REFLECTIONS ON AUSTRALIAN
CONTEXTUAL MODELS OF
PASTORAL MINISTRY
by
Darren John Cronshaw
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Ministry
of the Australian College of Theology
2005
Abstract
Australian historical images – for example, the Aborigine, convict, bushman, gold digger, Anzac ‘digger’, and migrant – are a fruitful source for theological reflection to develop models of ministry. These images and their historical contexts helped shape Australian culture and so shape context for ministry. A conversation between historical themes and Christian tradition suggests a number of complementary models for pastoral ministry in Australia. Spiritual companions, for example, help people relate faith to their journey in everyday life. This model resonates with Aboriginal listening and sensitivity to the sacred, and is at home with the Australian longing for everyday spirituality as articulated by contemporary social commentators such as Michael Leunig. Chaplains get alongside people in the midst of their lives, although colonial chaplains were seen more as distant moral policemen and their role in evangelism was limited by their government employment. As settlement spread through the bush, ministry as shepherding with clergy who cared for their flocks replaced or supplemented chaplaincy. Shepherding, an image rich in nurturing and care, was at home in the rural setting of the colonies, and continues to meaningfully express the pastoral care aspects of local church ministry. The labour movement and the Australian value of a fair go for the underdog suggest a place for ministry as prophetic advocacy; and ministry as service fits Australian humanitarianism, the Anzac spirit and servant leadership popular today even in business circles. Finally, ministers as community hosts reflect both God’s hospitality and the multicultural ethos of Australia that draws people together from different cultures and backgrounds. The pastoral ministry can be imagined and expressed by various models which describe different emphases of ministry, and the most effective models for pastoral ministry in Australia will derive from and critique Australian culture and historical images.
ii
Certification
I certify that the substance of this thesis of approximately 30,000 words (excluding bibliography) has not previously been submitted for any degree and is not currently being submitted for any other degree.
______Darren Cronshaw, October 2005. ACT Student number: 698
I consider that this thesis of approximately 30,000 words (excluding bibliography) is in a form suitable for examination and conforms to the regulations of the Australian
College of Theology for the degree of Doctor of Ministry.
The thesis has not been submitted to another university or college of theology.
______Rev Dr Darrell Paproth, Bible College of Victoria, October 2005
iii Acknowledgements
To prepare for missionary service in Indonesia, in the 1990s I studied theology to understand the meaning of the gospel, and social sciences as tools to understand culture. At home in Australia, a danger is to think that we can apply the Bible without reference to our cultural contexts. ‘I’ll just do and teach what the Bible says’ some may say, as if it can be read and applied regardless of time, place or ethnic context. Good theology is not culturally-neutral, but takes into account the context for which it is developed. Thus this thesis explores the question of appropriate ministry models for local churches in Australia: ‘What images in Australian history and culture inform suitable models for local church pastoral ministry?’ It is crucial to find forms of ministry that are both faithful to the Bible and authentically Australian.
I am indebted to many who helped me in this exploration. I am grateful to the Baptist churches I have served for all they have patiently taught me about ministry for the local church, and to the Bible College of Victoria (BCV) where I studied towards this degree and thesis. Thank you to the Victorian Baptist Fund at Whitley College and to BCV for scholarship assistance. I acknowledge also the use of resources and appreciate the help of staff in the libraries of the Bible College of Victoria, Ridley College, Whitley College, and the University of Melbourne. Furthermore, particularly for their help in tracking down primary documents, I thank the staff of the Joint Theological Library, Leeper Library of Trinity College, Sugden Collection of Queens College, State Library of New South Wales, State Library of Victoria, and the University of Edinburgh New College Library. Darrell Paproth at BCV has been my supervisor. Darrell’s commitment to understanding Australian society has been an inspiration and I appreciate him as a valued mentor and friend.
Perceptive comments have also been given by friends and mentors Mark Brett, Jennifer Cronshaw, John Cronshaw, Rowland Croucher, Brian Edgar, Kristi Giselsson, Colin Hunter, Patrick Innes, Ian Jagelman, Fran James, Jill Manton, Craig O’Donnell, Geoff Pound, Jeff Pugh, and Stephen Staunton. In exploring various ministry models, I appreciated the input of members of the Australian Evangelical Alliance Melbourne theological discussion group, the Victorian Association of Theological Field Educators, the Victorian Baptist Ministry Network (online), the North-West Baptist
iv Ministers’ Network, and the BCV postgraduate and faculty seminar. This is a second submission of the thesis, and I value the feedback from my examiners Philip Freier, Charles Sherlock and Bruce Wearne. Though these people have all helped me, I alone accept responsibility for what is written with all of its limitations and drawbacks.
UNOH Publications has been producing some great books aimed at inspiring and informing more radical responses to Jesus among the poor. So I count it a privilege and appreciate Ashley Barker and the rest of the Urban Neighbours of Hope team at UNOH Publications for being willing to publish a revised and expanded version of this material. It has been inspiring to rework the thesis in a more accessible format and encouraging that its ideas will be able to be read further. The new book will be Credible Witness: Companions, Prophets, Hosts and other Australian Mission Models (Melbourne: UNOH Publications, 2006) and will be available through Koorong or online at www.unoh.org.
This thesis I dedicate to our daughter Jessie. Jessie, may God guide and empower you as a leader in whatever sphere your calling takes you. But for now I simply enjoy your passion for fun and the family times we spend together that make the words of the Australian legend John Flynn ring true for me: ‘Earth holds no more beautiful thing than a young family’ (Rudolph 1996: 283).
Darren Cronshaw Mooroolbark December, 2005
v
Contents
Abstract...... ii Certification...... iii Contents...... vi
INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Local theologies...... 2 Australian conversational theology – literature review...... 5 Images of history and models of ministry ...... 14
CHAPTER 1 : SPIRITUAL COMPANIONS FOR THE JOURNEY...... 21 Indigenous peoples and the land, pre-1788 ...... 21 Ministry as spiritual companionship...... 24 Australia’s very own spiritual companion – Michael Leunig ...... 27 Reflection on the journey ...... 31
CHAPTER 2 : CHAPLAINS FOR CONVICTS ...... 32 Convicts and hell on earth, 1788-...... 32 Ministry as chaplaincy...... 32 Chaplaincy as evangelism?...... 37 Reflection on early days ...... 40
CHAPTER 3 : SHEPHERDS FOR SETTLERS ...... 41 Bushmen and mates, 1836-...... 41 Ministry as shepherding ...... 42 Excursus on mateship and egalitarianism...... 45 Reflection on bush themes...... 50
CHAPTER 4 : ADVOCATES FOR THE MARGINALISED ...... 51 Eureka and other protestors, 1851-...... 51 Ministry as prophetic advocacy...... 54 The wowser factor ...... 57 Reflection on protestors...... 59
CHAPTER 5 : SERVANTS FOR THE NEEDY ...... 60 Nationhood and Anzacs, 1901- ...... 60 Ministry as service...... 62 Servant leadership or leading servanthood? ...... 67 Reflection on Australian self-sacrifice ...... 68
CHAPTER 6 : HOSTS FOR A MULTICULTURAL COMMUNITY ..... 70 A multicultural community, 1966- ...... 70 Ministry as community hosting ...... 72 Hosting asylum seekers? ...... 77 Reflection on a developing paradigm...... 80
CONCLUSION ...... 81 Summary and evaluation ...... 81 Personal philosophy of pastoral ministry ...... 83 More of the Australian legend? ...... 86
Reference list ...... 88
vi
INTRODUCTION
White settlement of Australia began with the landing of the First Fleet of convicts in New South Wales on 26 January 1788. Included on board was Australia’s first church leader – the chaplain Richard Johnson. On the first Sunday Johnson conducted a church service of thanksgiving, though the first few days were marked more by drunken revelry than by heartfelt prayer. In the early days of white settlement, the church and its ministerial leaders had a state-sanctioned chaplaincy role, but this did not always best facilitate the mission of the church. Johnson’s successor Samuel Marsden, for example, became known as the ‘flogging parson’ because he mixed his pastoral duties with those of a magistrate. Such a reputation in the formative period of the colony did not help the relationship of the church and its pastoral ministers with the average Australian.
Pastoral ministry today is also challenged by the marginalisation of the church and different expectations on the role of pastoral leaders, as well as the increasing complexity of their work. In whatever age, ministry is serving God and people by helping people come to faith and grow as followers of Christ in fellowship with the church. Yet ministry is expressed in different ways depending on varying contexts and differences in gifting and personality of ministers. Hence different models of ministry evolve that seek to be relevant to different cultural contexts and ministry styles, while being faithful to biblical principles of ministry.
The purpose of this thesis is to consider Australian contextual models of pastoral ministry for local churches. There are various models and principles of leadership in business, many of them originating from America. Moreover, there are numerous competing models of ministry available that have varying degrees of usefulness for our situation. Both leadership literature and models of ministry, if they are to be applied in a relevant way to Australian churches, need to be filtered through an
1 Australian cultural grid. Australian history and Australian culture(s) are two main points of reference. This research addresses images of Australia’s past in order to develop appropriate models for ministry today. What images in Australian history and culture inform suitable models for local church pastoral ministry? Where are the contextual elements that resonate with aspects of the Biblical material in a way that heightens awareness of possible Australian models of ministry? How is Aboriginal Dreaming relevant to Christian ministry? Do our convict and other Anglo-Irish legends affect our attitudes to the ministry? What Australian myths and heroes illuminate ideal Australian ministry, and what models most inspire us? With these questions in mind, the thesis is a project of local theology that will reflect on pastoral ministry with culturally appropriate models.
Local theologies
Rather than expecting one systematic theology to be relevant to any and all cultures, contextual theologians argue that theology needs to be articulated for particular contexts. It is not possible to articulate a culturally neutral or non-contextual theology. Thus Douglas Hall described the phrase ‘contextual theology’ as a tautology, since ‘Christian theology is contextual by definition’ (1989: 69). The Bible itself is full of contextual theologies. God revealed himself throughout the Bible in forms that fitted local contexts (Davies 1997). Ultimately God revealed himself in the incarnation – coming as a Jewish man but in order to save all people, of all nations and of all times. He was born in Judea twenty centuries ago, but has continued to reveal himself in cultures and history since (Dyrness 1994). Jacob Loewen said that God buried so much treasure in Scripture that we will not find it all until the interpretive perspectives of each of the languages and societies of the world have been applied to them (cited in Kraft 1996: 18). ‘A Treasure in Earthen Vessels’ (WCC 2001) recognises that this hermeneutical task applies to each and every local church, and is enhanced as churches listen to one another in an ever widening ‘hermeneutical community’. Each culture asks different questions and it will be fascinating to see what questions and contributions are heard from Australia.
Many approaches to contextualization or local theologies have been developed by or in conversation with missiologists who are seeking to distance themselves from
2 cultural imperialism. Christianity was often imported to new cultural contexts like a pot plant carried into a garden but left in its foreign container and soil without being transplanted! Such a plant may grow for a limited period of time, but will eventually either die constricted in the pot or the roots will shatter the pot. The church needs to take root wherever it is planted rather than relying on sustenance from abroad (Boyd 1975). Churches that rely on imported theological models will be less free to engage their own context in mission. Yet when local churches can express themselves in forms that are culturally appropriate as well as biblically faithful their ministry will be more fruitful. Significantly for this research, contextualization was first raised in the 1970s by the World Council of Churches (1972) to encourage ministerial training to take into account the context of ministry rather than importing foreign, irrelevant models.
The popularity of local theologies (sometimes called inculturated, indigenous or contextualised theologies) has been cultivated not only by post-colonial mission needs but also post-modern epistemology. The trend towards ‘contextual theology’ (theology that in some way takes into account the local context for ministry), reflects an epistemological move away from a theology that assumes a static world and neutrality of knowledge. This is part of a major historical transition away from the modern Enlightenment-based reliance on objective knowledge that a neutral and autonomous observer is supposed to be able to explain. Part of the emerging post-modern paradigm is a quest for a community-based understanding of truth and celebration of diversity. It recognises that all writers and readers of texts are interdependent and affected by where they are situated, and that theology is not just about knowing universal information but acting on it locally. Rather than imposing ‘from above’ a theological system that explains things, contextual theology draws theology ‘from below’ and seeks to change the world. It is praxis or action focused rather than philosophically formed, and it values local cultural expression rather than importing frameworks from another culture (Grenz 1996; Rees 2002).
Robert Schreiter (1985) identified three approaches to developing local theologies. The translational approach begins with the gospel message and seeks local cultural forms to ‘translate’ the message into. The adaptational approach develops a picture of the worldview of the culture to help adapt a locally relevant theology from Christian
3 tradition. But the contextual approach explicitly begins with the cultural context and accepts it as a possible source of theological meaning rather than just the destination into which theology is translated or adapted. So rather than starting with biblical studies, the contextual approach begins with analysing culture and local needs, and then explores the Christian connection.1
American Catholic theologian Stephen Bevans (1992) describes Schreiter’s ‘contextual’ approach as ‘anthropological’ in its focus on human experience and culture. He maintains that studying a people’s culture uncovers symbols and concepts that can articulate their faith:
Theology that is contextual realises that culture, history, contemporary thought forms, and so forth are to be considered along with scripture and tradition, as valid sources for theological expression. … It is not contradictory to hold a high value of both Gospel and culture, nor is it wrong to take one’s theological agenda from various sources: society at large; the current world scene as expressed in both the economic and political realms; the Biblical data; or the guidance of the Spirit (Bevans 1992: 2, 111).
To reflect on Australian contextual models of pastoral ministry, sound cultural analysis and faithful biblical study are both needed in order to be relevant yet critical. Charles Kraft (1979) warned against evaluating a culture by Western criteria, but was also concerned about the relativism of refusing to evaluate any cultural behaviour or values. Paul Hiebert (1987) expressed a similar concern that helped formulate his ‘critical contextualisation’ approach that is committed to considering local culture but not uncritically. The theologian needs to understand the context (or else risk the message being lost in irrelevancy), but also needs to challenge the context (or risk the message’s power being lost in uncritical acceptance.) This is a point made by Latin American evangelical leader René Padilla (1977: 3): ‘There is nothing more irrelevant than a message that simply mirrors [our] myths and ideologies!’ A proper intercultural hermeneutic will bring contextuality into conversation with catholicity – both speaking and both listening (WCC 1996). The anthropological approach to contextualisation of this thesis starts with Australian culture but engages that construct of culture in a conversation with insights from Scripture and tradition.
1 Stephen Abbott’s (2000) biblical theology of evangelism partly inspired this research but he started with biblical and theological material and gave less attention to Australia’s cultural context.
4 Australian conversational theology – literature review
Over the last few decades, Australian theologians using insights of social theory have been calling attention to Australian contexts and their relevance to theology and ministry. Uniting Church practical theologian Denham Grierson (1991: 39) uses a metaphor from nature to warn of the results of reliance on foreign input. When birds build their nests in northern Australia, Strangler Fig seeds carried with the twigs and leaves used to construct the nests cause an unusual effect. The seeds germinate and send down roots which eventually take over the host tree, destroying it in the process. He suggests this as a parable of what has affected many Australian congregations. Whether with evangelism campaigns, church growth strategies, management techniques, or leadership structures, ‘Strangler Fig mission’ has paralysed the church when seen as coming from the top or foreign and irrelevant. Australian Christianity needs locally grown approaches. Even in today’s era of globalisation which spreads models around the world, it is little use adopting models from another national context unless they are adapted to our historical and social situation.
At a time when Australia is searching for national identity, the churches also need to search for and communicate an Australian Christianity. This is a need identified by various church leaders and commentators. When he visited Australia Pope John Paul II (1986b) spoke on this theme:
‘Look, dear people of Australia and behold this vast continent of yours. It is your home! The place of your joys and pains, your endeavours and your hopes. And for all of you, Australians, the way to the Father’s house passes through this land.’
Historian Manning Clark explored questions of Australian identity and criticised the church, particularly its evangelical Protestant arm, for embracing its British origins rather than developing Australian expressions. He pondered why “no-one had produced the image of Christ as an Australian figure” (Clark 1987). Baptist Theologian Frank Rees (1999: 21) summons the church to theological reflection of Australian cultural images:
We need not only a quest for an Australian spirituality but an Australian theology … images, metaphors and stories to name God in new ways, Australian ways. … We need to sift through our literature, films and music,
5 our ways of living and working and playing, to find new ways of understanding and being church.
Thus this thesis looks to Australian history and Christian tradition as points of reference to contextualise pastoral ministry in terms that are at home in Australian culture. We want to be faithful to the Christian message, yet also be creatively in touch with our cultural history. It is crucial to find forms of ministry that are both faithful to the Bible and authentically Australian.
The translational approach, termed by some ‘ocker theology’ or ‘gumtree theology’, has been helpful for me to explore the meaning and relevance of faith as an Australian. Books such as Pfitzner’s Australian Parables (1988) and Prewer’s Australian Prayers (1983) tap into local culture by translating ideas or stories into colloquial usage and so are helpful in liturgy. Pro Hart and Normal Habel (1981; 1982) have combined their art and poetry to portray the timeless Christian message in Australian images. Others have developed contemporary Australian paraphrases of Scripture (Murray 1985; Nettleton; Richards 2003). Prayer and hymn books are referring more to the Australian landscape and Aboriginal spirituality (AHB 1977; APB 1978; UIW 1988). Australian language and images help the church communicate the relevance of the gospel with Australians. Yet there is a need to go further. Eugene Stockton (1992: 19) argued that the search ‘is not simply to discover an ocker expression of the gospel,’ but a ‘realisation in ourselves of a Jesus who comes to us in our own land’.
In understanding our own land, this thesis seeks to listen to and learn from the travellers, observers, historians, psychologists and social scientists who have written on Australian culture(s) from different perspectives (cf. Pascoe 1979). Sir Keith Hancock’s Australia (1930) was a landmark description of Australia’s history, exploration, politics, and desire to become a nation. Others followed Hancock’s framework: Palmer’s The Legend of the Nineties (1954), Shaw’s The Story of Australia (1955), and Pringle’s Australian Accent (1958). But by far the most well known book from this period is Russel Ward’s The Australian Legend (1966, first published 1958). Ward’s folk history traced the historical origins and development of the Australian legend and described the disproportionate influence of bush workers on the typical Australian self-image. The bush legend and egalitarian ethos was entering the
6 consciousness of Australians as a major part of their sense of identity and source of values.
Donald Horne’s The Lucky Country (1964) offered snapshots of Australian people and their ethnic and religious differences in the 1960s. Horne explored foreign relations, work practices, education, and politics, and tentatively suggested that Australians could build on their good qualities and trust good luck would continue. Similarly, Craig McGregor urged Australians to address the challenges of nationhood in The Profile of Australia (1966). Both Horne and McGregor were widely read by Australians eager to understand Australia’s identity and future. Interestingly both saw no place for religion or Christianity’s contribution (Thornhill 1992: 4-5). Richard White’s Inventing Australia (1981) discussed a number of the historically-based images used to search for Australian identity; including the convict hell, workingman’s paradise, and multicultural society. White digressed from previous writers, though, in asserting that these images are constructed out of a certain perception of history with assumptions about science, race, society, sex, and empire. His Marxist critique was that they were ‘invented’ to suit the needs of a developing nationalism and the interests of those with power. Thus White began to question the historical validity of Australian legends while still recognizing their influence in forming Australian cultural identity.
The common thread in most of these books of the half century 1930-1980 is a masculine bush ethos. Resonating with literature from the 1890s, Hancock described Australia as focusing around the taming of the land, the emergence of sectional strife, and the development of democratic and egalitarian nationalism. He was not the first to suggest these ideas but pulled them together in a way later commentaries parroted. This is Connell’s (1968: 15) observation of the literature on identity: ‘[T]he themes developed or crystallized by Hancock have been taken over by his successors with only minor modifications, though with many new illustrations. The result has been a homogenous tradition of social comment and criticism.’ The arguments of Hancock and those who followed him were flawed in that they focused on the bush (when most people lived in cities) and they conflated the words ‘Australians’ and ‘men’ together (thus ignoring women). Australian cultural identity is not just about male bush workers. Yet the serious analyses of Australian culture and character described above were by males and largely about males, and were often racist and historically
7 questionable. Contextual theology that uses an anthropological approach explores cultural materials but sometimes needs to appropriately critique their assumptions, especially when they run counter to gospel values. Models of ministry cannot afford to be bound by gender and ethnic stereotypes of the past, and in fact contextual interpretation of tradition should give precedence to those ‘silenced traditions’ on the underside of cultural history (Bergmann 2003: 59).
In the last decades of the twentieth century, writings on cultural identity have begun to recognise multiple identities, which can help inform more inclusive models of ministry. They have given space to previously ‘hidden’ histories – those of women, indigenous people, ethnic groups, and the working class. For example, Anne Summers’ Damned Whores and God's Police (2002) argued that women’s lives in Australia have been stereotyped as either ‘damned whores’ (originally from the convict women in the first years of the colony) or ‘God’s police’ (from ‘respectable’ women who took the role of the moral guardians of society). Miriam Dixson focused on ways history has shaped gender relations and women’s identity in The Real Matilda (1999b; cf. 1999a). Furthermore the stories of indigenous people are beginning to be told by writers like Henry Reynolds who began with the landmark The Other Side of the Frontier (1982) about Aboriginal resistance, and followed up with other books exposing our idealised (peaceful) version of the past. (Keith Windschuttle (2002) argues a contrary view that massacre stories were invented, but he misunderstands the nature of oral history and devalues the weight of evidence that clearly points to massive injustice against Aborigines (cf. Manne 2003).) Other volumes are recognising multifaceted identities and various versions of history – whether women, Aboriginal, labour, or Chinese – as in Creating a Nation (Grimshaw et al. 1996), Creating Australia (Hudson & Bolton 1997), Australian Identities (Day 1998), and The Australian Legend and its Discontents (Nile 2000). This is a representative rather than comprehensive list but indicates a growing awareness of broader social history.
Ronald Conway and Hugh Mackay are both psychologists turned social researchers who have analysed Australian society and identity in an accessible way. Conway wrote on the spirit and moods of Australians in The Great Australian Stupor (1971), Land of the Long Weekend (1978), and The End of Stupor (1984). He offered a personal view on consumerism, gender, religion, and science, and upheld traditional family values
8 and the importance of relationships. More recently, Mackay has commented voluminously on Australian society in newspaper columns, research reports, and in Reinventing Australia (1993) and Turning Point (1999). He explores the redefinition of Australian values, the disillusionment of the 90s, the search for quality leadership, and the desire for deeper levels of community. Thus Conway and Mackay’s analyses have identified trends and values that define part of the agenda for pastoral ministry.
Another group that have been making connections between spirituality and the Australian soul are literary and creative artists. In earlier generations the contributions of Henry Lawson to bush mythology and C E W Bean to the Anzac legend are well recognised. In more recent times artists Arthur Boyd and Michael Leunig, novelists Patrick White and Thomas Keneally, poets Les Murray and Judith Wright, and historian Manning Clark have made significant contributions to their fields. The contributions of thoughtful and creative Australians like these writers are valuable for developing Australian theology. Literature critics Veronica Brady (1981; 1994), Allan Loy (1977), and Noel Rowe (1993) are among those who have discussed religious themes in Australian literature as a key to understanding Australian culture. The white person is seeking a dreaming (cf. Jackson 1988; Stanner 1979) and ministers benefit from being part of this conversation.
