JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS
ISSN-2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 03, 2020
PRAGMATISM: THE INTERPRETATIONS OF C.S. PEIRCE, WILLIAM JAMES AND JOHN DEWEY
Dipankar Das1, Kangkana Nath2, Violeena Barman3, Barsha Hazarika4
1Ex-Student, Dept. of Philosophy, Gauhati University, 2PhD Research Scholar, Dept. of Philosophy, Gauhati University, 3PGT, Dept. of Philosophy, Swadeshi Academy, 4Contractual Faculty, Biswanath College, Assam. India.
ABSTRACT: Pragmatism is like the bridge between materialism and idealism. Many people from Europe migrate to America. Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870.Being troubled by social revolution and economic tolerance. Old ideas and traditions are imperfect for people. So, at that time some thinkers give birth to new ideas. These ideas were the doctrine of pragmatism. These ideas have not changed the base of human life. But influence their life and philosophy.Pragmatism gives no importance to impracticable things. Purpose should be fulfilled.These ideas attracted the attention of the society. Even in education attention to be given to practical and usefulness. This philosophy induces useful and practical work. Education basis on this philosophy make child skilled, worthy and independent citizen of the society. Education contains practical and useful activities to make child self-development and useful member of the society. KEYWORDS: pragmatism, philosophical tradition, human life, education, practical.
I.INTRODUCTION: The word ‘pragmatism' 'comes’ from Greek word 'pragma' which means ‘action' or ‘activity’. According to pragmatism, it is necessary to create atmosphere according to present situation and it is necessary to divert towards useful channels. Human minds are capable of fulfilling their minds on the basis of this truth.
Again, we can understand it as- Idea/matter | Utility/use (practical use) | Right/valuable. According to Idealism, god is the Ultimate Reality; according to materialism, matter is the ultimate reality. Pragmatism is the bridge of both. Is believing in god is utilised and useful then God exist and if it is not then god does not exist. We can take any things which have practical value. The criterion of pragmatism is of practical use. The base of pragmatism is realism. Pragmatism and realism have some both similarities and dissimilarities. The dissimilarities between pragmatism and realism are given below- (i) Pragmatism is about what you do and why you do it. Acting on the basis of expected consequences is being pragmatic; acting on the basis of Ideas is not pragmatic. On the other hand, realism is about the beliefs you hold. And realistic beliefs can be excessively optimistic or excessively pessimistic. (ii) Pragmatism gives importance on practical use of a thing. On the other hand, reality gives importance on reality of a thing. (iii) Pragmatism focuses on utility. Butrealism see things as it is.
1684
JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS
ISSN-2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 03, 2020
Though they have some dissimilarities realism without pragmatism and pragmatism without realism is incomplete. Reality and practicality both are connected. About the universe- the universe according to pragmatism is how? Is it ideal or material? According to pragmatism what is useful for us or what have the practical value is true. The world is changing. In the world everything is uncertain. The things which are useful for us have pragmatic value. Pragmatic philosophers- Pragmatism is an American Movement in Philosophy founded by C.S.Peirce and William James and marked by the doctrine that the meaning of conception is to sought practical bearings, that the function of thought is to guide action and the truth is permanently to be tested by the practical consequences of belief. A pragmatist easily accepts theory as mostly true if it appears to be useful in explaining pre-predicting the world. Pragmatism is a philosophical school founded in the 19th century by philosophers and scientist who oppose the modern metaphysics (Hegel)and the dichotomy of practice/theory (Aristotle, Kant).The founding fathers are Peirce, William James, John Dewey, Herbert Mead(1850-1950) and new pragmatist are Richard Rotary, Putnam,Quine,Goodman(1950-2000).
