UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2014 (United Nations Publication, Sales No

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2014

UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME Vienna

Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2014

UNITED NATIONS New York, 2014 This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made.

Suggested citation: UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2014 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.14.V.10).

Comments on the report are welcome and can be sent to: Global Report on Trafficking in Persons Unit Research and Trend Analysis Branch Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime P.O. Box 500 1400 Vienna Austria E-mail: [email protected] Tel.: (+43) 1 26060 0 Fax: (+43) 1 26060 5827 The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or poli- cies of UNODC, Member States or contributory organizations, and nor does it imply any endorsement.

This document has not been formally edited. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expres- sion of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Photo: © Alessandro Scotti, UN.GIFT

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION Sales No. E.14.V.10 ISBN: 978-92-1-133830-0 e-ISBN: 978-92-1-057108-1 PREFACE

The exploitation of one human being by another is the It is equally clear that without robust criminal justice basest crime. And yet trafficking in persons remains all responses, human trafficking will remain a low-risk, high- too common, with all too few consequences for the profit activity for criminals. perpetrators. Trafficking happens everywhere, but as this report shows Since 2010, when the General Assembly mandated most victims are trafficked close to home, within the UNODC to produce this report under the UN Global region or even in their country of origin, and their exploit- Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons, we have ers are often fellow citizens. In some areas, trafficking for seen too little improvement in the overall criminal justice armed combat or petty crime, for example, are significant response.. problems. More than 90% of countries have legislation criminalizing Responses therefore need to be tailored to national and human trafficking since the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress regional specifics if they are to be effective, and if they are and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and to address the particular needs of victims, who may be Children, under the United Nations Convention against child soldiers or forced beggars, or who may have been Transnational Organized Crime, came into force more enslaved in brothels or sweatshops. than a decade ago. Governments need to send a clear signal that human traf- Nevertheless, this legislation does not always comply with ficking will not be tolerated, through Protocol-compliant the Protocol, or does not cover all forms of trafficking and legislation, proper enforcement, suitable sanctions for con- their victims, leaving far too many children, women and victed traffickers and protection of victims. men vulnerable. Even where legislation is enacted, imple- I hope the 2014 report, by providing an overview of pat- mentation often falls short. terns and flows of human trafficking at the global, regional As a result, the number of convictions globally has and national levels, will further augment UNODC’s work remained extremely low. Between 2010 and 2012, some to support countries to respond more effectively to this 40 per cent of countries reported less than 10 convictions crime. per year. Some 15 per cent of the 128 countries covered We have seen that governments and people everywhere in this report did not record a single conviction. The pre- are approaching human trafficking with greater urgency. vious Global Report similarly found that 16 per cent of This year, we marked the first ever United Nations World countries recorded no convictions between 2007 and Day against Trafficking in Persons on 30 July, which pro- 2010. vided a much-needed opportunity to further raise aware- At the same time, we have continued to see an increase in ness of modern slavery. the number of detected child victims, particularly girls But we need to advance from understanding to undertak- under 18. ing, from awareness to action. The gravity of this continu- Most detected trafficking victims are subjected to sexual ing exploitation compels us to step our response. exploitation, but we are seeing increased numbers trafficked for forced labour. Between 2010 and 2012, victims holding citizenship from 152 different countries were found in 124 countries. It should be kept in mind that official data reported to UNODC by national authorities represent only what has Yury Fedotov been detected. It is clear that the reported numbers are Executive Director only the tip of the iceberg. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

1 Editorial and production team

The Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2014 was prepared by the UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons Unit under the supervision of Angela Me, Chief of the Research and Trend Analysis Branch.

Core team Kristiina Kangaspunta, Fabrizio Sarrica, Raggie Johansen.

Graphic design and layout Suzanne Kunnen, Kristina Kuttnig.

Cartography UNODC and Atelier de Cartographie de Sciences Po (Benoît Martin).

The Global Report on Trafficking in Persons Unit would like to thank the UNODC Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Section, as well as the Unit’s former intern Kelsey McGregor Perry for their valuable inputs and support.

The Global Report on Trafficking in Persons Unit would also like to thank Sheldon X. Zhang of San Diego State University for reviewing and com- menting upon draft Report content.

The report also benefited from the work and expertise of many other UNODC staff members in Vienna and around the world. CONTENTS

Core results 5 Executive summary 7 Introduction 15 Methodology 17

I. GLOBAL OVERVIEW TRAFFICKERS 23 TRAFFICKING VICTIMS 29 FORMS OF EXPLOITATION 33 TRAFFICKING FLOWS 37 TRAFFICKERS, ORGANIZED CRIME AND THE BUSINESS OF EXPLOITATION 43 THE RESPONSE TO TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 51

II. REGIONAL OVERVIEWS TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS IN EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA 59 TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS IN THE AMERICAS 70 TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS IN SOUTH ASIA, EAST ASIA AND THE PACIFIC 77 TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS IN AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST 81

Text boxes Origin or destination country? 25 Intimate and/or close family relationships and trafficking in persons offending 28 Towards a global victim estimate? 30 Recruitment through feigned romantic relationships 32 Trafficking in persons and armed conflicts 42 Confiscated assets and compensation of human trafficking victims 53 Do confraternities control the trafficking of Nigerian victims in Europe? 56

MAPS

MAP 1: Share of foreign offenders among the total number of persons convicted of 24 trafficking in persons, by country, 2010-2012

MAP 2: Share of children among the number of detected victims, by country, 2010-2012 33 MAP 3: Countries that report forms of exploitation other than forced labour, sexual exploitation 35 or organ removal, 2010-2012 MAP 4: Shares of detected victims who are trafficked into the given country from another 39 subregion, 2010-2012

MAP 5: Shares of detected victims by subregional and transregional trafficking, 2010-2012 39

3 2014

MAP 6: Main destination areas of transregional trafficking flows (in blue) and their significant 40 origins, 2010-2012

MAP 7: Citizenships of convicted traffickers in Western and Central Europe, by subregion, 60 TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

shares of the total, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

MAP 8: Origins of victims trafficked to Western and Central Europe, by subregion, share of 63 the total number of victims detected there, 2010-2012

MAP 9: Origins of victims trafficked to Western and Southern Europe, share of the total 63 number of victims detected there, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

MAP 10: Origins of victims trafficked to Central Europe and the Balkans, share of the total 64

GLOBAL REPORT ON number of victims detected there, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

MAP 11: Destinations of trafficking victims from Central Europe and the Balkans, as a 64 proportion of the total number of victims detected at specific destinations, 2010-2012

MAP 12: Destinations of trafficking victims from Eastern Europe and Central Asia, as a 69 proportion of the total number of victims detected at destination, 2010-2012

MAP 13: Origins of victims trafficked into North and Central America and the Caribbean, 73 shares of the total number of victims detected, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

MAP 14: Destinations of trafficking victims originating in North and Central America and 74 the Caribbean, proportion of the total number of detected victims at destinations, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

MAP 15: Origin of victims detected in South America, as a proportion of the total number 75 of victims detected in the subregion, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

MAP 16: Destinations of trafficking victims originating in South America, proportion of the 76 total number of detected victims at destinations, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

MAP 17: Destinations of trafficking victims originating in East Asia and the Pacific, proportion 79 of the total number of detected victims at destinations, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

MAP 18: Destinations of trafficking victims originating in South Asia, proportion of the total 80 number of detected victims at destinations, 2010-2012

MAP 19: Destinations of trafficking victims originating in West Africa, proportion of the total 83 number of detected victims at destinations, 2010-2012

MAP 20: Destinations of trafficking victims originating in East Africa, proportion of the total 83 number of detected victims at destinations, 2010-2012

MAP 21: Origins of victims trafficked to the Middle East, proportions of the total number of 84 victims detected there, 2010-2012

MAP 22: Destinations of trafficking victims originating in North Africa, proportion of the 85 total number of detected victims at destinations, 2010-2012

4 CORE RESULTS

• Data coverage: 2010-2012 (or more recent). The data collection has revealed wide regional difference • Victims of 152 different citizenships have been with regard to the forms of exploitation (see figure). identified in 124 countries across the world. • At least 510 trafficking flows have been detected. Forms of exploitation among detected trafficking victims, by region of detection, • Some 64 per cent of convicted traffickers are citi- 2010-2012 (or more recent) zens of the convicting country. • Some 72 per cent of convicted traffickers are men, and 28 per cent are women. Africa and the Middle East 53% 37% 10% • 49 per cent of detected victims are adult women. • 33 per cent of detected victims are children, which is a 5 per cent increase compared to the 2007-2010 Americas 48% 47% 4% period. East Asia, South Asia Detected victims of trafficking in persons, 26% 64% 10% by age and gender, 2011 and Pacific

