New- bury House, 1969. Traces methods and approaches in language teaching to their origins in classical civilizations. Krouse, Harry B. History and Evaluation of the Critical Trends, Exclusive of Fiction, in the Atlantic Monthly, 1857 to 1898. Dissertation. Uni- versity of Wisconsin, 1972. University Microfilms No. 72-22,101. Attitudes toward literature in later nineteenth century: not directly concerned with educational issues. Krug, Edward A. Charles W. Eliot and Popular Education. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1961. Good introduction to the struggle between the "ancient" and "modern" subjects; reprints some of Eliot's discussions of theteaching of English. Krug, Edward A. The Shaping of the American High School. New York: Harper & Row, 1964. Background on the expansion of the school after 1880, through the reorganization period. Leonard, Sterling Andrus. The Doctrine of Correctness in English Usage 1700-1800. University of Wisconsin Studies in Language andLiters. 264 TRADITION ANI) REFORM

ture no. 25. Madisnn: University of Wisconsin Press,1929. Thorough history of the prescriptive tradition ingrathmar and rhetoric, Lewis, John Smith. Jr. The History of Instructionin American Literature in Colleges and Universities of the UnitedStates. Dissertation, New York University. 1941. University MicmfilmsNo. 431. Includes discussion of instruction in nineteenthcentury colleges', Lull, Herbert Galen. Inherited Tendencies ofSecondary Instruction in the United States. University of California Publicationsin Education vol. 3, no. 3 (April 1913), 155-281Useful illustrations of eighteenth and nineteenth century instruction. especiallyas it related to faculty psychology and mental discipline. Lynch, James J.,- and Evans, Bertrand.High School English Textbooks: A Critical Examination. Boston: Little, Brownand Company, 1963. Exhaustive analysis and critique of language andliterature texts. Lyon. Leverett S. "The Business-English Situationin the Secondary School," English Journal7;9 (November 1918),576-87. Status survey. McCrosky, Cecile B. "The Administration ofEnglish in the High-School Curriculum." English Journal 7:2 (February 1918),108-17. Summarizes replies from 33 Ohio schools on conditions andequipment, McDavid, Raven 1., J r. 'An Examination of the Attitudesof the WYE toward Language. Research Reportno 4. Urbana, NCTE, 1965. Chronicles changing attitudes in journal discussions;little analysis. Macgowan, Kenneth. Footlights Across America. NewYork: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1929. Discusses background ofthe little theater movement. Madsen. Harold Stanley. An Historical Study of the Forces ThatHave Shaped English Instruction in Utah's Secondary Schools.Disserta tion, University of Colorado, 1965. University Microfilms No.66-3256. Malone. Kemp. "The Rise of Modern Philology,- Bulletin of theModern Humanities Research Association 30 (November 1958), 19-31.Traces roots of modern-philology back to ancient Greece; useful background. Maloney. Henry B.. ed. Accountability and theTSching of English. Ur- bana, NOTE, 1972. Continues. in further detail the argtimentspro and con presented in On Writing BehavioralObjectives for English. Maloney.11enry, B.. ed. Goal Making for English Teaching.Urbana, 111.: NCTE, 1973. A collection of varied personal opinionon uses and limitations of performance objectives for English. Mainney.11enry B.1.1Stepsisters to Print:ThePublicArts in the iligh Sch. English ('lass." English Journal 49:8 (November1960), 570-79. In- cludes brief chmniele of changing journal attitudes. Mason, 3-Tr-mvt !locker. The National Council of Teachersof English- 1911-192u: Unpublished dissertation,George Peabody College for Teachers, 1902, University Microfilms No.62-5681. Detailed chronicle of fintt, years of NC: basedon interviews with early leaders and on materials later destroyed by a fire at Councilheadquarters.. :11axtvell. Joan. and Myatt. Anthony. eds. On WritingBehaviorist Objee- tires for English. Urbana, 111.; NCTE, 1970.Spectrum of opinion pre vuiling during the height of thiscontroversy. Meade. Richard A. -Organization of Literature forJuniors and Seniors," English Journal 36:7 (September 1947). 366-70. Summarizesorganiza- tion and aims of 15 stilts courses of study publishedbetween 1936 and 1910: very brief. SELECTED 13MLIOGRAPHY 265

Meikle, Henry W. "The Chair of Rhetoric and Be lies Lettres," University of Edinburgh Journal 13 (Autumn 1945), 89-103. Primesource on the Scottish rhetoricians and the events at Edinburgh: Stevenson, Smith,. and Blair. Nlersand, Joseph. ''The Teaching of Literature in American 1:11ighSchools: 1865. 1900," in Perspectives on English. edited by Robert C. Pooley. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1960. Useful discussion of early developments. Michael. lan.English Grammatical Categories and the Traditionto 1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. Thorough analysis of the content of early grammars, in relation to those of the classical languages. Morris. Charles R. "From the Age of Confidence to Roosevelt's Fitutit Term," English Leaflet 50 (Whole Number 441: January 1951), 1-1,4 History of New England Association fmm 1910 onward. Mott. John II.. Reading interests of Adolescents: A Critical Studyof Fifty Years of Research. Dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, 1971. University Microfilms No. 71-4203. Moulton. Dorothy Evelyn. The Teaching of Literature in the SeniorHigh School: An Historical. and Critical Study of Recent Trends Based upon an Analysis of Selected Professional Publications, 1911-55. Dis- sertation. University of Michigan, 1959. University Microfilms No. 59-4966. 'Die National Council, 1011-367 English Journal 25:10 (December 1936k805-36. Lengthy review of early history: useful for perspective but inaccurate in its detail. Ned, Helen McDonnell. An Analysis of History of EnglishLiterature Textbooks Usectin American Secondary Schools Before WOO. Dis- sertation, University of Pittshurgh, 1954. University MicrofilmsNo. 8907. Nelson. Jack, and Roberts. Gene. Jr. The Censors and the Schools.Bos- ton: Little, Brown and Co., 1963. Good discussion and historical over view, - Olson, James Warren. The Nature of Literature Anthologies Used inthe Teaching of High School English 1917-1957, Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1969. University Microfilms No. 69- 22.454. Excellent discussion of general trends in the teaching of literatureas well as detailed analysis of the anthologies. O'Neal, Robert. "World Literature in the High School.' English Journal 5212 (February 1963). 94-96. Chain letter survey by NCTE committee. with responses from 167 schools; lists titles used in thesecourses. Paliner. 1). J. The Rise of English Studies. London: Oxford University Press. 1965. Describes the evolution of English studies in Britain,especially at The university level. Parker. Williath Riley. "Where Do English Departments Come From?" College English 28:5 (February 1967). 330-51. Fascinating but loosely documented account of early teaching of English in American colleges. Payne. William Morton. English in American Universities. Boston: D.C. Heath and Co.. 1895. Reprint of 1894 series in The Dial. Describes programs, emphases at 20 institutions. 266 TRADITION AND REFORM

Pitt', Gene Laurence. .Revision and Reform in the Secondary School En- glish Curriculum, 1870-1900. Dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1067. University Microfilms No. 68-1559. Pierson, George Wilson. Yale College: An Educational History 1871-1921. New Haven: Yale University Press, .1952. Includes brief account of early teaching of English at Yale. l'urves, Alan C., and Beach, Richard. Literature and the Reader: Reiearth in Response to Literature, Reading Interests, and the Teaching of Literature, Urbana, Ill.: NCTE, 1972. Summary of research. Quinn, Arthur Hobson. A History of the American Drama from the Civil War to the Present. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,. 1936. Focusses on plays and playwrights. Radner, Sanford. Fifty Years of English Teaching: A Historical Analysis of the Presidential Addresses of NCTE. Champaign, 1114NCTE, 1960. Brief summaries of all the presidential addresses. Reeder, Rudolph R. The Historical Development. of School Readers and of Methods in Teaching Reading. New York: Macmillan Co., 1900: Use- ful account of early readers. Rogers, Rose Marie. The Development of American Textbooks in Business English and Correspondence in the Secondary Schools. Dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1958. University Microfilms No. 58-2035. 1900-1950. Rosewell, Paul Truman. A Historical Survey of Recommendations and Proposals for the Literature Curricula of American Secondary Schools since 1892. Dissertation,' University of Nebraska Teachers College. 1965. University Microfilms No. 66-2081. Useful summaries of the major curriculum statements and proposals; extensive quotations. Rudolph. Frederick. The American College and University: A History. New York: Vintage Books. 1962. Background on all aspects of college education from colonial times; includes full discussion of the extracurriculum. Rugg, Harold. "Three Decades of Mental Discipline: Curriculum Making Via National Committees," in Curriculum Making Past and Present. Twenty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu- cation, Part One. Bloomington. In.: Public School Publishing Co.. 1926. Reviews the work of the major committees. including those of the reorganization period, Rusk. Elizabeth Hartley. The Treatment of 167 English Usages in Twelfth- Grade Language Textbooks, 7931-1951. Dissertation, University of Illinois. 1953. University Microfilms No. 6007. Ryan. Thomas Kevin. Mass media and the Secondary School: An Exam- ination of the Attitudes of the National Council of Teachers of English. 1911-1960. Thwart!' Five Selected Mass Media as Expressed in The English Journal. Dissertation, Ball State University, 19Th University Microfilms No. 72.7517. Salter, Thomas 1. A Study of the Trends in the Teaching of English in Texas High Schools Since 1884. Dissertation, University of Houston, . 1955. University Microfilms. No. 13,824. Searles. John Rexford. Some Trends in the Teaching ofLiterature Since 1900 in American High Schools. Unpublished dissertation.University of Wisconsin. 1942, Contains the most thorough discussion of early texts on English and the teaching of English. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 267

