Exposure to Thin-Ideal Media Affect Most, but Not All, Women: Results

Home , Thin ideal

Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205

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Body Image

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Exposure to thin-ideal media affect most, but not all, women: Results

from the Perceived Effects of Media Exposure Scale and open-ended responses

a,∗ b a c

David A. Frederick , Elizabeth A. Daniels , Morgan E. Bates , Tracy L. Tylka

Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Chapman University, Orange, USA

Department of Psychology, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, USA

Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Findings conﬂict as to whether thin-ideal media affect women’s body satisfaction. Meta-analyses of

Received 22 November 2016

experimental studies reveal small or null effects, but many women endorse appearance-related media

Received in revised form 15 October 2017

pressure in surveys. Using a novel approach, two samples of women (Ns = 656, 770) were exposed to bikini

Accepted 16 October 2017

models, fashion models, or control conditions and reported the effects of the images their body image.

Many women reported the fashion/bikini models made them feel worse about their stomachs (57%, 64%),

Keywords:

weight (50%, 56%), waist (50%, 56%), overall appearance (50%, 56%), muscle tone (46%, 52%), legs (45%,

Thin-ideal media

48%), thighs (40%, 49%), buttocks (40%, 43%), and hips (40%, 46%). In contrast, few women (1-6%) reported

Body image

negative effects of control images. In open-ended responses, approximately one-third of women explic-

Sociocultural theory

itly described negative media effects on their body image. Findings revealed that many women perceive

Tripartite inﬂuence model

Social comparison negative effects of thin-ideal media in the immediate aftermath of exposures in experimental settings.

1. Introduction that the inﬂuence and importance of media effects on body dissat-

isfaction have been exaggerated (Ferguson, Winegard, & Winegard,

The sociocultural perspective on body image postulates that 2011; Holmstrom, 2004). Finally, still other scholars have taken a

culture inﬂuences people’s attitudes, behaviors, and values about more intermediate position. In a review of the existing literature,

their bodies (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Levine and Murnen (2009) proposed that the evidence shows that

What is deemed physically attractive in Western cultures is com- media use is reliably associated with body dissatisfaction, but that

municated via the media and inﬂuences women’s attitudes towards the evidence for media causing body dissatisfaction is not conclu-

their own bodies. A speciﬁc model that ﬁts within this larger the- sive.

oretical framework is the tripartite inﬂuence model, which posits It is critical to understand whether media have a notable

that media, parents, and peers are the primary sources of socio- effect on body dissatisfaction. Many women are dissatisﬁed with

cultural inﬂuence on body dissatisfaction (Keery, van den Berg, the appearance of their faces (Frederick, Kelly, Latner, Sandhu, &

& Thompson, 2004; Thompson et al., 1999; Thompson & Stice, Tsong, 2016), their weights (Frederick, Forbes, & Berezovskaya,

2001). Appearance-based comparisons to popular media are one 2008; Peplau et al., 2009; Swami et al., 2010), and their overall

mechanism through which media exposure can inﬂuence body appearance (Fiske, Fallon, Blissmer, & Redding, 2014; Frederick,

image. Many women engage in upwards social comparisons to Forbes, Grigorian, & Jarcho, 2007; Frederick, Peplau, & Lever, 2006;

these images, meaning that they focus on how their own appear- Frederick, Sandhu, Morse, & Swami, 2016). This dissatisfaction is

ances do not compare favorably to thin-ideal media, which can lead linked to a range of negative psychological and physical health out-

to body dissatisfaction (Tiggemann & Polivy, 2010; Tiggemann & comes, including social anxiety (Cash, Theriault, & Annis, 2004), a

Slater, 2004). compulsive need for excessive exercise (White & Halliwell, 2010),

In contrast to the viewpoint that thin-ideal media have an discomfort with sex (Peplau et al., 2009), interest in liposuction

important effect on body image, several scholars have proposed (Frederick, Lever, & Peplau, 2007), lower life satisfaction (Frederick,

Sandhu, Scott et al., 2016), and disordered eating (Fitzsimmons-

Craft et al., 2014; Rodgers, Chabrol, & Paxton, 2011).

∗ If media do not play a key role in causing or maintaining body

Corresponding author at: Crean College of Health and Behavioral Sci-

ences,Chapman University; One University Drive, Orange, CA 92866, USA. dissatisfaction, then it is important to reallocate research efforts

E-mail address: Enderﬂ[email protected] (D.A. Frederick).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.006

D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205 189

away from studying media effects and interventions targeting which is the tendency for people to believe that the media affect

media. If media do have important effects, then it is important to other people more so than themselves (Perloff, 1999)

integrate media effects into existing theories and highlight media The approach of asking women to reﬂect on how media gener-

as important targets for intervention. Below, we brieﬂy outline ally affect them in surveys, however, is subject to recall biases. For

evidence for the perspectives that the media do have a substan- example, women may feel negatively immediately after consum-

tial impact on body image, as well as the evidence for little or no ing thin-ideal media, but they may not recall these negative effects

media effects. The existing evidence relies primarily on women’s when asked about them later on a survey. Therefore, one goal of

self-reports of perceived pressure from the media to be slender or the current studies is to assess women’s perceptions of whether

attractive, experiments assessing the effects of brief exposures to they were affected by exposure to thin-ideal media in the immedi-

media, and correlational and prospective studies of media exposure ate aftermath of the exposure rather than asking about their more

and body image. We then introduce a new approach for assessing general perceptions.

how media affect women by ﬁrst exposing women to media images

1.2. Evidence that media have minimal effects on body image

and then assessing how they feel the exposures affected them using

both quantitative and open-ended reports.

In contrast to research on women’s perceptions of media effects,

meta-analyses of correlational studies, and of experiments where

women are exposed to thin-ideal media, typically ﬁnd small effects

1.1. Evidence that media have substantial effects on body image

or no effects of this media exposure (Ferguson, 2013; Grabe, Ward,

& Hyde, 2008; Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002; Holmstrom, 2004;

Longitudinal, correlational, and experimental studies provide

Want, 2009). Small effects were observed in older meta-analyses

some evidence that women who consume more thin-ideal media

of this literature (d = 0.28, Grabe et al., 2008; d = 0.31, Groesz

report more body dissatisfaction (for a review, see Levine & Murnen,

et al., 2002; d = 0.35, Want, 2009), with one ﬁnding a negligible

2009). Research that directly assesses women’s perceptions of how

link (r = .08, Holmstrom, 2004). A more recent meta-analysis of

thin-ideal media affect them ﬁnds that many women report feel-

over 200 correlational and experimental studies found no overall

ing pressure from the media to be attractive in the United States

effect of media exposure on women’s body dissatisfaction (r = 0.07;

(Frederick, Tylka, Smolak, & Murnen, 2017; Schaefer et al., 2015;

Ferguson, 2013). Among women who were already highly dissat-

Tylka, Russell, & Neal, 2015) and in China (Jackson, Jiang, & Chen,

isﬁed with their bodies, however, there was a link between media

2016). For example, in a study of 11,711 adult women, 63% of het-

exposure and body dissatisfaction, but the effect size was small

erosexual women and 39% of lesbian women somewhat agreed

(r = .26). The author concluded that some, but not most, women are

or strongly agreed that they felt pressure from the media to be

affected by thin-ideal media.

attractive (Frederick, Tylka, Schaefer, & Thompson, 2017).

The existing research has relied on a mix of state and trait

Other studies using validated scales of perceived media pressure

measures, with the latter being less sensitive to change after exper-

have produced similar results. The most recent version of the Social

imental stimuli and thus possibly weakening the effect size. The

Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ-4; Schaefer

current study builds on this research by examining effects of media

et al., 2015) contains subscales with questions explicitly asking

exposure on a state-based measure of body image, along with

women if they feel pressure from the media regarding their appear-

assessing women’s perceptions of the effects of media using both

ance. In this study, the mean reported pressure from the media was

Likert-scale and open-ended items.

above the midpoint of the Likert scale (3.0), indicating that college

women generally agreed they felt this pressure. In two other studies

1.3. The present study

using this measure, women were above the midpoint for perceived

media pressure, but below the midpoint for perceived pressure Conﬂicting ﬁndings between the research on self-perceived

from family and peers (Frederick, Kelly, et al., 2016; Tylka et al., effects of media and ﬁndings from meta-analyses suggest the

2015). Similarly, in a study of 6,348 women, most women reported importance of further research using diverse outcome measures.

high pressure from the media to be thin (60%; mean > 3.25), but few The current study merges the standard experimental approach

reported high pressure from family (20%) and peers (12%; Frederick, used in many of the studies comprising the meta-analyses with

Tylka, Schaefer, et al., 2017). These studies provide support for the the approach used in research with the SATAQ-4 whereby women

conclusion that women perceive media to be an important inﬂu- report their perceptions of how media affect them. More specif-

ence on how they feel about their bodies. Indeed, women who ically, the present studies exposed women to thin-ideal media

reported more awareness of the thin-ideal in the media and greater images (women modeling bikinis and/or fashionable clothing)

pressure from the media also reported greater body dissatisfaction and to control conditions (viewing paintings, products, and/or no

(Cafri, Yamamiya, Brannick, & Thompson, 2005). images). Women then completed state measures of body image

The research cited above suggests that assessing women’s and then reported their perceptions of how the media did or did

perceptions of media effects is useful, as their perceptions are asso- not affect their feelings about their bodies.

ciated with their body image. Research on other types of media The present study makes ﬁve unique contributions to the study

effects have also asked people to directly assess how certain types of media effects on women’s body image. First, we used several

of media affect them. For example, there is substantial disagree- different approaches to determine if media impact body image.

ment among researchers about whether pornography has negative, Consistent with most experiments in this research area, women

neutral, or positive effects on most men and women. To supple- completed validated state body image scales after being exposed

ment experimental and correlational studies, Hald and Malamuth to the media images or control conditions. We supplemented this

(2008) asked men and women to rate the extent to which watching traditional approach by also assessing women’s perceptions of how

pornography had positive or negative effects on different aspects the media images inﬂuenced them using Likert scale questions.

of their lives. They found that most men and women believe it has This approach of assessing women’s perceptions in the immediate

few negative effects on them, but also only modest positive effects. aftermath of media exposure contrasts with prior research that has

Hald and Malamuth found utility in directly assessing participants’ relied on participants’ general recollections or impressions of how

perceptions to understand how pornography does or does not inﬂu- media affect them. Using validated scales alongside assessments

ence men and women. More broadly, a wide swath of research of women’s perceptions enabled us to test whether the effects

studies in communication have examined the “third person effect,” revealed were similar or different in magnitude.