Some theologians question the validity of a specifically Australian theology. Sydney Anglican Peter Jensen (1983) argued it is futile trying to construct an Australian theology, asserting there is no need to be ashamed of our broader Western heritage. On the other hand, he contends one of the main areas Australian evangelical theology needs to examine is the meaning of culture, including genuine research into Australian history and society. Alongside Jensen’s theological perspective, Bruce Wilson (1983) writes from a sociological framework and calls indigenization a red herring and blames secularism for the church’s decline. Yet he also proudly embraces Australian culture and agrees that the church needs to present faith in ways that makes sense of being Australian. Fortunately, a number of scholars do not see Australian theology as futile and have not hesitated to study culture as central to the project. They have written a small but significant and growing body of Australian theology in the last quarter of a century. A representative overview can be scanned in one of the useful compilations of essays (Hayes 1979; Houston 1986; Malone 1988; 1999; Emilsen &
9 Emilsen 2000; Pearson 2004). Historical overviews of Australian theology have been offered by Robert Banks (1976; 1977; 1988), Eric Osborn (1979; 1986), and Gideon Goosen (2000). Goosen uses a rainbow motif to picture theology covering topics from every aspect of life, and gives an overview of transcendental, everyday life, environmental, and other Australian theologies.
Aboriginal writers who have expressed their faith in local forms include Anne Pattel- Gray (1991; 1996; 1998), Miriam-Rose Ungunmerr (1988), George Rosendale (1988; 1993), Djiniyini Gondarra (1996), and the Rainbow Spirit Elders (1997). Coming from an oral tradition, there is more theological reflection that is happening that has not yet been written. Some reflection is conveyed through dreamtime art that relates gospel stories or like Jasmine Corowa’s set of paintings on Genesis 1 (2000) and Ungunmerr- Baumann’s Stations of the Cross (1984). Other reflection is best left in the form of oral stories since, as Morris (1996) argued, writing down oral traditions detracts from their living power. Part of the important contribution of Aboriginal perspectives, though limited to written sources, will be explored in the first chapter.
There is an increasing awareness of the place of religion in Australian history. This has been enhanced by the widely read work of Manning Clark who traced the clash between enlightenment thinking, Roman Catholicism and British Protestantism in Australian history. It is interesting that the agnostic Clark was so interested in the religious dimension of Australian history. In his idiosyncratic way he pictured the confrontation in Australia as being ‘between those who hold a religious view of the world, who believe in the mystery at the heart of things and those who believe in applying the principles of the book-keeper to the subject of human happiness and behaviour’ (1976: 29). Christian historians who have explored the challenges of Australian religious history in the Journal of Religious History and elsewhere include Patrick O’Farrell (1977; 1989) who bemoaned the lack of attention granted to religious history, Stuart Piggin (1987) who advocated church history as legitimate social history, and Bruce Mansfield (1989) who celebrated the success of Australian Christianity and noted its strong intellectual and institutional character. These historians of religion are focusing on religious history (rather than just ecclesiastical history) to see how religion has influenced society and culture.
10 There is also a growing list of books that explore the history and position of the church in Australian society. Religion in the early colony was treated by Murray in Australian Christian Life from 1788 (1988), and with particular reference to clergy by Grocott in Convicts, Clergymen and Churches (1980) and Griffin in They Came to Care (1993). Border’s Church and State in Australia (1962) and Barrett’s That Better Country (1966) explored the development of the role of the churches and their early relationships to the state. Bollen’s Protestantism and Social Reform (1972) traced the influence of the social gospel in Australia and the churches’ response to industrial conflict and social unrest in 1890-1910. Broome’s Treasure in Earthen Vessels (1980) examined the activities of Protestant churches in 1900-1914, and claimed they were hampered by sectarianism, wowserism and middle class captivity. Hogan explored the impact of religious rivalries in The Sectarian Strand (1987), and evangelical history is the focus of the journal Lucas: An Evangelical History Review and the related Australian Dictionary of Evangelical Biography (Dickey 1994). Piggin further celebrated evangelical involvement in Evangelical Christianity in Australia (1996), Linder focused on evangelical Christians in World War I in The Long Tragedy (2000) and West unveiled the history of women in Australian churches in Daughters of Freedom (1997). An excellent general overview is Breward’s History of the Australian Churches (1993) which explores key issues including education, Aborigines, secularity, multiculturalism, and regional and denominational variety. Ecclesiastical histories that still have broader relevance include The Catholic Church and Community (O'Farrell 1985), Heart of Fire: The Story of Australian Pentecostalism (Chant 1984), Iron in our Blood: A History of the Presbyterian Church in NSW, 1788- 2001 (Hutchinson 2001), and Anglicanism in Australia (Kaye 2002). So although often sparse in large scale ‘secular’ histories, there is quality material available on the history of Christianity in Australia.
Sociology has also been a helpful discipline for analysing patterns of religious practice, as A. W. Black overviews in Religion in Australia (1991). The pioneer of sociological research into Australian religious belief was Hans Mol (1969; 1971; 1985) who explored myths about morality, religiousness (or irreligiousness), and the response of the churches to ‘secular society’. Peter Kaldor and researchers with the National Church Life Survey (NCLS) have been prolific in publishing analyses of changing patterns of church life in Australia (e.g. Kaldor 1987; Kaldor et al. 1999).
11 Philip Hughes and the Christian Research Association (CRA) have made similar contributions (e.g. Hughes 1988; Hughes et al. 1995). Gary Bouma (1997; 1999) specifically explored religious plurality in the context of multiculturalism.
Popular books are sometimes useful resources for their insights into Australian expressions of Christianity. For example, John Hannaford in Under a Southern Cross (1985) related his attempts to help Australians see Jesus as their mate who likes them, and later in Saints & Bushrangers (1997) he told stories of Australians and their spirituality that he imagines would be appropriate in a pub church. With similar passion, evangelist John Smith described his call into motorcycle ministry in On the Side of Angels (1987) and explored the implications of the gospel for Australian life and society in Advance Australia Where? (1988). William Tabbernee surveyed leadership and authority in different denominations in Ministry in Australian Churches (1987). Evangelical leader Mal Garvin wrote Us Aussies (1987) as an accessible portrayal of Australian history and search for identity. Journalist Muriel Porter discussed the influence of Aboriginal experience, convicts, gold, wars, women, and migration on Australian religion in Land of the Spirit? (1990). Christians are joining their voice to the national conversation about Australia’s direction, another example of which is Anglican ethicist Alan Nichols who explored social welfare in Australia with Reluctant Conscience (1984) and Refugees, Religion and Politics (1993).
These popular, historical and social-science writers comment on themes relevant to local church ministry. Their conversations have been ongoing for many years and numbers of thoughtful Christians and ministers who are sensitive to their contexts have been contributing. This thesis involves listening to this ongoing intra-disciplinary conversation about Australian history and culture. My contribution to the conversation is a provisional exploration of how historical awareness might enhance ministry from the perspective of a pastor and practical theologian, though not as a ‘privileged participant’ (following Thornhill 1992). It is a conversation that allows other fields of knowledge (not just theology as the ‘queen of the sciences’) to ask questions and provide answers (following Garrett 1999). This follows in the tradition of others who have been committed to pursuing historically aware and contextually focused ministry. Local church histories are often conservative, institutional histories detailing facts and figures, but the better ones also show awareness of their socio-cultural, economic and
12 political context. This contextual awareness is notably seen, for example, in Baptist church histories by Manley (1987), Ball (2005) and Paproth (forthcoming), and Tim Costello’s autobiographical Streets of Hope (1998).
As a methodological framework, the most helpful contribution to this thesis is the anthropological approach to contextual theology proposed by Frank Rees that he calls a ‘conversational’ method. Rees (2002) interacts with Tony Kelly (1990; 1999) and Geoffrey Lilburne (1996; 1997), and draws on the ‘method of correlation’ of Paul Tillich (1959). Rees focuses his conversations particularly on questions of Christology and ecclesiology – exploring Christ and church with culturally appropriate images. The metaphor of conversation allows cultural and experiential elements to have a voice in theological reflection. Rees is also helpful in encouraging contextual theology to be imaginative and transformative rather than just descriptive. He urges theological reflection to go beyond a simple translation and correlation of ideas: ‘It is not sufficient to engage in the kind of correlative thinking which seeks similarities in content of ideas. This I call the “this-goes-with-that” approach to correlation’ (Rees 2002: 285-286). It is not enough to put a cultural theme alongside a theological theme and label the pair contextual theology. Australian contextualisation needs to go deeper than correlation of random themes and converse at a deeper level about how Christian faith can be at home in Australian cultural soil.
At a popular level a quarter of a century ago, David Millikan facilitated conversation between positive aspects of culture and Christian themes in the ABC series The Sunburnt Soul: Christianity in Search of an Australian Identity (1981; cf. 1979). Millikan followed a Tillichian definition of religion and culture, looking for correlations between the two to develop a relevant theology. He was quick to celebrate positive elements of Australian mythology and correlate them with Christianity, but theology needs to challenge as well as connect with local culture. Otherwise theology will remain at the ‘this-goes-with-that’ level, which may help Australians feel good about their identity but does little to transform their culture. Banks suggested a more dialectical engagement of theology and culture is needed, as present in say Ellul (Banks 1988; Ellul 1986). The anthropological approach of this thesis, like Millikan, begins with images of Australian culture and history, but seeks to engage them in critical conversation to move on and explore transformative models of ministry.
13 Images of history and models of ministry
An ‘image’ is a picture or metaphor derived from history, culture or society that identifies and describes something. For example, ‘the bush’ is an Australian historical image as well as the focus of some contemporary longing, as is the more specific ‘mateship’ that developed out of social relations that were a distinctive part of colonial history. Sometimes ‘image’ is used interchangeably with ‘model’, but in this thesis a ‘model’ adapts an image more into a way of operating. Models are not literal descriptions of reality but imaginative tools to help order experience and interpret the world. They function both to explain what they represent, and sometimes to explore their meaning. Any one model alone is usually inadequate and leads to distortions. Yet not all models are appropriate let alone equal (Barbour 1974; Dulles 1988). The contextual or anthropological method here starts with historical and contemporary images from Australian culture, and then explores models of ministry that resonate with those images and discusses their cultural and biblical appropriateness.
Australian identity cannot be captured by any one image, but different myths and characteristics combine to form national identity. Ward (1966: 1) proposed that national identity is related to certain historical images (bushmen, diggers, Anzacs, and so on), both because they are part of our history and because of the myths that have developed around them:
National character is not, as was once held, something inherited; nor is it, on the other hand, entirely a figment of the imagination of poets, publicists and other feckless dreamers. It is rather a people’s idea of itself and this stereotype, though often absurdly romanticized and exaggerated, is always connected with reality in two ways. It springs largely from a people’s past experiences, and it often modifies current events by colouring … ideas of how they ought ‘typically’ to behave.
Even to the extent that historical images of bushmen and Anzacs are more mythological than factual, and granted they exclude significant numbers of Australians (typically women, city-dwellers, and people of other cultures), they are nevertheless formative for Australian identity. Myths are not empowered by their literal historicity but by the extent they fashion identity and values. The point of myths is not what they indicate about actual history, but how they function within a shared cultural psyche to
14 preserve what is profound. The Dreaming is Australia’s original myth, but others have developed around convicts, bushmen, rebels, Anzacs, and multiculturalism. A thoughtful critique of influential myths and their appropriateness is part of redefining our identity as Australians and as Christian ministers.
Studying cultural myths and their enduring influence and critiquing them where appropriate will help ministers develop models that connect with the deepest levels of culture. Biblical scholars have been exploring myths for over a century, and mythology is a central concept in anthropology. Yet the conversation between practical theology and anthropology regarding myths is not extensive and invites development. At a popular level Don Richardson (1974; 1981) explored using cultural keys from mythology to communicate the gospel. Adeney (1982) and Conn (1984) criticised his use of the outdated diffusionist paradigm and called for more disciplined anthropological insight. The comprehensive analysis of Rogerson’s Myth in Old Testament Interpretation (1974) is a good example of the sort of comprehensive analysis that is needed in applied theology and mission studies. Raimundo Panikkar in Myth, Faith and Hermeneutics (1979) articulated an approach to myth and its relationship to faith, tolerance and interreligious dialogue. Not satisfied with passive observation from a distance, he urged a search for a deep level understanding and experience of the spirituality of religious tradition at the fundamental level of myths.
Many historians suggest that formative influences are imprinted on a community’s life and developed into its mythology. A country’s beginning experiences influence its national psyche thereafter. This is an assumption of the writers on national identity such as Ward who at the beginning of The Australian Legend (1966) quoted Alexis de Tocqueville:
The entire man is, so to speak, to be seen in the cradle of the child. The growth of nations presents something analogous to this; they all bear some marks of their origin; and the circumstances which accompanied their birth and contributed to their rise, affect the whole term of their being.
This historical hypothesis suggests that formative periods – whether of children, organisations or nations – have a lasting and indelible impact on character and outlook that are disproportionately more influential than later periods. Freud emphasised that
15 the first five years have a significant role in human development. However the idea that this is then relatively static and deterministic has been discredited by research that showed that development continues throughout life, and that particular early childhoods do not necessarily lead to particular adult outcomes (Erikson 1977; Levinson 1978). The first five years are important but not thoroughly deterministic. Similarly, the early years of a nation are important but are not the only determinant of national identity. Thus this thesis begins with exploring the implications for church ministry of early and subsequent periods and legends of Australian history, and then explores relevant ministry models that resonate with these mythical and therefore deeply embedded presuppositions within the Australian soul. Models of ministry always need to be consistent with biblical expressions of ministry, but models that are selected from the multitude of biblical and contemporary options will be most culturally relevant when they also resonate with formative cultural factors.
Various authors have explored different metaphors or models for ministry. The Ministry in Historical Perspective (Niebuhr & Williams 1956) overviewed the plethora of forms and labels ministry has taken: priests, ministers, and pastors in different traditions; and then functional terms such as teachers, chaplains, counsellors, and directors. Sociologist Norman Blaikie (1979) researched the plight of Australian clergy seeking to meet congregational and community expectations while remaining faithful to their own sense of role. He explored how beliefs are related to priorities and orientation to the world, and how that influences ministry models and particularly whether ministers prioritise their role as evangelist, educator, or social reformer.
A major influence on models of ministry is models of church, as explored in seminal books by Paul Minear and Avery Dulles. Minear discussed the body of Christ and 95 other terms in Images of the Church in the New Testament (1961). It was a useful survey of the plethora of biblical terminology for the church, and implicitly suggested helpful models for ministry. Dulles went further in simplifying models of church and correlating them with patterns of ministry in Models of the Church (1988). He limited his typology to five prevalent models of the church: institution, mystical communion, sacrament, herald, and servant. He then explored the correlating patterns of ministry and perceptions of ordination for each model. If the church is seen as institution, for example, then the ministerial leader would be seen as a public officer with power. In a
16 church as communion, the pastor is the builder of community. The church as sacrament has priests as sacred mediators; the church as herald has preachers; and the church as servant has ministers for others. What a church wants to be will influence what is appropriate for its models of ministry.
A number of practical books outlining contemporary models for ministry have been published in the last fifteen years. Methodist theologian Donald Messer is one of the most innovative writers on the subject, intentionally seeking images that inflame the imagination and recover a sense of urgency and vision. His Contemporary Images of Christian Ministry (1989) explored ministers as wounded healers in a community of the compassionate, servant leaders in a servant church, political mystics in a prophetic community, enslaved liberators of the rainbow church, and practical theologians in a post-denominational church. His follow up book, A Conspiracy of Goodness (1992), suggested the image of the world as God’s body to serve and that those involved in God’s mission are a covenant of global gardeners (sensitive to all of creation), a collegiality of bridge builders (overcoming prejudices), a company of star throwers and peacemakers, a community of fence movers, and a conspiracy of goodness. These sort of contemporary models have potential for firing the imagination and focusing ministry on transformation.
Ian Bunting in Models of Ministry (1993) is cautious about biblical models because he says they reflect contemporary dominant-leader images, it is easy to read into them what we think they mean, and what we theorise about ministry does not necessarily work out in practice. He discussed the models of therapist, consultant, overseer, professional, practical theologian, minister in community, community builder, and middle manager, but favours the imaginative leadership role of minister as pathfinder. David Bennett’s Metaphors of Ministry (1993) listed and categorised terms describing how disciples follow Jesus and in turn influence others, and discussed how this relates to leadership images and leadership development today. Derek Tidball in Builders & Fools (1999) critiqued the ‘job description’ approach to ministry and contends that classic biblical images provide reinvigorating models for ministry. He explored Paul’s rich imagery of minister as builder, parent, ambassador, athlete, pilot and shepherd but also scum and fool! Indian theologian Jesudason Jeyaraj made a valuable non-Western contribution in Christian Ministry (2002). Taking into account his cultural and
17 ecclesiastical contexts in India, he explored fourteen models including priestly, liberation, reformer, chronicler, missionary, charity, and pastoral.
This thesis topic explores pastoral ministry in broadly Australian culture(s), but above all is motivated by a concern to engage formatively and critically with people in my ministry context as a Baptist pastor and teacher of practical theology. The church is God’s people created by the Spirit as the body of Christ. Its purpose is to glorify God through worship, mission, pastoral care and spiritual formation. This is the understanding of the role of the local church on which this thesis and its exploration of pastoral ministry is based. Leading the church in these roles is a privilege, responsibility and vocation for me as a pastor and the calling to which I was ordained. My teaching of practical theology and mission studies, furthermore, is a complementary role in training other leaders. Part of the challenge of teaching is helping students to understand their context and to develop models for ministry that will fire the imagination, focus energy and sustain effective ministry. New ministers need a strong sense of their calling and a confident understanding of their identity which comes from clear models of ministry. So the thesis explores pastoral ministry from this participant-observer perspective.
There are some limitations or boundaries on this project that relate to my context of ministry. To begin with, the thesis addresses ministerial leadership – exploring models of ministry for those who lead local churches. In recent decades forms of ministry and ordination have come under focused ecumenical discussion (e.g. AUSTARC 2004; WCC 1982). Most Australian churches recognise that ministry belongs to the whole people of God, but in different ways set apart ministerial leaders. For example, Roman Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox churches have three orders of ministry or Holy Orders – bishops, priests and deacons. Baptists and Pentecostals have pastors to function as specialized local church leaders. This thesis accepts that ministry is the task of the whole church yet some people are called by God, that call being recognised by the person as well as the church, and so are trained and set apart for pastoral leadership or ‘the ministry’. The images of pastoral ministry discussed in this thesis will also be relevant as models of ministry for all Christians, but the focus is on ministerial leadership. A second limitation is that the thesis is limited to Protestant local church ministry. Although I have appreciated learning more about the origins and
18 valuable contributions of the Roman Catholic Church in Australia, for reasons of space and relevance I need to focus on Protestant pastoral ministry.
Thirdly, Australian myths and ministry models have mostly been male dominated. In regards to cultural myths, powerful role models have developed from such archetypal male legends as the bushmen and Anzacs. However, the models that resonate with these myths, such as nurturing shepherds and sacrificial servants, need not be seen as gender specific. The models express biblical qualities that many, though not all, Australian women and men are familiar with and can admire or relate to. Similarly, ministry has often been male-dominated and models of ministry have left little room for women. In fact, whether from social conditioning or intrinsically, women often excel in pastoral characteristics like nurture and service. Yet women have largely been excluded from ministerial leadership, or when they have ministered have rarely been included in history books (Hutchinson & Campion 1994; West 1997). Although they have not always been applied to women, the models of ministry discussed in this thesis can also be seen as being relevant to both women and men.
Each of the following chapters begins with myths and significant periods of Australian history, and introduces a model of ministry that is suggested by cultural images of that period. These models will help point in culturally appropriate directions for effective ministry in Australia today. The thesis does not claim that these models are unique to Australian culture or historical periods. They are relevant to other places and periods as well, and there is some discussion concerning how some of the models have evolved. For example, chaplaincy was the first form of ministry in the colony, but chaplains today function very differently. Moreover, the historical eras and myths and the models derived from them are not meant to be exhaustive or comprehensive. They are necessarily selective and not the only doorways into a meaningful engagement with culture. But these reflections draw on some of the main images of Australian cultural identity and related ministry models, and are indicative of what can be learned from this approach:
¾ The first chapter will begin where the history of Australia as a continent began – with Aboriginal Australia – and a model of spiritual companionship that resonates with the sensitivity to the sacred of indigenous spirituality;
19 ¾ The second chapter then begins where Anglo-Irish settlement began – with the period of convicts and chaplains. Although colonial chaplains are seen as distant moral policemen, chaplaincy today is a helpful model of ministry for getting alongside people in the midst of their lives;
¾ Chapter three discusses the shepherd as a model of ministry in the context of bush workers, mateship, and egalitarianism myths;
¾ Chapter four suggests the model of prophetic advocacy, arising out of Eureka, the labour movement, and the Australian value of a fair go for the underdog;
¾ The fifth chapter explores ministry as service which fits Australian humanitarianism, the Anzac spirit, servant leadership popular today in business circles, and a socially aware gospel;
¾ The final chapter explores the minister as community host, a model which reflects both God’s hospitality and the multicultural ethos of Australia that draws people together from different cultures and backgrounds.
Pastoral ministry can be imagined and expressed by various models which describe different emphases of ministry, and the most effective models for pastoral ministry in Australia will derive from and critique Australian culture and historical images.
New models or traditional models presented with fresh images help give pastoral ministers a clearer focus, a sense of urgency about mission, and a new identity beyond merely fulfilling role expectations (Messer 1989). Furthermore, a diversity of images and models help express the diversity of ministry. A ministerial leader might have a certain title hallowed by church tradition, but function in more than one way or with more than one model according to their abilities and context. The church has adapted its models of ministry for different times and places, and is not bound to focus on any one particular image (Bunting 1993). Hans Kung (1967: 22) warns ‘all too easily the church can become a prisoner of the image it has made for itself at one particular period of history’. This thesis argues that models derived from culture and historical legends, and a diversity of these historically aware models, will best enhance ministry theology and praxis.
20
CHAPTER 1 : SPIRITUAL COMPANIONS FOR THE JOURNEY
Indigenous peoples and the land, pre-1788
Aboriginal people were the first wave of migration to Australia. At least 40 000 years ago they reached Australia from Asia and spread out over the continent which then included New Guinea, the Torres Strait Islands and Tasmania. Aboriginal society was based on hunting and gathering with little technology but a highly developed oral culture and mythology of the Dreaming (Blainey 1985). Central to Aboriginal understanding of creation and their experience of the land, the Dreaming is the belief that spiritual ancestors shaped the land and that all creation is Spirit-filled. For Aborigines, God is not up in heaven, but in the earth and all around. Jasmine Corowa’s artwork in The Rainbow Spirit in Creation (2000) shows how Aboriginal Christians view the Creator as within the earth, not somewhere above or outside it. The deep connection of indigenous peoples with the land made the dispossession of the land and the injustices that followed all the more tragic.