Shayer. David.The Teaching of English in Schizo's: 1900-1970.London and Boston: Rout ledge and Kegan Paul, 1972. History of English instruction in British schools; very little of relevance to American pattern, Sherwin, J. Stephen.Four Problems in Teaching English: A Critique of Research. Scranton, Pennsylvania: International Textbook Co. for the NCTE. 1969. Definitive summary of research, with some historical perspective, in spelling, writing, diagramming, and the relationship between English and Latin instruction. Shugrue, Michael F.English in a. Decade of Change.New York: Pegasus, 1968. Useful account of developments since 1958. Shugrue, Michael F. "New Materials for the Teaching of English from the English Program of the USOE."PMLA81 (September 1966), 1-36. Summaries from the curriculum study centers of work in progress, Silberman. Charles E.Crisis in the Classroom: The Remaking of American Education.New York: Random House, 1970. Critique and survey of current trends, for Carnegie Corporation. Sizer, Theodore R., ed.The Age of the Academies.New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964. Good background on patterns preceding high school movement; reprints a number of interesting early documents. Sizer, TheodoreR. Secondary Schools at the Turn of the Century.New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964. Committee of Ten, its background and influence. Smith, Adam.Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres.Edited with an introduction and notes by John M. Lothian. Camden, N.J.: Thomas Nelson Sons, 1963. An expanded version of the original Edinburgh lectures, from a student's notes. Includes useful background on the transition from formal rhetoric to the Belles Lettres, and the general cultural shift of which it was a part. Smith, Dora V.Evaluating Instruction in Secondary School English.A Report of a Division of the New York Regents' Inquiry into the Character and Cost of Public Education in New York State. Chicago: NCTE, 1941. Thorough study of New York schools, hased on questionnaires, testing, and school visits. Smith. Dora V.Instruction in English.Bureau of Education Bulletin 1932, no. 17. National Survey of Secondary Education Monograph no. 20. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933. Based on survey of 156 courses of study issued since 1925, and visits to 90 schools selected for interesting features of their programs. Detailed analyses of goals, methods, content in all areas of English nationally. Smith, Nila Banton.American Reading Instruction.New York: Silver, Burdett and Co., 1934. Explores early history: texts, methods, philosophy. Squire. James It., ed.A Common Purpose: The Teaching of English in Great Britain, Canada, and the United States.Urbana, Ill.: NCTE, 1966. Report of special conference in 1965: contains brief review of initial contacts with British programs. Squire. ,lames R.Eight YearReportof the Executive Secretary 1960- 1967.Champaign, Ill.: NCTE, 1967. Retrospective review of developments in English and the NCTE during Squire's term of office. 268 TRADITION AND REFORM

Squire, James It. "English Literature,in Encyclopedia of Educational Research. Edited by Robert L. Ethel. New York: Macmillian Co., 1969. .Reviewofresearch. Squire, James R., ed. A New Look at Progressive Education. -1972 Year- book of the ASCD. Washington, D.C.: ASCII), 1972. Reviews major aspects of progressivism in relation to current thought. Squire, James fl. and Applebee, Roger K. High School English Instruction !fluky: The National Study of High School English Programs, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968. Study-in-depth of English in- Struction in 158 leading high schools of the early 1960s. Squire, James R.. and. Applebee, Roger K. Teaching English in the United Kingdom. Urbana, Ill.: NCTE, 1969. Extension of the National Study to 42 British schools offering alternatives to typical American patterns of inst ruction. Stahl. Donald E. The Development of the English Curriculum in Chicago Public Schools from 1856 to 1958. Dissertation. Northwestern Univer- si4, 1960. University Microfilms No. 60-4798. StahL,Donald E. A History of the English Curriculum in American High . Schools. Chicago: Lyceum Press, 1965,. Published version of his thesis. Steinberg, Erwin R. "Research on the Teaching of English," MLA 79 (September 1964), 50-76. Project English status reports. Stoddard, Francis FL "Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English," Educational Review (19051, 375-83. History of the early years of the conference. Stone. George Winchester, Jr. Issues, Problems. and Approaches in the Teaching of English. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1964. (Copyright 1961 by the MLA.) Reprints a number of early statements on the teaching of English, including reports of the School and College .:Conference nn English. Stout. John Elbert. The Development of High-School Curricula in the 6.1vrth Central States from 1860 to 1918. Supplementary Educational Monographs vol. 3, tin. 3. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921. ExlAisive summary of course offerings in *North Central schools. Considerable background on trends in English. Tanner, George W. :'Report of the Committee Appointed by the English Conference to Inquire Into the 'reaching of English in the High Schools of the Middle West," School Review 15 (January 1907). 37-45. Surveys 67 schools. with spechA attention to influence of Uniform Lists. Thirty &limas Tell 'Their Story. New York: Harper and Bros.. 1942. Descriptions by the thik, schools of the E;ght-Year Study, of the evolution of their courses of study. Much attention to English as part of core curriculum. Thwaite, NI. F. From Pruner to Pleasure. London: The Library Associa- tion, 1963. Recounts history of children's literature as well as of school texts. Veilh, Donald P- An Historical Analysis of the Relations Between 'English'' and "Speech° Since 1910. Unpublished dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia University. 1952. Concentrates on relations between Speech Association of America and NCTE. lkVeitek. Rene. "Literary Scholarship,in American Scholarship in the Twentieth Century, edited by Merle Curti, Cambridge, Mass.: Ilar-' SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 269/3,10

yard University Press, 1953. Good discussionof trends in scholarship, including nineteenth century background. White, Helen C, Changing Stylesin Literary Studies. Presidential Ad- dress of the Modern Humanities ResearchAssociation. London: Cam- bridge University Press for the MHRA,1963. Interesting retrospective account of trends during twentieth century. Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society1780-1950. London: Chatto and Windus, 1958. Background on changingdefinitions of culture and the arts during the Romantic period. Witt, Peter D. The Beginnings of the Teachingof the Vernacular Litera- ture in the Secondary Schools of Massachusetts, Dissertation,Harvard University, 1968. University Microfilms No. 69-11,507.Fullest account of instruction in the early years;concentrates on limited geographic region, but one that was central in shapingpatterns of instruction. Wright, Grace S. Core Curriculum in PublicHigh Schools: An Inquiry into Practice, 1949. U.S. Office of Education Bulletin1950, no. 5. Washington, D.C,: Government Printing Office,1950. Results from questionnaire to 13,816 high schools; discussespatterns and geographic distribution. Zielonka, Alfred. Walter. TheModern Language Association of America 1683-1960: An Historical Account of Selected Activities.Dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo,1964. University Mierofilms no. 64-13,673. Appendices

Appendix I: Some Important Dates in the Teaching of English

c. 1690 The New England Primer issued by Benjamin Harris. 1755 Ebenezer Kinnersley appointed professor of the English tongue and oratory, College of Pennsylvania. 1759-8r Hugh Blair lectures at Edinburgh, continuingan earlier series by Adam Smith; publishes Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres (1783). 1783-95Noah Webster publishes his Grammatical Institute of the English Language. 1819 The College of New Jersey sets an entrance requirement in English grammar. 1836 The first volume of McGuffey's Readers appears. 1848 Thomas Budge Shaw's Outlines of English Literature published in London; American edition follows in 1849. 1857 Francis Andrew March appointed protestor of English language and comparative philology, Lafayette College. 1867 Matthew Arnold publishes Culture and Anarchy. 1867 William James Rolfe, principal at Cambridge High School, 'Mas- sachusetts, publishes an annotated Julius Caesar. 1874 Harvard requires the reading of standard authors as part of its entrance requirement in English composition. 1876 Francis James Child appointed professor of English at Harvard', his student, Robert Grant, earns the first American Phi). [n 13Kglish literature. 1893.94Vassar Conference on English called by Ste Cortuntetee of 'fen; Yale sets an entrance requirement in English literature separate from composition; National COference onliform Entrance Requirements in English organized. 1895 Hiram..0Orson publishesihis Aims of Literary Study. 1899 John aewey's School and Society published; NEA Committee on College Entrance Requirements makes its report. 1901 First regional association of teachers of English organized, in New England,

271 272 TRADITION AND REFORM

1902.03Textbooks on the teaching of English published by Percival Chubb and by George R. Carpenter, Franklin T. Baker, and Fred N. Scott. 1910-11 New York State protests about the entrance requirements in English lead to the founding of the National Council of Teachers of English, in Chicago, December 1, 1911. 1916 College Board decides to offer two examinations in English, one of which will not require the study of a set list of books. 1917 National Joint Committee on English, cosponsored by NCTE and NEA, publishes its report,Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools. 1918 WilliamII.Kilpatrick describes the project method;Cardinal Principles of Secondary Educationpublished. 1922-24 Scott, ForesmanLiterature and Lifeseries sets the pattern for school anthologies. 1926 NCTE committee report on "The_Place and Function of English in American Life" justifies English as a functional study, but ignores literature. 1927 Nancy Cory-ell completes the first major experimental study in the teaching of literature. 1929 I. A. Richards publishesPractical CriticiSTh. 1931 College Board Commission on English recommends abolishing of entrance examination based on list of texts; the recommendation is accepted and leads to the dissolution of the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English. 1932 Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association begins. 1935 NOTE Curriculum Commission presents its major report,An Experience Curriculum in English. 1938 Louise Rosenblatt publishesLiterature as Explorationfor the PEA; Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren publishUnder- standing Poetry. 1940 Mortiner Adler attacks the progressives in Itowto Read a Boole. 1945 NCTE Commission on the English Curriculum organized; its report on the secondary school not published till 1956. 1950.52National Science Foundation established; Ford Fund for the Advancement of Education begins experiments with early admissions and advanced placement. 1957 Sputnik launched; educators focus on the academically talented. 1958 National Defense Education Act omits funds for English; NOTE cosponsors a series of Basic Issues Conferences with MLA and other interested organizations. APPENDICES 273

1959 woods Dole Conference held, leadingto Bruner's report, The Process of Education (1960). CollegeBoard Commission on English liegins formulation ofan academic curriculum in English. 1962 First summer institutes in the teachingof English, under College Board sponsorship; Project English andcurriculum study centers begin.

1963 National Study of high School English Programsbegins. 1966 Anglo-American Seminar on the Teaching ofEnglish held at Dartmouth. 1967 National Study extended to British schools. 1968-70 Disillusionment with academicreform leads to reassertion of progressive principles in the teaching ofEnglish; reports from Dartmouth and the study of British schoolssuggest new models; electives adopted by many secondary schools. 274 TRADITION AND REFORM

Appendix II: Offerings in English in the North Central Area, 1860-1900.