Principles of pragmatism- (i)Believes in change. (ii) Pragmatism gives importance to action. (iii) Pragmatism gives importance to experience. (iv) Pragmatism gives importance on experimentation. (v) It believes on present. (vi) Truth is formed by its result. Aim of education according to pragmatism- (i)It gives importance to activity base learning. (ii)Development of activity and experience base learning. (iii)Child is focus (according to idealism teacher is focus). (iv)It supports social adjustment. (v)It talks about creation of good and new values. Method of teaching– (i)Project method. (ii)Correlation method. (iii)Play way method (iv)Experimentation method (v)Activity method. (According to pragmatism teachers should be observer, friend, guide and philosopher. It gives lot of freedom to students. It talks about self-discipline.) Curriculum- (i) Principle of child centeredness. (ii) Curriculum should be activity based. (iii) Learning should be based on child experience. (iv) Principle of utility.
Main forms of pragmatism – 1) Humanistic pragmatism 2) Experimental pragmatism 3) Biological pragmatism. The explanation of these are given below- 1) Humanistic pragmatism- This Pragmatism found in social science. Satisfaction of human nature is the criteria of utility. Satisfaction of men's Desire and ones is the essence of this Philosophy 2) Experimental pragmatism - Modern science is based on experimental method. No truth is final. On the basis of experiment truth is acceptable and useful. The benchmark of in every field of life. Problems can be solved through experiment. 3) Biological pragmatism- It is a harmony of man with his environment. John Dewey’s experimental pragmatism is based on biological pragmatism. It develops social skills. Finding solution on problems by creating proper environment is the main gist of this philosophy.
Metaphysics of pragmatism According to William James “pragmatism is a temple of mind, an attitude, it is also a theory of the nature of ideas and truth and finally it is theory about reality”. Believe in knowledge quotes field through sense of organs. No faith is ultimate reality. Questions related to nature of man, universe cannot be answered. It says- A) No faith in ultimate reality B) Truth is not a stagnant property.
1685
JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS
ISSN-2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 03, 2020
C) Reality is still in making. D) Truth is human made. E) Not believe in spiritual values. Epistemology of pragmatism – A) Knowledge based on experience is true. B) Recreation of experience is knowledge. C) Sense of organs is based on knowledge D)Main element of knowledge is experience E)Experience is knowledge. Axiology of pragmatism – (i)Values is not stagnate. (ii)Values change according to time and space (iii)No faith in beliefs (iv)It believe in confidence in flexibility (v)It believes that values of life is changeable. Some basic principles of pragmatism– (i) Practicability and usefulness. (ii)Truth is changeable. (iii)Aims and ideals of life is changeable. (iv)Blind following is not found. (v) Acceptance of the method of science. (vi)Favour of giving education for social life. (vii)Positive science (physics, chemistry, biology). (viii)Man is an active being. (ix)No absolute values of life. (x)Emphasis on change. (xii)Emphasis on social aspects. (xiii)They can make their own value.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW: Hausman, C. (1993). Charles S. Pierce's Evolutionary Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (This book emphasizes the theory of pragmatism of Charles S. Pierce. It specially gives importance on his metaphysical writings.) Haack, S. (2006). Pragmatism, Old and New. Prometheus Books. (This book is a survey of the origin and evolution of the pragmatist tradition in Philosophy from beginnings in the late nineteenth century through twentieth.) Moore, E. C. (1961). American Pragmatism: Pierce, James, and Dewey. New York: Columbia University Press. (This book is an advanced introductory work to Pierce, James and Dewey. The book can be used as a commentary or introduction or text describing pragmatism and instrumentalism.) Gallie, W. (1966). Pierce and Pragmatism. Dover Publications. (This book emphasises upon the pragmatist doctrine of Pierce. Throughout the book we find that Pierce rejected William James theory of truth.) Stroh,G.W.(1968). American philosophy from Edwards to Deweyan Introduction. Princeton, N.J. (This book gives overall view of Pragmatism of the pragmatist philosophers.)