190 D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205

Second, women were asked how the thin-ideal media they were describe the methods and results of the studies together rather

recently exposed to impacted them using an open-ended item in than dividing the manuscript into separate sections for Studies 1

addition to the quantitative measures. The purpose of an open- and 2. Hypothesis 1, Hypothesis 2, Hypothesis 3, Hypothesis 4 and

ended approach is to understand and capture respondents’ points Hypothesis 6 were tested in Study 1, and Hypothesis 1 Hypothe-

of view without constraining them a priori through preselected sis 2, Hypothesis 3, Hypothesis 4 and Hypothesis 5 were tested in

options determined by the researcher. A strength of an open-ended Study 2.

approach is the ability to capture rich, individualized, and diverse

experiences and points of view across a group as well as iden- 2.1. Participants

tify common patterns. In addition, this type of inquiry provides

the opportunity to reveal respondents’ “depth of emotion. . .their A major concern that has received substantial attention recently

thoughts about what is happening, their experiences, and their is the extent to which psychology experiments are underpow-

basic perceptions” (Patton, 2002, p. 21). Using open-ended items ered (Asendorpf et al., 2013; Bakker, van Dijk, & Wicherts, 2012).

to assess women’s responses to brief exposures to media images Simonsohn (2014) makes the point that detecting a moderate effect

offers insight into how stimuli affect them in ways that cannot size (d = 0.50) with 80% power requires approximately 64 partici-

be captured in traditional scales. This approach is consistent with pants per condition. Effect sizes in this research area, however, have

research that has turned to qualitative examinations of how girls typically been smaller than d = 0.50. A power analysis indicated that

and women respond to the sexualization of women in traditional 141 participants per cell would be needed to identify a small effect

and social media (e.g., Daniels, 2009, 2012; Daniels & Zurbriggen, size (d = 0.33) for comparing conditions to each other. We, there-

2016; Schooler & Daniels, 2014). fore, set 600 participants as the minimum goal for data collection

Third, we examined multiple domains of appearance-related (approximately 150 per condition).

concerns. Relatively little research has examined face image (i.e., In Study 1, we restricted the sample to include only partici-

people’s beliefs and feelings about their face; Frederick, Kelly, et al., pants who completed the full survey and ﬁt the following criteria:

2016), and therefore we examined women’s perceptions of the (a) reported living in the United States; (b) completed all key

effects of the media images on their face satisfaction. We also body image items; (c) reported being 18-65 years of age; and

assessed whether women felt that exposure to these media images (d) had body mass indexes (BMI) ranging from 14.50 to 50.50

affected their interest in modifying their body. Furthermore, we based on self-reported height and weight. In Study 2, we also

assessed the perceived impact of viewing these images on desires included the following selection criteria: (e) passed two attention

to avoid wearing a swimsuit in public, because this avoidance has checks embedded into Likert scale questions (i.e., clicking on a spe-

been viewed as a behavioral manifestation of body dissatisfaction ciﬁc response option) and (f) indicated they completed the survey

(Frederick et al., 2006). very-extremely carefully and that they looked at the images very-

Fourth, we assessed both positive and negative perceived effects extremely carefully in response to a Likert scale question. Age and

of the media images. If a subset of women are positively affected BMI restrictions were placed on the sample to prevent outliers from

by the media images (e.g., women who are conventionally attrac- having undue inﬂuence on the effect size estimates.

tive are reminded of their own attractiveness when viewing media A total of 1426 women were included in the analyses (Study

ideals), our methods enable us to identify this subset of women. 1 N = 656, Study 2 N = 770). The mean age was similar in Study 1

Fifth, we used multiple experimental and control conditions. (M = 35.7, SD = 11.5) and Study 2 (M = 36.2, SD = 11.1). The mean

For the experimental conditions, we exposed women to slender BMIs in Study 1 (M = 27.0, SD = 7.2) and Study 2 (M = 27.0, SD = 6.7)

fashion models (Study 1) or bikini models (Studies 1 and 2). Fashion were similar to the U.S. national average, and the BMIs of par-

models feature women in designer clothes that send messages that ticipants were classiﬁed by CDC criteria as underweight (5%, 4%),

thin women have high social status, and slender women wearing average weight (47%, 44%), overweight (20%, 25%), and obese (28%,

swimsuits enable direct social comparison with uncovered aspects 27%; NHLBI Obesity Education Initiative Expert Panel, 1998). The

of the body. To minimize confounds, the same models were selected ethnic compositions of the samples were: White (76%, 77%), Black

for the bikini and fashion conditions. For the control conditions, (7%, 9%), Asian (8%, 5%), Latina (3%, 3%), and other, biracial, or mul-

participants saw abstract art (Kenrick, Gutierres, & Goldberg, 1989), tiracial (6%, 6%). The educational background of the samples were:

consumer products (Grey, Horgan, Long, Herzog, & Lindemulder, some high school (1%, 0%), high school degree (8%, 10%), some col-

2016), or no images. lege (31%, 33%), college degree (46%, 44%), and advanced degree

(14%, 13%). Most participants were not currently enrolled in college

1.3.1. Hypotheses (86%, 85%).

One concern with asking women to directly report on whether

the media images impacted them is that this provides a rather obvi- 2.2. Stimuli

ous communication of the purpose of the study. This approach

might lead some women to tell us what they think we want Ten images of slender White women modeling bikinis at the

them to say (that media affect them) rather than their true feel- beach were selected based on a Google search for swimsuit mod-

ings. We expected, however, that women would provide their true els. We then searched for additional photos of these same models

perceptions of how the images impacted them, and included an posing in fashionable clothing. The same models were used in

additional question to measure this (Hypothesis 5). In open-ended the swimsuit and fashion conditions to minimize confounds intro-

responses, we expected that many women would report that the duced by using different models (e.g., attractiveness, hair color,

bikini and fashion models affected how they felt about their bod- facial features, height). All of the images showed the woman from

ies and appearance, with most (but not all) of these reports being the top of her head down to her thighs or lower. White models were

negative (Hypothesis 6). chosen because these women are often featured as prestigious in

popular thin-ideal media (Hooks, 1992) and because of concerns

that ethnic minority women systematically compare themselves

2. Method

to these ideals.

We conducted two studies to examine women’s perceptions For the painting control condition, a Google search for paintings

of how media images impact their feelings about their bodies. on walls was conducted. Choosing abstract art as a control condition

The methods for the two studies were similar, and therefore we was inspired by classic “contrast effect” studies in social psychology

D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205 191

that tested whether exposure to Playboy models (experimental) Appearance Trait and State Scale (PASTAS), which asks people how

versus abstract art (control) affected men’s views of the average anxious, tense, or nervous they feel right now about aspects of

women or their partners (Kenrick et al., 1989). For the product their body (Reed, Thompson, Brannick, & Sacco, 1991). To create

control condition, we selected images of different products (e.g., the PEMES-Weight, we took the items from the Weight subscale

scissors, rope, cup of coffee, spinning top). The choice of products of the PASTAS, which includes eight aspects of the body subject to

was inspired by stimuli used in a previous body image experiment modiﬁcation by weight loss and exercise (extent to which I look

(Grey et al., 2016). We excluded any images that included repre- overweight, thighs, buttocks, hips, stomach, legs, waist, muscle

sentations of people. The bikini, fashion, painting, and no images tone). We changed the item “extent to which I look overweight” to

conditions were included in Study 1. The bikini, painting, product, simply “weight.” Participants responded on a 7-point Likert-type

and no images conditions were included in Study 2. scale to indicate how viewing the images made them feel about

each of the eight weight-related characteristics (1 = Much Worse,

2.3. Quantitative measures

2 = Somewhat Worse, 3 = Slightly Worse, 4 = No Effect, 5 = Slightly Bet-

ter, 6 = Somewhat Better, 7 = Much Better).

We included a state measure of body image and introduced a

An exploratory factor analysis (Principal Axis Factoring using

new measure for examining women’s perceptions of how media

promax rotation) revealed one factor with eigenvalues greater than

impacted their feelings about their bodies.

1.0 that explained 81% of the variance in Study 1 and 83% in Study

2. The items were averaged (␣s = .97, .97) to create the PEMES-

2.3.1. Body Image States Scale (Studies 1 and 2)

Weight subscale and were also analyzed as independent items in

The Body Image States Scale (BISS) contains six items that assess

the results. Scores above 4.0 indicated that women reported the

how people currently feel about their bodies, such as how dissatis-

images made them feel better about that trait or on the scale over-

ﬁed or satisﬁed they feel right now about their overall appearance

all. Scores below 4.0 indicated that women reported the images

on a 9-point Likert scale (Cash, Fleming, Alindogan, Steadman, &

made them feel worse about that trait.