Percent of Schools Offering* Course Title 1860-1866.1871-1876-1881-1886- 1891- 1896- 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 1900 First Year English 26 32.5 42.5 Second Year English 26 22.5 35 0 Third Year English 23 15.0 27.5 Fourth Year English 3 7.5 15.0 English - 4 English Literature 30 65 90 70 72 70 52.5 37.5 American Literature 10 10 15 12 20 22.5 15.0 Literature 5 - - 16 20 32.5 35.0 History of English Literature 5 5 5 10 4 Classics 5 - - 32 3 25.0 15.0 Elements of Criticism 20 - 5 Reading 30 35 5 10 24 30 2.5 10.0 English Language 5 5 10 Composition 55 40 60 60 36 42 52.5 42.0 Rhetoric 90 75 85 85 84 83 67.5 62.5 Grammar 60 4t 40 30 52 66 35.0 35.0 Analysis 55 40 35 271 24 25 2.5 2.5 Word Analysis 20 - 5 12 17 10.0 12.0 Orthography -- 3 - 5.0 Elocution 5 10 10 5 16 6 (Latin 80 85 90 75 92 83 95 97.5) *The schools for the various periods overlap but are not strictlyidentical. After 1900, "literature" and "composition" were offered in 100 percentof the schools. This is an excerpt from John E. Stout, TheDevelopment of High School Curricula in the North Central Staten from1860-1918, Supplementary Educational Monographs vol. 3, no. 3. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, June 1921), Table X, pp. 7144. APPENDICES 275

Appendix III: College Entrance Requirements in English Literature, 18744900

Authors and Titles in Order of Their First Appearanceon the Entrance Lists.* Shakespeare 1874: The Tempest Julius Caesar The Merchant of Venice 1878: Macbeth Coriolarnis As You Like It 1879: RichardII A Midsummer Night's Dream 1880: King Lear Much Ado about Nothing 1881: Romeoand Juliet Hamlet 1882: Othello King John 1893: Twelfth Night Gobssmith 1874: The Vicar of Wakefield 1881: She Stoops to Conquer 1882: The Deserted Village Scott 1874: Ivanhoe The Lay of the Last Minstrel 1877: Waverley Monition 1878: Kenilworth The Lady of the Lake 1879: Guy Mannering 1880; Quentin Durward 1881: The Abbot 1882: The Bride of Lammermoor 1889: Rob Roy 1891: Old Mortality 1892: The Talisman 1896: Woodstock Irving 1878: The Sketch Book 1881: Life of Goldsmith

*This is a rearrangement of an appendix provided by Edna Hays,College Entrance Requirements in English: Their Effects on the High Schools(New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936), pp. 133-35. 276 TRADITION AND REFORM

1887: Bracebridge Hall 1891: The Alitanzbra 1896: Tales of e Traveler Byron 1879: The Prisoner of Chilton Thackeray 1879: Henry Esmond 1888: The English Humorists Macaulay 1879: Essay on Addison 1880: Life of Johnson 1887: Essays on Milton and Dryden 1888: The Lays of Ancient Rome 1890: Essays on Lord Clive 1892: Second Essay on the Earl of Chatham Southey 1898: Life of Nelson DeQuincey 1898: The Flight of a Tartar Tribe Cooper 1899: The Last of the Mohicans Addison 1879: Sir Roger de Coverley Papers Gray 1880: An Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard Johnson 1880: Six Chief Lives of the Poets 1887: Lives of Milton and Addison 1888: Lives of Addison and Pope 1889: Lives of Swift and Gray Dickens 1880: A Tale of Two Cities 1893: David Copperfield Carlyle 1880: Essay on Johnson 1882: Essay on Scott 1884: Essay on Burns Milton 1881: Paradise Lost (Books I and II) 1895: L'Allegro Il Penseroso Comas Lycidas Hawthorne 1881: Our Old Home 1890: The House of the Seven Gables 1897: Twice-Told Tales Eliot 1881: Silas Marner 1882: The Mill on the Floss 1892: Scenes of Clerical Life Burns 1884: The Cotter's Saturday Night Emerson 1885: Essay on Eloquence 1893: The American Scholar Pope 1886: The Rape of the Lock 1888: An Essay on Criticism 1898: Iliad (Books I and XXII) Lowell 1886: The Vision of Sir Launfal APPENDICES 277

Dryden 1887: Alexander's Feast 1899: Pa Eamon and Arcite Dobson 1888: Eighteenth Century Essays Austen 1888: Pride and Prejudice Swift 1889: Gulliver's Travels Coleridge 1890: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner Longfellow 1890: Evangeline 1892: The Courtship of Miles Standish Webster 1890: First Bunker Hill Oration Arnold 1894: Sohrab and Rust= Defoe 1896: A Journal of the Plague Year Burke 1897: Speech on Conciliation with the Colonies Tennyson 1898: The Princess 278 TRADITION AND REFORM

Appendix IV: Most Frequently Anthologized Works, 1917 -1957'

Twenty most popular selections in each period,ranked by order of frequency.* 1917-34 Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (excerpts) Byron The Princess (excerpts) Tennyson Home Thoughts, from Abroad Browning In Memoriam (excerpts) Tennyson The Vision of SirLeunfal Lowell History of England (excerpts) Macaulay Walden (excerpts) Thoreau Idylls of the King (excerpts) Tennyson How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix Browning To a Waterfowl Bryant The Rime of the Ancient Mariner Coleridge Each and All Emerson The Last Leaf Holmes The Chambered Nautilus Holmes The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table (excerpts) Holmes Gettysburg Address Lincoln Annabel Lee Poe The World Is Too Much With Us Wordsworth Sohrab and Rust= Arnold Life of Johnson (excerpts) Boswell 1935.45 The Princess (excerpts) Tennyson Autobiography (excerpts) Franklin Idylls of the King (excerpts) Tennyson Walden (excerpts) Thoreau Inuictus Henley Ode on a Grecian Urn Keats Annabel Lee Poe Beowulf (excerpts) Anon. On His Blindness Milton

*Excerpted from Tables VIII, IX,and.X, James Warren Olson, The Nature of Literature AnthologiesUsed inthe Teaching of High School English 1917-1957 (Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1969; University Microfilm No. 69.22,454), pp. 316-18. APPENDICES 279

Home Thoughts. from Abroad Browning The Rime of the Ancient Mariner Coleridge Life of Johnson(excerpts) Boswell Ruble Khan Coleridge Ode to the West Wind Skelley Diary(excerpts) Prepys //Penseroso Milton L'Allegro Milton The Man with the Hoe Markham History ofEngland(excerpts) Macaulay On First Looking into Chapman's Homer Keats 1946-57 She Dwelt among Untrodden Ways Wordsworth The People, Yes(excerpts) Sandburg Walden(excerpts) Thoreau Home Thoughts, from Abroad Browning The Soldier Brooke My Last Duchess Browning Autobiography(excerpts) Franklin An Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard Gray Loveliest of Trees Houseman Annabel Lee Poe Macbeth Shakespeare In Memoriam(excerpts) Tennyson The Princess(excerpts) Tennyson Mending Wall Frost To the Virgins, to Make Much of Thne Herrick Speech in the Virginia Convention Henry On First Looking into Chapman's Homer Keats I Hear America Singing Whitman To a Waterfowl Bryant John Anderson, My Jo Burns 280 TRADITION AND REFORM

Appendix. V: The Growth of English, 1900-1949

Year Number of High School Percent of Students Enrolled in* Students English Latin 1900 519,251 38.5 50.6 1910 739,143 57.1 49.0 1915 1,165,495 58.4 37.3 1922 2,155,460 76.7 275 1928 2,896,630 93,1 22.0 1934 4,496,514 90.5 16.0 1949 5,399,452 92.9 7.8 *Estimates and percentages based on enrollments in the four senior highschool years. The data derive from surveys carried outfor the U,S. Commissioner of Education; summarized in Bureau of the Census HistoricalStatistics of the United States (Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1960), p. 210. APPENDICES 281

Appendix VI: Major Officers of the National Council of Teachers of English, 1912.1974

NCTE Presidents Affiliation Year Name While Holding Office 1912 Fred Newton Scott University of Michigan 1913 Fred Newton Scott University of Michigan 1914 Franklin T. Baker Teachers College Columbia University 1915 E. H. Kemper McComb Manual Training High School Indianapolis, Indiana 1916 Edwin M. Hopkins University of Kansas 1917 Allan Abbott Teachers College Columbia University 1918 Edwin L. Miller Northwestern High School Detroit, Michigan 1919 Joseph M. Thomas University of Minnesota 1920 James Fleming Hosic Chicago Normal College 1921 H. G. Paul University of Illinois 1922 Charles Robert Gaston Richmond Hill High School New York City 1923 J. W. Searson University of Nebraska 1924 Thomas C. Blaisdell Slippery Rock State Normal College, Pennsylvania 1925 T. W. Gosling Madison Public Schools Wisconsin 1926 Sterling Andrus Leonard University of Wisconsin 1927 Dudley Miles Evander Childs High School New York' City 1928 Charles Carpenter Fries University of Michigan 1929 Rewey Belle Inglis University of Minnesota 1930 Ruth Mary Weeks Pasco High School Kansas City, Missouri 1931 R. L. Lyman University of Chicago 282 TRADITION AND REFORM

1932 Stella S. Center John Adams High School New York City 1933 Walter Barnes New York University 1934 Oscar J. Campbell University of Michigan 1935 Charles Swain Thomas Harvard University 1936 Dora V. Smith University of Minnesota 1937 Holland D. Roberts Stanford University 1938 Marquis E. Shattuck Detroit Public Schools 1939 Essie Chamberlain Oak Park High School, Illinois 1940 E. A. Cross Colorado State College of Education Greeley 1941 Robert C. Poo ley University of Wisconsin 1942 John J. Defloer Chicago Teachers College 1943 Max J. Herzberg Weequahic High School, Newark, New Jersey 1944 Angela M. Broening Baltimore Public Schools 1945 Harold A. Anderson University of Chicago 1946 Helene W. Hartley Syracuse University 1947 Porter G. Perrin University of Washington 1948 Thomas Clark Pollock New York University 1949 Marion C. Sheridan New Haven. High School Connecticut 1950 Mark Neville John Burroughs School St. Louis, Missouri 1951 Paul Farmer Henry W. Grady High School Atlanta, Georgia 1952 Lennox Grey Teachers College Columbia University 1953 Harlen M. Adams Chicago State College 1954 Lou L. La Brant Atlanta University 1955 John C. Gerber State University of Iowa Iowa City 1956 Luella B. Cook Minneapolis Public Schools 1957 Helen K. Mackintosh U.S. Office of Education 1958 Brice Harris Pennsylvania State University University Park 1959 Joseph Mersand Jamaica High School Jamaica, New York 1960 Ruth G. Strickland School of Education Indiana University APPENDICES 283

1961 Harold B. Allen University of Minnesota Minneapolis 1962 George Robert Cruise') State University of Iowa Iowa City 1963 David H. Russell University of California 1964 Albert R. Kitzhaber University of Oregon 1965 Richard Corbin Hunter College High School New York City 1966 Muriel Crosby Wilmington'Public Schools Delaware 1967 Albert H. Marckwardt Princeton University 1968 Alfred H. Grothinon Stanford University 1969 William A. Jenkins University of WisconsinMilwaukee 1970 James E. Miller, Jr. University of Chicago i171 Robert A. Bennett San Diego Unified School District 1972 Virginia M. Reid Oakland Public Schools 1973 Walker Gibson University of Massachusetts 1974 Margaret J. Earl: Syracuse University