III. METHODOLOGY: Methodology in this paper is mainly analytic and descriptive. While preparing this paper both primary and secondary data is used. Necessary information has also been taken from available books, articles and journals. The primary books mainly based on the Pragmatic philosophy of the Philosophers namely John Dewey, William James and C. S. Pierce. The secondary sources gave us a glimpse of the different perspectives from which pragmatism can be defined. It also depicts the critical interpretation of various pragmatic philosophers, each criticising another’s philosophy and establishing their own ground of pragmatic Philosophy.
IV.DISCUSSION: C.S. Peirce: Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) was an American Philosopher and also known as the founder of Pragmatism and for his influence upon later pragmatists such as William James and John Dewey. According to Peirce, Pragmatism is “a method of ascertaining the meaning of hard words and abstract conceptions” or it is a method of determining the meaning of intellectual concepts. Peirce, being primarily a logician and a metaphysician is concerned with the problems of language, both from logical and metaphysical point of view.
1686
JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS
ISSN-2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 03, 2020
Although Peirce introduced the word pragmatism, there seems to be a strong background regarding its origin of the word. First, the question that arises is regarding the possibility of metaphysics. The logical positivists denied any metaphysical question. The approach of the positivists, to certain basic philosophical problems were similar to that of pragmatism. Positivists emphasis on scientific methodology in epistemology, thereby the study of language systems and its development of formal logic are to some extent akin to Peirce’s philosophy. At the same time, being an empiricist Peirce disagree with the logical positivists in rejecting the possibility of metaphysics. In metaphysics, Pierce subscribes to the version of scholastic metaphysics, through which he develops his philosophy of pragmatism. The basic concern of scholastic metaphysics is the problem regarding the ‘universals.’ Peirce’s realism is another episode that acts as a base for the origin of pragmatism. For him realism has two sides- (a) realism signifies a belief in the reality of things independent of the fact that they are thought about; (b) realism believes in the objective reality of general traits, habits or laws. These two sides are essential for a pragmatic and scientific philosophy. In his words, Peirce asserts his brand of realism as it is plain that this view of reality is inevitably realistic because general conceptions enter into all judgements, and therefore into true opinions. Consequently, a thing in the general is as in the concrete. It is perfectly true that all white things have whiteness in them, for that is only saying, in another form of words, that all white things are white, but since it is true that real things possess whiteness, whiteness is real. Peirce’s realism is applicable to his pragmatic conception of knowledge. According to Peirce if I truly know anything, that which I know must be real. As an example, he states that if one throws a stone upwards it will fall to the ground. This illustration shows- (i) First, according to Peirce, real things are inferential. To know, for example that the stone will fall is to draw a logical conclusion from premises. Here the premises would be the general rule that solid bodies fall down in the absence of any upward force or pressure, together with the particular operation or result that the stone is dropped, from which the case is predicted that the stone is dropped, from which the case is predicted that the stone will fall to the ground. (ii) Secondly, to consider something as knowledge, we are to admit that the universals or general principles are operative in nature. In order to know by logical inference that the stone will fall, one must be general rule that solid bodies will fall in the absence of any upward force or pressure. Thus, one must assume that the general rule or others really exist, otherwise our knowledge of particular case would be purely accidental. (iii) Thirdly, our knowledge of fact is pragmatic, because when we really know or understand something, this mean that we know that certain consequences or practical results will logically follow from certain things in which we do not have any control. This above discussion highlights Peirce’s theory of knowledge. The next important point regarding the origin of pragmatism is to know about the logical element or reasoning. Abduction is a kind of reasoning where we derive a new conclusion by applying a general rule on the basis of observation of certain cases together with the previous result. In an abduction, the premises are based on limited samplings and hence we cannot claim that they provide certain evidences for the conclusion. On the other hand, in