Whitehead, 2002). Higher scores indicate more satisfaction (for

example, on the ﬁrst item, a “1” indicates that right now the partic-

ipant feels “extremely dissatisﬁed with my physical appearance” 2.4.1. PEMES-Face

and a “9” indicates they feel “extremely satisﬁed. . .”). The ques- The second category of interest was the PEMES-Face subscale.

tions ask about overall appearance or weight rather than speciﬁc This measure was inspired by the Face Satisfaction Measure, which

body parts. This scale is a measure of state body image, meaning asks how happy people are with four different aspects of their face:

it is intended to be sensitive to ﬂuctuations in how women feel face overall, eyes, nose, shape of face (Frederick, Kelly, et al., 2016).

at different times. In prior research, the scale demonstrated ade- Participants responded on the same 7-point Likert-type scale as the

quate internal reliability across ﬁve imagined situational contexts, PEMES-Weight to indicate how viewing the images made them feel

with Cronbach’s alphas ranging from .77-.90 for women (Cash et al., about the four different aspects of their face. An exploratory factor

2002). In the present studies, scale items were averaged and higher analysis (Principal Axis Factoring using promax rotation) revealed

␣

scores indicated greater body satisfaction ( s = .93, .93). one factor with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 that explained 82%

of the variance in Study 1 and 80% in Study 2. The items were

2.3.2. Perceived Effects of Media Exposure Scale (Studies 1 and 2)

examined individually and were also averaged (␣s = .93, .92).

The Perceived Effects of Media Exposure Scale (PEMES) was cre-

ated speciﬁcally for this study. We explicitly asked women whether

2.5. PEMES-Other Body

viewing the images made them feel worse or better about their

bodies and face. Participants were asked “How did viewing these

Participants also indicated how the images impacted their feel-

images make you feel about your. . .” and then we provided a list of

ings about their arms (PEMES-Arms), breasts (PEMES-Breasts), and

traits that participants could respond to individually (e.g., weight,

overall appearance (PEMES-Appearance). These three items were

stomach, nose). We drew our inspiration for this measure from sev-

not meant to be a formal subscale, but rather an opportunity to

eral sources. First, we noted that several scales or items explicitly

explore additional traits of interest. We included an item on breasts

ask people how media generally affect how they feel about their

because past research has shown that many women are dissatis-

bodies (e.g., Frederick & Essayli, 2016; Keery et al., 2004; Scha-

ﬁed with the size or shape of their breasts (Forbes & Frederick,

effer et al., 2015). For example, the SATAQ-4 asks women if they

2008; Frederick, Peplau, & Lever, 2008). These three items were

generally feel pressured by the media to be thin. This approach

analyzed individually and used the same response scale as other

is also consistent with other studies asking people how media

PEMES items, and were included in Studies 1 and 2. An additional

(e.g., pornography) impact aspects of their lives (Hald & Malamuth,

question on participants’ feelings about their overall attractiveness

2008). We also noted that other existing scales have asked people

was also added to Study 2 (PEMES-Attractiveness).

to assess the causes of their feelings, such as whether their feelings

about their bodies have positive, negative, or no effect on different

aspects of their lives (i.e., the Body Image Quality of Life Inventory; 2.6. Number of PEMES-Weight and other body traits negatively

Cash & Fleming, 2002). affected

The PEMES was designed to have two major subscales (PEMES-

Weight, assessing feelings about weight-related body traits, and For each participant, we calculated how many PEMES-Weight

PEMES-Face, assessing feelings about face), and then additional cat- and PEMES-Other Body traits were negatively affected by the

egories (e.g., arms, breasts) that are not ofﬁcial subscales but could images. This calculation was based on the eight items from the

be used to explore traits or behaviors of interest. The items for the PEMES-Weight and the three items from the PEMES-Other Body

PEMES-Weight and PEMES-Face were based directly on existing that were included in Studies 1 and 2 (arms, breasts, appearance).

measures, as described below. For example, if a woman reported that her feelings about all 11

traits were negatively affected by the media images (weight, thighs,

buttocks, hips, stomach, legs, waist, muscle tone, arms, breasts,

2.4. PEMES-Weight

overall attractiveness), her score would be an 11.0. The possible

range of scores was 0 (no body traits affected) to 11 (all 11 traits

The ﬁrst category of interest was the PEMES-Weight Sub-

affected).

scale. The items for this subscale were inspired by the Physical

192 D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205

2.7. PEMES-Modiﬁcation and Swimsuit not, judges were instructed to be conservative and err on the side

of coding the theme as absent rather than present. This was done

Finally, participants were asked how the images impacted their so that the estimated perceived effects of media exposure would

interest in dieting to lose weight (PEMES-Dieting Modiﬁcation), be a relatively cautious estimate, making the codes a conservative

exercising to lose weight (PEMES-Exercise Modiﬁcation), or wear- test of our hypothesis.

ing a swimsuit in public (PEMES-Swimsuit). These items were not Seven of the eight themes were not mutually exclusive (e.g., a

meant to be a formal subscale. Participants indicated how the woman could state that the images had both a positive and negative

images impacted them on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = Much Less effects). The no effects theme, however, was mutually exclusive

Interested, 2 = Somewhat Less Interested, 3 = Slightly Less Interested, with the negative effects and positive effects themes (i.e., a woman

4 = No Effect, 5 = Slightly More Interested, 6 = Somewhat More Inter- could not say the images had no effect and also a negative/positive

ested, 7 = Much More Interested). Items were analyzed individually. effect).

Scores greater than 4.0 indicated the images made them more inter- Coding discrepancies between judges were resolved through

ested in dieting, exercising, or wearing a swimsuit in public, and discussion. Percent agreement between judges and Cohen’s Kappa

scores below 4.0 indicated less interest. were acceptable to high across all eight themes, with percent agree-

ments ranging from 93%–99%, and Kappas ranging from .72–.92.

2.7.1. Self-perceived accuracy of reported effects of media (sstudy 2)

2.9. Procedures

In Study 2, some of the women indicated that the images

affected how they felt about their appearance on the PEMES-

The Chapman University institutional review board approved

Appearance item. As a follow-up to that question, we explicitly

the study. Adult participants were recruited via Amazon Mechan-

asked women to indicate whether they truly were affected by the

ical Turk, an online panel system widely used by researchers

images, whether they said they were affected simply because they

to access adult populations (Berinsky, Huber, & Lenz, 2012;

thought that is what we were expecting them to say, whether they

Buhrmester, Kwang, & Gosling, 2011; Paolacci, Chandler, &

said they were affected simply because they were thinking about

Ipeirotis, 2010). To avoid selectively recruiting people particularly

how they generally feel about their bodies, or not applicable.

interested in body image or media issues, the survey was adver-

tised as a study on opinions regarding advertisements (Study 1) or

2.8. Open-ended item (Study1)

on opinions about how products look in photos (Study 2).

After completing a consent form, participants were randomly

Participants were asked to “Please explain why the images made

assigned to one of four possible conditions in the online survey. In

you feel better, worse, or had no effect on your feelings about your

Study 1, women viewed either 10 bikini models, 10 fashion mod-

appearance. Please be as detailed and thorough as possible. We will

els, 10 paintings, or no images. In Study 2, women viewed either 10

read every response carefully.” All participants who viewed images

bikini models, 10 paintings, 10 products, or no images (the fashion

answered this question. The average response length was 44 words.

model condition was not included in Study 2 because there were no

We conducted a thematic analysis of the responses (Boyatzis,

signiﬁcant differences between women in fashion model and bikini

1998; Braun & Clarke, 2006). The ﬁrst three themes for coding

models conditions on the Body Image States Scale or PEMES items

were created using a “top down” approach in which we speci-

in Study 1). Women were told that they would be shown differ-

ﬁed that we would be coding for statements indicating negative,

ent products or people using different products, were instructed to

positive, or no effect of the images. Then, using an inductive

evaluate each image for 20–30 seconds and look over the images

approach, a “bottom-up” process in which themes are derived from

carefully before giving their rating, were told that most people

the data themselves (Braun & Clarke, 2006), three judges (female

would take 4–9 minutes to complete the survey, and were asked to

undergraduate research assistants who had conducted body image

“please give us your honest opinion.” To ensure that they attended

research for at least one year) read the responses and generated as

to the image and to maintain the cover story for the experiment,

many themes as they could identify. Because the main focus of this

participants were asked to rate whether the bikini/outﬁt looked

paper is on whether or not the women perceived that the images

good on the woman, whether the painting looked good on the

affected them, we restricted our coding to the following themes:

wall, or whether the product looked good in the photo (1 = Strongly

(a) negative effect of images on feelings about appearance and

disagree; 4 = Strongly agree).

weight; (b) no effect of images on feelings about appearance and

All participants then completed the Body Image States Scale.

weight; (c) positive effect of images on feelings about appearance

After completing this scale, participants in the bikini, fashion, paint-

and weight; (d) body modiﬁcation—images made women want to

ing, and product conditions were routed to the PEMES items, the

change appearance/weight through speciﬁc means (e.g., dieting,

open-ended item, and then to the demographics. Participants in

exercise, tanning); (e) upward social comparisons—women said

the no images condition were routed directly to the demographics.

their body or appearance is worse than models; (f) downward social

Thus, to further maintain the cover story, we conducted a post-test

comparisons—women said their body or appearance is better than

only design, whereby participants completed the body image mea-

the models; (g) women made positive comments about appearance

sures after exposure to the images rather than before and after.

of models and paintings; and (h) women made negative comments

Participants ﬁnished the study in 4–9 minutes and were paid 50

about appearance of models and paintings.

cents.