NCTE Secretary- Treasurer 1912-1919 James Fleming Hosic Chicago Normal College 1920-1953 W. Wilbur Hatfield Chicago Normal College

NCTE Executive Secretary 1954-1959 J.N. Hook 1960-1967 James R. Squire 1968- Robert F. Hogan

Editor of English Journal 1912-1921 James Fleming Hosic Chicago Normal College 1922-1955 W. Wilbur Hatfield Chicago Normal College 1956-1964 Dwight E. Burton Florida State University 1965-1973 Richard S. Alm University of Hawaii 1973- Stephen N. Judy Michigan State University Index

Abbott, Allan, 56, 57, 63, 90 A me'rican Associat ion of Colleges, Ability grouping. 82, 9192; advo. 140 calm! by Conant 11959), 189 Anurican Association of Teachers Academie:111v talented; programs for, Colleges. 118 189 91, 191. SIT also Ability gnmp- American Assoeiat ion of Teachers of lag Journalism. 52 Avniunt ability, 232 34. See also Per- "American Aut hors of Today" series, formance Clint rams Ill Accreditation of high schools: spread American City, 143 of. 50 American Council on Education, 148 , novement Awards (NrrEL 199 American Dictionary, 7'he 11828). 3 Aehie .ut.andards of.See Mini- American English Grammar (1941).

. mum esseiiliaixt Mental discipline: 85 SAT American Girl, 172 Adams. John Quincy, 10 American High School Today, The Adams, Loonie, $65 11959). 189, 226 Adapt at ions or classic texts. Sec American Historical Society. Com- School edit ions mission on the Social Studies in the Addants..lane. 41, 47. 49 SehOols. 116 Adler. Mortimer. 114, 184, 186, 209 Americanism. 3-5, 24, 48, 57, 67.68. Adodnernee 11904), 56, 62 See also American literature:Cili- Adolescent literature. See 1.itera- renship to re, adolescent American Library Asstwiation, 205 Adolescent needs. See Needs mid American literat ore: achieves place interests of students in high school curriculum, 68, 126; Advanced placement ..190. 217 anthologies and. 130: introduced in Aesop's Fabter, 228 colleges, 27, 41 Aiken. Conrad, 165 American Medical Association. '2.04 Aikin, Wilford M., 141. 145 American Pageant Association, 63 Aims of Literary Study, The 11885), American Psychological Association, 61 81 Allen, Dwight, 221 "American Scholar" address Allen, Harold 11,. 229 (Emerson). 26 Allerton House ('onference, 219 A menean Sciretion of Lessons in Alm, Richard, 156 Rending and Speaking, An11795),

284 INDEX 285

American Studies Association, 193 "llama. Issues in the Teaching of Amherst College. 10 English, Thy" 119591, 193 Analysis as mode of literary study: by Basic Wading Skill,- for High School New Critics. 197; by Scottish UM'. 161 rhetoricians, 910; in 19th century, Hassell. Henry Kendall, 52 31. :37, 55: in 1933, 125; in 1900s, Hates, Arlo, 20 212 Hates, Herbert, 53 A tudomy of ('riticism, The 119571, 203 Behavioral objeetives, 234435, 25:3 55: dad Madly Teach 119491, 188 NCIE stance on, 235. See also A udre Carnegie's Own Story. 121 Objectives, specification of Angell. James II., 32 Hell, Bernard hiding, 118 Anglo American Conference btr Ilent ley, Richard, 7 Seminar] on the Teaching of Hestor, Arthur. 184, 188 English 119601. Sec Dartmooth Hotter Speech Week, 58, 74 Seminar Ilible....tudy of the, 57 Annotated tests. 34.55, 128. See also Ilinet scales, 81 School editions Hingham. Caleb, 4, 7 Anthologies; criticism of, 207. 221: 13lair, Hugh. 7, 8 9, 17 emergence in school programs, Blur - Harked Speller. xii. 3 -1 120, 128 30: evaluations of. 170 74; llobbittFranklin: advocates value of influence of, 126. 129. 170; previa "experience." 108; attacks Corre stirs of. 128; progressives and. 128. fated Curnedurn. 123; influence of, 20, 137 85, 86, 88, 101, 119, 166, 232; Appletwe. Roger R., 211 specifies educational objectives Appreciation. as approach to litera- based on behavioral units, 82-84; ture, I I13. 28. 31, 41, 43, 55 Taba's reaction against, 147 Army testing program, 81 82 Hogan, Louise, 165 Arnold, MatthewIS, 20, 23, 39. 114 Hollingen Foundation. 105 "Articulate(' English Programs: An llollingen Prize, 165 Hypothesis to Test, An" 11459) Ilona. James, 251 193, 191 "Hook of Hours," I Association of American Colleges, Wayne. '206 186 Boynton. Percy, III Association of Colleges and Prepara Boy's Lift'. 172 tory Schools of the Middle States Bradley, C.13,, 20 and Maryland. :31 British Ministry of Education, 229 Association of I lepartments or British teaching of English: drama in. English. 219 76, 231131: infltince of, 228 82, As Ian !At (I, 36, 125 241; study of. 229, 241 Atlantic Monthly. The. 24, 40, 172, Brimming, Angela M., 121. 167 201 Brooks, Clanth. 162 III, 1118, 192 Auden, W. II., 165 Ilrou 0, Claude. 207 Audios isual aids. Sec Teaching aids Week, Emma L. 52 Augustans. 4, :15 'Ironer. Jerome, 195, 202, 211, 218 Bunker Hill onition. :16, 120 Burch, Mary C., 91, 97 Iabbilt. Irving, 113-14 Mirky, Edmund, 55, 89 Ion, Joan, 207 Horton, Dwight, 150 51, 155 faker. Franklin T., 45, 55, 57, 60, 61 Business English, 66. Set 01411 Pura !Ayr, George Pierce, 61 lional edueat ion taker. Harry 'I'., 110 Haswell. Hie. 90 Laker, James 11.. :12 ;ale. Bishop John. 5 Caesar's Offilmentunes, 35 laws. Walter, 128 Calverton, V. F., 115 -Basil. Aims for English Inst met km in Cambridge High School, Massachu- American Schools," 159 setts, 28 Hasa. Issues Conferences. 193 95, Campbell. °sear J., 117 196. 201 02, 213, 238 Conturbury Tides, The. 205 286 TRADITION AND REFORM

Cardinal Principles of Secondary College Entrance Examination Edumtion 119181, 64, 65 Board. Ste CEEB ('arlsen, G. Robert. 202 College entrance examinations. 49. Carnegie Corporation. 229, 236 50-51, 54, 73, 9596 Carnegie Foundation, 141 College entrance requirements: and Carpenter, George H 45, 55, 60, 61 anthologies 419'20s '30s), 128-30: Catcher in the Rye, The, 156, 205. 206 first in English studies, 21, 31-32: CEEB: and advanced placement, 190, influence on high school, 6566. 125, 209; and college entrance examina 126, 131: in 19th century, 29-32, 41. tions in English, 54, 128-130; Com- 42: ea. 1900, 37: in 1930s, 89, 126: mission on English (1929), 95-96. uniformity and. 49, 128 104, 218( Commission on English College of New Jersey, 8 (1959). 19098,'200-201: founding. Collier's, 172 31. 42; institutes. 213 Collingwood, It. G., 158-59 Censorship: Lenrow's arguments Columbia University, See Teachers against 119401. 152-53: problems of College, Columbia 11940slies4 149, 204-07, 212, 220- Commission on English. See CEEB 21; rare in British schools, 231; Commission on Human Relations Shakespeare and, 22, 62 (PEA). 123, 142 Center, Stella, 117, 161 Commission on Life Adjustment Edu Central Midwest Regional Educa- cation for Youth (USOE), 144 tional Laboratory. 235 Commission un Literature INCTEL Chamberlain, Essie, 85 224 Channing, Edward Tyrrel, 10, 26 Commission on Reorganization "Charge of the Light Brigade." 110 INFIA), 64.65 Charters, W. W., 78, 87 Commission on the English Curricu Chaucer, Geoffrey, 25 tutu INCTE): currtdum studies Chicago Evening Post, III project, 166.69, 171, 205; establish- Chicago Normal School. 109 ed 119451, 168; stance on behavioral Child. Francis James. 26.27, 40 objectives, 23536 Children's literature, 180 Commission on the Relation of School Child Study Movement, 47-48, 56.154 and College (PEA) (previously Christian Reader, The, 4 Committee on College Entrance Chronological studies. See Literary and Secondary Schools), 141, 142 history Commission on Secondary School Chubb, Percival, 45, 46, 51, 55, 61, 63 Curriculum, 1940 (PEA), 139, 142- Citizenship through study of English, 43, 152, 157 63-64. 68. See ulso Americanism; Committee for Economic Develop American literature «lent, 233 Civil Rights Act 11064), 226 Committee of Ten (NEM, 21, 3233, War, 2324 36-36. 42. 48, 65, 84. 245; Confer- Clapp, John M., Sl, 65 ence on English. 33.34, 43, 65, 118, Clapp report. 85-86. 88. 166 245; Report of, 45,59 Clark, FL it- 51. 53 Committee on College Entrance and Classical tradition as model for Secondary Schools (PEA, later English studies, I, 5-8, 10.'2425, Commission on the ROIL'n of 29. 35 School and College), 141 ('lassies, English, 12-13, 24, 34-36, 66, Committee on College Entrance Re- 126, 128 quirements (English Round Table, Classroont editions. See School edi NEM. 49..51, 53, 65, 71 lions CoMmitter on Correlation (NCTEL Cleveland, Charles D., ID, 29. 34; 142. 144 explains basis of Compendium ComnAttee oh Economy of Time selections, 35 (NCTEL 84 ('old war. 149 Committee on Economy of Time in Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 23 Education (NEA), 82, 84 College Board, See CEEB Committee on English Equipment College English Association, 193 INCTE), 60 INDEX 287