induction by observing particular cases we draw a general conclusion which is true and applicable for all other similar cases. According to Peirce, abduction like induction is also probable. Its conclusion cannot follow form the necessary consequences of its premises. Abduction therefore is more creative and bolder form of reasoning. For him abduction must be grounded in induction since every abduction assumes that a general law or rule is itself an induction. According to Peirce, deduction is essential to mathematics, induction is essential in deriving general rules or laws of nature and abduction is needed to make new discoveries and anticipate new facts. However, Peirce claims that abduction is of special importance in pragmatism. He says that pragmatism is a logic of abduction. Abduction or pragmatism therefore asserts that any hypothesis of a concept cannot be regarded as final but can only offer a tentative explanation. Pragmatism insists upon experimental consequences. It demands that any hypothesis must be, in principle, verifiable. Through pragmatism Peirce understand the theory of meaning. He illustrates pragmatism from the viewpoint of an inquiring organism by saying that a belief concerning a particular object is significant if it permits the organism to predict what experiences it will have when one acts towards the object in a given way. Peirce also insists that pragmatism is a method for ascertaining the real meaning of any concept, doctrine, proposition, word or other sign. Thus, Peirce formulates his pragmatic method in several ways. The best formulation is as follows- in order to ascertain the meaning of an intellectual concept, one should consider what practical consequences might conceivably result by necessary from the truth of that conception, and the sum of these consequences will constitute the entire meaning of the conception. The whole basis of his pragmatism lies in the epistemological analysis of an idea. He classifies ideas into three types: first, the idea of percept or sense datum which has no relation with anything else. For example, the idea of redness. Secondly, there are ideas of an acting or being acted upon. For example, the idea of a billiard ball A acting upon the billiard ball B. Thirdly, the idea of sign, which is the idea of communication conveyed by one person to another in regard to a certain object well known to both. The idea of thirds is not a
1687
JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS
ISSN-2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 03, 2020 mere combination of the first two types. An example of thirdness can be the signification by A that B is related to C is not the same as A plus B plus C. On the basis of this analysis Peirce constructs his pragmatic method as a procedure for discovering the meaning of any particular complex idea. According to Peirce, the term ‘Pragmatism’ differs from ‘Practicalism’, like Kant who established a distinction between what is practical and what is Pragmatism. What is practical are ‘moral laws’, laws to be apriori belonging to a reason of thought. On the other hand, Pragmatic are technique rules of art, are aposteriori and based on experience. So, what is pragmatic in Kantian term is that which expresses a relation to some definite human purpose. A rule is a rule for accomplishing some purpose and Peirce’s attention on theory was its recognition of an inseperable connection between rational cognition and rational purpose. Therefore, it is pragmatism. Peirce purposed a set of methodological principle for scientific investigation; a principle or a method which considered effectively have practical consequence. In what Pragmatism is (1905), Peirce claim to prefer Pragmatism as a mere descriptive title for its own philosophical method. He first introduced as a rule for guiding the scientist and the mathematician. For him the meaning lies also in mathematics. There is no distinction between meaning and practice. In fact, different in meaning is the possible different of practice and discovery of truth occurs true interaction in the world. Therefore, engagement with the world is important. Peirce had put forward usefulness as a criterion of meaningfulness with the suggestion that the scientific term can be considered meaningful only if its use has practical consequences. In other word, Peirce gives a starting point for Pragmatism by proposing a set of methodological principles for scientific investigation. Peirce maintained that human enquiry must be grounded firmly in reality and guide us in the acquisition of habits of beliefs that tends to confirm to the ways in which one experience mostly living to turn out. According to Peirce, philosophy and logic were sciences, although not physical sciences. He took philosophy as a philosophy of science and logic to be the logic of science. In order to distinguish his scientific philosophy from other conceptions and theories that were trafficked under the title of pragmatism, he later renamed his views as ‘Pragmaticism’.