Europe and WOMEN Central Asia 66% 26% 8%

49% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Sexual exploitation Organ removal Forced labour, Other forms servitude and of exploitation slavery like

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

MEN BOYS GIRLS 18% 12% 21%

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS the same region; often also within the same subregion. HAPPENS EVERYWHERE For this reason, it is difficult to identify major global trafficking hubs. Victims tend to be trafficked from poor The crime of trafficking in persons affects virtually every countries to more affluent ones (relative to the origin country in every region of the world. Between 2010 and country) within the region. 2012, victims with 152 different citizenships were identified in 124 countries across the globe. Moreover, traffick- Transregional trafficking flows are mainly detected in the ing flows - imaginary lines that connect the same origin rich countries of the Middle East, Western Europe and country and destination country of at least five detected North America. These flows often involve victims from victims – criss-cross the world. UNODC has identified the ‘global south’; mainly East and South Asia and Sub- at least 510 flows. These are minimum figures as they are Saharan Africa. Statistics show a correlation between the based on official data reported by national authorities. affluence (GDP) of the destination country and the share These official figures represent only the visible part of the of victims trafficked there from other regions. Richer trafficking phenomenon and the actual figures are likely countries attract victims from a variety of origins, includ- to be far higher. ing from other continents, whereas less affluent countries Most trafficking flows are intraregional, meaning that the are mainly affected by domestic or subregional trafficking origin and the destination of the trafficked victim is within flows.

Main destination areas of transregional trafficking flows (in blue) and their significant origins, 2010-2012

The arrows show the flows that represent 5% and above of the total victims detected in destination subregions

Western Eastern and Central and Central Europe Europeans North America, Central America East and the Caribbean The Middle Asians East Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 South Asians

Sub-Saharan Africans South Americans

countries not covered

Source: UNODC.

7 8 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 Breakdown oftrafficking flowsbygeographi- foreigners. the otherhand,convictboththeirown citizens and almost onlytheirown citizens. Destination countries,on trafficking inpersonsreveals thatorigincountriesconvict countries andthosethatare more typicaldestinationsfor Dividing countriesinto thosethatare more typicalorigin tional traffickingschemes. convicted ofinvolvement indomesticaswell astransna- ofconviction. zens ofthecountry These traffickerswere A majorityoftheconvictedtraffickers,however, are citi- the victim’s ofcitizenship. country in three traffickingcases,theexploitationtakesplacein Domestic traffickingisalsowidelydetected,andforone subregion (oftenbetween neighbouringcountries). graphic movement astheytendtotakeplacewithina That said,manytraffickingcasesinvolve limitedgeo- have beentrafficked across atleastonenationalborder. words, thesevictims-more than6in10ofallvictims- where theyarecountry identifiedasvictims.In other Most victimsoftraffickinginpersonsare foreigners inthe GEOGRAPHICAL REACH OFFENDERS ANDLIMITED THAT OFTENINVOLVES DOMESTIC 2. ATRANSNATIONAL CRIME cal reach, Source: UNODCelaboration onnationaldata. 34%34 (WITHIN NATIONALBORDERS)BORDERS DOMESTIC 37% SAME SUBREGION CROSS-BORDER WITHIN % 2010-2012 (ormore recent) ) 26%26 TRANSREGIONAL 3% SUBREGION FROM NEARBY

% Moreover, there isacorrelation between thecitizenships Citizenship ofconvictedtraffickers globally, often trafficfellow citizens abroad. trafficking. This correlation indicatesthattheoffenders of thevictimsandtraffickersinvolved incross-border Distribution ofnationalandforeign conviction) foreign nationals(relativetothecountryof 2010-2012 (ormore recent) 2010-2012 destination ofcross-bordertrafficking, offenders amongcountriesoforiginand Source: UNODCelaboration onnationaldata. Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Countries of Countries of destination 14% 22% IN THESAMEREGION FOREIGNERS FROMCOUNTRIES OTHER REGIONS FOREIGNERS FROM origin g %2%4%6%8%100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 0 %

(or more recent) NATIONAL OFFENDERS 2 0 % 42% 4 0 % ; sharesoflocaland 6 FOREIGN OFFENDERS FOREIGN 0 % 64% 8 NATIONALS 0 % 95% 58% 1

0 0 % 5 % Executive summary

3. INCREASED DETECTION OF Share of the total number of detected victims TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS FOR who were trafficked for forced labour, 2007- 2011 PURPOSES OTHER THAN SEXUAL EXPLOITATION 45% 40% While a majority of trafficking victims are subjected to 40% 35% 36% sexual exploitation, other forms of exploitation are increas- 33% 35% 32% ingly detected. Trafficking for forced labour - a broad 30% category which includes, for example, manufacturing, cleaning, construction, catering, restaurants, domestic 25% work and textile production – has increased steadily in 20% recent years. Some 40 per cent of the victims detected 15% between 2010 and 2012 were trafficked for forced labour. 10% Trafficking for exploitation that is neither sexual nor 5% forced labour is also increasing. Some of these forms, such 0% as trafficking of children for armed combat, or for petty 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 crime or forced begging, can be significant problems in some locations, although they are still relatively limited Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. from a global point of view. There are considerable regional differences with regard to forms of exploitation. While trafficking for sexual exploitation is the main form detected in Europe and Central Asia, in East Asia and the Pacific, it is forced labour. In the Americas the two types are detected in near equal Forms of exploitation among detected proportions. trafficking victims, by region of detection, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

Africa and Forms of exploitation among detected the Middle East 53% 37% 10% trafficking victims, 2011*

FORCED Americas 48% 47% 4% LABOUR ORGAN REMOVAL 40% East Asia, South Asia 0.3% 26% 64% 10% OTHERS and Pacific

7% Europe and Central Asia 66% 26% 8% SEXUAL EXPLOITATION 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 53% Sexual exploitation Organ removal Forced labour, Other forms Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. servitude and of exploitation *Please note that the regional differences in detection capacities slavery like and definitions – particularly for forced labour – affect the global shares. Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

9 10 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 Gender breakdownofdetectedvictims women. most ofthevictimstraffickingforforced labourwere of detectedvictims.In someregions, inAsia, particularly a significantmajority, womenmakeupnearlyonethird victims traffickedforforced labour, whilemencomprise who were traffickedforsexualexploitation.Lookingat Women comprisethevast majorityofthedetectedvictims offset by theincreasing detectionofvictimswhoare girls. declining significantlyinrecent years, ithasbeenpartially victims are adultwomen.Althoughthisshare hasbeen Moreover, approximately halfofalldetectedtrafficking share ofwomenoffendersisnearly30percent. even thoughmalesstillcomprisethevast majority, the offenders are women.For traffickinginpersons,however, females. On average, some10-15percentofconvicted For nearlyallcrimes,maleoffendersvastly outnumber AS OFFENDERS PERSONS, BOTHASVICTIMSAND INVOLVED INTRAFFICKING 4. WOMENARESIGNIFICANTLY 2010-2012 (ormore recent) trafficking forforcedlabour, byregion, Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. East Asiaand Central Asia Middle East Europe and Europe South Asia, thePacific Africa and Americas %2%4%6%8%100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 69% 23% 68% 45% 31% 77% 32% 55% Trends inthesharesoffemales(womenand Persons convictedfortrafficking inpersons, victims, girls) amongthetotalnumberofdetected by gender, Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 100% 20% 40% 60% 80% 0% 2004-2011 0420 092011 2009 2006 2004 2010-2012 (ormore recent) 28 10% 74% % 13% 67% 72 17% 59% %

21% 49% Executive summary

5. DETECTED CHILD TRAFFICKING Shares of children and adults among the IS INCREASING detected victims of trafficking in persons, by region, 2010-2012 (or more recent) Since UNODC started to collect information on the age profile of detected trafficking victims, the share of children among the detected victims has been increasing. Globally, children now comprise nearly one third of all detected CHILDREN ADULTS trafficking victims. Out of every three child victims, two Africa and Middle East 62% 38% are girls and one is a boy. The global figure obscures significant regional differences. Americas 31% 69% In some areas, child trafficking is the major trafficking- related concern. In Africa and the Middle East, for exam- South Asia, ple, children comprise a majority of the detected victims. East Asia and 36% 64% In Europe and Central Asia, however, children are vastly the Pacific outnumbered by adults (mainly women). Europe and Central Asia 18% 82%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Trends in the shares of children (girls and boys) among the total number of detected victims, 2004-2011 Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