Committee on English Programs for 11011; in 18th century teaching. 9; High School Students of Superior in Gateway English Program, 227- Ability (Nen:). 19091 '28; Lenrow's recommendations, Committee on Intermitional Relations 152; in periodicals 119131, 58-59; INCTEL 110. 133-34, 147, 179 philological justification for read- Committee on International Under- ing, 25; progressives' influence. standing INCTE), 117 175; and Reorganization report, 67 Committee on National Interest Contract method in English, 92.93 INCTE), 184, 199-200, 205 Cook, Albert S., 46 Committee on Photon lay Apprecia- Cook. Caldwell, 76 tion (NUM), 87-88 Cooperative Research Program of Committee on Public Relations. 1954, 201 iNCTE). 198-99 (oping, 228 Conunittee on Research 1NCTEI, lea Corbin. Richard, 226 Co:unlittee on the Fu net ioh of English Core Curriculum 11940s), 142.48 in General Education of Commis Correlated curriculum, 122-23, 142, sion on Secondary School Curricu- 144-46, 178; humanities programs lum (PEA), 152. 181 and, 209 Committee on the Iligh School Course Correlated Curriculum, A (19361, 122, in English INCTE), 65 123 Committee on the Place and Function Corson, Hiram, 28. 61, 75 of English in American Life ('oryell, Nancy, 97-98, 120 INCTEL 85-80, 119 Conanomditnn, 172 Committer on the Right to Read Council for a Television Course in the (NrrE). 206 Ilumanities for Secondary Schools, Committee on the Training of Secon 209 dart' School Teachers (Harvard). Council of Mainz, 1 186-87 Council on Basic Education, 188 (00101ittre on Types of Organization Counterfeiters, The, 153 of high School English INCTE). Counts. George S., 67. 116. 117, 148 72 Course of study; analyzed 119331. Common school: high school as. 46 12528: in New York State 11936). Communication skills; as part of 127; in 195r. 169-70; in 1960s, 211; English. 156-57; World War II and, recommended in Freedom and Eh's- 140, 150 HO eigne, 202. See also Curriculum; Communism, 188, 204 Sequence; Teaching materials Compendium (Cleveland). 29, 34 Crisis in the Classroom 11970), 224 ('omposition: college entrance exam- Crisis in Education 119491, 188 ination in (Harvard), 30; college Critical thinking, 158, 169 70 entrance requirements (1899). Croce. Benedetto: Ainslie transla literature as model for. 13; princi- lion. III ples of, 8; research in. 9899; teach- Crow, Charles Sumner, 88 ing of. 9, 49. 70, 109, 230 ('ulture; as goal for English teaching. Comas, 89 5, 21-24, 38.46, 59,66, 187; Roman- Conant. James II., 186, 189, 217, 226 tic view of - in education, ?2-23 Conducting Experiences in English Culture and Anarchy 11867). 23 (1939). 121, 167 Current English Usage 119321, 85 Conference of New England Colleges, Curriculum: differentiation of, 12-13, 31 18-19. 59. 65.66; relationship of col- Conference on College Composition lege - to high school. 5. 29, 35, 49, and Communication tNCTE): 54415, 126. 191; college - as source established 119410, 190 of humanities programs, 208, 210. Conference on English, Sec Commit- Sue also Core curriculum, Corry, tee of Ten lated curriculum. Experience cur- Conflict in Education, The (19531, 188 riculum, Ability grouping, Track Contemporary literature: antholw ing gized 11930s). 130; anthologized Curriculum Commission IN(TE): 11950s), 170; and censorship Fes- established 1929, 118; "Experience sums, 22. 206.07; criticized 119231, 288 TRADITION AND REFORM

Curriculum" project, 119 22, 123. Ezelman. Max. 57, 168 For the prml /945. /963, see Cool Econ.fir Opport unit e Act. 226 mission on the English Curriculum Edinburgh: rhetorical studies at, 8 Curriculum materials, See 'reaching Mum, ion& Frontier. The 119:131, materials, selection 115, 116 Curriculum study centers. See Pro- Educational Policies Commission ject English iNEA). 14311 Educational Srrents for Children Dale, Edgar, 87, 102 119151. 143 Dalton plan. See Contract method Educational Wash.lands 119531, 184, Dartmouth College.. ill, 229 188 Dartmouth Seminar, 224, 229 30. EfIlletan and Freedom 119581, 189 20i. 241 Education for A!! American Children 1 tar winism, social,-17 (1948), 143 Nahreak, 207 Edam, ion Ihr American rough Day's Academy. 28 11944). 1.13. 145. 150 I telloer, John J.. 95, 106, 117 Education for the Urban Dun/ row Defence of Purl ry. 23 toyed 119711. 233 /known:1w and Education 119161. 64 Education of Teachers of English for Depression. 107, 111, 118; effect on Attlfrielln Schools and Colleges, schools. 115. 123. 127, 128. 189 The 119631, 211 Dewey. Es Oyu. 92 Efficiency in educat ion, 80-82, 84. See Dewey, John: influence on high also Minimum essentials, Science schools. 1819, 59, 107. 112, 258; Eight Year Ityport of the Executive and progressises social goals', (13 Seen-tarn /960-67. 219 64, 115: reaction against. 171. 1116, Rif/h/ rear Study !PEAL 81), 107, 187. 189; revival of his ideas, 236 118, 140.43, 145, 215 Diary of Anne Pnork, The. 156 Electives. 32, 169 70, 238 39. 2-13 Dickinson, Emily, 130 Eliot. Charles W.. 32 33, 59 Dictionary of American Slung, a, 205 Eliot. T. 5.. 1112. 165 Disadvantaged, programs for the, Elortition, 1. SIT also Oral reading: 225 28. 211) Speech Discipline. English as a: advocated in Emerson, Ralph Waldo. 12. 18. 26 Pr,.I 110111am! Discipline. 196198, EncyCopaedia Britannira Films. 21)9 202203; current problems, 247: in RnYlish and Scot fish Ballads. 27 19th century. 43; in 11166s. 191 92. English for Social hiving 119431. 150 193115; in spiral curriculum. 195. English Journal: Bollingen prize con See a/so Mental discipline troversy reported. 165; Burton "Divided Ilorseeloth. The," 171 becomes editor, 155; Hatfield Divinity School Address (Emerson), becomes editor. 85: leading critirs 12 as roil Mnors, Ill; and objective Dixon. John. 230 tests, 95; reports. discussions of DosPassos. John. 115 teacher concerns 11911-1918), 53, Doss ning, hstelle. 117 54, 60, 61, 63, 6, 65, 109; reports, Drama: as met hod of literary study, diseussions of teacher concerns 62 63. 230 :11; :is method of person 11930s1, 87, 100, 115, 117, 123, 131; ;Oily des elopment. 62 63, 230; in reports. discus dons of teacher con British schools. 76. 230 31, 211; in cents 11950s 19600, 207, 208, 211 high schools 1193(lid, 128: progres English in Every Classroom, 228, sky: support for, 76; public Atli 2.10 11 lodes toward. 62, 75; stage prothic English Round Table of the Secon- lions in schools, 62 63, 711 dary Section t NEAl. 51. 71 Drama League of America. 62. 67 English Teacher Preparation St tidy. Droiser. Theodore. 111 214 Dynamics of Education. The 119321, Enjoyment of Poetry. The, 57 147 Esquire, 172 Essay on Man, 10 Early admissions. 196 "Essentials of Grammar and Cornpo. INDEX 289

sition, The," 84 Foreign Language Program 0.11.As. Ei !Ural I radit ions: in early 20th ten 192 tory, 57 59. 110 11: and humanities Fon err Am her. 251 programs, 209; and literature Foundotions of .1h-(hod (1925), 108, 181 h-19t h centuries), 1 6. 22; ori- 117 gins of, 16; reaffirmed as goal for Franklin, Benjamin. 10, 13, 19, 35 English 119.10s1, 187; Romantir tra- Prating and Zoog/. 212 dition and, 22.24. See also Culture; '110/1/ MD/ Discipline in English Moral values 119651, 196 98, 202. 218 Evans, Bertrand, 171 74. 207 Pries. Charles C., 85 Eawnsining thr Examination in Frost, Robert. 139 Enghsh 119311.95 Frye, Northrup. 184, 202.03 Exreutive Committee (With 118 Fund ionalism: language ins) runt ion krodia, 212 and, 80 87, 1.10; literature and, 83, Experience curriculum. See Experi- 86 149: movement tou.ard. 82 87 011e0, literature as Pusrd11/111,:es. SIT Core curriculum krperivocc Curriculum in English, In 119311, 119 21, 122. 123, 130, 136. 151, 168, 178 Gale, Zona, Ill Experience, literature as, 83, 109 15, Calton, Sir Franris, 60, 81 119 22. 123 24 Gardner, Francis, xii Experimental- method, 116 99 Gateway English. 227 "Experiment in Iligh School English, (ayley, C. M., 20 An" (19241, 56 General edneation: defined, 177 Exploration, literalism. as, 123-25, General Education Board, 141, 150 160. SIT also Literature.asFr- General Education in a Free Society lllerntinn 119451, 186 Extract irricular act iv it relation to General education movement. 139.40, curriculum in English, 127-28 143-44, 152, 159 Exl racurrinslum: in 19t h cent tar" col Genre study. See Types approach loges. 12-13, IN 19; in preparatory Gestalt psychology. 122 23, 147 schools, 13. 19 Gide. Andre, 153 Gold, Michael, 115 Forts about Current English flaw Goldsmith. Oliver, 110 (19381, 85 Gordon, Edward. 192 Facult y psychology. 5. 46. 48. 253 Graduate study of English: first Fader, Daniel, 227 28. 210 stages in, 27-28 hal-Safr, 205 Grammar: college entrance require- Moody is n Way firer/Mo.:1. 228 ments in, 8: enters the curriculum, EarnaT's Schoobllook, The, 1 6.8, 16.17; functionalism and, 119; Fannin°. 113 in high schools 11960s), 212 FEIT:11111, ilsOD, :11 Grammatical lostituto of the English FaSeiS/11. 115 Language (1783- 1, 3.4. 5, 7 Faulkner. William, 212 Grant, Robert, 27 Federal support of English. 198 204. fimprx of Wngh. The, 212 213. 220 Gry, William S.. 160, 161, 1118. 254 Follows of the Library of Congress in Great Books: concept of, 35416, 185. American Let term, 165 87, 216 Film study, 210. Sit also Media study Green, Paid. 465 Finishing schools: English in. 12-13, Grey, Lennox, 138. 159 WO 16 17, 19 Grey. Zuni ,'251 Elyse)]. Rudolf, 188 Growth as metaphor for education, Folklore: introduced into curriculum. 94, 168 169. 230, 253 25 Guidance through English program, Ford. Boris, 229 114, 146.47 Ford Finindation, 193 Guild, Thatcher, 62 Ford Fund for the Advancement of Education. 190, 209. 237 G. Stanley, 17 48,49, 56, 57, 62, 290 TRADITION AND REFORM