Part of the sad heritage of injustice is that white Australia has been slow to recognise the value of the Dreaming and indigenous spirituality because it did not ‘fit’ their definition of religion. Fortunately, Aboriginal leaders are realising they have important insights to contribute to both Australian and global theology, and others want to hear from them. Pope John Paul II (1986a) affirmed Aboriginal people when speaking in Alice Springs in 1985:
‘You are part of Australia and Australia is part of you. And the church herself in Australia will not be fully the Church that Jesus wants her to be until you have made your contribution to her life and until that contribution has been joyfully received by others.’
21 An anthropological approach to Aboriginal theology recognises that the First Fleet did not transport God to Australia but expects to find God’s universal providence has provided a general revelation within the culture (Rom 1:20). For example, rather than owning the land Aborigines view the land as sacred place to which they belong, which is closer to the Hebrew notion of the land belonging to God. It is possible that the Dreaming can speak to Aboriginal people as a precursor to the gospel like the Old Testament for Jewish people (Heb 1:1) (cf. Brett 2003; Charleston 1990). Following Taylor’s (2005: 35-36) analysis that Maori religion is where spirituality in New Zealand starts, this thesis does not want to impose a Western Christian framework on Australian indigenous spirituality. Spirituality – broadly defined as awareness of and response to the sacred and the search for meaning – is a dimension of life for all cultures. Appreciating creation and recognising the presence of God’s Spirit in the world, a Christian perspective on other faiths can affirm the spiritual nature of people and their inclination to want to seek God. It can learn from diverse spiritual traditions, and can even have the cultural captivity of its own expression challenged, while yet maintaining a confidence in the uniqueness of the Christian tradition. This is not to say that all Aboriginal culture is wholesome, but while white settlers brought the Bible and the knowledge of Christ, Aboriginal people were already open to a Creator and spiritual living. They have insights into spirituality and community that other Australians could profitably learn from (Harris 1990; Rainbow-Spirit-Elders 1997).
Miriam-Rose Ungunmerr (1988), Principal of St Francis Xavier’s School in Daly River, claimed that as well as a respect for nature and sense of community, some Aboriginal people have a quality called dadirri which is their greatest gift to other Australians. This ‘inner, deep listening and quiet still awareness’ is a traditional approach to contemplation that reflects deeply and listens to the land. Dadirri brings wholeness by enjoying the land, being attentive to the seasons, being together for ceremonies, listening to sacred stories, and being at home in silence and in God’s presence. Ungunmerr (1988) comments:
There is no need to reflect too much and to do a lot of thinking. It is just being aware. My people are not threatened by silence. They are completely at home in it. They have lived for thousands of years with Nature’s quietness. My people today recognise and experience in this quietness the great Life-Giving Spirit, the Father of us all. … When I am out hunting, when I am in the bush, among the trees, on a hill or by a billabong; these
22 are times when I can simply be in God’s presence. Because my people have been so aware of Nature, it is natural that we feel close to the Creator.
Dadirri invites people to journey at a steady pace in order to feel the land’s deep harmony and celebrate moments of leisure as much as work. It is a contemplative and everyday spirituality that is at home in Australia and not inconsistent with Christian spirituality. Ungunmerr describes dadirri as fulfilled in Christ when he speaks words of peace and clarifies guidance.
Rod Cameron recognised the value of indigenous spirituality and its fulfilment in Christ, and wrote Alcheringa to show that the Dreaming has the potential to help all Australians see the sacredness of the land and everyday life:
The ordinary person in ordinary moments encounters the presence which, to others, is confined more to times of special insight and contemplation. To the Aborigine the whole world is full of words and they all speak of the Sacred. In their world-views there is such an overlap of heaven and earth that the Sacred lives in rocks and roots as much as in the stars (1992: 20- 21).
Aboriginal religion, with its totemism and sacredness, is deeply aware of a spiritual dimension to life and a spiritual heritage in the land. Yet the Dreaming is not concerned only with the spiritual world but with all of Creation and all of life: ‘all living, loving, camping, hunting, journeying and dying’ (Cameron 1992: 99). In his impressionistic sketch of Australian spirituality, John Gaden (1994: 98-99) affirmed an all-of-Australian-life spirituality that relates to being awestruck by the physical environment. Aboriginal theologians help other Australians with their insights into this land and their critique of Western values. Aboriginal concern for spirituality, furthermore, is a helpful corrective to a secularism that ignores God and even a healthy balance to management models for church that leave little room for spirituality. Australians have a potentially deep spirituality but somehow, as Millikan (1981: 26) commented, we are yet to tune religious expression to this land and acknowledge that God is here. The question remains as to what images for ministry will most help Australians for their journey. Indigenous spirituality suggests a traditional image of ministry as spiritual companionship. After 200 years of white people in the land, Australia is still on a journey and looking for its own dreaming. This is a context that invites pastoral ministers to serve as spiritual companions.
23 Ministry as spiritual companionship
Ministry as spiritual companionship resonates with indigenous beliefs that recognise that the journey of life has spiritual implications. The world is spiritually interconnected and part of a person’s task in life is to honour that interconnectedness. Part of the task of those who are spiritual leaders is to help people make and maintain those connections. This is the role of a spiritual companion – to help people realise the spiritual dimension to living and relate spirituality to everyday life. Spiritual director Peter Bentley (1996) correlated the role of the Aboriginal tracker with spiritual companions who journey with and guide pilgrims, pointing out places of significance and danger on the spiritual landscape. The image has limitations in that many Aborigines were forced into tracking against their will and used for the purpose of conquering the land and tracking down other Aborigines. Nevertheless, Bentley's exploration was helpful in its focus on what an appreciation of indigenous spirituality can bring to other Australians, and awareness of the misuse of trackers by those in power warns against the misuse of indigenous knowledge today. The Dreaming, dadirri, and other expressions of indigenous spirituality are resources that with sensitivity and discernment spiritual companions may draw on. Like Celtic Christianity which developed ‘soul friends’ in similar ways to old Druidic practices (Bradley 2000; Simpson 1999), Australian spiritual companionship may draw on Aboriginal insights and frameworks which are at home in this land.
Spiritual companionship has the potential to connect Christian faith not only with the everyday spirituality of Aboriginal culture but the spiritual searching in broader contemporary society. Secularism and pluralism influences many Australians to ignore God or imagine their own god from a plethora of options. Rather than deride their ignorance, a way forward is to encourage spiritual search, celebrate ‘the mystery at the heart of things’ (1976: 29), build on people’s experience of God, and ultimately aim to point them towards experience of Christ. Paul Heelas’ (2005) British research into the spiritual revolution suggests that people appreciate help to get in touch with themselves and their spirituality. La Trobe University’s self-titled ‘spiritual educator’ David Tacey (2003) urges churches to observe how God is communicating with people outside churches, and to meet the interest in new spirituality with their resources of tradition and community. As with other parts of the Western world,
24 Australian society is challenged by loss of meaning, despair, and marginalisation. Part of the calling of pastoral ministry is to help people make sense out of life; that is, be meaning-makers (Clarke 1997). Encouraging spiritual search and discovering meaning in everyday life (which is especially relevant in Australia today) is also part of the traditional role of ministers as spiritual companions. Ministers functioning with this model, however, are not content to be general spiritual therapists exploring whatever meaning and spiritual background people bring, but help people perceive where God as Father, Son and Holy Spirit wants to interact with them. Thus it is an appropriate model for ministers, and in fact paradigmatically expresses their core business that is sometimes expressed otherwise in priestly terms – helping people connect with God.
A spiritual companion is a friend who walks alongside a person to explore together where God is working in that person’s spiritual life. It is a role of companionship in a journey and exploration of spirituality. If spirituality is awareness of and response to the sacred, then Christian spirituality more specifically is awareness of and response to God in the context of biblical faith and community, centred in response to the Spirit of God. Furthermore, Christian spirituality relies on friendships and mentors who nurture awareness of and response to God. David Benner (2002: 15-16) defines these terms and explains that sometimes spiritual companionship is offered among friends in a mutual form of encouragement, and other times it is offered by a designated guide or spiritual director in a one-on-one, one-way relationship. Spiritual companionship as defined here – walking alongside someone to explore together where God is working – broadly covers both aspects of spiritual friendship and spiritual direction.
Furthermore, while ‘spiritual director’ implies expertise and is consistent with the traditional priestly, soul physician, and confessor aspects of the role, the term ‘spiritual companion’ is more appropriate for Australia. A companion is a trusted friend who walks with people as they find God’s path and this better reflects Australian egalitarianism – whether in a mutual relationship of friendship, or in a relationship with a minister or guide who nevertheless models their ministry on a relationship of friendship. St Francis de Sales favoured a relationship of friendship as the basis for spiritual direction; he commented that such a guide is a ‘faithful friend’ to confide in and listen to in a friendship that ‘must be … completely holy, completely sacred, completely divine, completely spiritual’ (2003: 35(I.4)).
25 Walking alongside someone to explore together where God is working is a special friendship and support one person can give another over a period of time in the process of growing in a loving relationship with God (Edwards 1980). Such relationships of spiritual companionship help discern what God is doing in a person’s life, interpret their experience with God, identify right choices, and embrace the mystical and supernatural. It is an ancient tradition with roots in the early church, the desert fathers, and the Roman Catholic tradition, but is gaining popularity in Protestant circles with the breakdown of modernity (Easum 2000). Robert Webber’s Ancient-Future Faith (1999) contends that the postmodern world is a rich cultural context for the rediscovery of a classical view of the church and its symbolism and traditions. The postmodern desire for a fresh experience of mystery and everyday spirituality corresponds with the resurgent popularity of spiritual companionship.
By contrast, to attract spiritual seekers many leaders are turning to marketing and management techniques, espoused for example by George Barna (1992). Marketing perspectives direct ministers to focus on particular groups of people, design relevant programs and communicate clearly. However they also promote a consumerist approach to Christianity and reliance on techniques rather than God’s leadership.2 This is hardly a new tension. Methodist minister William Taylor (1920: 119), who ministered in Queensland and New South Wales between 1871 and 1913, wrote of the need for the Spirit’s blessing:
To run a church that is spiritually dead is like making bricks without straw; but given a church throbbing with spiritual life, and you may dare great things for God. … We are too often found making a serious mistake … putting more energy into the erection of elaborate ecclesiastical scaffolding than we are into the infinitely more important work of building the spiritual temple.
Fruitfulness in ministry comes not from driven busyness but from conscientiousness in prayer. The contemplative aspects of indigenous spirituality and the soul-care and interest in a person’s prayer life of spiritual companionship have more potential than modern marketing techniques to help pastoral leaders nurture spirituality.
2 This summary of church marketing draws on my earlier Doctor of Ministry paper ‘Uses and Cautions of Marketing as a Church Growth Tool’ (2004b).
26 Spiritual companionship is also different from another popular ministry model, that of therapist. There are techniques to learn from both therapy and spiritual companionship, but pastoral ministers have a unique role in pointing people to an experience of God. Spiritual companionship is concerned with enhancing experience of God rather than fixing problems. It is more congruent with the traditional Anglican notion of pastoral ministry as the ‘cure of souls’ (Latin cura animarum). Cura contains the idea of both care (supporting wellbeing) and cure (restoring wellbeing). The church has historically embraced both meanings of cura and has understood soul care as involving nurture and support alongside healing and restoration (Moon & Benner 2004). The ‘cure of souls’ suggests that ministry is not bounded by helping people find their ‘felt needs’ as marketing suggests or of discovering their own cure from therapy or help from counselling. Spiritual companionship refocuses ministry back on helping people with their faith and spirituality.
While churches decline in attendance and bemoan the increasingly secular nature of society, many Australians are looking elsewhere to satisfy their spiritual hunger. While pastors talk among themselves, prophets from other spheres are addressing the issues that are shouting for attention in Australia. It is not just Christians who are offering answers to the questions that are crying to be answered out of Australian culture. In fact Australian writers, artists, comedians, and even cartoonists – who are not necessarily believers but who are exploring the human predicament – have contributions that the church should thoughtfully consider. Part of contextualising theology for Australia is listening to the heartbeat of the culture and discerning where it connects with and where it is incongruent with the Christian gospel. This is a conversation that still must include tradition and Scripture, including the Old Testament and a full understanding of God’s character. But in addition to traditional sources, cultural sources will often help the church identify the questions people are asking and sometimes provide wise and sensible answers.
Australia’s very own spiritual companion – Michael Leunig
Contemporary Australian artist Michael Leunig is a type of ‘prophet’ and ‘spiritual companion’ whose voice many Australians hear through his cartoons about Curly Flat. Curly Flat is the legendary home of down-to-earth Mr Curly, who lives a balanced life
27 and reflects on the mystery and simplicity of everyday life: love and relationships, busyness and contentment, struggles and joys. It is worth asking where Leunig’s work connects with Australian theology and how it might help inform an Australian theology of ministry.3 Though not explicitly Christian, Leunig is a popular ‘prophet’ who often surreptitiously addresses public issues and questions popular assumptions. Furthermore, he functions as a fellow traveller and ‘spiritual companion’ in helping many of his readers connect with a sense of meaning and spirituality. Like Karl Rahner, but without his dense and complex theological expression, Leunig ties together natural and spiritual realms and explores human yearning, loneliness, materialism, and everyday life (Honner 1992). Although he is not read or understood by all Australians, Leunig intuitively addresses themes that ministers need to explore.
Leunig (1996) points to the importance of building faith in the midst of changing times, as with this prayer:
Dear God, We celebrate spring’s returning and the rejuvenation of the natural world. Let us be moved by this vast and gentle insistence that goodness shall return, that warmth and life shall succeed, and help us to understand our place within this miracle. Let us see that as a bird now builds its nest, bravely, with bits and pieces, so we must build human faith. It is our simple duty; it is the highest art; it is our natural and vital role within the miracle of spring: the creation of faith. Amen.
No prayer can say everything about God and this prayer is not distinctly Christian, but neither is it heretical. It celebrates creation, seasons, and hope, and reminds the reader of the importance of a faith dimension to life. These are aspirations Christians feel along with people of other religions: Buddhists, Muslims, and even many Australians whose religion and meaning in life is secularism. In contrast to secularists but in common with world religions, Leunig explores and addresses the sacred. His work is not a comprehensive Christian theology but it treats topical issues that ministers will explore if they take seriously the experience of Australian people. The way Leunig functions as a spiritual companion through his cartoons and writings – helping people to experience God, to identify right choices, to recognise the spiritual realm, and to explore questions – is an example for Australian pastoral ministers and their role in spiritual companionship. Leunig does not make the connections with Christian faith
3 This sort of question prompted Geoff Wraight at Whitley College to title his Australian theology subject ‘Curly Flat Theology’ from which this thesis derives some inspiration.
28 that ministers as spiritual companions do, nor does he relate as a one-to-one companion as the model suggests, but nevertheless his work encourages reflection on issues of significance and the importance of faith.
It is appropriate for Australia and for Christians in Australia that the spirituality Leunig expresses is not just personal but has a prophetic edge. Spiritual companionship is about social engagement as well as personal development. Kenneth Leech (1992) advocates for spiritual direction that is concerned with communal development and deepening perception of how God is working in the structures of society. Ideally it has a subversive as well as a personal focus. Thomas Merton (1969: 25) viewed his spiritual direction and monasticism as critical to his prophetic ministry: ‘the monk abandons the world only in order to listen to the deepest and most neglected voices that proceed from its inner depth.’ Personal spirituality is inadequate if it is merely private and does not enable communal transformation. Ministers as spiritual companions, furthermore, limit their fruitfulness if they aim only to develop people’s inner lives, without consciousness of spirituality’s outward implications in service. In facing the challenges of the world, Leunig does not just offer peace in the midst of turmoil but invites transformation for social action. For example he wrote this prayer for personal and broader change:
God help us to change. To change ourselves and to change our world. To know the need for it. To deal with the pain of it. To feel the joy of it. To undertake the journey without understanding the destination. The art of gentle revolution. Amen (Leunig 1993).
Again, this prayer is not distinctly Christian, which is part of Leunig’s appeal. The prayer echoes Sufi Islam and Buddhist mantras as much as any biblical prayer. Nevertheless, Leunig’s prayers are worth reflecting on as examples of integrating the practice of personal spirituality with the discipline of working for a better world.
Leunig calls his readers to carefully listen to themselves and to their environment, which is consistent with Ungunmerr’s description of dadirri. Like Aboriginal spirituality, Leunig (2004) values place and space for reflection:
Dear God, We give thanks for places of simplicity and peace. Let us find such a place within ourselves. We give thanks for places of refuge and beauty. Let us find such a place within ourselves. We give thanks for places
29 of nature’s truth and freedom, of joy, inspiration and renewal, places where all creatures may find acceptance and belonging. Let us search for these places: in the world, in ourselves and in others. Let us restore them. Let us strengthen and protect them and let us create them. May we mend this outer world according to the truth of our inner life and may our souls be shaped and nourished by nature’s eternal wisdom.
In the midst of a society that values materialism and rewards busyness, Leunig echoes the Aboriginal reminder that awareness of nature and a peaceful spirit is an essential part of a holistic spirituality. The Bible points in similar directions, and it could be argued that ministers should first refer to it for principles of environmental respect and soul care. However many Australians are more ready to hear these truths through the heritage of indigenous spirituality and Leunig’s cartoons. Aboriginal spirituality and Leunig’s philosophy should not be accepted as a total package and need to be treated with discernment – as with any cultural forms, but in their respect for nature and the wisdom of simple living they are consistent with holistic faith in a God who is creator and sustainer of all of life.
Moreover, in common with indigenous perspectives and/or a Creation-sensitive Christian faith, Leunig (2001) identifies life lessons from everyday sights, as in this letter from Mr Curly:
Birds are good teachers, Vasco, in many things, but particularly in the matters of making music and making love. If we could do these things with as much conviction as they do we would surely fly like them as a simple consequence.
Leunig has a capacity to help people smile and to reflect on truth at the same time. His style is not to impart lots of knowledge but to help people open their eyes to the Australian spirit that is already present (Wraight 2002). Brett (2002) reflects:
His parables break through the walls of cynical and conventional thinking. He has no hidden lectures or political programs to deliver, just a few lateral thoughts on the possibilities of human nature. Perhaps this is the only way the majority of Australians will accept theology expressed in public – without somber theses, clerical garb, or moral heavy-handedness, but through spiritual intuitions dressed as comic fictions.
While many churches have adopted management and marketing models in pursuit of growth, Leunig is a kind of spiritual companion or prophet who reminds Australians
30 that there is a spiritual aspect to life beyond the readily recognised secular sphere. And he is communicating it in ways that are accessible to thoughtful Australians who want to embrace a compassionate and just approach to life and spirituality.
Reflection on the journey
An earthy spirituality that takes in all of life is at home in Australia. Sacredness is found in everyday events and ordinary life. Part of spirituality is receiving what Les Murray (1983: 8) called ‘the ordinary mail of the other world, wholly common, not postmarked divine.’ Western European cosmology is reversed down-under so that God’s Spirit is not perceived as departed from the earth but present under our feet (Tacey 2000). Aboriginal spirituality is closely connected with the land and traditional daily activities. Biblical salvation is holistic and encompasses all aspects of life’s journey: public and domestic issues, friendships and sexuality, leisure and business ethics. The presentation of the gospel in Australia needs to address and build on these everyday themes. Perhaps this is part of the role of Australian ministry as spiritual companionship – not in a faddish or escapist style but in a down-to-earth manner that is pastorally caring and prophetically challenging.
There is a need for further exploration of spiritual formation as a model for Australian ministry. For example, a limitation of spiritual companionship is that it is essentially a one-on-one form of ministry. On the other hand, as a one-on-one form of ministry it is a great model that a pastor can model for congregation members to imitate. Leunig might communicate to thousands of Australians but his flow of communication is largely one way, which is not pure spiritual companionship anyway. Other aspects or techniques of spiritual companionship may apply to leading group retreats (especially in a bush setting) and pilgrimage (communal journeys to give spiritual insight). A spiritual companion is a friend or mate who walks alongside another to help them with their spiritual life. This model resonates with the journeying motifs and everyday spirituality of Aboriginal culture, and is appropriate for connecting with the Australian longing for everyday spirituality as articulated by Leunig. It is the first example of a model of ministry that derives from or resonates with an aspect of Australian culture and history, and it complements other models that derive from other cultural images.
31
CHAPTER 2 : CHAPLAINS FOR CONVICTS
Convicts and hell on earth, 1788-
The First Fleet carried 548 male and 188 female convicts to Sydney Harbour, the first of 160 000 convicts sent to the Australian colonies before transportation ended in 1868. Compared to America where Puritans believed they were God’s agents to start a new country for God’s glory, Australia’s European heritage began as a gaol settlement. Australia’s convict origins fostered particular national traits – elements of our early ‘childhood’ stubbornly imprinted on the national psyche. Convictism left its mark in the ‘fair go’ philosophy that protests against injustice, in suspicion of those in authority, in pride in Australia’s supposed ‘classless’ society, and in larrikinism that ridicules conventional forms. But it is also present in the dismissive treatment of women as sex objects and a persistent racism against Aborigines – not uniquely Australian traits but significantly part of our alienation and struggle for identity (Porter 1990). Along with the convicts came chaplains who were the first expression of ministry in Australia.
Ministry as chaplaincy
The first chaplain was Rev Richard Johnson who had been recommended to the Prime Minister William Pitt by the evangelical Anglican reformers Wilberforce and Newton. Whether because of confident faith or plain thankfulness after having survived the six- month voyage with its rough company and violent storms, Johnson’s first sermon on Sunday 3 February was on thankfulness to God from Psalm 116:12 (AV): ‘What shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits toward me?’ Perhaps for their part the convicts (and certainly cynical historians since) have seen the irony of this text with the heat of the unknown bush setting, thousands of miles from home, several convicts
32 running away, many more getting drunk, and hospital tents filled with sufferers of dysentery and scurvy (Clark 1962; Wilson 1983: 117-118).
Johnson’s faithful performance of his ministerial duties in the face of apathy and resentment reflected strength of character and confidence in his calling, but he was stretched by a huge workload and competing expectations. The first church building was erected by Johnson in 1793 at his own expense, only to be burned down by those who resented government orders for attendance and a more ‘orderly manner of spending the Sabbath Day’. Johnson, like other early clergy, was appointed as a military chaplain rather than a church missionary. When Governor Phillip appointed him civil magistrate, he was even more inextricably linked in the convicts’ eyes to the hated political/judicial establishment. He also struggled with unsympathetic civil authorities. When he preached for conversions, Lieutenant-Governor Grose accused him of ‘Methodism’, suggesting he was being too enthusiastic or fanatical. These tensions discouraged him and his increasing ill health made his task even more difficult. After twelve years of frustration, he returned to London and assumed charge of a regular parish (Cable 1967; Macintosh 1978).
Rev Samuel Marsden joined Johnson in 1794 and served for 44 years. Marsden was optimistic about the power of Christianity but did not experience the early colony as a seedbed for a fruitful reception of the gospel. He reported in 1798 to Governor Hunter:
Gaming and drunkenness, robberies and murders, were common crimes … the colony was deluged with every species of sin and iniquity. … As a clergyman, I could not but feel for the people committed to our charge, being persuaded that all attempts to instruct them in the duties of religion would be ineffectual, unless the police of the colony was totally changed (HRA 1914: 185).