A codebook was created with the deﬁnitions of each theme,

multiple examples of responses ﬁtting the theme, and multiple

examples of responses not ﬁtting the theme. Eight independent 3. Results

judges were recruited and trained to code the themes, and each

theme was coded by a subset of two judges. Responses for each What is considered a small, moderate, or large effect size can

theme were coded as present (1) or absent (0). A semantic coding vary dramatically based on the research question of interest. As a

approach was used, meaning that judges limited themselves to the very rough guide, Cohen (1988) suggests that effect size d can be

text of the statement rather than inferring the intended meaning interpreted as small (0.20), moderate (0.50), or large (0.80). These

behind the statement, a latent approach (Braun & Clarke, 2006). If values correspond to Pearson’s r correlations of .10, .24, and .37.

there was ambiguity regarding whether the theme was present or Ferguson (2009, p. 533) suggested somewhat higher thresholds for

D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205 193

what should be considered the “recommended minimum effect size with the large sample sizes, none of these comparisons were sig-

representing a ‘practically’ signiﬁcant effect for social science data” niﬁcant at the p < .01 level and all effect sizes were small (ds = |0.25|

(d = 0.41; ˇ or r = .20). We note in the tables whether effects were or lower).

signiﬁcant at the p < .05, .01, or .001 levels, and emphasize effect

Hypothesis 2. Women Will Report That Thin-Ideal Media Affected

sizes when presenting and discussing the results.

Their Feelings About Their Bodies on the PEMES-Weight and

To examine the effects of image type on the quantitative mea-

PEMES-Other Body.

sures, we conducted a series of one-way between-subjects ANOVAs

with image type as the independent variable and post-hoc LSD tests We now turn to our novel approach of assessing the effects of

comparing the conditions to each other. The dependent variables exposure to media on body image—asking women directly how

were the Body Image States Scale, PEMES-Weight, PEMES-Face, and they were affected by exposure to the images. Our measure explic-

each of the individual PEMES items. Table 1 presents the ANOVA itly asks people how the media images they were just exposed to

results and effect sizes for these dependent variables. The means caused them to feel better or worse about their bodies, or had no

for these scales are reported in Fig. 1a(Study 1) and Fig. 1b (Study 2). effect.

The means, ANOVA results, and effect sizes for each of the individ-

ual items are reported in Table 2a (Study 1) and Table 2b (Study 2). 3.1. PEMES-Weight overall score

Table 3a presents the percentage of women who reported that the

bikini models and paintings/products affected their feelings about Consistent with Hypothesis 2, in Study 1, women who viewed

their bodies, and Table 3b presents the percentage who reported bikini models (d = 0.85) and fashion models (d = 0.76) reported

that the bikini/fashion models and paintings affected their feelings. more negative effects compared to women who saw paintings. In

Fig. 2 shows percentage of women who report that their reports of Study 2, women who viewed bikini models reported more nega-

media effects were genuine rather than a product of demand char- tive effects of these images than did women who saw paintings

acteristics in the experiment. Finally, Fig. 3 shows the percentage (d = 1.05) or products (d = 1.03; Table 1). These large effect sizes for

of women whose open-ended responses contained each image. self-perceived effects of the media images contrast with the small-

ANOVAs with post-hoc LSD comparisons showed that, in Studies to-medium sized effects that emerged on the Body Image States

1 and 2, there were no statistically signiﬁcant differences between Scale described above in the traditional analytic approach.

the conditions in age, demonstrating that randomization created

equal groups. In Study 2, however, there were statistically signiﬁ- 3.2. Means for PEMES-Weight and Other Body individual items

cant differences between the conditions in BMI, with women in the

bikini conditions having lower BMIs (26.0) than women who saw Individual PEMES items assessing weight, arms, breasts, and

paintings (27.5, p = .03) or no images (27.6, p = .01). They did not overall appearance are reported in Table 2Table 2a. Consistent

differ signiﬁcantly from women who saw products (26.9, p = .17). with Hypothesis 2, women systematically reported that the fash-

Controlling for BMI had a notable impact on the patterns of signiﬁ- ion (Study 1) and bikini (Studies 1 and 2) images made them feel

cance in Study 2 for the Body Image States Scale, and therefore we worse than the paintings. The effect sizes were medium-to-large

report analyses with ANOVAs as well as ANCOVAs controlling for (ds = 0.37–1.26). Women reported that bikini (Studies 1 and 2) and

BMI for this measure. fashion (Study 1) models had particularly negative impacts on their

feelings about their weight, stomachs, legs, waists, muscle tone,

Hypothesis 1. Women Will Report Lower Body Satisfaction After

and overall appearance (all ds > 0.65). The bikini models had neg-

Exposure To Media.

ative effects on women’s feelings about their breasts compared to

the paintings and/or products across both studies (ds = 0.37–0.67).

The results for the Body Image States Scale were mostly support-

Across all items in Study 1, the effects of the fashion models did not

ive of Hypothesis 1 (see Table 1 and Figs. 1–2). In Study 1, women

differ from the effects of the bikini models (all ds < |0.20|).

exposed to the bikini models were less satisﬁed than women who

saw paintings (d = 0.34), as were women who saw fashion mod-

3.3. Percentages for PEMES-Weight and Other Body individual

els (d = 0.40). The two experimental conditions did not differ from

items

the no images condition, and this remained true when adding BMI

as a covariate. In Study 2, women exposed to the bikini models

For convenience, because the results for bikini models and fash-

were less satisﬁed with their bodies than women exposed to the

ion models did not differ in Study 1, we collapsed these two

paintings (d = 0.33) or products (d = 0.39). Women exposed to bikini

conditions for Table 3a. Similarly, since the results for the paintings

models did not differ from the no image condition at ﬁrst (d = 0.14,

and products did not differ on any items in Study 2, these conditions

p > .05), but this comparison became signiﬁcant after controlling for

were collapsed into one condition to facilitate data presentation in

group differences in BMI (p = .002). Thus, the results in our study

Table 3b.

were consistent with the null to small effect sizes seen in existing

meta-analyses. Most women reported being affected by the bikini or

bikini/fashion models, and most of these women stated that the

We also compared the control conditions to each other. In Study

images made them feel worse. Across both studies, one-third to

1, women in the no images condition were slightly less satisﬁed

two-thirds of women reported that these images had negative

than women in the paintings condition (d = 0.25), but this compar-

effects on their feelings about different aspects of their bodies

ison was not signiﬁcant in Study 2 (d = 0.19). In Study 2, women in

(35%–64%). A subgroup of women (5%–17%) reported that the

the no images condition were slightly less satisﬁed than women in

images made them feel better about aspects of their bodies. Women

the product conditions (d = 0.24). The painting and product condi-

were most likely to report that the images made them feel better

tions did not differ in Study 2 (ds = −0.04, 0.11, 0.08, −0.07). Even

about their breasts (17%, Study 1; 12%, Study 2) and least likely to

report feeling better about their weights (5%, Study 1) and stomachs

(5%, Study 2)

We examined BMI as a moderator, but exploratory analyses showed that BMI

Most typically, however, women reported a negative effect of

was a signiﬁcant moderator in only 2 of 21 regression analyses conducted in Study 1

the images. In Studies 1 and 2, many women reported feeling worse

and in 7 of the 22 regression analyses conducted in Study 2 (with only one analysis

about their stomachs (57%, 64%), followed by their weights (50%,

reaching p < .01). We therefore elected not to focus on BMI as a moderator in this

manuscript. 56%), waists (50%, 56%), overall appearance (50%, 56%), muscle tone

194 D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205

Fig. 1. (a) Effects of image type on body satisfaction and perceived effects of media on body satisfaction in Study 1. Error bars represent 95% conﬁdence intervals. Higher

values indicate greater body satisfaction or more perceived positive effects of the media images. (b) Effects of image type on body satisfaction and perceived effects of media

on body satisfaction in Study 2. Error bars represent 95% conﬁdence intervals. Higher values indicate greater body satisfaction or more perceived positive effects of the media

images.

Fig. 2. Among women who reported that the images impacted how they felt about their bodies, most women (77%) stated this was an accurate report they provided. Only

2% stated they reported an impact of the images because of beliefs about experimenter expectations (e.g., in response to demand characteristics).

D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205 195

Table 1

Effects of Image Type on Body Image and on the Perceived Effects of Media (Studies 1 and 2).

ANOVA Painting – Painting – Fashion – No Images No Images Painting –

Bikini Fashion Bikini – Bikini – Fashion No Images

F p df d d d d d d

** ** ** *

Body Image States Scale 4.3 0.02 (3, 652) 0.34 0.40 −0.04 0.10 0.14 0.25

*** *** ***

PEMES- Body Total 24.3 0.09 (2, 505) 0.85 0.76 0.10

PEMES-Face Total 2.7 0.01 (2, 505) 0.19 0.27 -0.09

*** *** ***

PEMES Traits Negatively Affected (0–11) 65.2 0.21 (2, 505) −1.42 −1.22 −0.14

ANOVA Painting – Product – Painting – No Images Product – Painting –

Bikini Bikini Product –Bikini No Images No Images

F p df d d d d d d

*** *** *** • *

Body Image States Scale 6.2 0.02 (3, 776) 0.33 0.39 −0.04 0.14 0.24 0.19

*** *** ***

PEMES- Weight 90.7 0.24 (2, 566) 1.05 1.03 0.11

*** *** ***

PEMES- Face Total 14.8 0.05 (2, 566) 0.47 0.41 0.08

*** ***

PEMES Traits Negatively Affected (0-11) 209.7 0.43 (2, 566) −1.61 −1.57 -0.07

Note. *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05. A positive effect size indicates that people in the ﬁrst group listed in the column reported a more positive effect of the images than did

people in the second group. For example, women who saw paintings reported higher satisfaction on the Body Image States Scale, d = 0.33, and a more positive effect of the

images on their feelings about their body on the PEMES-Weight Total, d = 0.85, than women who saw bikini models. Results for Study 1 are shown in the top half of the table

•

and the results for Study 2 are shown in the bottom half. The results in Table are shown before controlling for BMI. In Study 2, when controlling for BMI, participants who

saw women in a bikini reported poorer body image than women who saw no images on the Body Image States Scale (p = .002).