82. 89 House Committee on tin- Anietican Hamlet, 22. 36 Activities. 204 Hand lin. Hertha, 151 Mn,' to Read a Book 11910). 184, 186 Haney. John. 89 Mae to Read a Page 119421. 158.59 Harper's, 172 How to Teach Reading, and What to Harris. Benjamin, 2 Read in School (18861. 56 Harris. William Torrey. 32 Hudson, Henry. 55 Harvard Committee on Communica- Hudson Review, The, 165 tion. 157 Hull House, 47 Harvard University. 10. 12.27-28. 35, Ilumanism. 113-14. 187. 241. 246 41; Conanrs committees at,18687; Ilmnanists, 113-14 English literature introduced at. Humanities courses. 20810. 222 26; entrance requirements at. 30; Human relations: in I940s. 147.49. play-writing course 119061, 81-62 153-55; in 1950.s. 17041 Hatfield. Wilber W.: comments on Hume. David, 8 functionalism. 85; on growth Hutchins. Robert M.. 185. 188 through English. 94; on individualization. 92; on language skills. 78, 91; on Project Method. "I Hear America Singing," 121 109; - on science in edueatinn. 99- Illinois Association of Teachers of 11)0; -- on teaching aids. 114; On English. 51.' teaching critical thinking. 117; Individualization of instruction; he edits antholngies, 128; edits ob- ginnings in 1920s. 91-94: in 1930s, jective tests, 95 125. 127. See also Contract method; llsvighurst, Robert, 160 Dalton plan liayakawa. S. i.. 157 Industry and education, 80-81. 232 Hays. Edna. 37 36. See also Science; Vocational (Lazard, Patrick. 208 education Heath, D. C., 155 Inglis, Rewey Pelle, 99 Ilenrx. George IL. 149 Inquiries into Human Faculty andIts Henry, (1.. 251 Development 11883). 60 Heaton% Nat. 226 Institute for Propaganda Analysis, Herndon, James. 226 157 Her/burg. Max. 87. 88, 102. 208 Instruction in English (19331, 12526 Higher Learning in America, The Integrated studies. See Core curricu- ilchg, 186 lum MO School English Instruction Intensive ;Andy of literary texts; Today, 222 advocated (19141, 5758; and col- High School English rest hooks lege entrance examinations, 54; 119631, 171-74 (oryell's findings. 9798; in 19th Hillytt Robert, 165 century. in 1930s. 127; recom- Hinsdale. B. A., 45 mendations Ot Commission on Eng History of English Literature 196-97c recommendations of 0863), 58 New Critics. 164-See abm Mental Hoetker, James, 235 discipline. Hook. J. N., 192, 199, 201, 219. 235 Internationalism. 117. See also Com. Thattl on Books 11966). 228 miller on International Relations: Homer, 66 Committee on International Under- Hoover, Herbert: creates Com- standing mittee on Social Trends, 116 Hon, T. W. 11., 90 Hopkins. L. T.. 123 llorace Mann School, 56 Hash, James Fleming; advocates James, William, 47 study of types. 112; and founding of ate, (Willard II., 32 NCTE, 51 53, 65, 72; on litera- Jewett, Arno, 169-70, 190. 209, 217 ture as experience. 109 -10; on .1tthqorifs, 226 minimum essentials, 84: outlines John Hay Fellows program. 209 "Pntblem.Project Method," 109 Johns Illiltinliainixersity, 27, 40 INDEX .291

Joint Committee of Twenty Four Lees Talk Sense about Our Schools :MLA-NCIE), 136 (19531, I* Jones, Howard Mumford, 114-15 Lewin, William, 87 Jones, Lime Ilyn, 1 1 1 -12 Liberal education; criticism of pro- Journalism: as literature. 58, 88; in gressives, 186.86; values of, 140, high schools U930s), 128 246 Judd, Charles IL, 85 Liberal Education (1943), 188 Julius Caesar, VA, 35, 36, 50, 60, 90, Lihraries: college, 12; literary socie- 125 ties, 12; NCTE and school 39, 53.54; state of school - (1960s), 212 Karnes, Lord. 8 Life. 205 Kegler. Stanley, 207 Life adjustment movement. 140.44. Keller, Charles, 209 146.47, 153.54; criticized (1960s). Kelly. George. 230 174, 185. 188-89; curriculum ma- Koppel, Francis, 218 terials for, 151-56; response of Kilpatrick, William Board: advocates teachers to, 144.47 project method. 108, 109, 133: Lindsay. Vachel, 111 exemplifies concerns of his era, Literary canon; origins of - in the 107; infIcence of, 112, 147, 148; and high school, 24, 34-36, 67 social reeonstructionists. 115, 116; Literary heritage, 5, IL 59. 194, 247- and student Interest, 114 49 Kingsley, Clarence, 51, 64-65 Literary history: drawbacks of chron- Kinnersley, Ebenezer. 10, 13 ological study, 173: introduced in Kittredge., George Lyman. 33. 41 Amorican colleges, 1011, 18 Kitzhahcr, Albert, 201 Literary magazines in 19th century Kohl, Ibirbert. 226 colleges, 12 Koos, Leonard V,. 94 Literary societies in 19th century col- Korzybski, Alfred. 157 leges. 12; in 19th century schools. Jonathan, 226 13 Kunio. Joshua, 115 Literature; adolescent, 155-56, 180: in British schools (1960s), 231; deli. nition of, 43: in English, introduced LaBrot, Lot. L.. 114, 181 in Artierican colleges, IV, 17-18, 41: flume Journal, 172 first experimental study of td -'-ti Lodu Chattertedh Lover, 231 ing 01.97-98: goals of teaching. 113, Lanoaget study of 11930s-'4081, 156- 246-47, 248; introduced into high 160. See also Grammar: Rhetoric: schools, 10.11, 28.29, 37. 18. 19; f 'imposition place of in moral development Language arts, 150, 15960. 229.31 stressed. 57 (See also Moral values Language in Action 11941), 157 through literature); practical value Language in General Education of, 12.13, 19 (See also Needs and 119401, 157, 159, 165 interests of students; Functional. language Programs for the Disud- ism); response to, 202, 241, 246-47, iTardageel 119651, 224 249-50, 251 -52, 254: spread of- in language skills, 249.50, 252-53. Sec colleges, 27 28; teaching of, ca. also Language arts; Reading skills; 1900. 37-38. 43; titles taught in high Communication skills schools (1886.19001. 66; in voca- Law of Effect, 108 tional education programs after Leary, Bernice A., 16162 1900, 59-60. See also American lit- Lectures an Rhetoric and Belles erature; Children's literature; Con- tettres (17831, 9, 11, 13 temporary literature; Classics, Leland, John. 5 English: Experience, literature as; Lenrow, Elbert, 152.53,'205 Exploration, literature as. For dis- Izoonard, Sterling A., 84, 86, 106. missions of approaches to teaching 110, 112 literature, 1920.1970, see contents Lessinger, Leon, 224 listings 292 TRADITION AND REFORM

Literature and Lifeseries 11922 24), Minimum essentials in English, 82, 129 94-85, 92, 236 Literature and Livingseries 119251. Mina: flies; programs for. 225 28 129 Mitchill, Theodore C 51-53 Literature ax Exploration 119381,1'23- MLA; cooperation with NCTE 25, 137, 152, 157, 160. 168 119600, 213: cosponsors Dart- "Little Red Riding Hood. .24 mouth Semi:mi.. 229; cosponsors Little theaters. 63, 75 English Teacher Preparation Study Living Literatureseries 11949/, 170 (19651.'214; involvement in secon Local associations of English dory education 11950:11, 192, organi- teachers: establishment of, 45.46, zation of (1888). 27; participation in 51. 52.53. 72: NCTE and, 5153 Commission on English 11959- Logic as source of early English , 19115), 196.99; Svotts presidency studies, 8 119071, 52; supports inclusion of Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 35 English in NDEA 119(H), 200-01 Look, 200 Modern Language Association.See Lore Story.251 M1\ Luther. Martin, xii Modern literature. See Contempor- Lynch, James, 171 74, 207 ary literature Lynd, Albert. 188 Modern Poetry and theToidition Lyrical Ballads,Preface to she, 20. 23 (19391, 163. 164 Modern Quarterly,115 Macaulay, Thomas liabbington, 66 Moral values through literature: in Macbeth. 36. 50. 125, 151 18th-19th centuries, 2. 34. 21.22; McCarthy. Senator Joseph, 188, 204 E. Stanley Hall and, 57. 62; pro- McGuffeyReaders.45 gressives' views on, 108. DO,lll- MeGliffey, William Holmes, 4 12. 168. SI'f'alsoEthical tradition Mager., Robert F., 234, 235 Morrison, Henry C., 93-94, 119, 232 Manchild in the PromisedLund. 207 Motioh pictures. See Media study Mann, Horace, 22, 31) Murray, Lindley. 4. 7 March, Francis Andrew, 27, 40 Murray's Grammar117951. 7 Marckwardt. Alhen 11 85 Myth. study of: ailvowated. 56 Marxist criticism, 115 Mastery unit. 93-94 Nation. The. 165,204 Materials. See Teaching materials, National Academy of Science. 195 select ion National Assessmentof Educational Matthews, Brander, 61. 63 Progress, 233 Mead. George Herbert, 159-60 National Association of Journalism Measurement movement: effects on Advisers, 118 English programs, 8183 National Association of State Direc- Media study: before 1930, 6061, 75: tors of Teacher Education and in 1930s, 8788, 102 03: in 1960s. Certification. 214 20708.See alsoPopular culture National Association of Teachers of Mei:imitation as part of study of English 1NATEI, 229 English, 6, 10-11, 29, 64 National Association of Teachers of Mental discipline: classical languages Speech, 118 and, 5-6, 16, 48: lark in English National Conference of Christians and studies. 6. 34; study of literature Jews, 148 as. 38, 113 14; Vassar Conference National Conference on Uniform and, :14 Entrance Requirements in English: Merchant of Venice. The,36, 50,66 fornuttion. 31, 36; influence of Metaphysics.158 119301. 89: progressives' reaction MethodologyinEnglish teaching, 21. against, 49; in reorganization 45; in 1933, 125 period. 66-67; in struggle for recog Miller, Edwin, 51 nition of English, 38. 45; and Miller, Newman, 52 Uniform Lists. 53. 54 Milton, John, 35; Bent/ey's editions National Council of Education [NEA), of. 7; examination in 11866), 29 32 INDEX 293