Appointed as a magistrate in Parramatta in 1795, his occasional orders for punitive whippings estranged him further from the convict population and earned him the title ‘the flogging parson’. Marsden’s biography by Alexander Yarwood (1977) departs from the usual portrait and sympathetically describes him as a severe but not cruel and heartless man. Yarwood also describes Marsden’s Christian service in his preaching, teaching, caring for the sick and for Aborigines, and his enduring missionary work among the Maoris of New Zealand. He worked under difficult conditions, often alone,
33 and lacking government support. Border (1962) credits Marsden with restructuring chaplaincy away from its quasi-military role to a more independent parish priest role. Nevertheless, the image of the distant and condemning ‘flogging parson’ persists, as popularised by Robert Hughes’ tendentious The Fatal Shore (1987: 187):
Marsden (1764-1838), a grasping Evangelical missionary with heavy shoulders and the face of a petulant ox, had sailed to New South Wales in 1793 as the protégé of William Wilberforce, who recommended him as assistant to the chaplain of the colony. Once there, the protégé showed few of his patron’s instincts to mercy, but focused his considerable energies on getting land, breeding sturdy Suffolk sheep, preaching hellfire sermons and (as magistrate of Parramatta) subjecting convicts to draconic punishment- hence his nickname, “The Flogging Parson.”
Did Marsden focus on the roles of magistrate (in the employ of the government) and farmer (in his own interests) because the role of chaplain was so challenging? By most accounts he came to enjoy the privileges not available to ordinary people and which were in fact at their expense as convicts helped clear his land. Irish convicts treated badly at home did not fare any better in Australia, and Marsden did little to foster relationships of trust with them. Once he had an insurrectionist flogged with 1000 lashes to try to get the truth about other rebels out of him. Manning Clark (1962: 156), who had little patience for those he cynically described as ‘harsh and legalistic life deniers who called themselves Christians’, commented about the tragic witness of Marsden’s inconsistency:
Marsden as a magistrate had stooped to the temptation that the truth could be flogged out of a man, just as in other quarters he had stooped to the idea that souls could be flogged away from damnation. The man who wanted to be known as the dispenser of divine love became identified with one of the most savage punishments in the early history of the colony.
Johnson, Marsden, and later other clergy were often viewed as moral policemen by the convicts and necessary nuisances by some of the authorities. In forming a new society a critical question Australia faced was where the necessary discipline was to come from. There were limited options and the choice fell on evangelical Protestantism which the government sought to utilise for its purposes. Whether or not the government wanted the religious influence, they needed the discipline and so took
34 both. In time the religion and discipline were moulded together and Christianity came to be perceived as discipline (Shaw 1988: 16). There is evidence of certain chaplains being popular because of their pity or willingness to sacrifice, but some of the positive esteem directed to chaplains is suspect because the approval of chaplains was needed for convicts to be freed or receive special treatment (Robson 1965). One of the characters in Geoffry Hamlyn (Kingsley 1894: 228) described the source of anti- clericalism that many bush workers show: “Because, when they’re in prison, all their indulgences, and half their hopes of liberty, depend on how far they can manage to humbug the chaplain with false piety.” Many convicts saw compulsory religious services and the harsh and condemnatory sermons as part of their punishment to endure (Clarke 1874; Shearer 1976). Irish convicts had a particular distaste for Protestant clergy (viewing them as instruments of the English rulers), but could see their (fellow-oppressed) Roman Catholic priests and chaplains as friends. The fact that Catholic chaplains were excluded until 1820 (except for a convict priest Rev James Dixon who was allowed a limited ministry between 1803 and 1804) did not help the openness of Irish convicts to Protestant ministry (Hogan 1987). One particular Catholic chaplain who has been depicted as compassionate and friendly (by himself as well as others) was Bishop Robert Willson. This ‘convict’s friend’ advocated justice, fair-treatment and more chaplains for Norfolk Island: ‘On Norfolk Island every man’s hand is raised against the prisoner, except his pastor’s. He alone can speak to him the sweet words of compassion. His pastor is his only friend’ (Cullen 1952: 11; cf. Southerwood 1989). Yet chaplains were part of the establishment, and while some exceptional chaplains had effective ministry, anti-clericalism was almost institutionalised in the early colony.
Despite the difficulties faced by the first pastoral leaders, chaplaincy is a good model for taking ministry to where people are. A chaplain was originally a clergyman who conducted services in a chapel; particularly of a high official, institution or regiment [, 1983 #1725]. So the chaplains to the early colony were set aside to minister and conduct services for that particular government-designated group of people – convicts, soldiers, and the small (but destined to grow) number of free settlers. Chaplaincy was an advantage in colonial days in having ministry available to people during their period of punishment, and it is a model of ministry with contemporary relevance that expresses care and compassion to people wherever they are situated. Whether in
35 church operated hospitals or schools, or more commonly in secular institutions, the ministry of a chaplain is expressed beyond the boundaries of the local church. Chaplains do not just have a pastoral caring role, but an apostolic role of being sent to represent Christ in the world.
Today chaplains have a unique opportunity to get alongside people in their place of work, learning, imprisonment, sport or hospitalisation. Chaplains in the defence forces have long been appreciated and maintain an official position in the Army, Navy and Air Force despite the increasingly secular status of society. The heritage of colonial prison chaplains continues in prisons today, epitomised by chaplains like Father John Brosnan at Pentridge who was popular with many, though criticised by some for identifying too much with the inmates. In Melbourne recently retired Salvation Army chaplains Hilton and Joyce Harmer are highly respected for their practical compassion in standing alongside people during the crises of court trials. Since the middle of last century chaplains have proliferated in industry, schools and hospitals. Clinical Pastoral Education in hospitals has brought a greater level of professionalism to hospital chaplains as they minister to people while they are struggling with ill health and mortality (Carey 1995). Industrial Trade and Industry Mission (ITIM) started in 1960 and today 98 chaplains and over 100 other professionals provide 130 000 hours of service per year to thousands of workers who do not necessarily come to church (Knowles 2005). Chaplains have always served in private schools, but in recent decades have also entered public schools. For example, the Council for Christian Education in Schools (CCES) have provided chaplains for Victorian schools for 50 years and currently have 68 chaplains providing a Christian presence through pastoral care, counselling, and education in faith and ethics (Thyer 2005). Chaplaincy today is significantly different from colonial times. Among their duties, school chaplains teach personal development classes, ITIM chaplains do social work and marriage counselling, and defence chaplains advocate for individuals with their commanding officers. Rather than conducting worship services, the majority of a chaplain’s time is usually counselling and mixing with people.
A limitation of colonial chaplains was that they were all men. Bishop Willson referred (above) to the value of the role of a chaplain: “He alone can speak to him [the prisoner] the sweet words of compassion.” The masculine language historically
36 reflects the masculine bias of ministry in that era. This is not to condone a particular position for or against women’s ministry. When ministers – chaplains, shepherds or spiritual companions – are men, women (and men) are not able to receive the ministry of a woman’s perspective. Moreover, convict women were not held in high regard by the men who were chaplains. Wilson’s quotation says nothing about female convicts – they have been ignored and devalued as ‘damned whores’ in history, and looked down on by the (all-male) chaplains. Fortunately, most chaplain areas today (except the military) include a rich diversity of men and women; for example, CCES has 35 male and 33 female chaplains (Thyer 2005), and CPE graduates include a high proportion of women.
Another ongoing limitation of chaplaincy, that is also its strength, is the accountability of the chaplain to their institution. Scutt (1987) explains that since chaplaincy is by definition bounded by an institution (generally secular) such as prison or school, the chaplain is under the control of management, while seeking to maintain the integrity of their ministry. Role conflict is part of the challenge and opportunity of chaplaincy – linking as it does an institution to the church through service. This is a tension chaplains in Australia have always experienced. They have a responsibility to contribute to institutional goals and strive for professional excellence yet will minister most effectively if they can maintain some independence from their institution and its secular agenda. Military chaplains experience the pressures of being accountable to both denominational leadership and military command, and wanting to offer spiritual as well as character guidance (Joyce 1999). Hospital chaplains are part of a team along with medical staff caring for patients, but if chaplaincy is limited to simply working alongside secular service-providers then something of the unique sacramental vocation of ministry is missed. Pastoral ministers represent God and bring the resources of Christian spirituality to their caring role, and do not just serve the agenda of the institution that employs them.
Chaplaincy as evangelism?
It is sad to read about ministers whose motivation for ministry became frustrated not just by people’s hard-heartedness but by an incongruent ministry model as government chaplains. Though the work of early chaplains seemed to have been dominated by the
37 role of moral policeman, their original sense of calling was often to do the work of evangelists. Both Johnson and Marsden were evangelicals and fruits of the evangelical revival in England, and this influenced their understanding of ministry as evangelism. However their self-identity as ministers of the gospel differed from government expectations, resulting in misunderstanding and tension. Manning Clark (1962: 18) commented that whereas Johnson ‘saw religion as the divine medium for eternal salvation, the Governor treasured it as a medium of subordination, and esteemed the Chaplain according to the efficacy of his work as a moral policeman.’ Like women later in the nineteenth century (Summers 2002), chaplains were categorised and valued to the extent they fulfilled their role as ‘God’s police’. Yet in the context of the Australian settlement a crucial need was for ministers as evangelists: Rev William McIntyre (1843: 194), in calling for more ministers, informed the Church of Scotland that convicts and settlers spent 3-4 months travelling here on ships, had fewer church structures than in England, and had plenty of challenges to be busy and preoccupied with other than matters of faith.
Ministers work alongside and care for people when they function as chaplains, but they also have a chaplaincy role of evangelism in communicating the truths of Christianity to people who have not yet responded to God. Twenty-first century Australian churches need pastoral ministers who lead their congregations in outreach and ‘do the work of an evangelist’ (2 Tim 4:5 NIV). A helpful framework for a minister’s evangelism is for them to view their role as chaplain to their broader community. This can cause conflict in the local church. There is sometimes a challenge of ministry identity when churches want their pastor to be a chaplain for their religious club – a club which is furthermore fussy about whom it welcomes into membership. The traditional Anglican notion of a parish as a geographical area rather than a gathered congregation helped avoid a club mentality because the pastoral minister had the ‘cure of souls’ over a wider constituency than just church members.
Pastors need a broader identity than chaplain to the converted and a wider concern than parish affairs (Armstrong 1984; Watson 1966). The role of official chaplains in Australian industry, schools, defence forces, and even shopping centres is commendable for evangelistically taking Christianity beyond the walls of the church. More informally, some ministers allocate time and commit to walking around their
38 neighbourhood or taking an interest in community issues in order to build relationships and express care. Graham Neilson, recently retired pastor at Kilsyth South Baptist Church in Melbourne, distributed posters to factories in the vicinity of the church which offered counselling and practical care to anyone in need. The conversations with workers as he distributed the posters were just as valuable as the contacts the posters established. Chaplains can minister as evangelists, but if they identify with the establishment (as in colonial days) or are preoccupied with people already in church (while most Australians rarely enter church), then they neglect an important aspect of ministry.
Admittedly there is ambivalence about the role of evangelism in pastoral ministry. While some leaders focus naturally on evangelism because of their gifting, others are not especially gifted evangelistically though their churches pressure them to ‘bring in the people’. Part of the role of pastoral leaders as evangelists is to train church members in evangelism. Furthermore, evangelism is not just verbal proclamation of a simple description of Christianity but the whole process of introducing people to faith and teaching them to be followers of Jesus in the church and the world. Thus pastoral ministers engage in evangelism through a variety of activities – from catechumenal or explicitly evangelistic small groups through to community involvement including official or informal part-time chaplaincy. Telling and sharing the message of Christ is part of ministry; not just for pastoral ministers but certainly not excluding them.
There is also ambivalence in chaplaincy about the place of evangelism. Theological and strategic difference of opinion among Australian Christians has sometimes polarised those committed to evangelism or chaplaincy. Within chaplaincy, moreover, there are those who see chaplaincy as service, and those who advocate the role of the chaplain as primarily evangelistic – influenced by the leadership of the Anglican diocese of Sydney. The context of chaplaincy is different today than colonial days. In colonial days many convicts were antagonistic, but it could be assumed that most had some Christian background. Issues of religious pluralism did not apply as they do today. The chaplain led worship, administered the sacraments, and talked with people hoping to lead them to greater faith. However, today chaplains have a responsibility not just to the religious, but also the apathetic and hostile, and those who hold to other religions (Read 1994; Scutt 1987). Hooker and Lamb (1993) advocate bridge-building
39 and mutual understanding between Christian ministers and people of other faiths; and suggest models like the loiterer (spending time with people), problem-solver (helping with local knowledge and services), ritual specialist (celebrating milestones), and explorer (being fascinated by culture and language learning). Cultural-sensitivity is shown by ‘presence’ and ‘dialogue’ that seeks first to listen to and understand the community (WCC 1999). Chaplaincy has a unique role in these aspects of evangelism because of the proximity it gives to people beyond the normal activities of ‘church’ life.
Reflection on early days
Chaplaincy is a model of ministry that derives from colonial days but has evolved and is particularly helpful for ministry to people beyond the church. Colonial chaplains were diligent and hard working in the face of official obstacles and general apathy. However their ministry was limited by their government employment and associated moral-teaching role. In its ideal form, chaplaincy allows pastoral ministers to get alongside people – in prisons, hospitals, workplaces, schools, or other ‘secular’ context. Chaplains will be most effective when they distance themselves from institutional expectations and use their official position to serve people rather than secular purposes. Furthermore, it is vitally important to maintain a good witness with consistency of life and message, and not be distracted by other tasks or official duties as, for example, Marsden was perceived to be. Ever since the First Fleet, chaplains functioning as evangelists have been needed to bridge the gap between the church and those who are not yet believers. Chaplaincy is a helpful model for getting alongside people not necessarily in the church with the ministry of Christ. Australian history suggests a number of different yet complementing contextual models of pastoral ministry, including spiritual companionship and chaplaincy. The next chapter will reflect on a third contextual model, that of ministry as shepherding which developed alongside bush workers, and also consider the implications of egalitarianism for leadership styles.
40
CHAPTER 3 : SHEPHERDS FOR SETTLERS
Bushmen and mates, 1836-
In the early colony convicts formed the majority of the population and became the main image of colonial culture, but in the nineteenth century images of the bush frontier became dominant. In 1813 the Blue Mountains were crossed, followed by years of further exploration and settlement. Transportation ceased and the remaining convicts completed their terms, yet Australians wondered whether they would remain convict-stained for ever. The colonies cultivated a new image as a ‘workingman’s paradise’ to attract migrants (Carroll 1992; White 1981). Moreover, not all the colonies had a dominance of convicts like New South Wales; for example, Adelaide was systematically colonised without convicts. Slowly but surely Australia started to prove herself as a land of opportunity and not a fatal shore. A central part of this new and hopeful image was the bush and its workers and the mateship they expressed. It was really Sydney writers at the end of the nineteenth century who promoted the bush image. Tired of poverty, city monotony and conflicts like the 1890 maritime strike, artists and writers looked to bush landscapes and idealised bush workers. For example, Paterson’s invitation to dream of ‘the vision splendid of the sun-lit plains extended’ expressed, as Lawson put it, ‘a God-Almighty longing to break away and take to the bush’ (Barnes 1978; Davison 1978). Despite the city beginnings of the mythology and even today in an increasingly urbanised society, the bush is a significant part of Australian identity.
The Australian bush did not prove easy to cultivate, but its unique beauty and harshness were part of its appeal for a people looking for identity apart from Europe. John Molony (2000) relates the experience of the first white people born in Australia and how they grew to love the land to which they belonged – not because they were given it (the land had been taken from those to whom it belonged and given largely to
41 the powerful and wealthy) but because they sensed their oneness with it. In the words of Manning Clark (1963: 52), the new arrivals ‘learned to look on the Australian bush with the eyes of a lover, rather than that of an alien’. This was reflected in artwork (Bonyhady 2000) and in poetry such as Dorothea Mackellar’s ‘My Country’ (1982: 11) which expressed why she had turned her back on the ordered landscape of Europe to embrace the rugged land of Australia:
I love a sunburnt country, A land of sweeping plains, Of ragged mountain ranges, Of droughts and flooding rains. I love her far horizons, I love her jewel-sea, Her beauty and her terror -- The wide brown land for me!
Experience of the land developed perseverance, a needed sense of humour and a strong sense of loyalty to mates on whom to rely. In working with the Australian bush, early settlers were described as having to be innovative, adaptable, and tough (Ward 1966). Particularly in early days but even now in rural Australia, the bush fosters a tragic sense of struggle against the odds. This is typified in the motif of the ‘little battler’ who feels ‘up against it’ trying to survive and make a life, which Crombie (1987) identifies as an interpretive element of Australian culture behind which lies a tragic sense of fate. Australia is increasingly urbanised, but we still nurture those characteristics needed for the ‘battle’ on the land – innovation, companionship, perseverance, and not being too optimistic. In searching for what models for ministry will most help Australians, the bush worker images of the nineteenth century suggest a traditional model of shepherding. After 200 years of white settlement, life is still challenging and vulnerable in this land, for which Australia needs shepherding qualities in its pastoral ministers.
Ministry as shepherding
The first pastoral ministers were chaplains, but later ones were parish based and not directly employed by the government. Chaplain numbers had hardly been adequate for pastoral needs. This was a reflection of government and church priorities in England
42 and limited volunteers. But by the late 1830s more ministers came to Australia, and in 1836 William Broughton was consecrated first Bishop of the Australian colonies – an indication of the growing independence of the Church of England in Australia and the beginning of the last phase of colonial chaplains (Fletcher 2002; Loane 1987; 2000). The growing autonomy of Australian churches was not limited to the Church of England as a denomination, as the Bourke Church Act (also 1836) began to subsidise church buildings and salaries for mainstream denominations through the following decades of population explosion (Barrett 1966; Cooper 1987). So although most ministers were no longer on the governor’s staff as chaplains, many owed their living to the government’s generosity.
Ministers received some measure of support from the government, but their shepherding task across the country was not easy. The convicts were hard cases, free settlers were scattered, and Aborigines were (understandably) reserved. There were tensions between chaplains (in the direct employ of the government) and church clergy or shepherds (in the employ of the Church of England), and sharp sectarian rivalry between the churches especially over education and the distribution of government funds (Curthoys 2002). All denominations stretched to meet the needs of urban centres and distant outposts, which enhanced sectarianism as churches competed for limited funds and people. The challenge of church ministry was distinctly different in the sparseness of the Australian bush compared to rural England. The Methodist circuit system more readily adapted to meet the needs of the ‘tyranny of distance’ while Anglicans from the turn of the twentieth century tried their unique ‘Bush Brotherhoods’ of ordained single ministers to shepherd scattered parishes and the later and longer-lasting Bush Church Aid Society (Cooper 1987; Jones 1939; Webb 1978).
Some pastors celebrated the bush and sought to convey the relevance of Christianity in that context. For example, Rev T E Richardson (1850) prepared a ‘pastoral address’ he distributed to all the stations around Portland in Victoria that he could not access in winter:
And why, dear friends, should not the pastoral life now, and in the bush in Australia, be as highly honoured of God, and as distinguished for God- fearing men? Why should not our flockmasters and shepherds of this colony and district be eminent men of piety? Why should not the “good
43 shepherd who giveth his life for the sheep” (John x.11) number many of his flock amongst those who own, or tend, the bleating flocks of our adopted land? The retirement of their life is as favorable to holy meditation, and the simplicity of their occupation as favorable to singleness of heart and guilelessness of life, as was the pastoral life of the patriarchs and of these favored shepherds of Bethlehem. God is to be found as readily, and is well pleased to be sought, in the hut of the bush as he was in the tent of the patriarch, and as delightful communion is to be enjoyed with him under the serene sky of Australia as that of Judea.
Richardson’s expression of God’s presence and call with the shepherding motif was at home for those he was addressing on sheep stations, and is at home in the Bible. Ministers found their ‘shepherding’ visits were readily welcomed but interest in religion was not necessarily as warm. Yet people wanted ministers to be true to their vocation as Rev George Mackie (1849: 223) observed:
Though they live utterly forgetful of eternity, they yet look forward to a minister’s visit with intense interest; and when he makes a visit, they expect that he will talk to them as their friend, not about sheep and cattle, but about the great salvation and eternity. And should he fail to speak faithfully and fearlessly to them, they no doubt will treat him kindly, but when he is gone they will speak of him with contempt.
Good friends can talk about most subjects, and effective ministers will talk about sheep and cattle to those for whom that is their livelihood, but not be limited to matters of this world.
The metaphor of the shepherd has a rich biblical background and has been popular throughout church history. In the Ancient Near East it was commonly used of kings, and so it was appropriate that God as shepherd was an important image for Israel (Gen 48:15; Ps 100:3). The ideal of human under-shepherds was most fully realised in Moses and David (Ps 78:70-72) (Golding 2004). The prophets described ‘good’ shepherding as compassionate, restoring, healing, and nurturing (Ezek 34:4), but condemned recklessness among shepherds (Jer 10:21; 23:1-4). In the gospels, ποιμην (shepherd) was generally used in reference to Jesus rather than his disciples. He is the good shepherd (John 10) who loves and cares for his sheep so much that he would lay down his life for them – a revolutionary idea when shepherds were considered thieves and unreliable witnesses. After his resurrection, Jesus told his disciples to look after
44 his sheep (John 21:16) and Paul instructed early church leaders to function as shepherds over the flock (Acts 20:28) (Adams 1975; Tidball 1999).
For an age when Australians were coming to terms with the bush, the pastoral minister as shepherd or pastor was a culturally appropriate model, and today the image remains popular (and enshrined in the term of ‘pastoral’ minister). Shepherding is not unique to Australia, nor present in the everyday life of many Australians. Gooden (2004), for example, questions the relevance of the image and urges a search for models that are more relevant to Australia. Yet many still long for the bush ethos and it does not take too much imagination to think of the care and protection of shepherds. Thomas Oden (1983: 51-52) suggested: ‘We are well served by a central image of ministry that is nurturant, life-enabling, and non-combative except in extreme emergency, when the sheep are endangered.’ The implications of the nurture of a shepherd are relevant even in multicultural Australia with its diverse pastoral needs.
Shepherding is a model that reminds pastors of their need to care for people in times of joy and struggle. A Baptist ordination service includes a vow to shepherd the church: ‘Jesus said to Peter, “Feed my sheep”. In your ministry will you play your part in the nourishment and nurture of the flock of Christ that the church may be able to grow to maturity and use the gifts Christ has entrusted to it?’ (BUGB 1991: 179) Pastors might encourage their whole church to care for one another, but must accept a responsibility themselves to care for and nurture the congregation. Shepherds also protect sheep from danger and distraction. The Anglican ordinal emphasises this shepherding role of protecting against heresy: ‘Will you be ready to drive away all false and strange doctrines that are contrary to God’s word; and to this end both publicly and privately to warn and encourage all within your care, both the sick and the well, as often as the occasion demands?’ (APB 1978) The diligence and nurture of a shepherd is an appropriate model for church leaders.