(46%, 52%), legs (45%, 48%), thighs (40%, 49%), buttocks (40%, 43%), perceived that the bikini/fashion models had a unique, large, and

and hips (40%, 46%). In contrast, only 1-6% of the women reported systematic negative effects on their body image, but that paintings

that the paintings or paintings/products made them feel worse and products did not.

about aspects of their bodies. These ﬁndings show that women

Table 2a

Effects of Image Type on the Perceived Effects of Media on Body Image in Study 1.

Group Means Statistical Comparisons

Bikini Models Fashion Models Paintings ANOVA Painting – Bikini Painting – Fashion Fashion – Bikini

M SD M SD M SD F p d d d PEMES-Weight

*** *** ***

Weight 3.18 1.33 3.25 1.25 4.03 0.60 25.2 .09 0.82 0.80 0.05

*** *** ***

Thighs 3.26 1.44 3.41 1.32 3.99 0.59 15.2 .06 0.66 0.57 0.11

*** *** ***

Buttocks 3.38 1.44 3.52 1.31 4.12 0.63 15.6 .06 0.67 0.58 0.10

*** *** ***

Hips 3.39 1.43 3.46 1.33 3.99 0.57 10.7 .04 0.55 0.52 0.05

*** *** ***

Stomach 2.92 1.44 3.18 1.36 4.01 0.66 31.0 .11 0.97 0.78 0.19

*** *** ***

Legs 3.36 1.44 3.38 1.35 4.10 0.68 17.0 .06 0.66 0.67 0.01

*** *** ***

Waist 3.13 1.45 3.26 1.34 4.08 0.64 25.9 .09 0.85 0.78 0.09

*** *** ***

Muscle tone 3.22 1.47 3.35 1.31 4.06 0.62 19.9 .07 0.74 0.69 0.09

PEMES-Other Body

*** *** ***

Arms 3.40 1.35 3.48 1.25 4.03 0.65 13.0 .05 0.59 0.55 0.06

** *** ***

Breasts 3.60 1.41 3.68 1.44 4.09 0.64 6.5 .02 0.45 0.37 0.06

*** *** ***

Overall Appearance 3.31 1.39 3.34 1.37 4.18 0.82 23.1 .08 0.76 0.74 0.02

Attractiveness – – – – – – – – – – –

PEMES-Face

** * *

Face overall 3.85 1.08 3.69 1.34 4.08 0.57 5.1 .02 0.27 0.38 -0.13

Eyes 4.14 1.07 4.07 1.17 4.23 0.76 1.0 .00 0.10 0.16 -0.06

Nose 3.91 1.04 3.91 1.19 4.04 0.61 0.8 .00 0.15 0.14 0.00

Shape of face 3.99 1.09 3.84 1.19 4.10 0.61 2.8 .01 0.12 0.27 -0.13

PEMES-Modiﬁcation

*** *** ***

Diet lose weight 4.60 1.56 4.70 1.52 4.10 0.79 8.4 .03 −0.40 −0.50 0.06

*** *** ***

Exercise lose weight 4.95 1.48 4.88 1.58 4.13 0.72 16.9 .06 −0.70 −0.61 −0.05

PEMES-Swimsuit

*** *** ***

Wear swimsuit public 3.19 1.61 3.10 1.43 3.98 0.69 19.4 .07 0.64 0.78 −0.06

Note. *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05. The means for the PEMES-Weight, PEMES-Other Body, and PEMES-Face items represent participants’ perceptions of the effects of the

images on how they feel about aspects of their appearance. Means below 4.0 indicate that the images generally made them feel worse about that aspect of their body and

means above 4.0 indicate that the images generally made them feel better. A positive effect size indicates that people in the ﬁrst group reported a more positive effect of the

images than did people in the second group (e.g., people who saw paintings reported a more positive effect of the images on their feelings about their weight than people

who saw bikini models, d = 0.82). The means for PEMES-Modiﬁcation items and the swimsuit item represent participant’s perceptions of whether the images affected their

interest in modifying their body or wearing a swimsuit in public. Means below 4.0 indicate that the images made them less interested and means above 4.0 indicate that the

images made them more interested. For these items, a negative effect size indicates that people in the ﬁrst group were less interested in doing the behaviors than people in

the second group (e.g., people who saw paintings were less interested in dieting than people who saw bikini models, d = −0.58).

196 D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205

Table 2b

Effects of Image Type on the Perceived Effects of Media on Body Image in Study 2.

Group Means Statistical Comparisons

Bikini Models Paintings Products ANOVA Painting – Bikini Product – Bikini

M SD M SD M SD F p d d PEMES-Weight

*** ***

Weight 3.06 1.30 4.09 0.59 4.04 0.42 82.9 .23 1.02 1.01

*** ***

Thighs 3.12 1.36 4.12 0.57 4.08 0.51 70.8 .20 0.96 0.93

*** ***

Buttocks 3.37 1.39 4.12 0.56 4.10 0.56 37.9 .12 0.71 0.69

*** ***

Hips 3.29 1.39 4.11 0.53 4.09 0.46 49.2 .15 0.78 0.77

*** ***

Stomach 2.77 1.36 4.09 0.60 4.04 0.47 122.9 .31 1.26 1.25

*** ***

Legs 3.21 1.32 4.14 0.60 4.07 0.54 61.4 .18 0.91 0.85

*** ***

Waist 3.01 1.39 4.12 0.61 4.04 0.47 81.9 .23 1.03 0.99

*** ***

Muscle tone 3.17 1.37 4.09 0.58 4.04 0.49 58.9 .17 0.87 0.85

PEMES-Other Body

*** ***

Arms 3.46 1.21 4.12 0.52 4.07 0.56 35.9 .11 0.71 0.65

*** ***

Breasts 3.49 1.31 4.18 0.65 4.00 0.58 28.0 .09 0.67 0.50

*** ***

Overall Appearance 3.21 1.36 4.21 0.65 4.09 0.56 66.2 .19 0.94 0.85

*** ***

Attractiveness 3.25 1.37 4.24 0.73 4.18 0.62 60.5 .18 0.90 0.87

PEMES-Face

*** ***

Face overall 3.69 1.13 4.24 0.66 4.18 0.64 23.9 .08 0.59 0.53

** **

Eyes 3.99 .99 4.28 0.73 4.25 0.67 7.4 .03 0.33 0.31

*** ***

Nose 3.86 1.00 4.18 0.58 4.15 0.63 10.1 .03 0.39 0.35

*** ***

Shape of face 3.88 1.05 4.20 0.62 4.16 0.68 8.6 .03 0.37 0.32

PEMES-Modiﬁcation

*** ***

Diet lose weight 4.83 1.52 4.12 0.80 4.05 0.87 28.6 .09 −0.58 −0.63

*** ***

Exercise lose weight 5.06 1.54 4.12 0.87 4.10 0.96 42.6 .13 −0.75 −0.75

PEMES-Swimsuit

*** ***

Wear swimsuit public 3.13 1.54 3.95 0.82 3.97 0.84 34.9 .11 0.66 0.68

Note. *** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05. See Table 2a for information on how to interpret the effect sizes.

Fig. 3. Effects of image type on open-ended responses. Values represent the percentage of women whose open-ended responses included each theme.

3.4. Total number of traits affected In Study 1, at least one negative effect was reported by 71% of

women who saw bikini models and 63% of those who saw fash-

We took women’s responses on the 11 PEMES-Weight and ion models, compared to only 8% of women who saw paintings. In

PEMES-Other Body measures and calculated the number of times Study 2, at least one negative effect was reported by 75% of women

woman reported a negative effect (a score of 0 indicates no nega- who saw bikini models, compared to only 10% of women who saw

tive effects, whereas 11.0 indicates negative effects were reported products and 8% of women who saw paintings

for all 11 traits). The means are shown in Fig. 1 (Study 1) and Fig. 2

Hypothesis 3. Women Will Report That Thin-Ideal Media Affected

(Study 2), and the analyses for the effects of image type are shown

Their Feelings About Their Faces.

in Table 1.

Across both studies, women reported negative effects of the

bikini models or fashion models on 4.6–5.5 of the 11 body traits, but

3.5. PEMES-Face overall score

negative effects of the paintings or products on only 0.3–0.4 of the

11 body traits. The effects sizes comparing the bikini and fashion

Consistent with Hypothesis 3, in Study 1, women who saw fash-

models with the control condition were quite large (ds = 1.22–1.61).

ion models reported lower face satisfaction compared to women

D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205 197 seeing Better

Feel % 6 6 10 6 9 10 9 7 8 8 14 – 9 13 6 9 More Inter-est % 12 15 8 after participants

The

weight

Effect Effect

their

No % 90 90 89 90 85 86 87 90 86 88 82 – 88 86 91 89 No % 84 82 87 condition).

about

(control

Inter-est Worse worse

Less Paintings Feel % 4 4 1 4 6 4 4 3 6 4 4 – 3 1 3 2 % 4 3 5 much

paintings

felt

the

Better

women

Feel % 5 10 11 11 8 11 8 10 10 17 10 – 13 18 13 13 More Inter-est % 43 54 10 of media

13%

(e.g., thin-ideal

Effect Effect

the No % 45 47 49 49 35 44 42 44 51 49 40 – 59 69 66 66 No % 45 37 43

Scale

Likert

viewing

Inter-est Worse

the

after

Less % 50 43 40 40 57 45 50 46 39 34 50 – 28 13 21 21 % 12 9 47 Feel

scale

point

Better More Likert

each

the

Much Much Interest % 2 2 3 4 2 4 2 2 2 4 3 – 4 6 4 4 % 16 19 3 of

fell

end

who

high

women Study

Somewhat Better Somewhat More Interest % 2 4 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 6 3 – 4 5 5 4 % 13 17 1 in of

middle,

end,

Paintings

percentage

low

Slightly Better % 1 4 5 5 3 4 3 6 5 7 4 – 5 7 4 5 Slightly More Interest % 15 18 6 the the

Versus

table.

this

fell

Media

indicate

for

Effect Effect

who

Ideal No No % 45 47 49 49 35 44 42 44 51 49 40 – 59 69 66 66 % 45 37 43

group

columns Thin

one

Less To

percentage seven

into

total next Slightly Worse Slightly % 22 15 15 14 24 20 21 18 16 14 25 – 14 7 13 12 % 3 2 13 Interest

Exposure

the

The By

combined

Interest

were indicate

interest. Affected

Somewhat Less Somewhat Worse % 15 15 13 14 14 12 12 12 12 9 12 – 9 3 3 5 % 1 1 10 of Models

models Being

trait columns

six the Worse Less

fashion

Reported next

Interest Bikini/Fashion Much % 13 13 12 12 19 13 17 16 11 11 13 – 5 3 5 4 % 7 6 24 Much

The

indicates Who

models

public

Body

weight

column models).