National Council of Teachers of En- 119141, 60: participation in Commis- glish. See NCTE sion on English 11959-1965), 196; National Defense Education Act. See 1913 presidential address (Fred N. NDEA Scott), 58; 191(1 presidential National Education Association. See address (Joseph M. Thomas), 113; NEA 1929 presidential address (Rewey A1diuttal Interest and the Continuing Belle Inglis). 99; 193'2 presidential Education ofTeachersof English, address, (Stella Center), 117; 1934 The 119(141. 200 presidential address (Oscar J. Notional Interest and the Teaching of Campbell), 117-18; 1935 presiden English, The 119611. 200, 219 Rai address (Charles S. Thomas1, National Interest surveys. 211 106; 1936 presidential address National Joint Committee on English (Dora V. Smith), 118; challenged, INEAI, 44. 65, ti7, 77, 118, 126 131; presidents' views on literature National Science Foundation, 192,200 (1913-141, 57-58; and the Natidnal Society for the Study of progressive movement 1920s-'30s, Communication, 160 79, 130-31; puhlications on popular National Society of College Teachers culture (19605). 208; public rela- of Education, 115 tions efforts lea. 1958), 198 -99: re- National Study of high School En- views research in composition glish Programs, 210-11, 227, 229, (191111, 98-99; resolution against 231 McCarthyism 119481, 20405; stance National Survey of Secondary Educa- On hehavioral ohjectives 11969), tion, 94, 125 235; stance on high school English NCTE: Achievement Awards programs 11958-65), 213; summer 11958- I, 199; affiliates, 53; atten- tours (1950s), 229; supports drama tion to independent reading lea. in curriculum (ca, 1914), 63. For 1917), 97; "Basic Aims for English commissions, committees, tusk Instruction in American Schools" forces, see specific names project 119411, 159: hegins re- NDEA, 189, 192, 199, 01, 219; insti- assessment of English programs tutes. 213 (ea. 19581, 192; campaign for NBA: cosponsors peace movement, federal funding of English pro- 117; and Curriculum Commission, grams11958,64), 199-201: campaign 118; Department of Superinten- for school lihraries 119131, 54;con- dence, 3: endorses social recon- cern with practical reading skills struction, 116; and innovation, 141; (1930s). 91; Cooperation with MLA 1910 meeting, 51; 1911 meeting, 52; 1196091. 213; cosponsors Dart. Project on the Academically Tal- mouth Seminar 11966), 229;co- ented Student, 191; Small's sponsors English Teacher Prepara- address to, 47, See also Commis- tion Study, 214; cosponsors re- sion on the Relation of School and organization study 119171. 65; criti- College; Committee on College En- cized for ending monopoly of trance Requirements: Educational classics 119421, 187; criticizes Uni- Policies Commission; English form Lists 11912), 53; curriculum Round Tahle; National Council of projects 11930s), 118.23; early com- Education; National Joint Commit- mittees, 53, 72; emphasis on com- tee on English munication 11940s), 15960; Nerds and interests of students: as establishesTask Force on Teaching hasis of curriculum, 46, 59, 88-89, English to the Disadvantaged 11315, 14243, 14647, 149.51, 179; 11964), 226-27; favors teaching ft Stanley MU and, - 21148, 56- "American Ideals" 119201, 68; first 57; studies or, 151. See arso Read- committee on censorship (19481, ing interests; Selection of materials 204; first committee on speech, 74; Neville, Mark, 145 founding 11911), 50-51, 72; freedom Newark Academy, 31 to teach and freedom to read New Criticism, 156-57, 162.66, 171 efforts Ica. 1960), 205-06; "Ideal New Criticism, The (1941), 163 Course" in English suggested New Critics, 162.66, 171-72. 182; in- 294 TRADITION AND REFORM

fluency on high school programs, Patriotism. See Americanism; Citi- 140, 164-66, 171-72, 190, 196-97, zenship 205, 206 Payne Fund studies, 87 New England: 19th century literary PEA, 7980, 107. 14043; Counts' culture in, 23. 39-40 address to, 116. See also Com- New England Association of Colleges mission on Human Relations; Com- and Secondary Schools, 31 mission on the Relation of School New England Association of Teachers and College; Commission on Secon of English, 46, 59, 69 dory School Curriculum; Educa- New England Commission of Colleges tional Policies Commission; Eight- on Entrance Examinations, 31 Year Study Now England Journal of Education, Peace movement. See International- ism New England Primer (ea. 16861, 2-3.5 Pedagogical Seminary, 57 New Republic, The, 165 Pendleton, Charles S., 86 Newspaper study. 58, 67-68. 88. See Performance contracts, 233 also Journalism Perry, Bliss, 28 Newspaper Week, 58 Personality development: drama and, New Yorker, The, 172 63, 230.31; literature and, 124.25, New York State Association of En- 136, 141. 145.47. 178, 230-31 glish Teachers, 51 Persons, Gladys, 161 New York Times, The, 165 Phelps, William Lyons, 22, 28, 31, 46 Ninth Yearbook of the Department of Philology: schools and, 28-29, 34, Supervisors and Directors of 125; study of, 25.28 Instrueion (NEAL 132 Physical Sciences Study Committee. Nixon, Richard M.: 1970 Education 192 Message to Congress, 224, 233 l'iaget, Jean, 230 Norr's, Frank, 121 Pierpont. John, 4 North Central Association of Colleges Pisan Cantos, 165 and Secondary Schools- 31, 46, 52, Plato, 25. 249 68. 118; English Committee, 208 Plays, study and production of. See Norvell. George, 154.55 Drama Noyes, Edward S., 192 Poetry magazine. 165 "Poetry's New Priesthood," 165 Bailey, Robert C.. 131 Objectives, specification of. 82.83. 86- Pope, Alexander, 9 87, 232. 234-36, 252.53. See also Popular culture: study of, 208. See Behavioral objectives also Media study Objective testing. See Testing, ohjec- Porter, Katherine Anne, 165 tive Portrait of the Artist as u Young Octopus, The, 121 Man, A, 212 Odyssey, The, 228 Pound, Ezra, 111. 165 Ogden, C. K., 111, 157 Practical Critirism (1929), 163 Olson, James, 170, 171 Practice of Teaching in the Secondary Once and Future Kin';, The, 212 School, The 119261. 93 O'Neill, Eugene, 62 Preparing Instructional Objectives "Open Letter to Teachers of English, 119621, 234 An" Ica, 1909), 51 Preparing Objectives for Pro- Oratory, 3-4, 8, 10 grammed Instruction (1961). 234 Ossian, 8 Prescriptive tradition, 6.8, 9, 16, 55 Outlines Of English Literature 118481, President's Committee on Social 10 Trends 11929), 116 Priestley. J, IL, 111 Primers, 1.3, 15 Paperback texts, 207, 210, 212 Princeton University, 29. See also Paradise Lost, 7, 9, 35, 36 College of New Jersey Parker, William Riley, 192 Principles of Literary Cnticism Parkhurst. Helen. 92 119241, 1fi0 INDEX 295

ProcessofEducation. The,11960), 4,See alsoPrimers 195 Reading interests: curriculum and, Professional standards; in 1960s. 213- 56, 88-89, 91, 154-55: studies of, 56, 15 73. 88-89. 15455 Programmed instruction, 234, 23839 Reading Interests of Young People, Progressive Education Association. The11950). 154 SeePEA Reading Ladders for Human Rela- Progressive movement: academic tions(1947). 153.54, 180 criticism of, 174-76, 185-89, 216-17; Reading lists., 53-54, 15354, 155.56, attitude of NCTE toward, 130.31, 180.Seealso Reading interests: 137. 143; contributions to literature Reading. home programs. 174-76, 248; drama and. Reading Skill Builders,161 63-64; in 1940s-'59s, 140-41; lessons Reading skills; army programs, 160. of, 214.15; overview of, 79.80; rise 61, 181; broader definition 11940s), of, 47.49 156.59, 161.62; measurement, 90- Project English, 201, 219-20; confer- 91; oral, 5, 16, 61,62; silent, 16, 80, ences. 201. 217; curriculum study 103; view of NCTE Commission on centers, 201-04, 214.15, 220, 229; the English Curriculum, 168 Hunter College center, 22728; Uni- Read Up on Life(1952). 170 versity of Michigan center, 240, "Recommendations for the Improve 227.28 ment of American High Schools" Project method. 106.09, 133 11959), 189 Project on Intergroup Relat ions,148- Reformation, 1 49 Regents' Inquiry into the Cost and Project on the Academically Talented Character of Public Education in Student (NEM, 191 New York State, 126 I'ropaganda: advertising as, 117; Regional differences in teaching of analysis, 157, 180; study of. 88, 140, English, 37. 41.50, 59, 125 157. 170 Relevance of school curriculum, 67, l'rosser, Charles, 144 236.Seealso Needs and interests of Protestant Tutor for Youth, The students 116791, 2 !Immunization movement, 64-67 Prymer of Salisbury Use sea.14910, 1 Reorganizationof English in Secon- dary Schools(1917), 65.67, 77, 105 Quackery in the Public Schools Report of the Committee of Ten. . 11894), 33. 45, 59 (1953), 188 Rhetoric; early teaching of, 810, 17, 39; in school programs, 13, n, 34 Radcliffe College: play Writing course Rich. Mabel Irene, 112 11905), 62 Richards, I. A.: influenc' of, 182; as Radio Committee INCTE), 88 New Critic, 162-63, 161; on seman- Ransom, John Crowe, 162, 103 tics, 138, 155; writin nn systems 'Ransom of Red Chief, The," 152 of meaning, 157 Readability indices, 10062 -Rickover, Vice-Admiral Hyman C.. Readers: 19th century, 35.Seealso 189 Primers Riders to the Sea.171 Reader's Digest,161 Rinker, Floyd. 209 Reader's Guide to Prose Fiction,The Roberts, II. D., 150 (1940), 152, 205 Rockefeller Foundation. 192 Reading, 251452; extensive - , 97.98, Rogers, Carl, 24243 127, 138, 252; free - ,Weeexten- Rolfe, William James, 28-29. 34, 55 sive ; home - ); home - 39 53 Romantic: era, 21, 22, 55; ideal, 25- 67, 97, 105. 125; intensive -. 185- 26; view, 23 86.Seealso Intensive study of lit Romantics. 22: English, 35; German, craw texts 25 Reading instruction: developmental Randy, Sarah, 146 programs, 15862, 169; ethical tra- Rosenblatt, Louise M,, 123-25, 131w dition and. 1-3; secularization of 3- 152, 157, 179 296 TRADITION AND REFORM