Excursus on mateship and egalitarianism
The bush context suggests the model of ministry as shepherding, but it is worth considering whether this fits the egalitarianism and mateship values that also arose out the bush legend. Henry Lawson, one of Australia’s ‘literary prophets’ who was also
45 described as the ‘apostle of mateship’, summed up the character of Australian mateship in his poem ‘Shearers’:
No church-bell rings from the track, No pulpit lights their blindness – ‘Tis hardship, drought and homelessness That teach those Bushmen kindness. … They tramp in mateship side by side – The Protestant and the Roman – They called no biped lord or sir And touch their hat to no man! (Lawson 1973: 103)
Lawson was not anti-church (institution) here, but esteemed practical compassion over organised religion. He was not envisaging a world with no Protestant and Catholic or employer and employee differences, but implies that among mates such differences are insignificant.
It is debatable how much the myth of bushmen and their egalitarianism reflects reality – a dominantly masculine and rural image hardly represents an average Australian. Yet Ward (1966: 1-2) captured something of what Australians would like to believe they are:
[T]he ‘typical Australian’ is a practical man, rough and ready in his manners and quick to decry any appearance or affectation of others. … He is a ‘hard case’, sceptical about the value of religion and of intellectual and cultural pursuits generally. He believes that Jack is not only as good as his master but, at least in principle, probably a good deal better, and so he is a great ‘knocker’ of eminent people … He is a fiercely independent person who hates officiousness and authority … and, above all, will stick to his mates through thick and thin, even if he thinks they may be in the wrong.
The loyalty of mateship is celebrated in Australian films such as A Town Like Alice and Crocodile Dundee and contemporary television dramas Blue Heelers and McLeod’s Daughters. The plots are usually built around a group of mates who help each other out in the bush. Organised religion, hierarchy and authority are not highly respected, but if a mate is in trouble or disaster hits nearby or across the country (as during Cyclone Tracy and the recent Tsunami, or regularly for bushfires; see Poiner 1985) then mateship comes alive.
46 The limitations of mateship need to be recognised as it is not universally applicable or helpful. The egalitarianism it is built on is limited since mateship has traditionally excluded women and people of other cultures (this may be changing slowly now) and the practical compassion of mateship has often been sadly lacking towards indigenous people. Mateship may sponsor loyalty, egalitarianism (among white men), and reliability. But at times it is also alienating, anti-authoritarian, chauvinistic, and anti- religious (Moore 2000; Schaffer 1988). Mateship has tended to draw on and promote anti-religious or at least anti-church sentiment. The mythology suggests that mates had one another, and so did not feel the need for God or church. The anonymous ballad ‘My Religion’ scorns clergy as ‘all a mere joke’ and instead upholds manly uprightness and practical compassion:
To be upright and downright and act like a man. That’s the religion for me ...
For parsons and preachers are all a mere joke, Their hands must be greased by a fee; But with the poor toiler to share your last “toke”, That’s the religion for me. …
But let man unto man like brethren act, My doctrine that suits to a T, The heart that feels the woes of another. Oh, that’s the religion for me (Ward 1966: 183).
The positive side of this anti-religiousness is that it was practical action rather than orthodox belief that was esteemed.
Mateship might also be a helpful metaphor for pastoral ministry. Clergy in training used to be taught, ‘Don’t make friendships with people in your church’. The assumption seems to be that a certain distance was better to maintain a ‘professional’ relationship and that any appearance of favouritism was to be avoided, since the pastor could not be friends with everyone. However this approach denies the mutual nature of ministry that is helpful for a minister’s well-being, a subject that has received good treatment by Australian writers (Dempsey 1983; Pryor 1982; Whetham 2000). The shared difficulties and mutual dependence that gave birth to mateship are part of journeying together in a church community.
47 Jesus radically described his relationship with his disciples in terms of friendship. Jesus used φιλοs (friend) for those he was teaching as a term of affection and love, denoting companionship, closeness, and camaraderie (e.g. Luke 12:4). Jesus no longer called his disciples servants (John 15:12-15) because that term was not sufficient to express the intimacy and openness that Jesus had with his disciples/ friends/ mates (Bennett 1993: 46-47). If friendship in the first century Judean context was good enough for Jesus to express his relationships with his disciples, then surely mateship is a dynamic equivalent for ministry in Australia. Pastoral ministers as shepherds can be mates with the people they are ministering to, and in fact mateship captures something of the essence of shepherding ministry as getting alongside people to help. A friend or mate is someone you can talk to and trust, and know that they value you. Familiarity fits the pastor as shepherd, though for some the ‘pastor, not friend’ perspective remains. Yet friendship is part of what defines Christian or Christlike ministry (an idea not novel in church history, see Rievaulx 1993). As friends, pastoral ministers will find opportunities to ‘hang out’ with the people in their churches. This is part of pastoral care and shepherding. A relationship orientation that involves visitation and social gatherings is not only effective for ministry but enjoyable and as relevant now as ever (Zaragoza 1999: 96).
Mateship and the egalitarianism it produces have implications for church leadership including vision-setting, team-building, and submission. Egalitarianism is one of Australia’s distinctive sociological characteristics (matched perhaps only by the Australian love of sport), and derives largely from the equality of mateship. Australia has not been as class-ridden as England. There have always been differences in Australian society (since the days of convicts and free), and anthropological studies reveal that Australian divisions of class, sex, age, and ethnicity exist in stark contrast to ideals of egalitarianism and mateship (e.g. Manderson 1985; Stivens 1985). Nevertheless, the egalitarianism ideal celebrates that people are not better or inferior to others because of differences (Hirst 1992). In what Hofstede (1984) calls the power- distance dimension of different cultural approaches to leadership, Australia has a relatively low tolerance of hierarchical differences between leaders and followers. This fits the Australian context, but challenges or sometimes undermines a pastoral leader’s vision. When everyone has egalitarian convictions about being equal and thinks they have the right to do their own thing, work out their own salvation, and contribute their
48 ideas, pastoral ministry needs a unique authority. Australian culture tends to be ambivalent towards or even disdain authority, especially if the leader assumes a right to authority.
By contrast, a common model of (ministerial) leadership today is autocratic in style, particularly in some denominations or ethnic groups and perhaps more commonly in larger churches where the ‘Senior Pastor’ as shepherd sets the vision and direction. Some CEO-styled pastors distance themselves from shepherding and identify instead with the larger-scale and less personal model of rancher. These leaders often take positions of unquestioned authority and privilege and expect congregational members to fulfil their role by attending church meetings, contributing financially, and doing what the leader says. Some churches emphasise the authority of the minister as shepherd in guiding and protecting their flock. The ‘shepherding movement’ that arose in the charismatic movement in the 1960s from the Fort Lauderdale Shepherd's Church in Florida misused the term and dangerously emphasised obligation to submit to a shepherd in all areas of life, including the choice of a spouse and children (O'Malley 1984). The movement spread in a limited way to Australia, even though it may seem that this sort of hierarchy would not fit an egalitarian context. Perhaps egalitarianism is not as strong as the mythology suggests, or perhaps leaders assert their authority and followers accept it because of insecurities. Graham Spurling, chief executive of Mitsubishi, observed that while Japanese managers are generally confident and willing to listen and consult, Australian executives – while loudly professing egalitarian principles arising from Eureka – too often resort to a dictatorial and adversative approach. He suggests this is a sign of lack of security (Stretton 1985: 204). Ministers are not immune from ego or insecurity-driven autocracy, but the preferable Christian style is to lead by serving alongside rather than dominating.
Shepherding is a nurturing and culturally appropriate model, and biblical shepherding precludes any hierarchy suggested by a shepherd who is viewed as superior to the sheep. The leaders Jesus calls to serve as shepherds under him are the same as God’s people whom they serve. The ideals of Australian egalitarianism fit with the gospel truth of equality of all of God’s people. To continue the sheep analogy, all the church are sheep including the shepherds. Jesus as shepherd is ontologically different from his sheep that make up the church, yet even he is identified with the image of the lamb of
49 God who suffers for their sake (John 1:29). In contrast to authoritarian forms so popular today, an egalitarian shepherding style is authentically at home in Australian culture and follows in the steps of Jesus.
Reflection on bush themes
Changing contexts lead to new historical images and demand new models of ministry. In Australian mythology and history, convicts gave way to bush workers as images of typical Australians, and chaplains gave way to pastors or shepherds as typical ministers. They often had to travel long distances and were challenged to communicate their message relevantly in a tough environment. Shepherding is an image rich in nurturing and care, and so forms a meaningful model for local church ministry. Shepherding does imply a hierarchy, while in Australia mateship and egalitarianism are celebrated. Shepherds who are also mates with their flock get alongside people and help them to be mates with God. They lead with an empowering style from below or beside rather than domineering from above. Mateship and the egalitarianism it builds on can undermine a ministerial authority and vision as everyone has their say, although shepherds who are at home in Australian culture are free to lead with a collaborative and facilitating style. Another element of the Australian legend that pastoral ministry can learn from is the Eureka stockade and labour movement. Shearers, miners and other workers have at significant times taken action together to care for their battling mates. The following chapter will explore a significant period in Australian history for workers and the related model of ministry as prophetic advocacy.
50
CHAPTER 4 : ADVOCATES FOR THE MARGINALISED
Eureka and other protestors, 1851-
The discovery of gold in Australia in 1851 ushered in a wave of migration and a new stage in Australian history. Like the age of the convict and the bushman, the gold rushes left their mark on Australian culture. As in the bush, an image from the goldfields is of mates who relied on working together with no place for snobbery or elitism. As far as organised religion, churches were built and ministers were sent, at least some of whom had significantly effective ministries. For example, Bishop Perry preached to crowds in the Victorian gold fields and there was revival reported among Cornish miners at Bendigo. Yet many diggers used Sunday for rest or domestic duties, revelled in alcohol for recreation, and saw clergymen as hypocrites (McCombie 1858; Townend 1869; Ward 1966).
The diggers’ relationship with the government was tense, and erupted at the Eureka stockade. Resenting an expensive license tax and oppressive treatment, the miners banded together at the ‘Eureka stockade’ to demand fair representation. On Sunday 3 December 1854 the stockade was stormed unexpectedly and unnecessarily by colonial troopers and the rebellion defeated in twenty minutes (Carboni 1993; Clark 1955). The miners lost the fighting battle but won the battle for reduced fees, voting rights, and police reform. Mark Twain (1897: 155) summed it up:
I think it may be called the finest thing in Australasian history. It was a revolution – small in size, but great politically; it was a strike for liberty, a struggle for a principle, a stand against injustice and oppression. … It was another instance of a victory won by a lost battle.
Eureka came to stand for the triumph of the battler against bureaucracy and a victory for a ‘fair go’. At the turn of the century poets wrote of Eureka as the origin of
51 democratic achievements that followed. In his ballad ‘Eureka’ Henry Lawson (1973: 120) wrote of its influence:
But not in vain those diggers died. Their comrades now rejoice, For o’er the voice of tyranny is heard the people’s voice; It says: ‘Reform your rotten law, the diggers’ wrongs make right, Or else with them, our brothers now, we’ll gather to the fight.
The response of churches to the Eureka Stockade was mixed. Eureka’s leader on the field, Peter Lalor, and many of the rebels were Irish Catholics. A Catholic priest Father Patrick Smyth sheltered the wounded Lalor afterwards, and had made moves in the preceding week to avoid conflict (Serle 1977: 165-168). On the other hand, some protestant voices saw Eureka as rebellion to be checked. The first Wesleyan Methodist minister in Ballarat, Rev Theophilus Taylor (1854), referred to the diggers as ‘enemies’ and on December 10 wrote to the Governor expressing regret that some miners let their ‘alleged grievances’ lead to resistance:
We beg to tender to your Excellency our most devout Sympathy on account of the embarrassment in which the disturbances which have taken place have involved Your Excellency … Your Excellency may always … rely on our being on the side of order and good government … Our devout prayers are offered to the “God of Peace” that peace and prosperity may be the issue of Your Excellency’s Government, and that the interests of all classes may be under the blessing and protection of the “King of Kings”.
Taylor’s sympathy with the government is interesting given Wesley’s concern for social ethics and later Methodist involvement in the labour movement, but consistent with the Protestant tendency to side with conservative middle-class politics. The sectarian antipathy between Protestants and Catholics, or perhaps more accurately between English upper class (mostly nominally Protestant) and Irish working class (most of whom were culturally Catholic) underlies much of Australian history and was not absent at Eureka. But not all Protestants sided with the status quo. Presbyterian minister David Blair was the first speaker at the three hour meeting on 6 December on the site of St Paul’s Cathedral protesting the murderous attack by the troops, and general public opinion soon rallied around the miners ('Meeting for the Protection of Constitutional Liberty' 1854; Serle 1977).
52 Christians were involved in other protest movements: the labour movement, the new unionism of the 1880s, the Shearer’s Strike of the 1890s, and the women’s movement for suffrage and temperance as in the Womanhood Suffrage League and the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). Fortunately, Rev Taylor’s denunciation of the Eureka stockade was not a universal church attitude towards the cause of the workers. Although many church leaders identified with the ruling class and their drive for capital and profit, the church’s voice was not entirely absent in the working-class counter-attack and the growth of labour unions. For example, leading Baptist Rev Joseph Goble brought his background as president of Melbourne’s printer’s union and sympathy for the ideals of ‘the brotherhood of man’ into his noteworthy ministry to working class people in Footscray in 1895-1932 (Lack 2002). Evangelical Christians, especially Methodists, dominated the first NSW Parliamentary Labor Party. ‘Honest Jim’ McGowen was a dedicated Anglican layman and the first Labor Premier of NSW. William Spence, as a founding father of the shearer’s movement was perhaps the best union organiser in Australian history, and he had been a Sunday School teacher and lay minister and spoke of socialism as an extension of Christianity (Linder 1992). Like Spence, Victor Daley prophetically saw the correspondence of Christianity and the aims for justice of the labour movement, and depicted labour as the embodiment of Christ:
I am the Crucified! I am he for whose garments the world’s cutthroats have diced. Lo, I die every day, as on Calvary I died, And my true name is Labour, though priests call me Christ. (‘The Sorrowful One’, 1899, in Holburn & Pizer 1947: 78)
In the century following Daly’s bold poetry, Jurgen Moltmann (1974) has reminded the church of ‘the suffering God’ who suffers alongside people, and liberation theologians like Gustavo Gutierrez (1995) have focused on God’s interest in liberating people from injustice. These are aspects of the gospel that connect with Australian mythology and its associated sense of fairness and justice.
Despite some efforts from the labour movement to identify with the essence of Christianity, trade unionism grew without much official acknowledgement or endorsement from churches. Trade unionists thought that preaching rarely addressed questions of public life and churches were uninterested in their problems. They
53 recognised the practical compassion of the Salvation Army, but criticised the Army for not addressing the causes of poverty. Labour opinion wanted not just charity but justice. Labour organisations criticised the church’s indifference and started their own Sunday Schools and baptismal services to inculcate socialist values (O'Farrell 1962). Certainly the labour movement was a significant force for societal transformation and justice, and Christian leaders today would benefit by reflecting on the contributions towards justice that it achieved (Dickey 1977). Pastoral ministers in the twenty-first century will increasingly need to address questions of poverty, progress and environmental abuse, or their ministry will be distanced from Australian realities.
Ministry as prophetic advocacy
Protestors like the diggers at the Eureka Stockade, the workers of the union movement, and even perhaps Ned Kelly, show an Australian propensity to stand up for a fair go.4 By force of circumstances and as victims of injustices, Australians have developed a capacity to fight for justice. Australia has pioneered in implementing a number of political measures including the eight hour day, the ‘Victorian ballot’, the vote for women, and the first Labor government in the world. Sometimes the struggle has gone on with the church blissfully unaware of injustice and carefully avoiding any struggle. But there are instances of the churches being actively involved in such movements – consistent with the Australian tradition of fighting for a fair go. This heritage evokes a model of ministry as prophetic advocacy.
Prophetic advocates stand up for the marginalised and proclaim things should be different. Israel’s prophets proclaimed God’s Word, called people back to God, and preached against injustice. Walter Brueggemann (1989) described how the prophets subversively yet boldly critiqued unjust practices and offered alternative scenarios. For example Micah 6:8 summarised what Yahweh required in authentic religion: ‘To act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God.’ (NIV) John the Baptist continued in this prophetic vain to prepare for Jesus and call people to repentance and works of justice and mercy (Luke 3:1-22). Jesus actively advocated for the oppressed and was recognised as a prophet (Luke 4:18-19; 24:19). He told the story about a non-
4 For a discussion of Ned Kelly’s struggle and its connection with Aboriginal myths and social justice see my earlier Doctor of Ministry paper ‘Such is Life: Towards a Ned Kelly Based Christology’ (2003).
54 caring society where the true mate was a Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37) and graphically described what would happen when he comes again to people who have or have not been good mates to those in need by feeding the hungry, welcoming the stranger, caring for the sick and visiting the prisoner (Matt 25:31-46). Susan Thistlethwaite (1983: 124) commented: ‘Jesus was clearly not a pastoral counsellor, but one in the prophetic line who denounced injustice and oppression on behalf of the poor.’ Jesus urged his followers to live beyond the corruption of the institutional religious system. He socialised with ‘sinners’, was routinely accused of being a drunkard and glutton, and rebuked people for taking advantage of others (Matt 9:10; 11:19; 23:23). Jesus embedded in his method, message and person principles which accord with the modern notion of advocacy and in this sense he modelled prophetic advocacy.
Prophetic advocacy was not only part of Jesus’ ministry but it is at home in Australian culture and the tradition of mateship, even if not always warmly welcomed. Mackay (1999: xvii) observed that in the midst of the turbulence of change and confusion, not everyone wants to retreat:
Many Australians are as passionate as any suffragette ever was, as committed as any anti-Vietnam War protestor or any human-rights activist, in their desire to change the system, to right wrongs, to stamp out injustice and to shine a light into the murk of corruption in places high and low.
Churches that are judgemental and on the side of the status quo rather than the battler are distant from the protesting tradition that draws on convict, bushranger and labour movement days. Churches that fight to maintain tradition rather than push the boundaries with radical new approaches reinforce negative stereotypes about the irrelevance of the church. It is not just that society marginalised the church, but the church has often chosen to be ignorant or neutral in fights for justice, or sometimes even placed itself on the side of the establishment.
Advocates of the social gospel urged the churches to influence not just the spiritual but also social, economic and industrial spheres. Socially aware clergy and laity in Australia, as in England, realised the churches were out of touch with the working class and urged social reform to make heaven in this world as well as the next (Broome 1980: 9). For example, the evangelical social reformer and temperance
55 advocate Canon Francis Bertie Boyce of Sydney was influential in focusing the Anglican Church on the working class and those living in poverty. He came to Pyrmont in 1882 and St Paul’s Redfern in 1884, both inner city, slum and factory areas. Feeling compassion particularly for children and the aged, he advocated old aged pensions, demolition of slum areas, and cheap housing for the poor. Boyce led an Anglican Church inquiry into Sydney’s inner suburbs which led to the setting up of a Mission Zone and reallocation of resources in the inner city (Broome 1980: 36-38). In the early twentieth century, the best known Anglican clergyman prophetically active at the political and economic level was Canberra-Goulburn’s Bishop Ernest Burgmann. Frustrated at what he described as the sentimental and superficial character of churches that focused on maintenance rather than social justice, he appealed for prophets to speak out. His own most vocal advocacy was on behalf of the unemployed during the 1930s depression (Burgmann 1933; Oakes 1988).
There are huge needs for prophetic advocates to address today. It is intolerable that two thirds of the world’s people go to bed undernourished each night. Economic inequality, gender discrimination, environmental mismanagement, ethnic conflicts, human rights abuses and global health challenges are fostered by the world’s social order with its economic, political and class distinctions. The challenges of inter- religious understanding and peaceful coexistence are crying for attention in the context of the war on terror. Aboriginal poverty, homelessness, racism, age discrimination, and the acceptance of these inequalities are among the social challenges in this country. Ministry includes compassionate service as well as preaching for personal conversion, but it must also address social transformation. Some churches help meet the health and education needs of Aboriginal communities, but also advocate for reconciliation and justice at a national level. Local church pastors help alleviate the effects of injustice, but there is also the need for outspoken ministers; for example, Uniting Church’s Alan Walker, Baptist Tim Costello, and Catholic Frank Brennan who speak in the public realm to challenge systemic evil. Dorothy McRae-McMahon has been involved in movements for peace and human rights, and describes a prophet as ‘a person who looks out on the world and in the face of an opposing reality describes how things could be’ (2001: 55). Part of the church’s ministry must be a ministry of advocacy for how things could be, especially for those whom Jesus
56 referred to as ‘the least of these’ in society: the underdogs who cannot defend themselves (Messer 1989: 187-188).
Prophetic advocates speak up for the marginalised, but ministers adopting this model also help their congregations adopt an advocacy role. Advocacy today includes identifying with those on the margins of society, analysing socio-political trends, upholding human rights, and criticising unjust policies and abuses of power. Combining prophetic and political action models, it involves both speaking against injustice and dealing with political authority to seek regulations that protect people’s rights and promote welfare and peace. Esther was a prototypical political activist who as queen would have been expected to support the government, but risked her life and position to advocate for her people (Jeyaraj 2002: 130). Churches take risks when prophetically advocating for the marginalised, but this is part of their call and part of a minister’s role to lead them in this direction.
The wowser factor
Often the Australian church has taken a greater interest in moral reform than social transformation. Although Bollen (1972) argued that Protestantism’s major interest in 1900 was social not moral reconstruction, Broome (1980) suggests Bollen overemphasised the interest of clergy in social justice. A general presupposition was that personal regeneration was needed first. Methodist President Rev H T Burgess (1901) affirmed:
[T]he soul of reform is the reform of the soul. If this demand has been somewhat strained, and the truth that the soul of reform is the reform of the soul temporarily obscured, we may remember that the constant tendency is to run to extremes.
In the early days of the colonies chaplains were encouraged to teach morals to help reform the convicts. Then in the nineteenth century there was plenty of scope for moral advocacy to a population who seemed to gamble, drink and copulate to excess. The churches sought to transform culture and alleviate the problems of alcoholism and domestic violence (Dunstan 1968; Walker 1908). But to a drunken and permissive society, those who preached and campaigned for morality came to be known as
57 wowsers and became caricatured as narrow minded killjoys who frowned on humour (cf. Broome 1980: 23; Townend 1869: 7).
Inevitably a strong anti-wowser sentiment developed as Australians responded to the wowser indignation with indignation of their own. In 1832, three hundred convict women were assembled for a speech on morality in Hobart with Chaplain William Bedford and other dignitaries. When told to be quiet, they ‘all with one impulse turned around, raised their clothes, and smacked their posteriors with loud report.’ The Governor was ‘horrified and astounded’ at this cheeky behaviour (Grocott 1980: 87). Samuel Marsden was vocally concerned about the morality of women at the factory in Parramatta; in response whenever a pregnant convict was asked about the father of the child, she would reply ‘Samuel Marsden’. Last century sensualist artist Norman Lindsay attacked wowserism and promoted the lascivious expression rather than denial of sensuality (Thornhill 1992: 83). Swanson (2000a) suggests the most well- known contemporary expression of this reverse indignation or anti-wowser protest is Sydney’s Gay Mardi Gras, though their attempts to lampoon those who criticise them are crude. It is unfortunate that the crusading of Norman Lindsay and the vulgar exhibitionism of the Mardi Gras are the most well known expressions of anti- wowserism.