William James: William James was born in New York City on 11 January 1842. He was the first of five children born to Henry and Mary R. Walsh James. William's early education was benefitted by two trips to Europe, where his parents took him and his brother Henry. When the family lived in Newport, Rhode Island, James showed his interest in painting. This talent of keep perception and depiction continued to be manifest in his later dealings with people and with intellectual issues. He once remarked, in a perhaps unintentional autobiographical way, expertness in philosophy is measured by the definiteness of our summarizing reactions, by the immediate perceptive epithet with which the expert hits such complex objects off. He was a leading thinker of late 19thcentury, he is regarded as one of the most influential US philosophers and was labelled as father of AmericanPsychology. Along with Peirce, James also established the philosophical school known as pragmatism. In 1896 James collected for publication in book form many of his non-psychological articles, which had been first addressed to various groups on and off campus. They appeared in print early the next year as the will to believe and other essays in popular philosophy. These essays illustrated James’s philosophical attitude which he called “radical empiricism”. The reader should note the different meanings of the phrase “radical empiricism” received throughout James’s career. In the preface he wrote, I say ‘empiricism', because it is contented to regard its most assured conclusions concerning matters of fact as hypothesis liable to modification in the course of future experience; and I say 'radical', because it treats the doctrine of monism itself as a hypothesis. The difference between monism and pluralism is perhaps the most pregnant of all the differences in philosophy. Among the most influential books of James are- 1.The Principles of Psychology, 2.Essays on Radical Empiricism, 3.The Varieties of Religious Experience. James lectured on a topic that went back continuously to the early 70’s, when he belonged to the metaphysical club in Cambridge, where “pragmatism” was born. After the series was repeated at Columbia University in early 1907, the lectures were published that year under the title ‘Pragmatism: A New Name for Old Ways of Thinking’. Not knowing James more technical writings and desire to write out a “metaphysics”, the general public took “pragmatism” to denote James over-all philosophy.The word pragmatism meant only a method for determining the meaning of our beliefs in terms of their practical consequences. However, James also veered in the direction that his two close friends, Dewey and Schiller were emphasizing, namely a pragmatic theory of truth. In this theory William James discussed many epistemological issues,redefined various concepts and issues. Utility is the essential feature of pragmatic theory. Pragmatism donot agree with traditional theories of truth, how truth is determined. Now the question arises- What is the criterion of truth or standard of truth?Pragmatists wanted to give the new definition of truth, they never tried to explain about the nature of truth. They specially
1688
JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS
ISSN-2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 03, 2020 emphasized on how truth can be tested. According to pragmatism, practicality and impracticality is the standard of tool. William James pragmatic theory is based on radical empiricism, he believes that philosophy begins with concrete instances, which is something real and actual. Immediate experience is the only actual reality. Matter, spirit, body, soul and a priori rules of thought are too abstract, they are unreal concept, philosophy has nothing to do with it. Philosophy has to deal with experience, according to William James truth is a quality, it must be put into practice. Truth is that which has utility. Ideas and judgements are not true until they are verified. They become true only after verification. For verification we have to focus on the consequences of an idea if it leads to satisfactory consequences than it will be verifiable. Truth is useful to the day-to-day affairs of life or processes of life. It is based on experience and verification. William James version of the pragmatic theory is often summarized by his statement that, the 'true' is only the expedient in our way of thinking, just as the 'right' is only the expedient in our way of behaving. By this, James meant that truth is a quality the value of which is confirmed by its effectiveness when applying concepts to actual practice (thus, “pragmatic”). James pragmatic theory is a synthesis of correspondence theory of truth and coherence theory of truth, with an added dimension. James said that, all true processes must lead to the face of directly verifying sensible experiences somewhere. He also extended his pragmatic theory well beyond the scope of scientific verifiability, and even in to the realm of the mystical: on pragmatic principles, if the hypothesis of God works satisfactorily in the widest sense of the word, then it is 'true'. Pragmatism, James clarifies, is not a new philosophy. He states that it instead focuses on discerning truth