Round Table Committee on College Shakespeare, William; Blair's com- Entrance Requirements (NEAL ments on, 9; on college entrance SITCommittee on College fists, 621 dispute shout teaching, Entrance Requirements 22; enjoyment vs. analysis of, 55: in Rutgers Plan, 237 Harvard entrance requirements, 30; Harvard students' interest in, 12: introduced into curriculum, 4; philological study of, 25; Pierponrs Sandburg, Carl, 130 selections from, 4; recognition of San Francisco State Normal College, merit of, as literature, 35; William 92 James Rolfe's editions of, 28; War- Sapir, Edward, 159 burton's editions of, 7 Sartre, Jean Paul, 249 Shapiro, Karl, 165 SAT ISeholastic Aptitude Test). 96 Shaw, Thomas Budge, 10-11, 18, 34 Saturday Evening Post, The, 172 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 23 Saturday lee eine of Literature, 165 Sheridan. Marion, 145 Scarlet Letter, The, 205, 212 Silas Monier, :16, 50, 67. 152,227 Schott/stir Muguzine; 172 Silberman, Charles; 224, 236 Scholastic Teacher, 208 Silent Reading: :1 Study of Its Vari- School and Society, The 118901, 48 ous Types (19221, 90 School editions: adaptations of . Skinner, B. F., 234 'lassies. 54; adaptations of other lit Slaughter, Eugene, 214 nature. 173; first published. 34-35; Slums and Suburbs 11961). 226 of popular novels, 161 Small, Albion, 47 School Maths Study Group, 192, 217 Smiley, Marjorie, 227 School ffirl'itle, 49, 57 Smith, Adam. 8, 39 Science: educational management Smith, Dora V 106, 118, 121, 131.32, ;md, 79-83; influence on English, 155, 166, 170, 180, 211; 1933 study 84-100. 105; move to control influ- of high schools, 125-28 ence of, 100; in study of educa- Smith, Elbridge. 29 tion. 80-81; in study of language. Smith, Mortimer, 188 25, 39. SO' Obit) Minimum essen- Social Frontier, The, HD tials; Philology Socialism, 116 Science in General Education 119381, Socialization through English studies, 112, 157 64, 124, 127. 131, 150, SW IWO Scott. Fred Newton, 45, 50, 51. 52. Ethical tradition: Moral values 54, 55, 58, (10, 61, 71, 74 through literature Scott, Sir Walter, 66 Social Objectives of School English, Scudder. Horace E., 24 The 11924). 86 Secrets of Successful Living, 161 Social reconstrurtionists, 116-18, 188 Selection of materials. See Teaching Social reform: English as vehicle for, unnerials. selection 47. 115-18; loss of impetus toward, Semantics in high schools, 140, 15660 139, 144. 146, 174 Senior Schuh/stk., 204 Social studies: challenge to English, Sequence in the English curriculum, 84-85; correlation with English, 166, 169, 253; Basic Issues reeom 141-42, 144-46 mendations, 193; Commission on Sound and the Fury, The, 212 the English Curriculum recommen- Southern Association of Colleges and dations 11950s). 16869; curriculum Secondary Schools, 118 study renters and, 202-03; Experi- Spectator papers, 4, 9 (-nee rurriculuM recommendations Speech Association of America', 160 11935), 119; importance of, 194; Speech, English and, 74, 160 New (Irides and, 16384; in 19th Spelling, 3, 4, 15, 86,253 century, 5. 50; in Heading Lud. Spenrer, Herbert, 47 ders, 153-54; Reorganimition report Spenser, Edmund, 25, 27 and, 6697; in spiral curriculum, 195 Spiral curriculum, 195, 247 Seuss,.Dr., 250 Sputnik, 188-89, 199,:.'01, 217 Seventeen. 153, 172 Squire, James B., 199, 219 Sex education; advocated, 57 Stanford Language Arts Investiga- Shakford, Martha. 110, 113 tion, 150 I NDEX 297

Stevenson, Prof. John, 8, 9 tory and Secondary School, The Stevenson. Robert Louis. 68 ((hubb. 19021, 45 Stone. George Winchester. Jr., 192. Teaching of English in the Elemen- 196 tary and the Secomhzry School, The Storymagazine, 172 I Carpenter,Raker. Scott. 1903), 45 Story of the EightYear Study, The 7l-aching the Language Arts i1`1961, t19421, 138 45 Stout. John E., 37, 44 Team teaching. 209. 222 Stronger,The,212 Teen Age Book Club. 207 Student interest. Sec Needs and Tennyson, Alfred, Lord. 110 interests of students; Reading Terman, Lewis M.. 81, 92 .interests TESOL. 229 SIMI/us/ionsto Teachers in the Secon- Testing: achievement, 9; in 186. dary Schools118941, «0 28-29; intelligence. Si. 94; objec- Summer institutes: CEEB, 213: tive, 81-82. 94 -96, 104.See alsoCol- Intergroup Relations, 148-49; lege entrance examinations NI3EA, 213 Textbooks: influence on English Supreme Court. Sec U. S. Supreme courses. 127. Court See alsoSchool editions; Anthologies; Paperback Swift, Jonathan, 9 texts Synge, John Millington, 171 T groups, 242-43 Systems approach, 232-33 Thematic organization of literature courses, 129.30, 151, 169. 170, 231; Tait, Hilda, 147-49, 153-54, 179, 180 drawbacks of, 173 Paine, Hippo lyte, 55-56 Theory of Litenztart 119491, 163 Tale of Two Cities,A, 212 ThisWeek magazine, 172 %Wksonthe Studyof Literature Thomas. Charles Swain, 72. 95, 06, 118971, 20 1011. 205 Tarkington, Booth, 153 Thomas, Joseph Ni. 113 Task Force on Teaching English to Thornlike, Edward Lee, 47. 70.78 the Disadvantaged 1NCTEL 227 81, 107, 108, 147 Taste, efforts to improve, 58, 87, 88, Thurber. Samuel. xii, 207-08. 250-51 Toni Sawyer. 152 Tate, Allen, 162, 16, 165 'Topical organization. Sec Thematic. Tatter,The, 9 organization Teacher preparation in English: Tracking, 189. 212 13 development of guidelines 11960s1, Training ofSecondary School nach- 214; first model for. 27: reeommen- ers Especially with Reference fo dations NC'l'E Commission on English, The119421, 186 English 119b51, 197-98: state of "Treason's Strange Fruits," 165 119031, 43; state of 11910s), 127: Tree Grows in Brooklyn, A, 205 state of 119611, 199-200; state of Trinity College. 31 11960s), 200. 211 Tripod metaphor for English studies. Teachers College, Colunibia Univer. 192. 196. 202, 211, 917, 218 sky. 115, 123; group. 115. 116; Tri-University Propet. '235,'254 Lincoln School atam Tuttle, Robert, 214 Teachers college Record,108, 109 Tyler, Moses .Coit, 27 Teaching aids: in literature pro. Types approach, 55-513, 112. 126, 169 grams, 60411. 75. 114, 212 Teaching English to Speakers of VSOE: adopts Commissionon En- Other Languages. See TESOL glish curriculum model, 198; row Teaching materials, selection; for femme on English in Victory curriculum based on needs. 151-55; Corps, 160: curriculum studyten- definitions of suitable, 21. 67, 205, ter reports to 204; and innova- 206. 220; fartON governing. 127. tion, 141; ,Jewett survey. 109; and 204.See alsoCensorship; Literary "life adjustment," 144; and Na- canon lions) Survey of Secondary Educa- Teaching of English in the Elemem tion, 94: performance eontractex- 298 TRADITION AND REFORM

periments. 283; supports NDEA, Westminster Assembly. 2 200-01; 220; supports Tri-Uni- Whitman, Walt, 121. 130 yersity Project, 235 Williams College, 12 S. Office of Education. See USOE Witt, Peter D., 37 U. S. Supreme Court: desegregation W. J. Maxey Boys Training School. derision, 226; Ulysses decision. 205 228 lyfy American, The. 212 Who Am il, 337 / loser ease: Supreme Court 370 Johnny Can't Read 11953).'283 derision. 205 Wolf. Frederbli, 25 Understanditig Druma 119461. 164 Women in Love. 314 Understanding Fiction 119431. 164 Woodring, Paul. 188 Understanding Poetry 11938), 163-64 Woods Hole; conference at, 195 Underwood. Francis. 24 Woodworth. Robert S., 48 Uniform entrance requirements. See Wordsworth, William, 23 College entrance requirements Workload of teacher: honor roll for Uniform Lists. 49-51, 53. 128; ten schools 11962), 213-14: id 1930s, most popular selections on 11907), 127-28; NCTE position on lea. 50 19601. 199. 219; recommendations Unit instruction: defined by N(TTE of the Commission on English Commission on the English Cur- 119651. 197 riculum. 168; Morrison mastery World literature. 169-71. See also In- unit. 93.94rin 1933, 125; radical- ternationalism: Humanities courses progressive unit, 119 Worbl Neighbors, 263 University of Illinois Committee on World War 1, 67. 81-82; effect on En School Math, 192 glish programs. 67-68; and General University of Michigan, 50, 228 Semantics Movement, 157 University of Pennsylvania; early his- World War IL 140. 159. 160, 170. 186, tory, 10 205 Untermeyer. Louis, 111 Up from Slavery, 151.52 Yale University: entrance require- U. 3. Commissioner of Education: meats 11890s), 31-32; Master of annual report 11889), 13; annual re Arts in Teaehing program, 192; Re port 11900-19011. 37 port of 1828, xii. 194 U, S, Congress. 189, 233 Watling, The. 233

Van Doren. Mark. III, 186. 188, 204 Vassar College. 33 Vassar Conference on English. See Committee of Ten Victory Corps: conference on English in, 160 Vietnam War. 286 Vocational education. 46. 59-60. 74- 75. 144 "Vocational Education in the Years Mead- (begun 1944, 144 Vygotsky. L. S.. 230

Walcott. Fred. 85 Warburton, Bishop William. 7 Warren. Robert Penn, 162-64, 165 Watson. Robert, 8 Webster. Noah. Mi. 3-4. 7 Weekly Reader Children's Book Club, 207 Weeks. Ruth Mary. 118 Wellek, Rene, 40, 163 Well Wrought Urn. The (19471, 247