Moral teaching that is biblically faithful and communicated in a life-affirming way is crucial in Australia. Jesus demonstrated and taught morality in his focus on attitudes and values rather than just behaviour (e.g. Matthew 5-6). Pastoral ministers today should teach morality without slipping into ‘wowserism’ by focusing on important issues and avoiding legalism and superficiality. Presbyterian Rev J D Lang (1834: vol.1,175-176) protested against the ‘gambling and dissipation’ in sports, yet was better known for his Republican political activism and advocacy for migrants. Lang thus combined advocacy for moral and social reform. Personal and sexually exploitative aspects of human behaviour are as damaging to society as economic and political injustices. Immorality and rampant gambling rob people of their dignity just as effectively as class distinctions. Wowsers may have given Christian morality a bad reputation or people may have labelled moral teaching wowserism when it questioned their way of life, but appropriate expressions of moral teaching are essential. Moral
58 teaching goes hand in hand with prophetic advocacy in caring for people, and when moral teaching is counter-cultural, as it often is, it is a form of prophetic speech.
Reflection on protestors
Leunig (1993) celebrated the protesting heritage of Christ and other prophets, and the rebel in everyone, in this Christmas prayer:
Dear God, it is timely that we give thanks for the lives of all prophets, teachers, healers and revolutionaries, living and dead, acclaimed or obscure, who have rebelled, worked and suffered for the cause of love and joy. We also celebrate that part of us, that part within ourselves, which has rebelled, worked and suffered for the cause of love and joy. We give thanks and celebrate. Amen.
Christian ministry has at times been distant from the struggles of Australians, but at other times it has been at the forefront of advocating for reform. Pastoral leaders need to identify with the struggles of ordinary Australians and work for justice, and this needs to be done at a societal and personal level. Prophetic advocacy and moral teaching are two relevant models of ministry, but prophetic advocacy is perhaps more authentically ‘Australian’ in the tradition of the protestors of the Eureka stockade and the union movement. In the tradition of the Hebrew prophets who critiqued the status quo, ministers need to boldly yet sensitively and knowledgeably address public issues and advocate for those on the margins. This is consistent with the protesting parts of Australian culture, but is still also critical of culture since prophetic speech is counter- cultural. The model of prophetic advocacy, its relevance to the Australian culture of protest, and its faithfulness to Christian prophetic tradition including Jesus’ ministry is another example of how a conversation between culture and tradition suggests an effective model of ministry. The model of pastoral ministers as servants, discussed in the next chapter, offers another helpful framework for the Australian context.
59
CHAPTER 5 : SERVANTS FOR THE NEEDY
Nationhood and Anzacs, 1901-
The beginning of the twentieth century brought new hopes for Australian identity. European settlement was more than a century old, convict days were well past, bush myths were challenged by rapid urbanization, the gold rushes had run their course, and bushrangers had had their day. The colonies worked towards Federation in 1901 which was politically significant, though not as culturally significant as the new Commonwealth of Australia sending troops to the other side of the world in 1914. The Anzacs (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps) enhanced Australia’s recognition as a nation. C E W Bean in his official works on Gallipoli (1916; 1933) told their stories and helped them become the legend that added another element to Australian identity, building on the earlier Bushmen and Eureka heroes after whom they named themselves ‘diggers’.
The developed legend is that the Anzacs were ‘bits of characters’, disrespectful to authority, not overly emotional or religious, quick to joke, ingenious and innovative, and thoroughly loyal to their mates (e.g. Adam-Smith 1978; Bean 1933). Strategically the Gallipoli landing was a failure, but according to Bill Gammage (1974: 58, 101) mateship helped the Anzacs persevere:
[T]he best Australians were loyal to their mates in every circumstance. One laid down his life by giving his gas mask to a friend; another shot through the arm, stayed with his wounded mate for seven days in No Man’s Land … scavenging food and water from surrounding dead, and at night dragging him slowly to safety until at last he rescued him.
Bravery and sacrificial service is part of the Anzac ethos – exemplified by chaplains like Salvation Army padre William ‘Fighting Mac’ McKenzie and soldiers like Private John Simpson Kirkpatrick who was shot while carrying wounded men from the front
60 with his donkey (Benson 1965; Linder 2000; McKernan 1986). Simpson was English and joined the Anzacs in part to get a ticket home from Australia, but came to typify Anzac sacrifice. Demonstrating sacrificial love in action is an ideal that many Australians prize. It is the spirit which makes Australians aspire to be people who are available to give a helping hand – whether beating down a bushfire, rescuing a swimmer, helping a mate, or pitching in to help a battler.
World War II brought another generation of diggers into service who fought against impossible odds at Tobruk and along the Kokoda Trail (Swanson 2000c). Their survival together in prisoner-of-war camps enhanced the mateship ethos. Instead of the bronzed soldiers at Gallipoli, pictures of malnourished diggers nursing dying mates added a tender element to the Anzac image. Military surgeon Weary Dunlop saved many lives in Java and on the Burma-Thailand Railway, including my wife’s great uncle Andrew Malcolm. Uncle Andy fell from a coconut tree and could not move. Japanese soldiers went to shoot him but Weary laid over him and said, ‘You’ll have to shoot me first’, and they backed down (cf. Dunlop 1986). The Anzacs and soldiers like Weary and Andy were all laying down their lives for their friends. Thus every year, on Anzac Day April 25, Australians march wearing sprigs of rosemary and clinking medals, ending with a brief service where people vow not to forget. Its Brisbane Christian origins are described by John Moses (1993; 1994) and connections with and distance from Christianity are analysed by sociological historian Ken Inglis (1965; 1998). Anzac day is popular today as an expression of national identity but especially as a symbol of sacrificial service.
The Anzac legend does not glorify war but commemorates the qualities of those who served. Conway (1978: 325) argues the suffering of World War I undermined the triumphalistic view of God on the side of the victor. Certainly shared suffering underpinned the ‘mateship’ that helped the Anzacs survive (Crombie 1987). An interesting factor is that the Anzac legend stood alongside the other digger tradition – that of the rebels at Eureka. Inglis (1965: 35) queried how the radical and the patriotic traditions flow together:
Can you celebrate both the unfurling of the Southern Cross by diggers at Eureka and the planting of the Union Jack and Southern Cross by diggers at Anzac? Can you regard as your hero both the Peter Lalor who lost an
61 arm at Eureka and his grandson, another Peter Lalor, who lost his life on the first day at Gallipoli? Can you have a family feeling both for the shearers who fought the squatters in 1890 and for the soldiers who fought the Turks and Germans 25 years later? Some say you can.
Maybe Australians are not overly selective of the legends they value. More likely, though, they select both Eureka rebels and Anzac diggers not because of what the groups fought for, but for the characteristics expressed in the two legends which are strikingly similar: mateship, advocacy for the marginalised, and service for the needy. After Vietnam the popularity of Anzac day receded, but in the last two decades of the twentieth century it has been reinvigorated, not least by the music of Erik Bogle. It has become more inclusive of women, and interestingly it is more treasured than ever in multicultural Australia and has been broadened to permit wreath-laying by individuals from different countries (Pierard 2004: 249). A model of ministry worth reflecting on, that draws on the Anzac legend, is ministry as service.
Ministry as service
Servants have hardly ever been highly regarded, and biblical times were no exception. Yet God described himself and Israel as servant (Isa 42:1; 44:1-2; 53:10-11) and referred to ‘my servants the prophets’ (Jer 26:5 NIV). The paradox is that the lowly term ‘servant’ is applied to important entities – God, Israel and the prophets. Jesus described his role in terms of service (Mark 10:45). His disciples were not free of worldly ambition and pride (Mark 10:35-41), but Jesus lifted their vision to a new paradigm for influence:
[W]hoever wants to become great among you must be your servant (διακονοs), and whoever wants to be first must be slave (δουλοs) of all. For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:43b-44 NIV).
Bennett (1993: 21) describes how Jesus is lord (κυριοs), the one who holds the authority, and teacher (διδασκαλοs), the one who has the knowledge, yet he set an example as servant (διακονοs) of the lowliest kind. Jesus modelled servanthood for his disciples in washing their feet (John 13:1-17). Paul similarly spoke of Jesus’ humility as an example to emulate, in being God yet aligning himself with the powerless as a bondservant or slave (δουλοs) (Phil 2:5-7). For his own ministry Paul rejected normal
62 expectations about leaders, refused to rely on his natural achievements, and identified with the suffering and servanthood of Christ (Phil 3:3-11; 2 Cor 4:5-12). Clarke (2000) demonstrates that Greco-Roman leadership was not based upon skills, training or other qualifications but upon public honour, patronage and social status; but Paul rejected this criteria and instead viewed Christian leaders ‘as those who serve’. The servant leadership that the early church adopted was a reversal of cultural expectations.
Service has been institutionalised in churches in the office of the deacon which was recognised by all churches until the Reformation as a foundational order of ministry. For centuries it has been preparatory for ordination as a priest but many denominations have been refocusing the diaconate on service to the needy. Van Klinken (1989) related how διακονια has been understood and ways it is being renewed to assist the disadvantaged in Orthodox, Reformed and Catholic traditions. McKee (1984) detailed Calvin’s efforts to re-shape the diaconate as an official ministry for social welfare and argued that deacons today should lead the church in justice and caring ministries. Collins (1990) maintained that διακονια in the New Testament is not used just for social service but a variety of ministries, and in order to elevate the importance of vocational ministry he attempted a rebuttal of the view that all Christians are ministers (e.g. WCC 1982; Kraemer 1958; Stevens 1999). However he followed Calvin in the wrong assumption that the ministry of Ephesians 4:12 points to the ministry of leaders rather than all Christians, and he misread Acts 6:1-4 when he argued that the first deacons were not set apart for social service but for small group ministry (Collins 1992: 14-40). Nevertheless, his analysis is helpful in describing how διακονια is not servile or slavish but about fulfilling a divine task and serving the interests of the Kingdom (Mark 10:35-45) (Collins 1992: 86-108).
The Australian ethos appreciates service, though it is resistant to servitude, servants and perhaps servanthood. These later concepts fit more in class conscious (especially European and older traditional) societies. An Australian might readily provide a service in a professional context but not as a servant – more as an equal. This may mean that Australian expectations need to be transformed by a biblical approach. Alternatively, it might remind us that the biblical concept of service has been distorted by turning ‘service’ (an action) into ‘servanthood’ (a status). Paul Dekar (2004: 147) helpfully notes: ‘To be a servant meant voluntary subordination and radical obedience
63 in service (diakonia) to his call and sending out, not the involuntary work of a slave on behalf of a master.’ Another helpful perspective of biblical servanthood is that Christians are called to be servants not primarily of people but of God, the result of which is service to people. Jesus radically told his followers to be servants and slaves of one another (Matt 20:26-27). Yet all the references outside the gospels to Christians being servants is as servants of Christ or God (e.g. 1 Cor 4:1) or of the gospel (Eph 3:7), or as fellow servants with one another (Col 4:7). The one exception is where Paul refers to ministers as ‘your servants for Jesus’ sake’ (2 Cor 4:5 NIV, emphasis mine). Part of any Christian’s calling is service (Gal 5:13; 1 Pet 4:10) but this implies actions, and the practical service in actions is as a result of being servants of God in status. Australians may hesitate to accept the status of servants – but the New Testament emphasis is to be servants of God and to express this in actions of service to people.
In Australia, convict and bush bonds as well as the Anzac spirit have fostered a proud humanitarianism that celebrates acts of service. Convicts suffered and some developed a chip on both shoulders, but the legend suggests that many developed empathy for the suffering of others. Mates wanted to help each other out – whether working side-by- side in the bush or fighting side-by-side in the trenches. The legacy of this sentiment remains in Australian society today. The government provides an extensive welfare system, emergency services personnel are held in high regard, and volunteerism is high. Former Chief of the Defence Forces, Peter Cosgrove, commented about Australian humanitarianism:
Without doubt the best quality we observe across the entire Australian community is a natural willingness to pitch in and have a go, to help others. We see it of course whenever there is an emergency or a worthy cause. We see it in every community volunteer organisation from the lifesavers to the bushfire brigades through to the thousands of youth and mature age sporting clubs and those great international service organisations like Rotary and many others. We see it in our professional bodies such as the police, fire and ambulance services and of course in the defence force. It is a generosity of spirit and a selflessness that is perhaps our most precious heritage to hand on to younger and newer Australians – a nation of people who care for and look out for each other (Swanson 2000b).
Australian culture has developed sympathy for the ‘battler’ and a desire to help out with practical service. There are many instances of the churches in Australia excelling
64 in service and compassionate care. Christians have a strong heritage of practically helping Australian battlers.
The social gospel was hotly debated around the turn of the century, and throughout the twentieth century social awareness became increasingly prominent (Bebbington 1995; Bollen 1972). The Social Gospel Movement in Australia in the 1930s was championed by ministers including Bishop Burgmann (n.d.: 8) who urged his fellow Anglicans during the Great Depression not to be content with maintaining institutional life but to lose themselves meeting the needs of people outside the churches. Anglo-Catholic Father Tucker, founder of the Brotherhood of St Laurence and Community Aid Abroad, affirmed the need for practical concern for those outside the church: “You cannot worship God at the Altar unless you worship Him in the slums” (Handfield 1980: 197). According to Mansfield (1986: 414) the proponents of the social gospel ‘shared a deep concern about problems of modern industrial societies … The true gospel, they believed, was concerned as much with social as with individual regeneration, with social justice more than with charity.’ Partly because of the theological urging of the social gospel, and also because of evangelical readiness to take seriously the social dimension of the gospel, service was a feature of Australian ministry models in the twentieth century.
A prime example of practical service in the first half of the twentieth century was John Flynn’s inland ministry. When the war started he had the opportunity to enlist with the Anzacs, but instead served on the outback front at home with a similar self-sacrificing spirit: ‘I should like to join Frank Rolland [at the front], but I have a trench here that needs holding for Australia’s sake’ (Rudolph 1996: 107-108). With compassion for the needs of white people across the outback he developed the ‘Bushman’s Companion’ for funerals, commissioned patrol padres, and set up a string of hospitals and old timers’ (retirement) homes. His School of the Air, Royal Flying Doctor Service, and pedal-powered bush wireless captured the imagination and generosity of many Australians to give a ‘mantle of safety’ to the outback (Breward 1988). His service was practical and creative, and became legendary around outback campfires: ‘Flynn will try anything. He would even try to make water run uphill. Tell you what, he’d get it halfway up too’ (Rudolph 1996: 256).
65 Another servant whose ministry was consistent with the social implications of the gospel was Presbyterian Deaconness Eva Holland who pioneered settlement work in Sydney’s poor areas (West 1997: 185). She joined the tradition of advocacy and practical care for the underprivileged that women in the nineteenth century showed through active involvement in the WCTU and other groups. Flynn and Holland are two of many examples of ministers functioning as servant of the world expressing compassionate and practical service. Jesus’ ministry of compassion followed the same pattern. He saw people in need, had compassion, and did something about it – often secretly or without drawing extra attention to himself (Luke 10:25-37) (Grierson 1991). Rees (1980) traced the growing popularity of the servant model and argued it is not merely emulating Christ’s servanthood but allowing Christ as servant to be at work through the churches, and that Christ thus expresses himself not only to the church but to the world.
Some of the most significant ministries of Melbourne churches the writer has been part of started with a vision to serve. Canterbury Baptist Church initiated Canterbury Norwood Baptist Pre-School in 1946, Canterbury Senior Citizens Centre in 1957, and Canterbury Neighbourhood Centre in 1981 to serve different generational groups. St Kilda Baptist runs Machaseh (Hebrew for refuge) for homeless young people and Scottsdale House for people living with mental illness. Aberfeldie Baptist started a counselling centre in 1991 to serve community needs. Connection Community (Croydon Church of Christ) offers a weekly soup kitchen, playgroups, and mentoring and breakfast in local schools as part of their vision to serve the community and make it a better place. These are local examples, among many other diverse and exemplary Australian ministries, of expressions of service that meet needs and function as bridges between churches and their communities.
To be ‘saved’ for many Australians means not only to be free of ill health, poverty, and fears and anxieties, but to be involved in service to alleviate the suffering of others. Churches that demonstrate love in action are accorded unprecedented respect, such as is given the Salvation Army and workers like John Flynn. Porter (1990: 100) observed:
There are signs that the wider Australian community will listen seriously to the churches once certain conditions are met. In the land of the “fair go”,
66 where deeds speak louder than words, high-flown ideals are viewed with suspicion and authoritarianism is despised, the churches and leaders have to demonstrate, first and foremost, that they care. Once they do, they gain real respect.
A salvation that is lived out in helping out the Australian battler and underdog is consistent with Jesus’ call to love your neighbour, as preached by John the Baptist and exemplified by the Good Samaritan (Luke 3:7-14, 10:25-37) (Dicker 1979). The service and friendship of members of the early church extended to helping one another with material needs and sharing possessions (Acts 4:32, Jas 2:14-17) (Johnson 2004). Servanthood was not just expressed as a leadership attitude but demonstrated by practical care and charity between Christians – even those separated geographically and ethnically as with the ‘Jerusalem offering’ (Acts 11:29; 2 Cor 8:4, 19). Superintendent of Wesley Mission Sir Alan Walker (1972) commented that Australians are a pragmatic people and so faith that is detached from life has little appeal, but a church at work among the people grappling with society’s problems wins respect. Sometimes the opportunity to be involved in compassionate service is an entry door into faith and church life (Robinson 1991). In preaching the gospel in Australia, pastors need to demonstrate what they say in evangelism with what they do in mercy and justice ministries, and provide opportunities for people to live out their faith in service.
Servant leadership or leading servanthood?
Compassionate action by Australian church leaders shows ‘service’ and ‘servanthood’, but ‘servanthood’ also applies to leadership principles and power relations. The management executive and Quaker Robert Greenleaf in Servant Leadership (1977) and other business writers like Stephen Covey (1990), Peter Senge (1992) and Max DePree (1989; 1997) maintain that servanthood and leadership can go together even in a business environment. Greenleaf asserted that leadership begins with wanting to serve which brings an aspiration to lead, rather than wanting to be a leader first to assuage a power drive. The difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant to ensure that people’s needs are being served:
Do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become
67 servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society? Will they benefit, or at least not be further deprived? (Greenleaf 1977: 13-14)
Greenleaf’s work applies the biblical model of servanthood to leadership practice, but it has developed apart from its biblical roots and purpose (Maciariello 2003). Servant leadership suggests directions for collaborative work, but its application does not necessarily involve the service suggested by Jesus’ use of the term. Zaragoza (1999: 51) suggested it draws the church towards business paradigms that legitimise running the church as a corporation instead of (despite the adjective ‘servant’) serving it as the body of Christ. This is not Greenleaf’s ideal nor his practice, but indicative perhaps of shallow adoption of Greenleaf’s model, or perhaps Greenleaf’s shallow adoption of the biblical material. Even in the business sphere, sometimes ‘servant leadership’ works out in practice to be old-style top-down management, but with a nice smile on the leader’s face rather than an authoritarian frown. Banks (2004) suggests the problem has to do with the word order and grammar of the concept; what is needed is not more servant leaders but more leading servants.
Reflection on Australian self-sacrifice
The Anzac myth suggests sacrifice and practical compassion that is expressed by the model of ministry as service. Servanthood can be misinterpreted as weak or is sometimes misapplied to perpetuate oppression, but rightly applied it is a ministry model that is important to both Christianity and to Australian culture. Whether or not the wars Australians have fought in were justified and whether or not Australia’s involvement was necessary is open to debate. That issue aside, surely the self- sacrificing service ethos of the Anzacs can be applied in situations other than war, and expressed towards people who have not traditionally been considered ‘mates’ of typical Australians: women, Aborigines, and people of other cultures. Part of the role of a minister as servant is to ensure these people are included too. Catholic social critic Ronald Conway (1983: 14) summons Australia back to the Anzac ethos in the service of peaceful nation-building:
We have a choice in the years ahead: to recover the cheerful and brave spirit of Anzac, renovated for peace rather than war, or to continue to squabble among ourselves in the manner of self-serving, well-fed
68 barbarians … The choice is stark and simple, however complex the ramifications may be.
To summarise, the first five chapters have drawn on historical images to develop models of ministry suited to Australia. Spiritual companions help people connect faith and spirituality to everyday life. Chaplains get alongside people in the midst of their secular context. Shepherds care for people and protect the life of the community. Prophetic advocates point out how the church and world could better reflect God’s justice. Servants are ready to sacrifice themselves and demonstrate whatever practical care is needed. These models are drawn from images in Australian history and have relevance for ministry today. Australia’s migrants and multicultural context, furthermore, should influence models of ministry. The model of ministers as hosts for a multicultural community will be explored in the final chapter.
69
CHAPTER 6 : HOSTS FOR A MULTICULTURAL COMMUNITY
A multicultural community, 1966-
Hunter (1987) fancifully suggests that multiculturalism has been a characteristic of Australia since Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, with their vast tribal differences, first settled the continent. Then the early colony was formed by thousands of English and Irish convicts: 160 000 transported in 1788-1860. Many Chinese came to Australia during the gold rushes, though ethnic clashes reinforced the popular consent that Australia’s British character be maintained. By 1947, 89.7% of Australia’s population was Anglo-Celt. The rest comprised Europeans (8.6 per cent), Aborigines (0.6 per cent) and Asians (0.8 per cent). After World War II a wave of migration brought new workers, though mainly from Europe and still under the framework of a White Australia policy of assimilation. In 1966 the Liberal party formally ended the White Australia policy and in 1972 the new Labor government introduced a vision of cultural pluralism and equality. Multiculturalism in immigration and community relationships was developed by subsequent policies including the National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia in 1989. So in half a century Australia changed from dominantly British migration to now accepting migrants from everywhere and promoting cultural diversity as an ideal (Lopez 2000).
Multiculturalism is now a dominant ideology, though Australia has always had mixed sentiments about welcoming newcomers who are ethnically different. The early colony brought Irish and British convicts together in an ethnic mix unheard of in most parts of England where groups kept to their own regions, but tensions between the two groups were clearly evident for the first and most of the second century of European settlement. Many Chinese came to the gold diggings but were not shown the warmest hospitality. Ward (1978) admits that the bush ethos was one of egalitarianism and mateship among white men but vicious racist prejudice towards others. Both Louisa
70 Lawson (who championed women’s rights) and her son, Henry Lawson (defender of the Australian egalitarian legend) attended anti-Chinese meetings (Davison 1978: 198). Towards the end of the nineteenth century the media champion of Australian nationalism and egalitarianism, The Bulletin, had as its motto ‘Australia for the Australians’ and included in a manifesto ‘The Bulletin favours … The cheap Chinaman, the cheap Nigger, and the cheap European pauper to be absolutely excluded’ (Clark 1957: 447). In the second half of the twentieth century migration increased ethnic diversity, education instilled the virtues of multiculturalism in children, and ‘We are a multicultural society’ became accepted rhetoric. Yet the popularity of Pauline Hanson and the One Nation Party showed there was still unease about cultural diversity. Curthoys (1997) suggested the land of multicultural harmony and tolerance is not yet a reality but is becoming a new Australian myth.