Women

bikini

of weight face

lose

ﬁrst Appearance tone the

swimsuit

overall

lose

The

saw .

Arms PEMES-Modiﬁcation Diet PEMES-Weight Weight Thighs Buttocks Hips Stomach Legs Waist Muscle PEMES-Other Breasts Overall Attractiveness PEMES-Face Face Eyes Nose Shape Exercise PEMES-Swimsuit Wear Percentage Table Note who bikini/fashion

198 D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205 saw

bikini

Better

who

% 8 8 8 7 8 9 7 7 8 9 15 14 15 15 11 13 More Inter-est % 12 13 6 seeing

after

Participants

Effect Feel Effect

weight

% 88 89 89 91 88 88 90 90 89 88 82 83 83 85 88 85 No % 83 82 85

their

conditions).

about

Inter-est Worse No

(control Paintings/Products Less % 4 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 1 2 % 5 5 9

worse

much

felt Better Feel

% 6 6 10 10 5 7 6 7 9 12 11 10 10 14 10 12 More Inter-est % 52 56 11 paintings/products women

the

or 18%

Effect Feel Effect

(e.g., % 38 45 47 44 31 45 38 41 52 47 33 40 59 70 69 67 No % 39 37 38

media

Scale

Inter-est Worse No thin-ideal

Likert

the the % 56 49 43 46 64 48 56 52 39 41 56 50 31 16 21 21 % 9 7 51 Less

viewing

point

Better Feel More

after

each

Much Much % 1 2 3 3 1 2 1 3 1 2 3 3 3 4 3 4 % 18 25 3 Interest at Study

scale

fell

who Likert

Products

the

Somewhat More Interest Somewhat Better % 2 1 3 3 1 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 3 1 2 % 16 16 3 of

and women

end of

high

Paintings

% 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 2 6 7 6 5 6 7 6 6 Slightly More Interest % 18 15 5 Better percentage

Versus

the middle,

end,

Media

Effect Slightly Effect indicate

low

Ideal No No % 38 45 47 44 31 45 38 41 52 47 33 40 59 70 69 67 % 39 37 38

the

Thin on

columns

Less To

fell table.

seven this

who

Slightly Worse Slightly Interest % 25 18 19 19 24 21 22 23 21 21 27 21 18 10 12 12 % 3 2 16 for

next Exposure

The

group

percentage

Interest one

Affected

total interest.

Somewhat Less Worse % 13 13 10 12 14 12 13 13 8 10 16 15 7 4 6 6 % 1 1 13 into

the

Being

trait

Models Worse Somewhat Less

the

combined

indicate

Reported

Interest Bikini Much % 18 18 14 15 26 15 21 10 10 14 6 2 3 3 5 4 22 Much were

Who indicates

columns

six

public

products

Body

weight

column Women

of weight face

lose

ﬁrst Appearance 13 tone 16

The

swimsuit

overall

lose

The

. paintings

Arms PEMES-Weight Weight PEMES-Modiﬁcation Diet Thighs Buttocks Hips Stomach Legs Waist Muscle PEMES-Other Breasts Overall Attractiveness PEMES-Face Face Eyes Nose Shape Exercise PEMES-Swimsuit Wear Table Note Percentage models). the

D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205 199

who saw paintings (d = 0.27), but the same was not true for women felt about their bodies were that the images actually impacted how

who saw bikini models (d = 0.19; Table 1). Women who saw bikini they felt about their bodies. Only three women (2%) perceived that

models in Study 2 reported more negative effects of the images experimenter expectancies shaped their responses.

than did women who saw paintings (d = 0.47) or products (d = 0.41).

Hypothesis 6. Women Will Report That Thin-Ideal Media Affected

Thus, overall the patterns were generally consistent with the results

Their Feelings About Their Appearances in Open-Ended Responses

for the PEMES-Weight and PEMES-Other Body measures, but the

(Study 1 Only).

effect sizes were small to moderate rather than moderate to large.

The themes generated for coding of the open-ended responses

3.6. PEMES-Face individual item means are shown in Table 4. The percentages of women who directly

stated that the images affected how they felt are shown in Fig. 3.

The results were consistent across both studies for how the Approximately one-third of women explicitly reported that the

images impacted participants’ feelings about their “face overall” bikini models (31%) and fashion models (28%) had a negative effect

(Tables 2a and 2b). Women who viewed fashion or bikini models on their feelings about their appearance. Only one-ﬁfth of women

reported more negative effects than women who viewed the con- explicitly reported that the bikini models (18%) and fashion mod-

trol conditions (ds = 0.27 to 0.53). The comparisons for the other els (24%) had no effect on their feelings about their appearance. A

items (eyes, nose, shape of face) were not signiﬁcant in Study 1 small minority of women reported that the bikini models (9%) and

(ds = 0.10 to 0.27, all p > .05), but the comparisons were signiﬁcant fashion models (1%) had a positive effect on their feelings about

in Study 2 (ds = 0.31 to 0.39, all ps < .01) their appearance.

We conducted a series of chi-square analyses to determine

if there was an overall effect of image type on the percentage

3.7. PEMES-Face individual item percentages

of women exhibiting each theme. There was a signiﬁcant effect

of image type on six of the eight themes (ps < .05). The only

As shown on Tables 3a and 3b, across both studies, most women

two themes that were not affected by image type were nega-

reported that the bikini/fashion models did not affect how they

tive comments made about the model’s appearances (p = .30) and

felt about different aspects of their faces (59%–70% reported no

downward social comparisons (p = .16). Follow-up Fisher’s Exact

effect). A minority of women felt worse about aspects of their face

Tests were then conducted comparing each group to each other for

(13%–31%) and a small number felt better (10%–18%). In contrast,

each of the six signiﬁcant themes.

few women who saw paintings felt worse about their faces after

Compared to women who saw paintings, women who saw fash-

viewing the images (0–3%), and a small number felt better about

ion models or bikini models were more likely to report negative

different aspects of their faces (0%–15%).

effects of the models on their feelings about their bodies, interest

Hypothesis 4. Women Will Report That Thin-Ideal Media Affected

in body modiﬁcation, and upward social comparisons. Women who

Their Interest in Body Modiﬁcation and Wearing a Swimsuit in

saw fashion models were less likely to report that the images had no

Public.

effects. Compared to women who saw fashion models, women who

saw bikini models were more likely to report upward social com-

3.8. Individual item means

parison and positive effects of the images on their feelings about

their bodies (all ps < 0.05).

Consistent with Hypothesis 4, compared to women who

Of potential interest is that a small subset of women (4.4%)

viewed control conditions, women who viewed bikini models

reported positive effects of the paintings on their bodies. Some

or fashion models reported more interest in dieting to lose

of these women drew an explicit connection between the feelings

weight (ds = 0.40–0.63), more interest in exercising to lose weight

evoked by the images and their feelings about their bodies (e.g., the

(ds = 0.61–0.75), and less interest in wearing a swimsuit in public

images were calming, which made them feel less anxious, which

(d = 0.64–0.78; Tables 2a and 2b).

made them feel better about life and therefore better about their

bodies). Other women did not report explicit positive effects of the

3.9. Individual item percentages paintings, but indicated that these paintings were pretty and/or

generated some kind of positive feeling in general (e.g., about life,

As predicted, compared to women who viewed control con- about themselves).

ditions, women who viewed bikini models or fashion models These results demonstrate that a subset of women report

reported more interest in dieting to lose weight (43%–52%), more being directly affected by exposure to thin-ideal images, and also

interest in exercising to lose weight (54%–56%), and less interest in highlight that many women describe social comparisons as the

wearing a swimsuit in public (47%–51%; Tables 3a and 3b). These mechanism by which their body image was affected. To provide

patterns are in stark contrast to the women who viewed the paint- a better understanding of how the images affected women, Table 5

ings or products, who generally reported no effect of the images on provides examples of women’s responses describing the negative,

their interest in engaging in these behaviors (83%–87% reported no positive, or non-effect of the images on their feelings about their

effect). A smaller number of women reported the bikini or fash- bodies from the bikini and fashion conditions. Table 6 provides

ion images made them less interested in dieting (9%–12%), less examples from the remaining themes.

interested in exercising (7%–9%), or more interested in wearing a

swimsuit (10%–11%). 4. Discussion

Hypothesis 5. Women Will Perceive That They Accurately Report

The present studies provide a novel way to assess the effects

the Effects of Media.

of thin-ideal media on body image that supplements existing

For the women in the bikini model condition, a total of 130 approaches, with a particular focus on assessing women’s percep-

women (60%) stated the images had something other than no effect tions of how media impacts them in the immediate aftermath of

(e.g., slightly worse to much worse, slightly better to much better) exposure to thin-ideal media. The present studies provided system-

on their feelings about their overall attractiveness. As shown on atic evidence that many women report feeling worse about their

Fig. 2, consistent with the hypothesis, most women (77%) reported bodies when exposed to media images of bikini or fashion models.

that their motivations for stating the images impacted how they Approximately half of women (40–64%) reported that the images

200 D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205

Table 4

Deﬁnitions of Open-Ended Codes.

