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On the History of the Scientific Exploration of Fog, Dew, Rain And DIE ERDE 139 2008 (1-2) Special Issue: Fog Research pp. 11-44 • History of Science – Hydrometeors – Fog – Rain – Dew Detlev Möller (Cottbus) On the History of the Scientific Exploration of Fog, Dew, Rain and Other Atmospheric Water Zur Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erforschung von Nebel, Tau, Regen und anderem Atmosphärenwasser With 5 Figures and 3 Tables Atmospheric water, today classified as hydrometeors (fog, cloud, precipitation) and depositions (dew, frost etc.), has fascinated people since ancient times as ‘heavenly’ phenomena that were early recognised to be part of the water cycle. However, these phenomena were not described in detail before a first understanding of fundamental atmospheric physics and of the basic chemical composition of the air had been acquired. This contribution will start with a short introduction of the ancient philosophic view of the atmosphere and then proceed to several early modern ap- proaches to understand water evaporation and droplet formation and to a first scientific descrip- tion of the phenomena of dew, cloud and rain. Here, for the first time in modern scientific literature, the early approaches to chemical-meteoric water analysis are presented. 1. Introduction to these “waters”, before Wells (1814) ascer- tained that dew did not result from water drops 1.1 The forms of atmospheric which fell out of the sky. The phenomena – fog, water (terminology) mist and clouds, precipitation (rain, snow, hail) and dew – have been described since Antiquity. Atmospheric water includes physical water in all A phenomenological understanding of the phys- aggregate states, i.e. gaseous, liquid (in droplet ical (but not chemical) processes associated with form) and solid (ice particles). The historic term hydrometeors was complete only by the end of ‘atmospheric waters’ is ‘hydrometeors’ in cur- the 19th century. Today the physics and the rent terminology, i.e. meteoric water. For histor- chemistry in the aerosol-cloud-precipitation ic reasons, dew had been considered to belong chain are relatively well understood – also with 12 Detlev Möller DIE ERDE relation to climate. However, it seems that be- from Greek )5 (= vapour) and &- cause of the huge complexity a mathematical (= sphere), was not regularly used before the be- description of the processes (i.e. the parame- ginning of the 19th century. Willebrord Snelius, terisation of the chemistry and also for climate also called Willebrord van Roijen Snell (1580- modeling) is still under construction. 1626), a Dutch astronomer and mathematician, translated the term “damphooghde” (in German Clouds and precipitation are not only the atmos- “Dunsthöhe” or “Dunstkugel”) into Latin pheric link in the global water cycle but also an “atmosphaera” in 1608; Guericke used “aerea important reservoir for chemical processing and sphaera” (Lufthülle). In old German publications the transportation of tracer substances. To be the term “Dunstkreis” also was used instead of sure, clouds are distant from the earth’s surface “Atmosphäre”; in addition, in the 19th century the (with the exception of fog!) and thus not simple term “air ocean” (Luftmeer, Luftozean) was also to study – even nowadays. Precipitation (rain, used, in analogy to the sea. snow and hail), in contrast, has always been eas- ier to observe by human sensors (through see- In ancient times atmospheric (weather) observa- ing, feeling, smelling and tasting) and to collect tions were closely associated with astronomy, for volume estimation and analysis. Precipitation and everything above the Earth’s surface was was probably long considered a climatic precon- named ‘heaven’ or ‘aether’. Already before the dition for survival by early humans, but also – year 600 BC, the Greek word ‘metéron’ (or with its extreme events – as catastrophic, for ‘metéora’) was already in use. It means “a thing housing as well as for farming. In addition, the in the air”. Until the end of the 18th century, mixing of air and water with pollutants (accu- )2-,.(meteors) denoted all celestial phenom- rately related to as “foreign bodies” in the old ena, aqueous, vaporous, solid and light. terminology) has been known since Aristotle; the role of precipitation in cleaning the envi- The word ‘air’ is derived from Greek - and Latin ronment is wonderfully described by Evelyn aer. It is not known what the root of the German (1661: 20): “It is this horrid Smoake which ob- word “Luft” is (the term Lufft was already used in scures our Churches and makes our Palaces the Middle Ages); Möller (2006) discusses the look old, which fouls our Clothes and corrupts possible relation with “Licht” (light). the Waters, so as the very Rain, and refresh- ing Dew which fall in the several Seasons, pre- The gaseous substances, which were observed cipitate this impure vapour, which, with its in alchemical experiments, were named fumes black and tenacious quality, spots and con- (“Dünste”), vapours (“Dämpfe”) and airs taminates whatever is exposed to it”. (“Lüfte”); atmospheric air (called common air) was still regarded as a uniform chemical body. Atmospheric waters were first studied alchemi- The meaning of different terms in different lan- cally, by rain water distillation in the 17th century guages (e.g. French, English and German) has (see section 5). But systematic studies of de- been changing over time; the words were used position (precipitation chemistry) only began in a slightly different sense by various natural- with Liebig’s discovery that plants assimilate ists. For example, German Dunst (plural Dünste) (chemically fixed) nitrogen dissolved in rain. was first used in the sense of exhalations (in modern term: emissions) and later as a synonym Humans dealt with and were fascinated by the for vapour – to be more exact: for visible vapour, properties of our atmosphere already in the an- i.e. very small water droplets, now named haze tique era. The term atmosphere, however, derived (a word which was not used before the 19th cen- 2008/1-2 History of the Exploration of Fog, Dew, Rain and Other Atmospheric Water 13 tury). In English, the term steam is used (only) trology. The idea that the motion of the stars and for water at boiling temperature diffusing in the planets influenced all processes on Earth and in atmosphere; in French and German there is no the atmosphere inhibited any progress of natu- equivalent term, only in a combination like “water ral sciences. Only in the orient Aristotle’s doc- vapour” (see Crosland 1962 for details). trine remained vital and first came to Europe in the 12th century, probably via Sicily where fa- Nowadays the terms air and atmosphere are mous alchemistic laboratories were established. widely used as synonyms. English dictionaries define atmosphere as “the mixture of gases sur- Between the great times of the Greek philoso- rounding the Earth and other planets” or “the phers who recognised the atmosphere only by whole mass of an aeriform fluid surrounding the visual observations and reflection, generalising Earth”. From a chemical point of view it is possi- it in philosophic terms, and the first instrumental ble to say that air is the substrate with which observations, there is a gap of almost 1500 years. the atmosphere is filled, in analogy to the hydro- Agricultural aspects and the understanding of sphere where water is the substrate or sub- plant growth (i.e., the beginning of commercial stance. Furthermore, air is an atmospheric sus- interests) initiated chemical research in the 17th pension containing different gaseous, liquid century. Chemistry, first established as a scien- (water droplets) and solid (dust particles) sub- tific discipline at around 1650 by Robert Boyle stances. Thus “air chemistry” is a more adequate (1627-1691), had been a non-scientific discipline term than “atmospheric chemistry”. (alchemy) by then. Alchemy never employed a systematic approach and because of its “secrets” no public communication existed which would 1.2 The atmosphere in research history have been essential for scientific progress. In contrast, physics, established as a scientific dis- In ancient times, the motivation to observe the cipline a long time ago, made progress, especial- atmosphere was clearly the driving force which ly with regard to mechanics, thanks to the im- increased the understanding of Nature. Thus, proved manufacturing of instruments in the 16th the first to describe a number of weather phe- century. Astronomers, observing the object of nomena and the water cycle was Aristotle in his their discipline through the atmosphere, also “Meteorologica”. Roman Emperors were not in- began to discover the Earth’s atmosphere. There terested in the continuation of Greek doctrines, are two personalities to whom deep respect must they, however, kept them. After the end of An- be addressed for initiating the scientific revolu- tiquity, around the 5th century, the occident for- tion in both the physical and chemical under- got the ancient scientific heritage and replaced standing of atmospheric water: Isaac Newton it by one single doctrine, the bible. Especially in (1643-1727), who founded the principles of clas- the Middle Ages, when religious belief prevailed sical mechanics in his ‘Philosophiae Naturalis with the view that all “heavenly” things were Principia Mathematica’ (1687), and, one hundred governed by God (which, after all, was the be- years later, Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (1743- lief of peoples all over the world and which led 1794), with his revolutionary treatment of chem- to the idea of the creation of the existence of istry (1789) which made it possible to develop special gods for many atmospheric phenomena), tools to analyse matter; this is why he is called probably monks were the first to observe the “the father of modern chemistry”. weather and take records, only by personal in- terest though. In those days any meteorologi- With the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century cal (i.e., weather) observation was linked to as- the interest in natural processes generally expand- 14 Detlev Möller DIE ERDE ed.
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