Multiculturalism raises both opportunities and challenges for ministry. If Australian churches are to be culturally relevant in the twenty-first century, then at least some will need to continue to develop a multicultural ministry. The mainline churches are aware of this imperative, shown for example by Anglican Archbishop of Melbourne, David Penman, who commissioned the report on multicultural ministry A Garden of Many Colours (1985). With similar urgency, his successor Keith Rayner (1996) warned that Australian Christians cannot expect to be insulated from other lifestyles and cultures, even if they wanted to be, and that ‘a church that is content to remain the ethnic church of the declining English component of our population will be a church of shrinking influence.’ Baptist Union of Victoria leader Geoffrey Blackburn (1991) advocated careful planning and concerted action for multicultural ministry, recognising Australia’s changing cultural composition. Moreover, multiculturalism is a key element in the national conversation about nationalism and identity, and ministers need revitalising models that engage with this context. In developing Australian theology, Humphries (2004) argues for considering the role of Aboriginal experience and spirituality alongside ‘Aussie’ icons that characterise white Australia, but also seeking resources for the multi-faith, multi-textured and cross-cultural composition of Australian society.
71 Ministry as community hosting
This chapter suggests a model of pastoral ministry as hosting community hospitality. Pastoral leaders have a role of facilitating community life within their congregations and beyond. In past generations, churches were the centre of the broader community’s social life and ministers played a leading role in organising events. The church is no longer at the centre of society let alone its social glue, but numbers of churches are seeking to reconnect with their community through programs that meet local needs. Churches that offer chaplains to their local primary school do this, but so do churches that sponsor local football teams, host playgroups, teach English, arrange community festivals, cook street barbeques, or offer their buildings as community centres. If Australians love a party and hospitality, then those who are willing to host a community getting together will better connect with Australian culture.
Contrary to the homogenous segmentation of church growth or marketing theory, a minister as community host who draws people together from a diversity of cultures will celebrate the virtues of Australian multiculturalism. The strategy that churches grow when they identify a homogenous group to gather together potentially runs against the inclusive nature of the gospel that celebrates all cultures together in Christ (Padilla 1983). Jenkins (1993) argued the optimum model for mutually beneficial multicultural ministry embraces and celebrates ethnic diversity. Among the most fruitful models of ministry in Australia are multicultural churches with diverse cultural groups in the one worshipping community. Other churches host separate language congregations or work with a bilingual model to cater for selected ethnic groups. (Mono-)ethnic congregations are part of the broader multicultural mix and serve a social function as an ethnic network and support group, but do not reflect multicultural diversity in themselves.
The importance of community hospitality is not just suggested by Australia’s context, but biblical scholars and multicultural worship leaders alike are recognising the important theme of hospitality. From the Old Testament, God is pictured as a God of hospitality from the beginning with people in the garden (Gen 1-2). The Jews were not to forget their ancestors were nomads who appreciated God as their host (Ps 39:12; Lev 25:23) and knew they must host strangers and aliens (Ex 23:9; Lev 19:33-34)
72 (Koenig 1985). Abraham was remembered as the patron saints of hosts for his hospitality to the strangers who were angels (Gen 18:1-8). The community of God’s people were to be welcoming of strangers and people of all nations, just as God hosted them.
When Jesus came as a visitor to the world, he became host and offered hospitality for people to know the salvation of being brought from the margins to an honoured place (Luke 19:1-10). Brendan Byrne (2000) emphasises ‘the hospitality of God’ in Luke showing a sense of the extravagance of God’s love. Jesus was excessive in the miraculous picnic (9:10-17), partying with ‘sinners’ (15:1-2), and drawing a strange mixture of people around his table which caused many upstanding people to consider him immoral. However, as John Koenig (1985) observed, for Jesus these occasions called for joy and feasting; they were like a family reunion and expressed good news. His inclusiveness, shown most graphically around the table, was central to his ministry and its major scandal. Towards the end of his ministry he opposed the nationalistic exclusivism of the temple and proclaimed ‘My house will be called a house of prayer for all nations’ (Mark 11:17 NIV) (Blount 2001). The scope of Jesus’ hospitality included welcoming people who were ethnic outsiders. Sallie McFague (1987: 52) summarises New Testament scholarship:
Jesus offended by inviting the outsiders to come in, to join with him not merely as needy outcasts but as his friends in joyful feasting. The central symbol of the new vision of life, the kingdom of God, is a community joined together in a festive meal where the bread that sustains life and the joy that sustains the spirit are shared by all.
The last supper was not the first nor the last time which Jesus played the role of host. But in the eucharist the church remembers the hospitality of Jesus and ideally recalls their responsibility to continue his praxis (Schillebeeckx 1981: 200-218). This was what his hospitality and teaching pointed to – encouraging the church to host community hospitality that embraced people from the margins and incorporated people of all nations into God’s people (Luke 14:7-24).
Part of the dynamism of the early church was its radical hospitality. God welcomed all people without distinction into his family, and it was essential that Christian
73 communal life reflect this hospitality (Rom 14:1-15:7). Minear (1961: 65) celebrated how this welcome was expressed with many mutual images:
Here exiles accepted one another as fellow citizens. Here the scattered were gathered. Here the prisoners became ambassadors and ambassadors were received by the poor. Here all were impoverished and all enriched. Those sent were received by others who were also sent. Hospitality was the sign of the existence of a new kind of community where every image was destined for incarnation.
Paul rebuked the church at Corinth for insensitively humiliating one another around the meal table when they should have been enhancing one another’s worth (1 Cor 8- 11). Although initially reluctant, Peter left behind religious apartheid to baptise, eat with and advocate for Gentiles, because he realised God’s hospitality embraced all (Acts 10:9-11:18). Thus Paul and Peter were functioning as good hosts – ensuring that everyone was welcome and included. Socioeconomic differences did not disappear but in God’s eyes slavery, sexual dominance and racism had passed away (Gal 3:28) and Christian hospitality was expected to override these and any barriers (Koenig 1985).
Leaders of culturally diverse congregations recognise the tensions of multiculturalism but also celebrate the gospel’s inclusiveness. Christian hospitality has to be more than eating with those who are like-minded but draws together people from all backgrounds and diverse cultures (Keifert 1992). In worship this involves not only utilising forms of worship from different cultures but accepting different cultural values for time, personal space, power sharing and informality (Black 2000); and not automatically deferring to Anglo leaders (Law 1993). Different cultures that worship together without forsaking cultural identities is not without tensions, but it is a powerful witness to the inclusive breadth of the gospel.
If newcomers from other nations are hoping to ‘sit at the table’ with other Australians, then the pastor as community host will minister like Jesus by welcoming the outsiders. Throwing a party is a helpful Australian biblical picture of salvation. Stockton (1992) graphically suggests that Jesus draws people together and invites them to live in a party spirit with hospitality, sharing and celebration. Melbourne’s Truth and Liberation Concern, pioneered by John Smith in the early 1970s, was an experiment in indigenous Australian church life with hospitality as one of its defining characteristics.
74 Smith was convinced that the church ought to be able to celebrate, joke and laugh, and be like a party where anyone is welcome. Jesus said different things to different people, but ‘Be born again’ is a less meaningful call to salvation for Aussies than:
Hey mate, I’ve arranged a great party, and the guys at the top don’t even want to come. They are too busy doing their own thing, too economically tied up with their own success. They’re not interested. The Boss has sent me to tell you the party’s on and you’re welcome – no entry fee (Luke 14:15-24) (Smith 1988: 197).
Smith suggests an Irish pub atmosphere is a good model for church life – festive, musical, participatory, and welcoming everyone: “No one is going to check your credentials. Leave your attitude at the door, come in, find your place, and feel free to express your gift” (Hunter 2000: 111). Such a commitment to authentic community is foundational for growing today’s Australian churches, and celebrating common faith and shared lives is natural in the context of eating together.
Connection Community (Croydon Church of Christ) has hosted Sunday morning ‘Life Connection’ gatherings in local hotels over the last three years. The first item on the order of service is to order coffee and people sit around tables as the hosts for the day (Wayne and Paula Nebauer and team) lead the larger group in reflection, prayer and discussion. Appropriate for Australian culture there is no group singing, obligatory sharing or pressure to pay. Life Connection is one of a number of expressions of Connection’s life in the community, and is modelled on offering hospitality and providing space for exploring questions and issues of faith. Participants say that talking around a table and being guided in conversation by the host often facilitates sharing and Christian formation at a deeper level than possible in a traditional church service. Connection is not yet very multicultural, and may not offer a worship format that is attractive to people of some cultures, but at least points to the importance of hospitality and eating together.
Another feature of Connection Community consistent with ministry as hosting community is that guests are not expected to believe before they belong. The community welcomes seekers to participate in church life and volunteer their services, in order that they can belong while they come to believe. This is in contrast to most mass evangelism approaches of the twentieth century which convinced people to
75 believe so they can belong, though is similar to Celtic communities which often included people in community life before they believed.5 This is an evangelism model appropriate for people who long for community and who prefer to think things through for themselves – possibly in dialogue with others but not having a pre-packaged belief system imposed. The Celtic way is appropriate for the Australian context and a minister who offers to be host and spiritual companion: ‘Let us together explore who God is and see where the journey takes us’ (Finney 1996: 130).
The Celtic tradition of monastic life featured hospitality and welcoming. The chapel and guest house were given the best positions and made of the best materials because they were most valued. Noone was to be turned away who needed help or sanctuary. Guests, seekers or refugees were all welcome, given lodgings, and included at the Abbot’s table (Hunter 2000). One abbess in particular, Brigit of Kildare (454-524), was known for her extraordinary generosity, welcoming the great and the lowly with equal warmth and readiness to meet their needs. Her merry approach to life spilled over into an inclusive hospitality and a fondness for beer. This is the grace associated with her name:
I should like a great lake of ale finest ale For the King of Kings. I should like a table of choicest food For the family of heaven. Let the ale be made from the fruits of faith, And the food be forgiving love.
I should welcome the poor to my feast, For they are God’s children. I should welcome the sick to my feast, For they are God’s joy. Let the poor sit with Jesus at the highest place, And the sick dance with the angels.
God bless the poor, God bless the sick, And bless our human race. God bless our food, God bless our drink, All homes, O God, we embrace (Mulhern 1998).
5 These reflections on Celtic hospitality draw on my earlier Doctor of Ministry paper ‘Colonies of Heaven: Celtic models for today’s Australian church’ (2004a).
76 Brigit’s life-embracing approach to ministry is a model for getting alongside Australians and hosting a good party and a hearty welcome. Breakwater Community of the Transfiguration, a Baptist quasi-monastic church in Geelong, expresses welcoming Christian hospitality of the highest calibre. It is appropriate for churches to generously extend hospitality and make visitors feel welcomed like special guests to mirror the welcome God holds out to people. Offering hospitality and care is part of the Celtic tradition of availability where churches are present and involved in the midst of their local community.
There is an inclusiveness that the hospitality of Jesus shares in common with Celtic communities and the ideals of Australian multiculturalism. St Patrick’s breastplate, the most famous Celtic prayer, ends with praise of Christ who meets us “in the mouth of everyone who speaks to me – friend and stranger” (Cahill 1995: 119). This echoes the gospel image of welcoming the presence of Christ in relationship with the stranger, outsider or outcast (Matt 25:31-46) (Koenig 1985: 8-9). O’Collins (1986: 64) expressed the Lord’s sentiment with local faces:
I was a Vietnamese refugee, and you gave me a chance. I was an illegitimate and handicapped child, and you opened your home. I was an underpaid and badly-housed Aborigine, and you tried to get me justice. I mattered to no one and was about to take my life, when I felt the power of your concern and compassion.
The concern of Jesus for the marginalised, parallel to the ideals of Australian multiculturalism, challenges ministers to host broad-reaching, warmly-welcoming, and radically-inclusive community hospitality.
Hosting asylum seekers?
One enormous challenge is Australia’s treatment of asylum seekers and their mandatory detention. Anthony Burke (2001) suggested Australia has an obsession about security which two centuries ago sparked conflict between whites and local tribes, and today enhances anxiety about the invasion of boat people. With the numbers and needs of asylum seekers coming to Australia, and in the context of national uncertainty about how to respond, the church has a unique opportunity to
77 express compassion and service. Some ministers adopt an advocacy role for welcoming refugees and caring for asylum seekers, in the tradition of what Caroline Chisholm, J D Lang and Frances Perry (wife of Bishop Charles Perry) did for ‘legal’ migrants over 150 years ago. Fletcher (1988: 70) urged concern for the battlers in our land including migrants and by extension refugees and asylum seekers: ‘If we Australians repented of the way the mixed and coloured and migrant people have been and are treated in our society, we might come to the revelation that those who suffer have been/are God's people and we the Egyptians of a latter time.’ Some ministers have found a vocation as asylum offerers and this model is worthy of further exploration for Australian church leaders (cf. Nichols 1993; 2002).
Hospitality to people of other cultures and especially asylum seekers is a particular challenge in the light of recent terrorist events, the rhetoric of suspicion and deep disquiet over the intentions of Muslims. It is one thing to host people who are pictured as ‘poor’ in the Bible like women, children, and the sick; but it is another thing to welcome the outcast of our day or those considered a possible enemy. When television shows depict Muslim terrorists living in suburban neighbourhoods and televangelists proclaim the global ambitions of extremists, it is easy for people to ignore and retreat from people of Islamic faith (or worse, despise and persecute them). The Australian Government’s Living in Harmony initiative celebrates inter-faith co-operation while recognising with concern the reality of racist attacks post-September 11th (Cahill et al. 2004). Debates continue over the nature of ‘Islamic fundamentalism’ and its relationship to terrorism. National Party senator John Stone outlined six proposals to secure Australia from terrorist attack; among them was halting Muslim migration (Aly 2005). It is widely publicised that not all Muslims are terrorists, and Muslim leaders of the moderate majority commonly join politicians in speaking out against terrorism. Nevertheless many Muslims get tarred with suspicion and it is incumbent on ministers as hosts to welcome and include them.
Journalist Catherine Masters (2002; 2005) relates the story of Ahmed Zaoui, an Algerian exile and Professor of Islam, who was detained on arrival in New Zealand as a suspected terrorist, which turned out to be a misunderstanding and the result of prejudicial misinformation. Cityside Baptist Church provided legal advocacy and were among those who agitated for his freedom (Conversation with Mark Pierson, Previous
78 Senior Pastor, 28/9/05). On Zaoui’s recent release, St Benedicts Dominican Priory in Auckland offered him sanctuary. Shepherd (2005) asserts that such hospitality, even more so than dialogue, is essential to overcome fear, indifference and pure selfishness towards ‘global aliens and strangers’. Irshad Manji (2003) recognises some unprovoked anger and ‘Islamophobia’ following September 11, but celebrates the overwhelming tolerance and unsolicited expressions of care and decency towards her fellow-Muslims by Christians. Not all Muslims have extreme views on jihad, and not all Muslim asylum seekers have ulterior motives, but some do. Considering Jesus’ radical hospitality, how will Australian ministers lead their churches to respond to Muslim asylum seekers?
In a world scarred by terrorism and disruptive violence, hospitality to strangers or enemies is counter-cultural and a powerful demonstration of the higher values of the gospel. Jesus filled his sermon on the mount with imaginative metaphors to illustrate how to live not based on laws of what to do but on pictures of who God is (Hauerwas & Willimon 1989: 85). Ministers as community hosts welcome outsiders not just because of what God says, but because of who God is. God is inclusive and hospitable in embracing everyone, even those who count themselves enemies. Jesus offered hospitality to the terrorist (Jewish insurrectionist) and oppressor (Roman centurion) alike (Luke 23:39-47) (Shepherd 2005: 9). Ford (1984) called for a new theology that she terms ‘philo-echthrology’ (love of the enemy). Australia’s military involvement overseas and media-awareness campaign of suspicious activity at home heightens tension between Christians and Muslims. It also invites the expression of deeper dimensions of hospitality: considerations for the gospel-imperatives of non-violence, forgiveness, and avoiding favouritism. Those who are ‘other’ in Australia will more readily learn Australian compassion and inclusiveness when they openly experience it than from having iconic tales about Australian heroes placed in their school curriculum, as Education Minister Brendan Nelson suggested. Values are meaningless if they merely uphold a model like Private Simpson for his compassion, without expressing compassion to people in need like asylum seekers (cf. Farouque 2005). Ethnic distrust calls for ministers – church and government types – to stand alongside and advocate for those perceived as non-persons or even enemies (Messer 1992).
79 Reflection on a developing paradigm
By nature churches are a refuge for people seeking a place to commune with God and fellow-travellers, and so should be open to all. Baptist ordinands make a commitment to compassionate service to anyone who seeks it: ‘Jesus commanded His disciples, “Love one another as I have loved you.” In your ministry will you do all you can to ensure that the welcome and help of the church will be available for all who seek it, whatever their need or circumstance?’ (BUGB 1991: 180) This does not mean that pastors should try to reach everyone and especially not with the same program. But the mandate on ministers as hosts is to offer hospitable welcome, or to ‘embrace otherness’ in the terms Misoslav Volf (1996) has popularised. Pastoral ministers draw a community together to celebrate life and faith, share concerns, and enjoy good food and valued friendships. Parker Palmer celebrates the privilege of ministry as hosting hospitality and furthermore the gifts that strangers bring. Strangers help people see themselves afresh and so, to return to the first model of the thesis, potentially become spiritual companions for their ‘hosts’:
[T]he stranger of public life becomes the spiritual guide of our private life. Through the stranger our view of self, of world, of God is deepened and expanded. Through the stranger we are given a chance to find ourselves. And through the stranger, God finds us and offers us the gift of wholeness in the midst of our estranged lives (Palmer 1981: 70).
In the mutuality of ministry, ministers as hosts become guests and spiritual companions become pilgrims who learn from those they minister among.
Ministry as hosting complements the other models that have been considered, and in a multicultural context is complemented by them. Ministers as hosts are chaplains as they get alongside people and help them find support or gain access to services. They are also shepherds who care for people from different cultures and bring them together as a group for protection and solidarity. Hosts play the role of prophetic advocates when their guests are facing injustice, oppression or persecution. They naturally express their role in service in ensuring the needs of guests are met, as suggested by the Celtic proverb: “The one who bids me eat wishes me to live” (McFague 1987: 174). Thus host for a multicultural community is yet another example of a contextual model of ministry that is derived from yet critical of parts of Australian culture.
80
CONCLUSION
Summary and evaluation
Jesus urged his followers to pray for labourers for the harvest (Matt 9:37). What types of workers are needed for Australian paddocks? What images will capture the Australian imagination? What models of ministry most faithfully reflect both tradition and culture? Throughout history, people have sought for metaphors from their known world that can inspire and teach about Jesus and his mission. The models explored in the thesis are not meant to replace traditional ones nor is there one model that can be adopted without the others. The collage of models of ministry in these reflections is meant to offer a fuller portrait of what Christian ministry can be for the twenty-first century. Models that are derived from culture and historical legends, and a diversity of these historically aware models, will best enhance ministry theology and praxis.
Spiritual companionship is consistent with indigenous culture that recognises and celebrates spirituality in everyday experience, and is appropriate in contemporary society with its longing for spiritual authenticity as articulated by the likes of Michael Leunig. Chaplains were the first ministers in the European settlement and chaplaincy allows pastoral ministers to get alongside people where they are – in prisons, workplaces or schools. However in the early colony the ministry of chaplains was limited by their government employment, and chaplains continue to have that challenge and opportunity of serving both their institution and their calling to ministry. As settlement stretched into the bush, ministers as pastors or shepherds supplanted ministers as chaplains. Ministry as shepherding is an image rich in nurturing and care, was at home in the rural setting of the colonies, and continues to meaningfully express the pastoral care aspects of local church ministry. In Australia with its valuing of egalitarianism, the most appropriate model is of a shepherd who is seen as one of the sheep rather than hierarchically superior.
81 In the land of the fair go, where actions speak louder than words, pastoral ministers who are prophetic advocates and active servants will connect with Australian culture better than ministers who adopt a dominant role as moral teachers. Prophetic advocacy is more at home in the tradition of the protestors of the Eureka stockade and the union movement. In the self-sacrificing spirit of Anzac, ministry as servanthood expresses practical compassion that is highly valued by Australians. Servanthood can be misinterpreted as weak or misapplied to perpetuate oppression, but rightly applied it is a leadership model that is important to both Christianity and Australian culture. Finally, the model of pastoral minister as community host fits Australian culture and our increasingly multicultural society, and reflects God’s hospitality and inclusiveness. Pastoral ministry can be imagined and expressed by various models which describe different emphases of ministry, and the most effective models for pastoral ministry in Australia will derive from while critiquing Australian culture and historical images.
These six models of ministry drawing on six legends or images of Australian history are a provisional exploration of how historical awareness and analysis enhances ministry theory and praxis. Fruitful pastoral ministry requires faithfulness to Christian tradition but also historical insight and contextual awareness. This thesis is part of my listening to and engagement with the ongoing intra-disciplinary conversation about Australian history and culture. It forms a framework for further research and commentary in the tradition of Christians who have been committed to pursuing historically aware and contextually focused ministry.
The purpose of this thesis was to reflect on contextually appropriate models of ministry. The approach of deriving ministry models from cultural legends is appropriate for contextual theology, seeking as it does to bridge culture with Christian tradition. The correlation of cultural themes with Christian tradition and the ensuing critical conversation has been helpful. Most images need to be critically evaluated and recontextualised. Cultural images suggest models that are culturally relevant, but Christian tradition needs to critique these models and transform them.
Furthermore, different models of ministry fit different local contexts and emphases. For example in my denomination, the Baptist Union of Victoria, different ministers in different churches have adopted different ministry models. Stuart Robinson, Senior
82 Pastor of Crossway Baptist Church in Melbourne, has adopted a strategically planned needs-based approach to mission, and the church is now one of the two largest in Victoria (conversation with Stuart Robinson, 14/9/05). Jill Manton (2005) at Ashburton Baptist Church pioneered in spiritual companionship, offering the Wellspring Centre resources to the broader church and community as a means for supporting and encouraging people in their faith journeys. Ivanhoe Baptist Church has recently redeveloped their facilities and their pastor Chris Turner is refocusing their mission as hosting a community centre. Meewon Yang (2002), as multicultural minister part of an innovative pastoral team at Brunswick Baptist, helped the church view their mission as an inclusive and therefore multicultural church offering hospitality to all, including asylum seekers. As pastoral ministry in Australia seeks models for today, some models will be contemporary inventions, while others will draw more on historical images or ancient wisdom, revisiting models that have been effective in history. Different churches and different ministerial leaders will adopt different models and different combinations of models for their contexts.
Personal philosophy of pastoral ministry
The models of ministry that the thesis has explored serve the different purposes of the church. The church is God’s people created by the Spirit as the body of Christ, and its purpose is to glorify God through worship, mission, and pastoral care and spiritual formation. This is the understanding of the calling and role of the local church on which this thesis and its exploration of pastoral ministry was based, and it helps frame my personal philosophy of pastoral ministry and its connection with different models.
When leading worship, ministers encourage their congregations to give glory to God and to worship with enthusiasm, while being sensitive that some people may be experiencing hard times. In preaching, they strive to be faithful to Scripture (and best preach from a biblical passage), true to themselves (speaking from their experience not theory), relevant to the God’s people, and sensitive to newcomers. Worship also, importantly, gives God’s people strength for the journey. Facilitating worship is part of a minister’s role as chaplain in meeting people where they are and leading them to God, as well as having relevance to ministry as spiritual companionship and community hosting in connecting people with God and one another.