Codes Deﬁnition of Code and Exemplars Provided in Codebook

Negative Effect of Images on Feelings Participant explicitly comments on a negative effect of the images on the way they view their own weight, physical

About Appearance/Weight appearance, or body shape. For example: “Images made me feel like my hips and waist are too big;” “The models made

me feel like I was fat and unattractive;” “The models were very beautiful which made me feel ugly.”

No Effect of Images on Feelings About Participant explicitly states that the images had no effect on the way they viewed their own weight, physical

Appearance/Weight appearance, or body shape. Women must EXPLICITLY say the images had no effects (If a woman does not comment on

effects, this is not the same as explicitly reporting “no effects”). For example: “The images had no effect.”

Positive Effect of Images on Feelings Participant explicitly states that the images had a positive effect on the way they viewed their weight, physical

About Appearance/Weight appearance, or body shape. For example: “I have recently lost a lot of weight, so looking at the images reminded me of

this and made me feel better.”

Body Modiﬁcation: Images Made Participant states that after viewing the images they are interested in engaging in any body modiﬁcation activity. For

Woman Want to Change example: “The images made me want to go on a diet;” “Looking at the women made me feel like I should exercise

Appearance/Weight more;” “Made me want to eat better so I can look good in that swimsuit.”

My Body Is Worse: Upward Social The participant made any statement indicating that they saw the images as better or greater than themselves, overall

Comparison or in a particular aspect. For example: “They are all much prettier than me;” They are all in better shape than me;”

“The women had ﬂatter stomachs than me.”

My Body Is Better: Downward Social The participant made any statement indicating that they view themselves as better or greater than the images. For

Comparison example: “I am much healthier than these models;” I look much more healthy than they do;” “I think some of the

ladies faces weren’t very attractive and I am very conﬁdent about my face.”

Positive Comments About The participant makes any statement that shows a positive view of the physical appearance of the models/paintings.

Model/Painting Appearance For example: “The women were all very beautiful;” The paintings were stunning;” “The women were in great shape.”

Negative Comments About The participant makes any statement that shows a negative view of the physical appearance of the models/paintings.

Model/Painting Appearance For example: “The models are too skinny;” “The paintings were ugly.”

Table 5

Effects of Thin Ideal Media on Women’s Feelings About Their Bodies.

# Example Statements: Images Had Negative Effects

1 The images made me feel worse about myself because the models’ bodies were all so toned and beautiful. They were tall, skinny, had smooth skin,

and had perfect breasts. Compared to them, I felt ugly and not attractive.

2 They all look so ﬁt and healthy. I look much worse in comparison. I feel worse because there is nothing that I could do to look like them

3 Looking at many really hot women made me envious of their certain traits − clear skin, abs, long legs. I felt worse because in comparison my traits

aren’t as attractive.

4 It made me feel way worse about my appearance because I do not look as ﬁt as the girls in those pictures. I don’t have that kind of body and

couldn’t without extreme exercise and diet. I already was feeling a little down about my body today because I haven’t been eating well and now I

feel worse that I deﬁnitely don’t look like that and summer is coming.

5 I feel much worse about my overall appearance, because my body is not the way I want it, not even close, so seeing pictures of other women

whom have a slim body makes me upset that I don’t look that way.

6 These images made me feel worse because i feel like reaching that level of beauty is out of reach.

7 They made me feel worse because they are much more beautiful than I am. Their bodies were perfect and right now I’m overweight. I guess what

made me feel the worst is that outside of plastic surgery I could not make myself look like any of them no matter how much I exercised and dieted.

8 Even though I know that the people in the images are models and are the exception rather than the rule, it made me feel very much more

unattractive than I did before viewing. I have gained a lot of weight recently and seeing these pretty women made me feel ugly.

9 It made me feel worse because I’m overweight and I began comparing myself to these women. The shape of their bodies and how their faces

looked were all very similar. It made me feel like an outsider.

Example Statements: Images Had Positive Effects

1 For the most part they made me feel better. Because all those woman had the same sort of look. I don’t expect myself to look like that. Because I

am not trying to look like everyone else. I except the way I look and I love myself and my body for what it is.

2 I’m comparable to most all of the thinner models shown so I felt pretty good seeing the models. I’ve always had a complex with my nose and hips

since I’m mixed with so many races, but overall I still feel good about myself.

3 Seeing the images made me feel a little better about my body since I do not desire to look like the women in the pictures. The bikinis were pretty

nice though.

4 For a few years now I have been working on my body, so my shape is similar as I model. So this made me feel better about myself.

5 It made me feel better because I don’t have anything to feel ashamed about. My body is unique and I love the way I look. I can’t compare myself to

others specially models because some of them have to sacriﬁce a lot to attain that look. As long as I am healthy, I am happy!

Example Statements: Images Had No Effect

1 I feel conﬁdent about myself so it had no effect on me. I’m in a loving relationship and he is attracted to me just how I am so I don’t need to feel

insecure when I see pictures of physically attractive women.

2 It had no effect on my feelings because I’ve become conﬁdent in my appearance and do not compare it to others, particularly when those others

are all skinny white blonde ladies. Over it.

3 I feel good about how I look, so the images have no effect on me.

4 I don’t feel as if pictures of women in this context inﬂuence me at all!

5 The images has no effect on my feelings because I am very satisﬁed with my looks. I was more focussed on answering the questions and did not

think about myself at all while I was looking at the pictures.

made them feel worse about their stomach, weight, thighs, but- of intensity of feelings, approximately 25–33% of women stated that

tocks, hips, legs, waist, muscle tone, and/or overall appearance. For the images made them feel “somewhat” to “much” worse about one

example, most women reported that these images made them feel or more of these traits in Study 1, as did 24%-40% of women in Study

worse about their stomach (57% in Study 1, 64% in Study 2). In terms 2.

D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205 201

Table 6

Effects of Thin Ideal Media on Social Comparisons and Interests in Body Modiﬁcation.

# Example Statements: Effect of Models On Desire For Body Modiﬁcation

1 these images made feel a little worse about my appearance because the women were so beautiful; however, it has also inspired me to start going on a

diet so that i could one day achieve that body

2 The only parts of my body that I would like to loose weight are from my butt and thighs and those pictures just gave me more motivation to do so.

3 The photos really made me want to eat less and diet so I can have a ﬂatter stomach and decrease my waist size.

4 I’m overweight and want to look better like these women so I feel bad but it also makes me want to go to the gym right now.

5 The images made me want to stick to my diet so I could feel a little more attractive if I wore a swimsuit or short skirt in public.

Example Statements: Positive Comments About Appearance of Models

1 All of the models had perfect bodies and were extremely attractive.

2 the models’ bodies were all so toned and beautiful. They were tall, skinny, had smooth skin, and had perfect breasts

3 I think all of the women were extremely attractive and had nice bodies

4 It seemed that those women in the images had ideal skinny bodies, with big breasts, long legs, and pretty faces.

5 The images were of beautiful women who are in shape, young and dressed well.

Example Statements: Upward Social Comparisons to Appearance of Models

1 The women were in great shape and I’m not, so I got depressed.

2 All of the models had perfect bodies and were extremely attractive. This made me think about how my body looks nothing like that and how much worse

I look than they do. It magniﬁed my insecurities and made me more desperate and depressed about how I will never be as attractive as the models.

3 The women were all extremely thin, tan and in shape. These are things I deﬁnitely am not.

4 They all look so ﬁt and healthy. I look much worse in comparison. I feel worse because there is nothing that I could do to look like them

5 The images made me feel much worse about how I look. Those ladies were very thin and toned, and I am not.

6 I was thinking of how some of their bodies looked better than mine, and that I needed to improve those parts on myself. I felt like I could do better, and

it’s like I somehow I failed myself by not looking better.

7 All the women were skinny and in shape and I’m not so I felt bad. I felt I needed to exercise more. I felt I’d never ﬁnd an outﬁt to look that nice on me.

Example Statements: Negative Comments About Appearance of Models

1 These women seemed emaciated and probably don’t eat very much at all, which is not healthy.

2 I think some of the ladies faces wasn’t very attractive

3 they seemed extremely (unhealthily) slim. They had no muscle at all.

4 I thought most of them were too thin and looked sickly. They also have very small breasts

5 I felt the women were too thin. . .a woman who is too thin is unattractive as well

Example Statements: Downward Social Comparisons to Appearance of Models

1 I think some of the ladies faces wasn’t very attractive and I am very conﬁdent about my face overall.

2 They also have very small breasts, and that made me feel better about my breasts.

3 I just don’t feel like I’m in as good of shape as the models, but I’m deﬁnitely healthier.

4 I’m bigger than these women, but I have natural breasts, and I look generally healthy, and some. . . looked a bit sickly.