between contrasting schools of thought. To understand truth, he argues, we must consider the pragmatic ' cash -value ' of having true beliefs and the practical difference of having true ideas. By using the term 'cash -value', James refers tothe practical consequences that come from discerning the truth behind arguments, through the pragmatic method, that should yield no desirable answer. William James applied this idea to truth in attempt to supply a down to earth substitute for certainty within the theory of knowledge. James give the credit for inventing pragmatism to Peirce. While Peirce, pragmatism as a rule for determining a proposition’s meaning, which he equates with the practical consequences. According to James, meaning and truth are of an idea are determined by its usefulness that is, by its 'cash-value'. According to James idea is a route map where meaning, truth value lies in its ability to carry us from one point of experience to another, coherent in order to secure simple and efficient way. James thought that ideashas been verified or falsified in scientific investigation to make the most accurate predication about the future. Therefore, such ideas may be counted on to pass the highest degree of workability. According to James, you can will yourself to belief and you are will to make yourself belief something, if doing so benefits you. This does not mean that you should deceive yourself. But if you either accept or reject a belief and evidence for an against the belief weigh in equally the belief as your 'vital goods' decrete. According to James,all ideas or opinion can be assimilated in acquisition of new belief. James accepted coherence theory in the sense that earlier idea can't be rejected. This is the feature that resemble the traditional idealistic application of idea of coherence theory of truth. They are assimilated for better purpose or practical purpose. A belief is true if it prepares us for successful or better action. A belief that must fulfill the function are the ones that most deserve to be called true. Hence, James true belief are those that proved useful to the believer. His theory is a synthesis of correspondence and coherence with an added dimension. John Dewey: John Dewey is the most distinguished representative of modern American Pragmatism. Dewey did not identify himself as a Pragmatist. Peirce refers to his philosophy as ‘Instrumentalism’. He is considered as one of the three major figures in American Pragmatism. Charles Peirce invented the term but William James popularized it. John Dewey refers to instrumentalism as a criticism of the traditional notion of truth which is embodied in his theory of instrumentalism which he defines as an attempt to constitute logical theory of concept, judgement and inferences. In their various forms by primarily considering how thought functions in the experimental determination of future consequences. Dewey may enquiry, rather than truth or knowledge the essence of logic. Dewey’s instrumentalism affirms that cognition consists in forging ideas, tools or instruments with which to cope with the given situation like James, Dewey maintains that the mind is an instrument for realizing purposes. Ideas are teleological weapons of mind. Ideas are adaptable. They owe their stability to the vital functions which they serve. He was a philosopher, psychologists and educator. As an educator he is famous for his system of teaching through experimental observation, commonly referred to as the progressive system. In education, philosophy of education developed the public schools. Dewey recognized that the child is an active exploring, exploring inquisitive creature, so the task of education is to foster experience infuse by skills and knowledge. Dewey’s enormous influences hold more to the skill of expounding the pragmatic, scientific and democratic progressiveness of the America of his times than to accurate a technical philosophical argument. But his development of the Pragmatism of James and Peirce remains influential. As a philosopher he is known for the new development which he gave to Pragmatism of James. Dewey and his colleagues form a new Pragmatic centre at the University of Columbo and when Dewey moved to
1689
JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS
ISSN-2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 03, 2020
Columbia University, he created a strong pragmatic centre there. In addition to the experimental method of verification stressed by Peirce and the popular version of Pragmatism given by James, Dewey considers two additional function of pragmatism- the psychological and logical. Dewey regarded philosophy as the criticism of those socially important believes which are part and parcel of the social and cultural life of human communities. This criticism involves an examination of the way in which ideas taken asocial of specific problem function within a wider context. It is in this way that the theory of knowledge – Logic, Ethics, Psychology, Aesthetic, Metaphysics become necessary and explainable. These are not to be derived from the assumption of an abstract truth i.e. a higher reality different from that within which we live and act nor from everlasting values. Dewey objects to transcendental