100%

80%

60%

40%

17% 13% 21% 20% 10% 12% 9% 10% 0% 3% 2004 2006 2009 2011

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

11 12 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 Criminalization oftrafficking inpersonswithaspecificoffence, numbersofcountries, tection ofthe Trafficking inPersons Protocol. means thatmore than 2billionpeoplelackthefullpro- these countriesare largeanddenselypopulated,which formsofexploitation.Somesome victimsorcertain of whereas 18 legislation others that havecovers partial only work remains. 9countriesstilllacklegislationaltogether, Although this legislative progress is remarkable, much Trafficking inPersons in2003. intoforce oftheUnitedentry Nations Protocol against countries have orupdatedlegislationsincethe passednew by UNODCcriminalize traffickinginpersons.Many More than90percentofcountriesamongthosecovered PERSONS PROTOCOL NATIONS TRAFFICKINGIN REQUIRED BYTHEUNITED ARE NOTPROTECTEDAS 6. MORETHAN2BILLIONPEOPLE by subregion,2014 Source: UNODCelaboration onnationaldata. 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 and Central and Western Europe 39 Central Asia Central Europe and Europe

Eastern 12 the Caribbean the America and America North and North Most/all forms Most/all

Central 18 1 1

America South 3 8 Partial 100% Criminalization oftrafficking inpersonswith countries, a specificoffence, shares andnumbersof Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 0% East Asia East and the and Pacific 23 3 1 No specific offence No No specificoffence Partial Most/all forms November 2003 (19%) (23%) (58%) 100 2003-2014 33 40 South Asia North Africa North Asia South 7 1 November (18.5%) (25.5%) (56%) 2008

97 32 44 and Middle and East 11 3 16 August (13%) (78%) 2012 (9%) 135 22 Subsahara Africa 28 10 4

(84.5%) (10.5%) 9 August 2014 146 (5%) 18 Executive summary

7. IMPUNITY PREVAILS Trends in the number of recorded convictions, share of countries In spite of the legislative progress mentioned above, there are still very few convictions for trafficking in persons. 2010-2012 Only 4 in 10 countries reported having 10 or more yearly DECREASING convictions, with nearly 15 per cent having no convictions TRENDS at all. 10% The global picture of the criminal justice response has remained largely stable in recent years. Fewer countries are reporting increases in the numbers of convictions which remain very low. This may reflect the difficulties INCREASING STABLE OR TRENDS of the criminal justice systems to appropriately respond UNCLEAR TRENDS to trafficking in persons. 13% 77%

Number of convictions recorded per year, share of countries, 2010-2012 2007-2010 DECREASING TRENDS LESS THAN TEN NO CONVICTIONS CONVICTIONS 15% 15% 26%

INCREASING STABLE OR TRENDS UNCLEAR TRENDS INFORMATION NOT AVAILABLE MORE THAN 50 BETWEEN 10 AND 50 CONVICTIONS 25% 60% 17% CONVICTIONS 16% 26% 2003-2007 Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. DECREASING TRENDS 8%

INCREASING STABLE OR TRENDS UNCLEAR TRENDS 21% 71%

Sources: UN.GIFT/UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Per- sons 2009 (2003-2007); UNODC, elaboration on national data (2007-2010 and 2010-2012).

13 8. ORGANIZED CRIME INVOLVE- trafficking flows can be more easily sustained by large and MENT: TOWARDS A TYPOLOGY well-organized criminal groups.

Criminals committing trafficking in persons offences can The transnational nature of the flows, the victimization act alone, with a partner or in different types of groups of more persons at the same time, and the endurance in and networks. Human trafficking can be easily conducted conducting the criminal activity are all indicators of the by single individuals with a limited organization in place. level of organization of the trafficking network behind the This is particularly true if the crime involves only a few flow. On this basis, a typology including three different victims who are exploited locally. But trafficking opera- trafficking types is emerging. The trafficking types have tions can also be complex and involve many offenders, some typical characteristics; however, as always, typologies which is often the case for transregional trafficking flows. are based on categorization to better explain and understand different aspects of trafficking. ‘Pure’ trafficking Offenders may traffic their victims across regions to more types may not exist since there is always some overlap affluent countries in order to increase their profits. How- between different types. ever, doing so increases their costs as well as the risks of law enforcement detection. It also requires more organization, particularly when there are several victims. Cross- border trafficking flows – subregional and transregional – are more often connected to organized crime. Complex

Typology on the organization of trafficking in persons

SMALL LOCAL OPERATIONS MEDIUM SUBREGIONAL OPERATIONS LARGE TRANSREGIONAL OPERATIONS

Domestic or short-distance trafficking Trafficking flows within the subregion or Long distance trafficking flows involving flows. neighboring subregions. different regions.

One or few traffickers. Small group of traffickers. Traffickers involved in organized crime.

Small number of victims. More than one victim. Large number of victims.

Some investments and some profits Intimate partner exploitation. High investments and high profits. depending on the number of victims.

Border crossings with or without travel doc- Border crossings always require travel Limited investment and profits. uments. documents.

No travel documents needed for Some organization needed depending on Sophisticated organization needed to move border crossings. the border crossings and number of victims. large number of victims long distance.

No or very limited organization required. Endurance of the operation.

14 INTRODUCTION

TRAFFICKERS, ORGANIZED CRIME tends to increase as more territory and international bor- AND THE BUSINESS OF EXPLOITA- ders are traversed. TION This edition of the Global Report on Trafficking in Persons sheds light on the role of organized crime in trafficking The crime of trafficking in persons is carried out by dif- operations, and presents a first step towards a typology of ferent types of traffickers, ranging from individuals trafficking cases based on the level of organization of the exploiting their partner to organized criminal groups oper- crime as well as of the economic interests behind it. This ating across national borders. Trafficking in persons is work is in its infancy and will be further refined as more usually thought of as a ‘transnational organized crime.’1 relevant information becomes available.3 However, it can And indeed, many trafficking outfits meet the criteria of already shed some light on the more typical features of transnational organized crime groups, as spelled out in many trafficking cases, which will be helpful for design- the United Nations Convention against Transnational ing appropriate responses to this crime. Organized Crime.2 Aspects of the crime are often com- mitted in different countries by criminals not necessarily What is trafficking in persons? hailing from the country where the crime was detected. Trafficking in persons can be conceptualized in different These criminals may have organized themselves to a lesser ways. This Report employs the definition contained in or greater extent. In some cases the complexity of the the United Nations Trafficking in Persons Protocol.4 crime requires a relatively high level of organization. In According to this definition, which has been adopted by other cases, victims of trafficking in persons may have the 160 UN Member States that have ratified the been trafficked by an individual trafficker operating in a Protocol,5 there are three distinct ‘constituent elements’ local community. of trafficking in persons: the act, the means and the pur- In both cases, the profits that human trafficking can gen- pose. All three elements must be present in order for a erate is the prime motivation for the criminals, and case to be defined as a trafficking in persons offence. Each exploiting other people can be lucrative. Just as profit element has a range of manifestations, however. potential is an important consideration for most legitimate The Trafficking in Persons Protocol specifies that “the act” businesses, so it is for traffickers, who have a strong finan- means the recruitment, transport, transfer, harbouring or cial incentive to operate where profits are high. Broadly receipt of persons. “The means” refers to the method used speaking, this means that traffickers will often choose to to lure the victim. Possible means are the threat or use of carry out the exploitation in a location where this will be force, deception, coercion, abduction, fraud, abuse of more profitable. At the same time, traffickers also have to power or a position of vulnerability, or giving payments take into account costs and the risk of detection, which or benefits. These terms are not necessarily precise from a legal point of view and may be defined differently by different jurisdictions. “The purpose” is always exploita- 1 This conceptualization is reflected in the fact that the Protocol to Pre- vent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children – which contains the main, international definition of the crime of trafficking in persons - supplements the United Nations 3 For example, UNODC is starting to collect qualitative data on traf- Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. ficking in persons through interviews with practitioners in select countries. The focus will be on offending, and this data will be used 2 “Organized criminal group” shall mean a structured group of three or to further develop the typology. more persons, existing for a period of time and acting in concert with the aim of committing one or more serious crimes or offences estab- 4 A/RES/55/25 Annex II: The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and lished in accordance with this Convention, in order to obtain, directly Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, sup- or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit.” A/RES/55/25, the plementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Organized Crime. Art. 2 (a). 5 As of 15 August 2014.