Women differentiated between the effects of media on differ- reports of negative effects are ﬁltered through women’s interpreta-

ent aspects of their appearance, and the pattern of responses was tions and representations of how they are feeling and what caused

markedly different for women in the fashion and bikini conditions these feelings.

than in the paintings and product conditions. Across the 11 PEMES-

Weight and PEMES-Other Body items, women reported negative

effects of the bikini and fashion images on approximately half of

4.1. Limitations and strengths of the PEMES measure

the items (4.6–5.5 out of 11), whereas few women reported neg-

ative effects of the products or paintings (0.3–0.4 out of 11). The

Historically, many studies have used trait-based measures of

fact that many women reported feeling affected by the fashion

body image in experimental studies on the impact of media on body

and bikini model images is consistent with prior survey research

satisfaction, which assess how people generally feel about their

that most women generally believe they are affected by media

bodies (see studies cited in Ferguson, 2013). State-based measures

(Frederick, Tylka, Smolak, et al., 2017; Frederick, Kelly, et al., 2016;

are also available, although the sensitivity of these measures is gen-

Keery et al., 2004; Schaefer et al., 2015). In addition, the ﬁndings

erally unknown, and they may not capture all changes that women

on the PEMES were consistent with the open-ended results, where

feel in response to media exposure. We propose that it is impor-

many women very candidly and speciﬁcally commented on how

tant to use multiple methods to identify the effects of media on

the media images were affecting them, typically in clearly negative

body image, and the PEMES provides a useful tool for supplementing ways.

existing approaches.

The effect sizes for our perceived media effects measures

The most notable issue is over how to interpret scores on the

strongly contrast with our ﬁndings using the standard between-

PEMES. When women say that the images made them feel worse

subjects experimental approach where women completed state

(or better), should we believe them? As noted by Ferguson et al.

body image measures. The standard experimental approach iden-

(2011), people can mistakenly conclude that media are affecting

tiﬁed effects consistent with the existing meta-analyses (i.e.,

them. Furthermore, demand characteristics can play a role in exper-

generally small or null effects), whereas the PEMES items identiﬁed

iments where women are exposed to media images and then their

large effects. Using this method leads to a different conclusion than

feelings about their bodies. The experimental design might evoke

most of the existing experimental studies: media exposures have a

either participant expectancies, leading them to conﬁrm that media

large and systematic effect on how women feel about their bodies

cause body dissatisfaction, or participant reactance, which leads

in the immediate aftermath of these exposures, rather than a null

them to protest that media do not affect them or affects them

to small effect. We conclude that the current study provides evi-

positively. Most of the women in the sample (77%), however, explic-

dence that many women feel affected by exposures to these media

itly reported that the bikini models affected them because they

images. This conclusion is qualiﬁed, of course, by the fact that the

believed the bikini models truly did affect them.

202 D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205

4.2. Strengths, limitations, and future directions 4.3. If media cause body dissatisfaction, why are effect sizes in

meta-analyses so small?

A common problem with surveys conducted with community

and college samples is that participants self-select into the survey. If women feel that media impact them, why do the meta-

To prevent selection of participants speciﬁcally interested in body analyses of experimental and correlational studies in this research

image, the present study was listed as a study on opinions about area ﬁnd such small or null effects? We consider two explanations

advertisements or products. Internet samples, moreover, have the and the implications of the current ﬁndings for these explanations.

advantage of being more diverse with respect to gender, sexual

orientation, age, socioeconomic status, and geographic region than

4.3.1. A drop in the bucket

most convenience samples (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, & John,

One rather simple explanation for the small effects is that almost

2004). In addition, surveys can be completed with ease from the

all women in the U.S. have been deluged with thin-ideal media

privacy of respondents’ homes or workplaces, reaching individuals

for decades across a broad set of circumstances in their daily lives

who would not otherwise participate in research.

(Daniels & Gillen, 2015). Slender and attractive women grace the

Limitations of the present study include the stimuli of White

covers of many magazines, television shows, pornography, bill-

women and sample of predominantly White women. Women of all

boards, and websites. The lifetime of cumulative exposure has a

ethnic groups experience body dissatisfaction, and it is important

dramatic and steady inﬂuence on women’s perceptions of what is

to isolate the effects of media featuring ethnic minority women

attractive and how they feel about their bodies. Exposure to 10

on body image in ethnic minority and majority women. A strength

idealized images in an experimental study represents but a drop in

of our stimuli was that, in Study 1, the fashion models and bikini

the ocean of images that women are exposed to regularly (Buote,

models were different images of the same women, which helped

Wilson, Strahan, Gazzola, & Papps, 2011). The totality of experi-

assure that responses to these different conditions were driven by

ences has powerfully shaped how the person currently feels, and a

the experimental manipulation rather than by confounds produced

few more experiences may or may not evoke a measurable effect.

by using different women (e.g., hair color and height). Finally, we

Ferguson et al. (2011) suggested that even if this “satura-

used multiple types of control conditions for this study (paintings,

tion effect” of media might explain small effects in experimental

products, and no images), but future research should investigate

contexts, it could not explain the small associations found in cor-

these effects using alternative control conditions (e.g., landscapes,

relational studies. We propose, however, that the logic of the

fashion products, women with average body types).

saturation argument holds equally true for correlational studies.

An important future direction for this research is to examine

If most women have consumed a steady diet of these images for

these effects in men. Many men are dissatisﬁed with their bod-

their entire lives, they are already above the threshold for which

ies and appearance (Frederick, Buchanan, et al., 2007; Frederick

additional media images could have strong effects. Studies that

& Essayli, 2016; Frederick, Sandhu, Scott, & Akbari, 2016; Gray

measure the frequency of viewing certain shows or reading fash-

& Frederick, 2012), many women express attraction to men with

ion magazines are capturing only a narrow sliver of the stream of

toned muscles (Frederick & Haselton, 2007), and the popular

images women have consumed. These studies can only test if con-

media represent muscular and toned men as prestigious (Frederick,

suming slightly more of these images than the baseline deluge of

Fessler, & Haselton, 2005), and men’s feelings about their muscular-

exposures all women experience is associated with greater body

ity and masculinity can be closely connected (Frederick, Buchanan,

dissatisfaction.

et al., 2007; Frederick, Shapiro, et al., 2017). Exposure to muscular-

In contrast to the saturation effect proposal, however, the cur-

ideal media could spark feelings of dissatisfaction and desire for

rent study suggests that many women do feel dissatisfaction in

body modiﬁcation. In a national study of 11,470 men, 29% of het-

response to exposure to media images, both on the PEMES and on

erosexual men and 58% of gay men felt pressure from the media

the Body Image States Scale. Media images may serve as a body

to be attractive (Frederick & Essayli, 2016). The most recent meta-

image threat for some women, with brief exposures evoking nega-

analysis shows that exposure to muscular men causes men to feel

tive feelings about the body.

worse about their bodies (d = −0.22; Barlett, Vowels, & Saucier,

2008). An initial attempt to replicate the current study in 441

adult men found that on the PEMES-Weight measure, many men 4.3.2. Media drive different women in opposing directions

explicitly reported that exposure to male models made them feel There is an issue lurking in the standard between-subjects

worse about their stomachs (70%), weight (50%), waist (55%), over- experimental approach that could lead to underestimations of the

all appearance (57%), muscle tone (66%), legs (30%), thighs (31%), effects of media exposure on body image: some women have posi-

buttocks (28%), and hips (35%) (Frederick, Daniels, Rentko, & Tylka, tive reactions to these images, whereas other women have negative

2017). reactions.

One advantage to the PEMES-Weight measure is that it was In the standard experimental approach, some participants are

based on an existing state body image measure, the PASTAS-Weight exposed to thin-ideal media images whereas other participants are

subscale. The nature of the PEMES questions makes it easy to modify exposed to a control condition (landscapes, average women, no

other measures to ﬁt the PEMES framework. For example, questions images, paintings, etc.). If the experimental and control groups do

on complexion and skin tone could be added to the PEMES measure, not differ, then researchers conclude there was no effect. One prob-

and items from other existing scales could be modiﬁed similarly. lem with this approach is that if some women in the experimental

Finally, another strength of Study 1 was that it included both condition feel greater satisfaction when exposed to thin-ideal

Likert-scale and open-ended responses, and these open-ended media while other women feel worse, this will drag the average

responses provided systematic evidence of women’s perceptions of scores for body satisfaction in experimental condition closer to the

the positive and negative effects of the media on their body image. control group. This problem would partially or completely mask the

A weakness of the open-ended component of the study, however, effects of the thin-ideal media on body satisfaction. In our study,

is that it was limited to one question. Pairing experimental meth- 10–11% of women felt more positive about their “overall appear-

ods with systematic collection of interviews or written narratives ance” after viewing thin-ideal media in Studies 1 and 2. A subset of

in future work could help more precisely identify how women women feeling better partially cancels out the effects of the women

respond to media exposures (e.g., Daniels, 2009, 2012; Daniels & who felt worse in a standard between subjects analysis (see also

Zurbriggen, 2016; Schooler & Daniels, 2014). Durkin & Paxton, 2002, for a similar critique).

D.A. Frederick et al. / Body Image 23 (2017) 188–205 203

There are several reasons to suppose that thin-ideal media may state/trait body image measures is warranted. We propose that

positively impact some women while negatively impacting oth- there is sufﬁcient evidence demonstrating that media negatively

ers. Exposure to thin-ideal media is a positive experience for some affect body image and that it is worthwhile to identify and test

women because it reminds them that their own body resembles interventions aimed at minimizing the harmful effects of thin-ideal

the body type celebrated as ideal in the media, and reminds them media consumption on women.

of beneﬁts (e.g., success, happiness) they receive because of their

socially privileged body type. Media images also may serve as an

Appendix A. Supplementary data

opportunity to simply appreciate a woman’s beauty without evok-

ing a desire to engage in upward social comparison. Women who

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found,

have a broad conceptualization of women’s beauty may view many

in the online version, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.

body types as beautiful, including (but not limited to) their own

006.

body and the bodies they see reﬂected in media images (Tylka &

Iannantuono, 2016). For these women, seeing media images does

not dissuade them from viewing their own body as beautiful, and References

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