philosopher because they ignore a kind of empirical situation to which their themes partake. Even the most transcendental philosophers used empirical subject matter. But they become non-empirical because they fail to supply directions for experimentation. The supply of such direction is the core of Dewey’s Philosophy. His standard of belief and conduct claims to lie within rather than outside of a situation of life that can be shared. In his sense enquiry is a self-corrective conducting in a specific historical and cultured circumstances; it requires no foundation in certainty or the given and knowledge is just that which is warranted through enquiry. He denied that the characteristic object of knowledge has a privileged position of correspondence with an ultimate reality; he insists that action is involved in and knowledge is not subordinate to action and practice; that it is in experimental knowing that genuine intellectual integrity is found. Dewey did not accept any alternative between knowledge and intelligence or action. To him, it is intelligent action that matters. The failure of human intelligence in social area has made Dewey strongly emphasized the social aspect of his philosophy. Throughout his life he tried not only applying his experimental method to social philosophy. But he also actively participated in disputes and struggles of political, social and cultural element. Political, social, cultural and theoretical motive has enhanced Dewey’s interest in education. He recognized the important role education plays in the survival of democracy and the improvement of democratic thought and action in the improvement of society. Pragmatism was then the most influential philosophy in the United States.Dewey’s thought has advanced in passage in Experimental Logic (1960) and Human Nature and Conduct (1922). His other principal works are Democracy and Education (1916),Reconstruction in Philosophy (1920),The Quest of Certainty (1929). Dewey worked for strongly Hegelian influence unlike James whose intellectual images were primarily British drawing particularly on empiricist and utilitarianist ideas. Neither was Dewey so pluralist or relativists as James. He also stated that experimentation (social, cultural, technical, philosophical) can be used as an approximate arbiter of truth. Dewey in contrast, while honouring religious influences and practices played in human life rejected belief in any static ideal; such as atheistic God. Dewey felt that only scientific method could reliably include human truth. Dewey’s philosophy as another name that pragmatism he has been called an instrumentalist, an experimentalists, an empiricist, a functionalist and a naturalist. The term ‘transactional’ may better describe his views, a term emphasized by Dewey in his later years to describe his theories of knowledge and experience. Dewey’s work on ethics and social philosophy analyse the logical features of thought and action. Thought is occasioned by problematic condition on organic imbalance and conflicts. Thoughtful action is directed to resolution and in thus instrumental in producing truth which is warranted and satisfactory solution of a problem. This instrumentalism was Dewey’s version of the Pragmatism he shares with James and Peirce.
V.CONCLUSION: Peirce’s pragmatic doctrine of belief involves both his account of meaning and his special ideas on belief; and those familiar with Dewey’s step in a complete act of reflective thinking will recognize his indebtedness to Peirce’s account of belief. For Peirce, the meaning of a concept is to be found inall the conceivable experimental phenomena which the affirmation or denial of the concept could imply. Or he sometimes put it, the meaning of any idea is the habit which it establishes. The difference in ideas or beliefs is to be seen in the habits established: and if there are no differences in practice, the ideas mean the same thing. James accepted Peirce method of using pragmatic meaning and also spell out a pragmatic theory of truth in his book “Pragmatism”. And James formulated a pragmatic theory of humanism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gallie, W. (1966). Peirce and Pragmatism. Dover Publications. Haack, S. (2006). Pragmatism, Old and New. Prometheus Books. Hausman, C. (1993). Charles S. Peirce's Evolutionary Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hookway, C. (1985). Peirce. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. James, W. (1907). Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking, Cambridge, Harvard University Press. James, W. (1909). The Meaning of Truth, A Sequel to Pragmatism.Longmans, Green, and Company, New York. Moore, E. C. (1961). American Pragmatism: Peirce, James, and Dewey. New York: Columbia University Press. Murphey, M. (1993). The Development of Peirce's Philosophy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
1690
JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS
ISSN-2394-5125 VOL 7, ISSUE 03, 2020
Peirce C.S. (1931).Collected Papers, Harvard U.P., Cambridge. Peirce C.S. (1878). How to Make our Ideas Clear, Popular Science Monthly, reprinted in Thayer (1982). Stroh, G. (1968). American Philosophy from Edwards to Dewey: On Introduction. Van Nostrand Reinhold
1691