15 16 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 whether certain traffickingpatternsorformsofexploita- whether certain States inallregions oftheworld,itispossible todiscern national perspective, andwithdatafrom manyMember of traffickinginpersonsacross theworld.From aninter- the possibilityofobtaininga‘bird’s eye view’ ofthecrime Research by aglobalorganization likeUNODCbrings and flows atthenational,regional andinternationallevels. and report bienniallyontraffickinginpersonspatterns UNODC wasgiven themandateanddutytocollectdata knowledge baseontraffickinginpersons.Asaresult, crime. Amongitsprovisions wasarequest for anexpanded political willamongMember States totacklethisheinous in Persons. adopted theGlobal Plan ofAction toCombat Trafficking In July 2010,theUnited Nations General Assembly in Persons The GlobalReportonTrafficking complexity ofthetraffickingcrimeisevident. intheworld,and country sons affectsnearlyevery the next.Couplethiswithfactthattraffickinginper- to different froming crimescanlookvery onecountry national legislation. This meansthatadjudicatedtraffick- Parties intailoringandadaptingtheir considerable leeway The Protocol definitionisbroad enoughtogive States organs orarangeofotherforms. including sexualexploitation,forced labour, removal of tion ofthevictim,thoughthiscantakeonvarious forms, 6 A/RES/64/293. text box ‘Towards aglobalvictimestimate?’. victim estimate;formore information,pleaserefer tothe ommendations forfuture research work toproduce aglobal researchers onhiddenpopulationsinorder togeneraterec- accomplished. UNODChasconsultedwithleading victims, thisisataskthathassofarnotbeensatisfactorily estimating sizes ofhiddenpopulationssuchastrafficking odological difficultiesandthechallengesassociatedwith victims oftraffickinginpersonsworldwide.Due tometh- At present, there isnosoundestimate ofthenumber of theReport. enhance therelevancewhich willfurther andusefulness also now possibletopresent sometrend information area. Moreover, inthiseditionoftheGlobal Report, itis level responses aswell asinternationalcooperationinthis Such knowledge alsohasthepotentialtoenhancenational- trafficking flows are becomingmore orless pronounced. tion are more prevalent insomeareas, andwhethercertain 6 The Global Plan wasanexpression ofstrong METHODOLOGY

QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION shared with national authorities for verification prior to publication of this report. The data collection for the Global Report on Trafficking Some countries were not covered by the data collection. in Persons has a dual objective: To achieve the broadest These countries did not respond to the questionnaire, and possible geographical coverage by using the most solid in addition, UNODC research efforts to locate official information available. While the geographical coverage is national data on trafficking in persons did not yield any crucial for a report that is global in scope, the solidity of results. information is equally important as UNODC’s intention is to produce a report that is reliable and accurate. Official statistics from national authorities account for 92 per cent of the information collected for this edition of The statistical information was collected by UNODC in the Global Report. Intergovernmental organizations sup- two ways: through a short, dedicated questionnaire7 dis- plied 5 per cent, and non-governmental organizations the tributed to Governments and by the collection of official remaining 3 per cent of the data. information available in the public domain (national DATA COVERAGE police reports, Ministry of Justice reports, national trafficking in persons reports, et cetera). All the information The time period covered by the data is generally 2010- that was collected, regardless of source or method, was 2012. Nearly 20 countries also provided information for

Data on offenders

SUSPECTED PERSONS PROSECUTED PERSONS CONVICTED PERSONS Total number of reported offenders 33,860 34,256 13,310 Gender reported 29,568 10,024 4,915 Citizenship reported 5,747

Data on victims

Total number of reported victims 40,177 Age reported 34,888 Gender reported 33,111 Age and gender reported 31,766 Citizenship reported 27,052 Countries of repatriation reported (for national victims trafficked abroad) 4,441 Form of exploitation reported 30,592 Gender reported according to form of exploitation 22,405

7 Available at the Global Report website, http://www.unodc.org/glotip.

17 2014

the year 2013, and this is normally included in the analy- QUALITATIVE DATA – THE ‘COURT sis. Some trend presentations employ data collected for CASES’ previous UNODC reports on trafficking in persons; in As explained above, the main data source for the Global TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS these cases, the sources are specified. Report is statistical criminal justice data officially reported Reporting from Member States is not uniform. While the to UNODC by Member States. This data forms the basis questionnaire provides a standard set of indicators, many for most of the analyses presented in the Report. However, countries report only partially. For example, some coun- in order to go beyond the statistics, for this edition of the tries may provide citizenships for both offenders and vic- Report, UNODC invited Member States to submit five tims, others for victims only, and yet others may only cases of trafficking in persons that had recently been pros- report the gender or age profile of the victims. As a result, ecuted in their jurisdiction.9 Member States used their GLOBAL REPORT ON the amounts of data that form the basis for the different own discretion when selecting whether to contribute and analyses vary. Below is a breakdown of the data that coun- which cases to include. This means that cases were not tries reported to UNODC for each indicator. necessarily prosecuted under Trafficking in Persons Pro- tocol-aligned legislation. These figures represent officially detected offenders and This call resulted in some 115 case briefs from nearly 30 victims. These are persons who have been in contact with different countries across six of the eight subregions used an institution – the police, border control, immigration in the Report. These briefs will be referred to as the ‘court authorities, social services, shelters run by the state or by cases’ throughout the Report. About half of the cases were NGOs, international organizations, et cetera - as a result submitted by countries in Europe and Central Asia, and of their involvement (or potential involvement in the case more than a quarter by countries in the Americas. Rela- of suspect offenders, and persons in countries that report tively few Asian and African cases were received. data on possible or probable victims of trafficking) in trafficking in persons situations. As for any crime, there is a The submitted material was not uniform, and there were large and unknown ‘dark figure’ of criminal activity that often information gaps that made coding, comparison is never officially detected. As such, the figures reported and analysis challenging. Moreover, the case sample is here do not reflect the real extent of trafficking in persons, relatively small and not necessarily representative of the global manifestations of trafficking in persons. Therefore, but rather a sample of the population of victims and it cannot be used to draw solid conclusions. offenders that is used to analyse patterns and flows of trafficking in persons. Regardless of the limitations, the wealth of information contained in these real-world cases can enrich our under- In terms of geographical coverage, information has been standing of the patterns and flows of this crime. These collected from 128 countries for this edition of the Global cases illustrate some of the many ways in which trafficking Report. Specific country-level coverage is indicated in the in persons is planned and executed in diverse locations, table and map at the end of this section. All regions are and how criminal justice systems across many jurisdictions covered, although the amount and solidity of the data are tackling it. Information from the court cases will be varies between regions and subregions. Broadly speaking, presented alongside the quantitative data where relevant Europe and Central Asia as well as the Americas have solid throughout the Report. When cases are discussed, the data coverage that allows for detailed analyses. Asia and name of the submitting country is stated, but the names the Pacific, and particularly Africa and the Middle East, of other countries involved in the cases have been are covered, but with significant room for improvement omitted. in terms of data quality and quantity. All the information that was collected for and used in this Report is presented in the country profiles8 which also specify the information sources.

9 Additionally, the UNODC Human Trafficking Case Law Database contains more than 1,000 case briefs from nearly 100 different juris- 8 Available at the Global Report website, http://www.unodc.org/glotip. dictions.

18 Methodology

ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT sample used for the analysis in each region, with Europe and Central Asia having the highest number of victims The report consists of two main analytical chapters. Chap- reported to UNODC during the period considered. The ter I provides a global overview of the patterns and flows regional groupings are then further divided into two sub- of trafficking in persons. It also includes an extensive anal- regions when data coverage allows and doing so helps ysis of the role of organized crime elements in the traf- facilitate more extensive analysis. Europe and Central Asia ficking crime, and an overview of the status of country-level consists of Western and Central Europe, as well as Eastern legislation and responses to the trafficking crime. Chapter Europe and Central Asia. The Americas consists of North II analyses patterns and flows of trafficking in persons, as and Central America and the Caribbean, as well as South well as the responses to the crime, from a regional perspec- America. South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific consists of tive. Additionally, the country profiles, which present the South Asia as well as East Asia and the Pacific. Africa and country-level information that was collected for this the Middle East consists of North Africa and the Middle Report, are available on the Report website at www.unodc. East, as well as Sub-Saharan Africa. org/glotip. These information sheets are divided into four main sections: the country’s legislation on trafficking in persons; suspects and investigations; victims; and any additional information on the institutional response. The 128 countries covered have been categorized into four regions: Europe and Central Asia, the Americas, South and East Asia and the Pacific, and Africa and the Middle East. The order of presentation is based on the size of the

Countries covered by the data collection for this report Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014

Source: UNODC. Note: The boundaries shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines represent undetermined boundaries. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined.