83
Pastoral ministers help their churches discern what it means to be God’s missionary people in the world. A church’s local community is a primary area of mission responsibility and it is important also to be committed to God’s global purposes. Mission is God reaching out and seeking the world, a task for which God invites the church’s cooperation in evangelism, social justice, and mercy ministry. These three components of holistic mission are facilitated by ministry as chaplaincy, prophetic advocacy, and service. These models help the church to express its missionary nature.
Pastoral care and spiritual formation are core tasks for pastoral ministry. It is very important to get to know the congregation, their joys and the challenges they are facing. This is part of the minister’s role as chaplain. Ministers, though, cannot carry the whole pastoral load and a key avenue for pastoral care and growth in any church is a growing network of small groups. A general atmosphere of caring and encouragement is a part of any healthy church and essential to growth. The ultimate relational aim of pastoral care and spiritual formation is facilitating union with Christ and growth in discipleship. This relates to ministry as spiritual companionship. Yet care and formation also relates to being a shepherd in helping people relate their faith to everyday life, and being a prophet in equipping people to live out the implications of their faith and communicate God’s purposes.
Different models have been suggested by considering different historical contexts, and they address different ministry contexts and demands. For example, when pastoral ministry models in Australia are captivated by CEO management approaches and when modernist thinking relegates religion to the private sphere, spiritual companionship reminds ministers that spirituality is central to ministry and relevant to everyday life. The task of a minister is to help people on their spiritual journey to recognise ‘the mystery at the heart of things’ (1976: 29) and to realise where God is working in their world.
When pastoral ministers in Australia are perceived as rigid and ‘chained’ to the establishment, the gospel calls us to follow Jesus into the world and learn how to listen and talk with people and not just at them. Ministers are chaplains who are responsible for the cure of souls in their congregation but also the broader community. For some
84 ministers their vocation takes them into more formal chaplaincy roles with a focus beyond the church as congregation. Different models suit different contexts.
When pastoral ministry involves shepherding and caring for landowners, squatters and prior inhabitants who have been unjustly displaced, the forgotten indigenous – the gospel commissions ministers to express care to people in all social classes. When society is stratified by differences and popular leadership styles are dictatorial and manipulative, the gospel subverts culture and offers ministers alternative leadership models. A minister’s calling as a shepherd is to care for all groups of people and to lead without any presumption of hierarchical privilege.
When pastoral ministers are preoccupied with moral policing and when institutional religion seems distant and unconcerned, the gospel that proclaims justice and invites transformation makes it incumbent on ministers to stand up for the marginalised. When Australian community needs and global crises are overwhelming, the gospel demands action alongside proclamation, deeds with words, and service with preaching. There are times when pastoral ministry includes advocacy for the marginalised and service for the needy as natural implications of a holistic gospel.
When strangers are migrating or escaping to Australia and the government promotes multiculturalism but also detains or even detours asylum seekers, ministers have an opportunity with their churches to follow the example of Jesus to welcome people from diverse backgrounds and embrace otherness. Part of pastoral ministry in a multicultural community is inclusive hospitality: hosting people from different backgrounds and cultures to eat and worship together.
Miles Franklin in My Brilliant Career (1903: 280) articulated a hunger for authentic ministry beyond the accustomed respectable version:
As I leave the building a great hunger for a little Christianity fills my heart. Oh that a preacher would arise and expound from the Book of books a religion with a God, a religion with a heart in it – a Christian religion which would abolish the cold legend whose centre is respectability, and rears great buildings in which the rich recline on silken hassocks while the poor perish in the shadow thereof.
85 Australian churches need to move beyond stereotypes of distant and dispassionate clergy, and embrace the rich heritage of Australian contextual models of ministry like spiritual companions, chaplains, shepherds, prophetic advocates, servant leaders, and community hosts. The churches need models of ministry that are at home in Australia. This is a key part of contextualising theology and ministry. Reading Australian history and reflecting on the relationship of Australian culture and Christian ministry has recaptured my imagination and fuelled my courage to lead the church in loving service and hospitality.
More of the Australian legend?
Australian Christian leader Mal Garvin (1987: 22) rhetorically suggested that Australians have for many years avoided looking into the past for fear of the clink of convict chains. This suggestion is consistent with what we know of Australia’s ‘cultural cringe’ and the drive in the nineteenth century to move on from Australia’s identity as a convict colony. However what is more accurate of popular history of the mid twentieth century is that it did focus on the myths of Australia’s convicts, bushmen, diggers, and Anzacs, while neglecting the hidden history of Aborigines, women, religion, and the working class. Rather than avoiding convict chains, historical writing has dwelled on their clinking but possibly to the neglect of other aspects of Australian history. Fortunately, in the latter decades of the twentieth century historians have been correcting these omissions and exploring our hidden histories. This methodological correction at the academic level corresponds to a popular resurgence of interest in Australian studies. Part of the agenda of this thesis has been to start to listen to and learn from those whose task in life is to study national history and analyse Australian culture. The cultural commentators of the mid and late twentieth century contributed to a deeper understanding of Australian identity that offers helpful frameworks and images for ministry.
This research has delved into Australia’s past looking for convict chains and other historical images in order to articulate contextual models of ministry for the present and future. Australian culture and identity is the subject of a range of contemporary literature, and this thesis has welcomed its input in a conversation with Australian theology and ministry demands. Rather than merely borrowing illustrations or ‘ocker’
86 language, the quest has been to learn from the Australian literature and its commentary on Australian myths. Formative myths like the Dreaming, convictism, bush mateship, protesters, Anzacs, and multiculturalism help us understand Australian culture and shape culturally appropriate forms of ministry. In a search for identity we may have uncritically relied too much on Australian myths and legends. It is appropriate to deconstruct how much they are part of history and/or to what extent they are invented to serve nationalist or other purposes. Nevertheless, understanding myths as they exist helps understand culture as it exists, which in turn informs the churches’ search for Australian contextual models of ministry. Ward (1966:258-259) concluded his cultural analysis by pointing not just backward to old images but forward to explore new images of the Australian legend, reconfigured for changing times:
[N]othing could be more thoroughly within the tradition than to ‘give it a go’ – to venture boldly on new courses of action, and so modify, and even create, traditions as the anonymous bushmen and, later, the men of the ‘nineties did. Today’s task might well be to develop those features of the Australian legend which still seem valid in modern conditions.
Further thoughtful analysis of the still-evolving Australian legend will help us better understand Australian culture and so more faithfully express pastoral ministry with culturally appropriate models.
87
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101 ____, Ed. 1996. Aboriginal Spirituality: Past, Present, Future. Blackburn: HarperCollins Religious. ____. 1998. The Great White Flood: Racism in Australia. Atlanta: Scholars Press. Paul_II, John. 1986a. 'Address of John Paul II to the Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders in 'Blatherskite Park' Alice Springs (Australia) 29 November' (Online). Accessible at: The National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Catholic Council, http://www.natsicc.org.au/Pope_speech.htm [Accessed May 2005]. ____. 1986b. The Pope in Australia: Collected Homilies and Talks. Sydney: St Paul. Pearson, Clive, Ed. 2004. Faith in a Hyphen: Cross-Cultural Theologies Down Under. Adelaide: Openbook. Pfitzner, John. 1988. Australian Parables. Adelaide: Lutheran. Pierard, Richard V. 2004. 'The ANZAC Day Phenomenon: A Study in Civil Religion'. In Making History for God: Essays on Evangelicalism, Revival and Mission. Edited by Geoffrey R Treloar and Robert D Linder. Sydney: Robert Menzies College, 239-254. Piggin, Stuart. 1987. 'Writing the History of the Church in a Secular, Pluralist Society: Reed's Theory and the Relevance of Ecclesiological Developments'. St. Mark's Review 129 (March), 20-32. ____. 1996. Evangelical Christianity in Australia: Spirit, Word and World. Melbourne: OUP. Poiner, Gretchen. 1985. 'A Community in Crisis: Bushfire in a District of the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales'. In Australian Ways: Anthropological Studies of an Industrial Society. Edited by Lenore Manderson. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 33-50. Porter, Muriel. 1990. Land of the Spirit? The Australian Religious Experience. Geneva: WCC. Prewer, Bruce. 1983. Australian Prayers. Adelaide: Lutheran. Pringle, John D. 1958. Australian Accent. London: Chatto and Windus. Pryor, Robin J. 1982. High Calling, High Stress: The Vocational Needs of Ministers: An Overview & Bibliography. Bedford Park: Australian Association for the Study of Religions. Rainbow-Spirit-Elders, The. 1997. Rainbow Spirit Theology: Towards an Australian Aboriginal Theology. Melbourne: HarperCollins. Rayner, Archbishop Keith. 1996. 'The Episcopate & the Australian Church in the 21st Century'. Church Scene (22 November), 9-11. Read, Garth. 1994. 'The Christian Chaplain in a Pluralist Community'. Religious Education Journal of Australia 10:1, 1-7. Rees, Frank. 1980. 'The Community of the Servant: a Critical Development of a Contemporary Image of the Church'. Master of Theology thesis. Melbourne: Melbourne College of Divinity. ____. 1999. 'Oz Church Goes to Kinder'. St Mark's Review (Summer), 21-26.
102 ____. 2002. 'Beating around in the Bush: Methodological Directions for Australian Theology'. Pacifica 10:3, 266-293. Reynolds, Henry. 1982. The Other Side of the Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of Australia. Ringwood: Penguin. Richards, Kel. 2003. The Aussie Bible. Sydney: The Bible Society. Richardson, Don. 1974. Peace Child. Glendale: G/L Regal. ____. 1981. Eternity in their Hearts. Ventura: Regal. Richardson, T E. 1850. 'Pastoral Address, Covering Letter and Extract from the Introduction'. Missionary Record of the United Presbyterian Church in Scotland (May), 76. Accessible from the University of Edinburgh New College Library http://edd.lib.ed.ac.uk. Rievaulx, Aelred of. 1993. 'On Spiritual Friendship'. In The Cistercian World: Monastic Writings of the Twelfth Century. Edited by Pauline Matarasso. London: Penguin, 169-190. Robinson, Ian. 1991. 'Entry Points for the Gospel'. In Growing an Everyday Faith: Effective Mission in a Changing Australia. Edited by Ian Robinson, Peter Kaldor and Dean Drayton. Homebush West: Lancer, 173-183. Robson, Leslie Lloyd. 1965. The Convict Settlers of Australia: An Enquiry into the Origin and Character of the Convicts Transported to New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land 1787-1852. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Rogerson, J W. 1974. Myth in Old Testament Interpretation. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Rosendale, George. 1988. 'Aboriginal Myths and Customs: Matrix for Gospel Preaching'. Lutheran Theological Journal 22, 117-122. ____. 1993. Spirituality for Aboriginal Christians. Darwin: Nungalinya College. Rowe, Noel. 1993. 'Are There Really Angels in Carlton? Australian Literature and Theology'. Pacifica 6, 141-164. Rudolph, Ivan. 1996. John Flynn: Of Flying Doctors and Frontier Faith. North Blackburn: Dove. Schaffer, Kay. 1988. Women and the Bush: Forces of Desire in the Australian Cultural Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schillebeeckx, Edward. 1981. Jesus: An Experiment in Christology. Translated by Hubert Hoskins. New York: Vintage Books. Schreiter, Robert J. 1985. Constructing Local Theologies. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. Scutt, Ian. 1987. 'Chaplaincy: Between the Church and the World'. In Ministry in Australian Churches. Edited by William Tabbernee. Melbourne: JBCE, 143- 147. Senge, Peter M. 1992. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. Sydney: Random House. Serle, Geoffrey. 1977. The Golden Age: A History of the Colony of Victoria 1851- 1861. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Shaw, A G L. 1955. The Story of Australia. London: Faber and Faber.
103 Shaw, G. 1988. 'Beyond Discipline: The Historical Context of Theological Thought in Australia'. St Mark's Review 133 (March), 14-20. Shearer, J D. 1976. Bound for Botany Bay: Impressions of Transportation and Convict Life. Sydney: Summit. Shepherd, Andrew. 2005. 'An Algerian and Aotearoa: Global "Aliens and Strangers" and the Ethic of Hospitality'. (Online). A paper for presentation at the Australian Missiology Conference, Melbourne 26 to 30 September. Accessible at: www.missionstudies.org/au/ [Accessed 7 September 2005]. Simpson, Ray. 1999. Soul Friendship: Celtic Insights into Spiritual Mentoring. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Smith, John. 1988. Advance Australia Where? Homebush West: ANZEA. Smith, John and Malcolm Doney. 1987. On the Side of Angels. Tring: Lion. SOED. 1983. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. London: Book Club Associates. Southerwood, W T. 1989. The Convict's Friend: A Life of Bishop Robert William Willson. George Town, Tas.: Stella Maris Books. Stanner, W. E. H. 1979. White Man Got No Dreaming: Essays, 1938-1973. Canberra: ANU Press. Stevens, R Paul. 1999. The Abolition of the Laity: Vocation, Work and Ministry in Biblical Perspective. Carlisle: Paternoster. Stivens, Maila. 1985. 'The Private Life of the Extended Family: Family, Kinship and Class in a Middle Class Suburb of Sydney'. In Australian Ways: Anthropological Studies of an Industrial Society. Edited by Lenore Manderson. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 15-32. Stockton, Eugene. 1992. 'The Way of a Bush Theologian'. In Evangelisation in an Australian Context. Edited by Damien Brennan. Blackburn: CollinsDove, 19- 25. Stretton, Hugh. 1985. 'The Quality of Leading Australians'. In Australia: The Daedalus Symposium. Edited by Stephen R Graubard. Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 197-230. Summers, Anne. 2002. Damned Whores and God's Police: Women's Lives in Australia - a new edition of the classic work. Melbourne: Penguin. Swanson, Chad. 2000a. 'Australian Humour' (Online). Accessible at: Convict Creations, http://www.convictcreations.com/culture/comedy.htm [Accessed May 2004]. ____. 2000b. 'Australian Values page 1' (Online). Accessible at: Convict Creations, http://www.convictcreations.com/history/convictleg1.htm [Accessed May 2004]. ____. 2000c. 'The Eureka Rebellion' (Online). Accessible at: Convict Creations, http://www.convictcreations.com/history/eureka.htm [Accessed May 2004]. Tabbernee, William, Ed. 1987. Ministry in Australian Churches. Melbourne: JBCE. Tacey, David. 2000. ReEnchantment: The New Australian Spirituality. Sydney: HarperCollins.
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106 Vita – Darren John Cronshaw
Personal Data: Birth date and place: August 22, 1971. Oberon, Australia Marital status: Married to Jennifer Rae Cronshaw. Children: Benjamin (7), Jessie (5) and Emily (3) Home address: 7 Coolaroo Court, Mooroolbark 3138 Australia Phone: (03) 9733 5455 Email: [email protected] Ordained: July 4, 1999 (Baptist Union of Victoria)
Educational History: Bachelor of Arts Australian National University, 1992 Certificate of Pastoral Ministry New Creation School of Ministries, 1992 Master of Letters Australian National University, 1994 Graduate Diploma of Education University of New England, 1994 Diploma of Theology (Missiology) Bible College of Victoria (ACT), 1996 Bachelor of Theology (Hons.) Bible College of Victoria (ACT), 1997 Advanced Diploma of Ministry Whitley College (MCD), 1998 Master of Theology Whitley College (MCD), 1999 Cert. IV Workplace Assessment & Training, Tabor College, 2003
Professional Experience: 1986-88, 94 Farming education, Megalong Valley Farm 1993 Sales Representative (Indonesia), Fantastic Aussie Tours 1993 Youth Ministry Intern, Mountain Trails Adventure Camps 1994 Pastoral Intern, Greensborough Apostolic Life Centre 1995-96 Tutor, Australian Aboriginal Tutorial Assistance Scheme 1996-97 Youth Pastor, Bulleen Baptist Church 1997-98 Interim Pastor, Canterbury Baptist Church 1998-99 Interim Pastor, Shepparton Baptist Church 1999-2000 Service Fellowship International (Indonesia) 2000-01 Sales and marketing, Backpackers Travel Centre 2000-01 Pastoral worker, St Kilda/ Elsternwick Baptist Church 2001-05 Pastor, Aberfeldie Baptist Church 2001- Adjunct Faculty, Bible College of Victoria 2001- Adjunct Faculty, Whitley College 2005- Adjunct Faculty, Tabor College (Melbourne) 2005- Director of Theological Studies, Forge Mission Training Network
Professional Memberships and Networks: Amnesty International Australia Anabaptist Association of Australia and New Zealand (AAANZ) Asian Studies Association of Australia (ASAA) Church Missionary Society (CMS) Conflict Resolution Network (CRN) Evangelical Alliance Melbourne Theological Discussion Group South-Pacific Association of Mission Studies (SPAMS) Victorian Association for Theological Field Education (VATFE) Victorian Baptist Ministers’ Network (VBMN) Zadok Institute for Christianity and Society
107
NEW BOOK INFO : UNOH PUBLICATIONS : CHRISTIAN MISSION CREDIBLE WITNESS
COMPANIONS, PROPHETS, HOSTS & OTHER AUSTRALIAN MISSION MODELS
BY DARREN CRONSHAW
A thought-provoking and welcome addition to the discussion on the unique aspects of Australian spirituality and church that weaves together the past and present to give an authentic picture of Christian mission in Australia. November 2006 232 Pages 148 x 210 mm ENDORSEMENTS ISBN: 097750702-5 “A personal and perceptive overview which weaves together the past and present to give an authentic picture of Christian mission in Australia. Credible Witness is an inspiring read and an insightful About the Author analysis for creative thinking and practice. I highly recommend it.” — TIM COSTELLO Darren Cronshaw is a Baptist missionary and World Vision Australia pastor, and has studied and “A thought-provoking and welcome addition to the discussion on the taught with Bible College of Victoria, Whitley College, unique aspects of Australian spirituality and church. For too long Tabor College and FORGE Australian Christians have displayed ‘cultural cringe’ in the assumption Mission Training Network. that other western countries offer a purer form of the Kingdom of God in their history and missiological practice. This book is an indication that Australian Christianity is coming of age.” — CHERYL CATFORD Principal, Tabor College Melbourne. “Darren Cronshaw has done us a great service in tracking the ‘types’ ORDERS TO: of Christian spirituality that have exerted an influence over the religious landscape of this country. He brings both a sense of objective UNOH Publications scholarship to the subject, as well as the passionate heart of an 66 Regent Ave Australian missionary. He has done a superb job, and by doing so has Springvale VIC 3171 debunked the myth that Australia is a godless, irreligious society with little taste for the Christian message. T: +613 9547 1129 His assertion is that we have a long history of effective Christian E: [email protected] spirituality in this country that can provide for us way-markers for the future shape of mission in this country. He is not naïve about the failings www.unoh.org of Christian mission in the past, but helps to rehabilitate these missional types for the positive lessons we can learn from them. This is far from a secular society, but that doesn’t mean it is a society close to Christian revival or to a wholesale return to church attendance. Rather, it is a society still open to and ready for an expression of the Christian faith that sounds and feels indigenous to Australian soil and which is rich in integrity, justice, love and peace. I trust that this book NEW BOOK INFO : UNOH PUBLICATIONS : CHRISTIAN MISSION CREDIBLE WITNESS
ENDORSEMENTS (CONT.) fills you with courage, ingenuity, passion and creativity for the journey that is before us – the continuation of a credible witness to the claims of Christ to all Australians.”
— MICHAEL FROST Morling College, Sydney
“Darren Cronshaw’s four loves permeate every page of ‘Credible Witness’. They are his over-riding love for Jesus, his deep affection for his own Australian culture, his concern for the marginalised, and his heart for mission. The intersection of these four passions makes this book, which is both a theological exploration and a deeply personal memoir, a unique and stimulating contribution to Australian missiological writing.”
– MICHAEL RAITER Principal, Bible College of Victoria
DESCRIPTION
Australians long for expressions of faith that are genuine and practical. Credible Witness: Companions, Prophets, Hosts & other Australian Mission Models explores how clues for credible witness can be gleaned from Australian historical images – the Aborigine, convict, bushman, gold digger, Anzac ‘digger’ and migrant. A conversation between these historical themes and Christian tradition suggests models of mission which are authentically at home in Australian culture: spiritual companion, chaplain, shepherd, prophetic advocate, servant and community host. Credible ORDERS TO: Witness offers an overview of Australian cultural history and related models of mission that are biblically faithful, culturally relevant and that address poverty in all its forms. UNOH Publications 66 Regent Ave Springvale VIC 3171 MARKET/READERSHIP T: +613 9547 1129 Students, academics, libraries, church and mission workers, general. E: [email protected]
www.unoh.org SUBJECT AREA
Religion; Christian Mission, Spirituality, Australia Darren Cronshaw is husband to Jenni, Dad to three children, partner at Connection Community, lover of good books and movies, and student of mission and Australian culture. Darren has been a Baptist missionary and pastor, and has studied and taught with Bible College C of Victoria, Whitley College, Tabor College (Melbourne) and FORGE R Mission Training Network. E D I B “A personal and perceptive overview which weaves together the past and present to give an L
authentic picture of Christian mission in Australia. Credible Witness is an inspiring read and an E insightful analysis for creative thinking and practice. I highly recommend it.” W — TIM COSTELLO
World Vision Australia I T
“A thought-provoking and welcome addition to the discussion on the unique aspects of N
Australian spirituality and church. For too long Australian Christians have displayed ‘cultural E
cringe’ in the assumption that other western countries offer a purer form of the Kingdom of God S in their history and missiological practice. This book is an indication that Australian Christianity is coming of age.” S
— CHERYL CATFORD Principal, Tabor College Melbourne. “Darren Cronshaw has done us a great service in tracking the ‘types’ of Christian spirituality that have exerted an influence over the religious landscape of this country. He brings both a sense
of objective scholarship to the subject, as well as the passionate heart of an Australian missionary. D
He has done a superb job, and by doing so has debunked the myth that Australia is a godless, A irreligious society with little taste for the Christian message. R
His assertion is that we have a long history of effective Christian spirituality in this country that R can provide for us way-markers for the future shape of mission in this country. He is not naïve E about the failings of Christian mission in the past, but helps to rehabilitate these missional types N for the positive lessons we can learn from them. C
This is far from a secular society, but that doesn’t mean it is a society close to Christian revival R or to a wholesale return to church attendance. Rather, it is a society still open to and ready for an O
expression of the Christian faith that sounds and feels indigenous to Australian soil and which is N rich in integrity, justice, love and peace. I trust that this book fills you with courage, ingenuity, S passion and creativity for the journey that is before us – the continuation of a credible witness to the claims of Christ to all Australians.” H A
— MICHAEL FROST W Morling College, Sydney COMPANIONS, PROPHETS, HOSTS & OTHER AUSTRALIAN MISSION MOD UNOH Publications exists to invite, inspire and inform more ELS radical responses to Jesus among the poor. It is the DARREN CRONSHAW publishing arm of the Urban Neighbours Of Hope community (www.unoh.org) which serves Jesus amongst the urban poor in Melbourne, Bangkok and Sydney.
UNOH Publications: www.unoh.org. Layout: Geoff Alves. Cover design: Nick Wight. www.unoh.org