19 2014

Regional and subregional designations used in this report TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA

SOUTH ASIA, AFRICA EAST ASIA AND Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 AND THE PACIFIC

GLOBAL REPORT ON THE MIDDLE EAST AMERICAS

North and Central America and the Caribbean North Africa and the Middle East South America Sub-Saharan Africa Western and Central Europe South Asia Eastern Europe and Central Asia East Asia and the Pacific

20 Methodology South Asia (6 countries) in the region THE PACIFIC (total: 12) the Pacific SOUTH ASIA, EAST ASIA AND SOUTH ASIA, EAST ASIA AND East Asia and 18 states out of the 39 UN Member States Malaysia Pakistan (total: 9) Eastern Europe and Central Asia Belarus China Maldives Republic of Mol- dova in the region EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA (total: 34) Western and Western Central Europe 43 states out of the 53 UN Member States Austria Azerbaijan Brunei Darussalam India Bosnia and Herzegovina France Thailand Italy (total: 11) South America Bolivia (Plurinational State of) Venezuela (Bolivar- Venezuela ian Republic of) AMERICAS in the region (total: 18) Caribbean America and the North and Central 29 states out of the 35 UN Member States Cuba Colombia Croatia El Salvador Guyana Czech Republic Tajikistan New Zealand St. Vincent and Grenadines (total: 27) Sub-Saharan Africa Central African Republic Democratic Repub- lic of the Congo Guinea-Bissau Haiti Uruguay Finland Samoa Lesotho Jamaica Germany Viet Nam Republic of Congo and Tobago Trinidad Latvia MauritaniaMozambiqueNamibia Mexico NicaraguaNigeria Panama Hungary Greece Ireland in the region AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST (11 countries) the Middle East North Africa and 38 states out of the 66 UN Member States Algeria Botswana Bahamas Argentina Albania Armenia Australia Bangladesh Bahrain Burkina Faso Barbados Egypt Cameroon Canada Brazil Israel Cabo Verde Costa Rica Chile Bulgaria Kazakhstan Japan Nepal Jordan Lebanon Comoros Dominican Republic Ecuador Cyprus Russian Federation Myanmar Sri Lanka Morocco Qatar Gabon Grenada Paraguay Denmark Ukraine Philippines Tunisia Gambia Guatemala Peru Estonia Uzbekistan Republic of Korea United Arab Emirates Yemen Kenya Honduras

21 2014 TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

South Asia (6 countries) in the region THE PACIFIC (total: 12) the Pacific SOUTH ASIA, EAST ASIA AND SOUTH ASIA, EAST ASIA AND GLOBAL REPORT ON East Asia and 18 states out of the 39 UN Member States (total: 9) Eastern Europe and Central Asia in the region EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA (total: 34) Western and Western Central Europe 43 states out of the 53 UN Member States Lithuania Serbia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland The former Yugo- slav Republic of Macedonia Turkey United Kingdom of Britain and Great Northern Ireland (total: 11) South America AMERICAS in the region (total: 18) Caribbean America and the North and Central 29 states out of the 35 UN Member States United States of America (total: 27) Sub-Saharan Africa Rwanda SenegalSeychellesSierra LeoneSouth AfricaSwazilandTogoUgandaUnited Republic of Tanzania Zimbabwe Malta Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia in the region AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST (11 countries) the Middle East North Africa and 38 states out of the 66 UN Member States

22 CHAPTER I GLOBAL OVERVIEW

In the United Nations Global Plan of Action to Combat TRAFFICKERS Trafficking in Persons,1 Member States requested for the present report to focus on the patterns and flows of traf- In order to understand the crime of trafficking in persons, ficking in persons. ‘Patterns’ refer to the profiles of traf- it is crucial to know who the offenders are. Analysing the fickers and victims; that is, their citizenship, age and citizenship and gender of traffickers can help generate a gender as well as the forms of exploitation. ‘Flows’ refer broader understanding of the profiles of traffickers and to the geographic dimension of trafficking, with a ‘flow’ their networks, as well as on how they operate. As traf- defined as one origin country and one destination country ficking in persons is a crime that is often transnational, with at least five detected victims during the 2010-2012 the question of traffickers’ citizenship is highly relevant, reporting period.2 particularly when it comes to cross-border trafficking as there is often a citizenship link between traffickers and A snapshot of the data shows that most of the offenders victims. Moreover, the issue of female involvement in traf- are men, while most of the detected victims are female ficking in persons is also pertinent. (mainly women, but also a significant number of underage girls). Trafficking is a transnational crime that is often Information on the citizenship of persons convicted3 of carried out domestically or within a given subregion, and trafficking in persons was provided by 64 countries, cov- most offenders are convicted in their countries of citizen- ering a total of 5,747 offenders. Information on the gender ship. Victims, on the other hand, are often foreigners in of suspected, prosecuted and/or convicted offenders was the country where their exploitation was detected. Traf- provided by 43, 59 and 64 countries respectively, cover- ficking flows are usually confined to a geographically lim- ing 29,568 persons suspected, 4,915 persons convicted of ited area, either within a country or between neighbouring and 10,024 persons prosecuted for trafficking in persons. or relatively close countries. The data covers the 2010-2012 period (or more recent). That said, a greater proportion of women are convicted Citizenship profiles of traffickers of trafficking in persons than of nearly any other crime, and the detection of male victims is increasing. Many The aggregated citizenship profiles of the people convicted countries convict a significant number of foreigners of of trafficking in persons show that most offenders are trafficking in persons, and many victims are not trafficked citizens of the country where they were convicted. This is abroad but exploited in their own countries. Although true for more than 6 in 10 convicted traffickers globally. transregional trafficking is less common than the domestic It is reasonable to expect that the majority of people con- or intraregional types, it still accounts for nearly a quarter victed of nearly any crime would be citizens of the pros- of all trafficking flows. ecuting country. Even though international mobility is high, most people still live and operate mainly within their This chapter seeks to untangle some of this complexity. own countries. It will first present a global overview of patterns and flows, and then, a discussion on markets and organized crime as While the majority of offenders are citizens of the country they relate to trafficking in persons. The chapter closes where they were convicted, about 35 per cent of convicted with an overview of the legislative and criminal justice traffickers are foreigners in those countries. This is a larger responses to this crime across the world. 3 Including profile information on persons investigated for trafficking, or on the citizenships of those prosecuted for trafficking (as is done for the gender profile) would have yielded more data. However, using citizenship information only on offenders convicted in the first 1 A/RES/64/293. instance is more solid and limits possible biases related to the poten- 2 This also includes flows where the country of origin and destination tial targeting of particular citizenships within some criminal justice is the same, thus the case of domestic trafficking. systems.

23 24 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 MAP 1: comprise approximately 10percentofthoseconvicted. for mostothercrimes,whichforeign citizens generally share ofconvictedforeigners thanwhatistypicallyseen FIG. 1: United Nations Surveys onCrime Trends andtheOperations of 4 Jammu andKashmirhasnotyetbeenagreed uponbytheparties.ThefinalboundarybetweenSudan andSouthSudanhasnotyet boundaries. Thedottedlinerepresents approximately theLineofControl inJammuandKashmiragreed uponbyIndiaandPakistan Note: Theboundariesshownonthismapdonotimplyofficial endorsementoracceptancebytheUnitedNations.Dashedlinesrepr Source: UNODC. Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. unodc/en/data-and-analysis/statistics/data.html. Criminal Justice Systems (CTS), available at:http://www.unodc.org/ 14% 22% IN THESAMEREGION FOREIGNERS FROMCOUNTRIES OTHER REGIONS FOREIGNERS FROM in persons, Share offoreignoffenders amongthetotalnumberofpersonsconvictedtrafficking (relative tothecountryofconviction) shares oflocalandforeignnationals globally, Citizenship ofconvictedtraffickers 2010-2012(ormore recent);

by country, 56 100 60 25 5 0 Share offoreign offenders 2010-2012 64% NATIONALS 4 This distributionlargelyfollows thebreakdown ofglobal small share willbenon-Asian foreigners. second largestgroup willbeotherAsians,andarelatively trafficking inpersonswillbecitizens ofthatcountry. The reasonable toexpectthatmostofthepeopleconvicted inAsia,forexample,itis means thatinagiven country 14 percentare citizens ofcountriesinotherregions. This tries withintheregion where theywere prosecuted, while victed oftraffickinginpersonsare foreigners from coun- the prosecuting country. Some 22percentofthosecon- from countriesthatare relatively close,geographically, to When foreign offendersare involved, theytendtocome cases thatinvolved atleastoneborder crossing. UNODC over the2010–2012periodwere exploitedin thirds ofthehumantraffickingvictimsreported to crime. Aswillbepresented laterintheReport, abouttwo prising consideringtheoftentransnationalnature ofthis The highshare offoreign involvement shouldnotbesur- trafficking flows, aslong-distance(transregional) traffick- . Thefinalstatusof esent undetermined data notavailable countries notcovered beendetermined.

Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 GlobalGlobal overviewoverview I

Origin or destination country? more typical destination countries. While countries play both roles, the majority of the trafficking flows In the context of discussing trafficking flows, the are either outbound (in the case of a more typical question of whether a given country is more of an origin country) or inbound (more typical destina- origin or destination country is very relevant. tion). Understanding whether a country ‘sends’ or ‘receives’ more trafficking victims is helpful for discerning A more typical country of origin of cross-border transnational trafficking dynamics. It is not possi- trafficking may detect some foreign victims who are ble, however, to make a rigid distinction between being exploited within its territory, but the out- origin and destination countries. As with any aggre- bound flow of that country’s citizens for exploita- gation, such a broad categorization runs the risk of tion in other countries will be far larger. obscuring important details and highlighting obser- Out of the 78 countries that provided information vations that may not be accurate at the micro level. concerning the citizenship of the convicted offend- Moreover, domestic trafficking, which is detected in ers, 37 were considered to be more typical origin most countries across the world, makes countries countries of cross-border trafficking, whereas 41 origins and destinations simultaneously. were considered more typical destination countries. Even if only cross-border trafficking is considered, While it should be kept in mind that the diverse countries may belong to both categories. Indeed, national situations cannot be fully captured by such most countries do, as they detect both outbound a broad categorization, when looking at the global trafficking of own citizens and inbound trafficking level, classifying countries as more typical origin or of foreigners. Only a very few are exclusively origin destination countries of trafficking in persons is or destination countries. For this reason, countries nonetheless very useful for trying to understand may be thought of as being more typical origin or and describe typical cross-border trafficking flows.

ing is much less frequently detected than domestic or their destination country by promising a reasonable salary subregional trafficking. However, it should be noted that and reassuring them that they would not be involved in the share of convicted own citizens among the total prostitution, and then transported the victims across the number of trafficking offenders is generally much higher borders to accomplices. Once in the destination country, than the share of domestic trafficking detected in a given the victims were exploited in prostitution against very country. This could imply that domestic trafficking - little pay. In this scheme, the offenders received money which happens within the borders of one country - is from their partners to cover their costs. From the available mainly organized by citizens of that country. information, it seems that the convicted men were ‘sub- contracted’ to recruit and transport victims for a larger, But even so, local citizens are not only engaged in domestic trafficking. Many of those who were convicted in their foreign-based operation. This shows how convicted per- own countries during 2010 – 2012 were taking part in sons reported as ‘local offenders’ may actually be involved cross-border trafficking, be it subregional or transregional. in cross-border operations. Convicted local citizens could be involved in both domes- Though there are some differences, the overall pattern of tic and cross-border trafficking in some way, for example, offender citizenships in the case of cross-border traffick- as recruiters, transporters, guards or exploiters. ing holds true globally. But if a distinction is made The court cases submitted to UNODC by Member States5 between origin and destination countries for cross-border include an illustrative case from Latvia, where two Latvian trafficking, the picture changes dramatically. men were convicted of trafficking Latvian women to a While countries that are more typically origin countries different country in Western Europe for sexual exploita- for cross-border trafficking convict mainly local citizens tion. The offenders recruited the victims, deceived them regarding the working conditions they could expect in (about 95 per cent of all convictions), more typical destination countries convict fewer own citizens than foreign-

5 For more information on the court cases, please refer to the section ers of trafficking in persons (58 per cent foreigners, 42 on Methodology. per cent locals). Foreign participation is therefore a key

25 26 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 citizens ofthesedestinationcountriesorforeigners. More- maybeeitherlocal exploitation inthedestinationcountry outthe thetraffickerswhocarry (origincountry), country normally recruited by localcitizens inthevictims’ own casesshowswithin thesetofcourt that,whilevictims are A qualitative analysisofthecross-border traffickingcases tination countries,butnotinorigincountries. characteristic ofcross-border traffickinginpersonsdes- those countries,theexploitation schemesindestination in origincountriesare largelycarriedout by citizens of These findingsseemtoindicate thatwhilerecruitments proportions. in originanddestinationcountriessimilar offenders convictedoftraffickinginpersonsmaybefound tinations isrelatively equal.In otherwords, national hand, thedistributionbetween origincountriesanddes- destination countries.For local offenders,ontheother ficking inpersonsshows that95percentare convictedin A closerlookatonlytheforeign citizens convicted oftraf- traffickers inorigincountries. nation countriesare oftenabletorecruit ormaneuver local collected, itcanbehypothesized thattraffickersindesti- authoritative conclusions,onthebaseofofficialdata countries. While there isinsufficientevidencetodraw fickers convictedinorigincountriesare foreigners inthese where theywere convicted. Only 5percentofallthetraf- in destinationcountriesare notcitizens ofthecountry over, asshown above, inthechart 58percentoftraffickers FIG. 2: Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Countries of Countries of destination origin ficking, and destinationofcross-bordertraf- offenders amongcountries oforigin Distribution ofnationalandforeign %2%4%6%8%100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% NATIONAL OFFENDERS 2010-2012 42% FOREIGN OFFENDERS FOREIGN 95% 58% 5 % FIG. 3: in the destination country fortheactofrecruitment in thedestinationcountry apparentparticularly whentheoffenderwasprosecuted ships ofbothtrafficker(s)and victim(s) matched. This was cases, manyofthecasebriefs indicatedthatthecitizen- tions ofcross-border trafficking.Moreover, in thecourt citizenships ofvictimsandoffendersinselecteddestina- confirmed by aclearstatisticalcorrelation between the victims fromofcitizenship. theirown country This is Many foreign traffickersalsoseemtofrequently traffic operators. countries are likelytoinvolve more transnational FIG. 4: Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 5% ORIGIN COUNTRIES OF 2010-2012 tion ofcross-bordertrafficking, by countriesoforiginanddestina- (relative totheconvictingcountry) Convictions offoreigncitizens cross-border trafficking, tries oforiginanddestination to theconvictingcountry)bycoun- Convictions oflocalcitizens(relative 60% ORIGIN COUNTRIES OF 95% DESTINATION COUNTRIES OF 40% DESTINATION COUNTRIES OF 2010-2012

Global overview I

(sometimes also other acts). This indicates that ethno- FIG. 6: Persons prosecuted for trafficking linguistic affinities and specific local knowledge may be in persons, by gender, 2010-2012 very useful for traffickers in recruiting their victims. (or more recent) Gender profiles of traffickers

An analysis of potential offenders’ first contact with the criminal justice system – the time of suspicion and/or 32% 68% investigation but before prosecution – shows that 38 per cent of suspected offenders were women during 2010- 2012. This is another anomaly in comparison to other types of crime. While the majority, some 62 per cent, of suspected traffickers are male, the female share is large. These shares are similar, though somewhat smaller, at Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. other stages of the criminal justice process as well: 32 per cent of prosecuted and 28 per cent of convicted traffickers are women. For most other crimes, the share of females FIG. 7: Persons convicted of trafficking among the total number of convicted persons is in the in persons, by gender, 2010-2012 (or more recent) range of 10-15 per cent.6 Relatively high female involvement appears to be another characteristic of the crime of trafficking in persons.

FIG. 5: Suspected trafficking offenders coming into first contact with the 28% 72% criminal justice system, by gender, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

38% 62% Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

the trafficking process; roles that may be more visible and therefore more easily detected by law enforcement. Per- haps women are more frequently used as recruiters, particularly in cases of trafficking for sexual exploitation, as

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. they may be more easily trusted by other females. Women may also be more likely to be assigned roles as guards, When looking at the gender and age of offenders and vic- money collectors and/or receptionists in places where tims, for the period 2007-2010, countries with high rates exploitation takes place. These ‘low-ranking’ activities are of female offending were generally countries where many often more exposed to the risks of detection and prosecu- underage female (girl) victims were detected. This could tion.8 In addition, the roles of women in the human traf- indicate that female traffickers are more frequently ficking process often seem to be those that require frequent involved in the trafficking of girls.7 interaction with victims. This can increase the risk of One possible explanation for the high female involvement detection for female offenders since many investigations in this crime is that women might play different roles in of trafficking in persons cases rely heavily on victims’ testimonies. 6 United Nations Surveys on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (CTS), available at: http://www.unodc.org/ Another factor may be that a relatively high proportion unodc/en/data-and-analysis/statistics/data.html . 7 UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2012 (United 8 For more details, see UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons Nations publication, Sales No. E.13.V.1). 2012, pp 30-31.

27 28 GLOBALGLOBAL REPORTREPORT ON TRAFFICKINGTRAFFICKING IN PPERSONSERSON 2014 from their origin country forsexualexploitationinfrom their origincountry wasconvictedoftraffickingfourwomencountry mark, acouplewithbackground from anEastAsian For casereported by Den- example,inonecourt were reported from several destinationcountries. tothatphaseofthecrime.Suchparticipation cases carried outtherecruitment didnotlimithis/her ally collaboratedintheexploitation;personwho the couple’s adoptedcountry. The offendersgener- country, forexploitationin andthentransported country, by thepersonwithbackground from that try. Victims were usuallyrecruited from theorigin both ofthespouseswere citizens ofanorigincoun- lived inadestinationcountry, andeitheroneor sexual exploitation.In thesecases,thecouplesoften transnational andinvolved traffickingofwomenfor Several casesthatinvolved ofthecourt coupleswere member waslargerthanformen. orclosefamilyvicted alongsideanintimatepartner ofwomenoffenderswhowerethe proportion con- among thetotalnumberofconvictedtraffickers, lings. While there were more menthanwomen some thatinvolved mother-daughterpairsorsib- many casesthatsawconvictionsofcouples,and mitted by nearly30different countries),there were UNODC by Member States (some115cases sub- for othercrimes.In casessubmittedto thecourt offending ishigherfortraffickinginpersonsthan lings), maybeafactorinexplainingwhyfemale as closefamilyrelationships (parent-child orsib- Offending linkedtointimaterelationships, aswell crimes isusuallyintheregion of10-15percent. whereas theaverage femaleconvictionrateforother worldwide between 2010and2012were women, crime. Some 30percentofconvictedtraffickers crime farmore oftenthanformostothertypesof are alsoprosecuted andconvictedofthetrafficking majority ofdetectedvictimsworldwide,butwomen Not onlydowomenandgirlscomprisethevast in personsisthelargeextentoffemaleinvolvement. One ofthecharacteristicscrimetrafficking persons offending Intimate and/orclosefamilyrelationships andtraffickingin ing isoftenlinkedtoclosepersonalrelationships. forced labour. The casessuggestthatfemaleoffend- intraffickingforexploitation, theyalsopartake more frequently involved in traffickingforsexual sentences. Althoughwomenoffendersseemtobe The twoperpetratorsbothreceived 4-month prison movements andnotpermittingbreaks orholidays. making herwork excessive hours,controlling her labour. They exploitedtheir foreign housekeeperby an elderlycoupleconvictedoftraffickingforforced profits oftheirwork. Moreover, anIsraeli casesaw and sellflowers, withthetraffickerstakingaway The children were made tocleancarwindshields forexploitation inforced labour.bouring country eight children toaneigh- from theirnative country women whowere related. Together, theytrafficked case from Mexico thatsawtheconvictionoftwo outtraffickingforforced labour,also carry asina cases,couplesandclosefamilymembersin thecourt While there were more casesofsexualexploitation nightclubs inthereceiving country. deception andsubsequently‘sold’ toowners of separate cases. The victimswere recruited through were alsootheraccompliceswhowere chargedin where theexploitationtookplace. country There ers wasacitizen andtheother, ofBelarus, ofthe received 5-year prisonsentences.One oftheoffend- Western andCentralEurope. Bothperpetrators in intosexualexploitationinacountry country tion ofacouplefortraffickingsixwomenfrom that cases,submittedby sawtheconvic- Belarus, court domestic ortransnational.One ofthetransnational tries around theworld. These casescouldbeeither Similar caseshave beenregistered inmanycoun- country. banfrom theiradoptedincluded apermanententry offence, andtheyreceived thesamesentence,which inthe tookequalpart confirm thatthepartners country. inhernew sex industry The casenotes made easierby herpriorexperienceworking inthe outtherecruitment; atask tocarry origin country Denmark. travelled toherThe femalepartner Global overview I

FIG. 8: Persons convicted of trafficking in FIG. 9: Detected victims of trafficking in persons, by gender and (sub)region, persons, by age and gender, 2011 2010-2012

100% WOMEN 90% 80% 49% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% East Asia Americas Africa and Africa and Pacific South Asia, Middle East Middle MEN BOYS GIRLS Western and Western Central Europe Eastern Europe Eastern and Central Asia 18% 12% 21%

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. of trafficking cases seems to involve intimate partner and/ victims detected between 2010 and 2012 whose age and or family relations. This was seen in the court cases, where gender were reported. convictions of intimate partners or two or more people Adult women continue to comprise the largest group of in close family relationships were reported from several detected victims, as approximately half of the total number countries. are women. Although this is a large proportion, it has There are some regional differences in terms of the gender decreased markedly, which is in line with the trend breakdown of persons prosecuted for and convicted of reported in previous editions of this Report. This reduc- trafficking in persons. Female offending rates in Eastern tion in the number of women is partially offset by the Europe and Central Asia are higher than the global aver- increasing detection of girls, who now comprise around age. Africa and the Middle East, as well as the subregion one fifth of the total number of detected victims world- of Western and Central Europe, report relatively low wide. As a result, while the proportion of detected female shares of convicted female offenders. victims is clearly decreasing, it is not decreasing as steeply as the trend for adult women. TRAFFICKING VICTIMS During the 2010-2012 period, the share of males among An analysis of the profiles of detected trafficking victims the total number of victims detected globally ranged over the 2010-2012 period confirms the broad pattern between 25 and 30 per cent. This is an increase compared reported previously by UNODC9 covering the 2003-2010 to the years 2006 and 2009. The trend of underage boy period. The vast majority of the victims detected globally victims has increased since 2004. While increases can be are females; either adult women or underage girls. The seen for both men and boys, it is more pronounced for overall profile of trafficking victims may be slowly chang- men. The key reason seems to be the greater number of ing, however, as relatively fewer women, but more girls, detected cases of trafficking for forced labour in many men and boys are detected globally. countries, as this type of trafficking involves more male than female victims. Information on the age and gender of trafficking victims was provided by 80 countries. It covers a total of 31,766 The previously reported trend of an overall lowering of the average age of detected victims has been confirmed by

9 See UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2012 and the data collected for this Report. Child trafficking, in UNODC/UN.GIFT, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, 2009. which victims are below 18 years of age, accounts for more

29 30

0 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 child victimshasincreased significantlyinrecent years. during the2010-2012period. ofdetected The proportion than 30percentofthetotalnumbervictimsdetected America, aswell assomecountriesinSouth Americadid While AfricaandtheMiddle East,North andCentral victims were notwitnessedacross allregions orareas. However, increasing shares ofchildren among thedetected enumerating hiddenpopulations ofsuccessfulmethodologiesinobtain anoverview ulations’. The objective ofthemeetingwasto with experienceinuncovering various ‘hiddenpop- hosted ameetingwithacademicsandresearchers available estimate.In December 2013,UNODC hotly debatedasthere isnomethodologicallysound problem –thatis,how manyvictimsthere are –is The questionofthemagnitudetrafficking estimate? Towards aglobalvictim 2. 1. concludedthat:experts acuteindeveloping countries,theparticularly In order fillingthedatagaps,whichare tostart victim estimatebaseduponasoundmethodology. thedevelopment ofareliabledo notsupport global UNODC andthecomplexityofphenomenon methodologies. The datacurrently available to global orregional extrapolationsbasedonweak encouragedUNODCtoavoid genericThe experts of aglobalvictimestimate. emphasisonthepotentialdevelopmentparticular research methodsontraffickinginpersons,with approach: Such studiesshould bebasedonamultiplesteps trafficking considered. geographical realities andforthespecificformsof be considered asrepresentative ofthespecific oftheworld.Suchent parts studiesmayonly studies tobeconductedatlocallevels indiffer- UNODC couldinitiateaseriesofsmallfield • • •

Carefully definetightindicatorsfor Define strictgeographicalboundaries. field work onthemost relevant. in theregion concerned, andthusfocusthe etcetera)occurring ging, domesticservitude, persons andexploitation(sexual,labour, beg- erature review oftheforms oftraffickingin assessmentandlit- Conduct preliminary I andtodiscuss pronounced regional differences. Children comprisethe The patternsoftraffickingin personscontinuetoshow 2007-2010 period. trafficking remained relatively stablecompared tothe Asia aswell asSouth Asia,EastAsiaandthePacific, child other regions oftheworld,suchasEurope andCentral register clearincreases duringthe2010-2012period,in spective. require significantresources andalong-termper- mendable objective. Achieving it,however, would the globalnumberoftraffickingvictimsisacom- Generating amethodologicallysoundestimateof Nations-led thatcouldbeusedsimilarly. surveys some regularity. There are alsosomeUnited with outvarious nationalsurveys these oftencarry relevantparticularly forindustrialized countriesas ing inpersons-related questionsincluded. This is vehicles tohave by relevant makingefforts traffick- totakeadvantage ofexistingdatacollectiontry Additionally encouragedUNODCto theexperts severity oftraffickinginpersonsmaybecarriedout. pleted, amore comprehensive assessment ofthe Once acriticalmassofsmallstudieshasbeencom- I Further informationontheresearch methodologiesand Sheldon X.Zhang(San Diego State University, United States). and Sexual Violence againstChildren, theNetherlands) and de Vries (National on Rapporteur Trafficking inHuman Beings Thomas M.Steinfatt (Miami University, United States), Ieke (Centers forDisease Control andPrevention, United States), (United States ofJustice), Department Michael ‘Trey’ Spiller University ofSouthampton, United Kingdom),John Picarelli Peter van derHeijden (Utrecht University, theNetherlands/ States), Jan van Dijk (Tilburg University, theNetherlands), were: Kelle Barrick (RTI –Research Triangle Institute, United and Society the nexteditionofUNODCjournal meetingcanbefoundin approaches discussedattheexpert • • •

Participate inthefieldstudies. scale-up, capture-recapture). driven sampling,geo-mapping,network multiple validating approaches (respondent- population considered andendeavour touse Identify thebestsamplingdesignsfor sub-populations. Design modularquestionnaires fordifferent under consideration. the localrealities andtheformsoftrafficking trafficking inpersonsthat are appropriate for (forthcoming 2015). (forthcoming The meetingparticipants Forum onCrime Global overview I

FIG. 10: Trends in the shares of females FIG. 12: Trends in the shares of children (girls (women and girls) among the and boys) among the total number total number of detected victims, of detected victims, 2004-2011 2004-2011

100% 100%

80% 80% 74% 67% 60% 59% 60% 49% 40% 40%

17% 20% 13% 21% 21% 20% 10% 17% 13% 12% 10% 9% 10% 0% 0% 3% 2004 2006 2009 2011 2004 2006 2009 2011

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

FIG. 11: Trends in the shares of males (men FIG. 13: Shares of children and adults among and boys) among the total number the detected victims of trafficking in of detected victims, 2004-2011 persons, by region, 2010-2012

100%

CHILDREN ADULTS 80% Africa and Middle East 62% 38% 60%

40% Americas 31% 69%

South Asia, 20% 13% 12% 14% 18% East Asia and 36% 64% 12% 9% 10% the Pacific 0% 3% Europe and 2004 2006 2009 2011 Central Asia 18% 82%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. majority of victims detected in Africa and the Middle East, accounting for more than 60 per cent of the victims in this region. In Europe and Central Asia, trafficking in persons mainly concerns adult victims, as they comprise 83 per cent of the victims detected there. South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific and the Americas report similar age profile breakdowns, with adults comprising about two thirds of the detected victims, with children making up the remaining one third.

31 32 GLOBALGLOBAL REPORTREPORT ON TRAFFICKINGTRAFFICKING IN PPERSONSERSON 2014 the Dutch authoritiesformore thanadecade. This typeofrecruitment hasbeendenouncedby obtains theprofits. the victimintosexualexploitation,from whichhe develops, theexploitermanipulatesand/orcoerces male andthevictimfemale.As‘relationship’ may alsobeadults.Generally, theperpetratoris of thistyperecruitment are oftenunderage,but with thevictiminorder togainhertrust. Victims a romantic interest andenteringintoarelationship salary. In othercases,criminalsdeceive by feigning such asthetypeofjob, theworkplace andthe The victimmaybedeceived aboutwork conditions happen inmanyways,itofteninvolves deception. the traffickingprocess. Though therecruitment can ofThe recruitment ofvictimsisanessentialpart Recruitment through feignedromantic relationships of traffickingfourunderagegirls. The sentences males –includingoneminorboy -were convicted In case, reported by anothercourt Canada,10 onment. alone, andhewassentencedtonineyears’ impris- and beather. In thiscase,theoffenderwasacting money paidby thecustomers.He alsothreatened forced herintoprostitution andtookawaythe moved together toadifferent city. Once there, he her,courted theybegandating,andeventually the videogameparlourwhere sheworked. He for example,amanmethis16-year-old victimat often anunderagegirl.In onecasefrom Mexico, ing situationswhere onemanrecruited onevictim, Many casesinvolved ofthecourt domestictraffick- world. cas, there were ofthe alsocasesfrom otherparts these casesoriginatedfrom countriesintheAmeri- ficient toestablishwithcertainty. While mostof may have beenused,buttheinformationisinsuf- recruitments, andeven more where thismethod Member States includedseveral clearcasesofsuch tries. casessubmittedtoUNODCbyThe court tively commonrecruitment method inmanycoun- However, feignedromantic relationships isarela- I

I tims. one ofthewayscriminalsgoaboutrecruiting vic- one victimandfeignedromantic relationships is forced labour. Every traffickingcaseneedsatleast used todeceive potentialvictims oftraffickingfor ceivable thatthisrecruitment methodcouldalsobe cases,itisnotincon- cases withinthesetofcourt another country, andalthoughthere were no such The exploitationcantakeplacedomesticallyorin ofalargergroup.fickers operatingalone,oraspart romantic relationships canbeusedeitherby traf- These casesshow thatrecruitment through feigned to five years’ imprisonment. the traffickereachday. The traffickerwassentenced a prostitute andgenerateasetamountofmoneyfor Europe, thevictimwaslockedin,forced towork as Buteven paidforherpassport. oncetheyarrived in arrangedthetravel andvictim, gainedhertrust, offender pretended thathewasinlove withthe bringing hertoEurope forsexualexploitation. The feigned romantic relationship forthepurposeof of recruiting alocalwomaninBrazil through a case from Brazil, aEuropean manwasfoundguilty to occurinadomesticcontext,however. In acourt This typeofrecruitment doesnotnecessarilyhave larger schemetoexploitseveral girls. feigned romantic relationship ofa wasonepart then collected.Here, therecruitment through the forpaymentsthetraffickersvide sexualservices threats andpro- ofviolence,toabideby strictrules gang members. The victimswere thenforced, under lished, thegirlswere introduced totheother, older in love hadbeenestab- withhimandoncetrust with multipleunderagegirls.Some ofthegirlsfell ated atschoolswere hecouldeasilymakecontacts in whichtheminorboy wastherecruiter. He oper- ried outarelatively extensive traffickingoperation The offenderswere ofa‘street part gang’ whocar- ranged from onetothree years ofimprisonment. See, forexample, November 2002. of theDutch National Rapporteur, Bureau NRM, The Hague, Trafficking inHuman Beings , theFirst Report Global overview I

MAP 2: Share of children among the total number of detected victims, by country, 2010-2012 Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014

Share of children countries not covered 0 10 30 60 100 data not available Source: UNODC. Note: The boundaries shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines represent undetermined boundaries. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined.

FORMS OF EXPLOITATION Information on the forms of exploitation was provided by 88 countries. It refers to a total of 30,592 victims of Exploitation is the source of profits in trafficking in per- trafficking in persons detected between 2010 and 2012 sons cases, and therefore, the key motivation for traffickers whose form of exploitation was reported. to carry out their crime. Traffickers, who may be more or less organized, conduct the trafficking process in order to Looking first at the broader global picture, some 53 per gain financially from the exploitation of victims. The cent of the victims detected in 2011 were subjected to exploitation may take on a range of forms, but the prin- sexual exploitation, whereas forced labour accounted for ciple that the more productive effort traffickers can extract about 40 per cent of the total number of victims for whom from their victims, the larger the financial incentive to the form of exploitation was reported. carry out the trafficking crime, remains. FIG. 14: Forms of exploitation among Victims may be subjected to various types of exploitation. detected trafficking victims, 2011 The two most frequently detected types are sexual exploi- FORCED tation and forced labour. The forced labour category is LABOUR ORGAN broad and includes, for example, manufacturing, cleaning, 40% REMOVAL construction, textile production, catering and domestic 0.3% servitude, to mention some of the forms that have been OTHERS reported to UNODC. Victims may also be trafficked for the purpose of organ removal, or for various forms of 7% exploitations that are not forced labour, sexual exploitation or organ removal. These forms have been categorized SEXUAL EXPLOITATION as ‘other forms of exploitation’ in this Report, and this Section will also examine the detections of these ‘other 53% forms’ in some detail. Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

33 34 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 gion ofEasternEurope andCentralAsiainparticular, region are traffickedforsexualexploitation.In thesubre- More than65percentofthevictimsdetectedinthis form oftraffickinginpersonsEurope andCentral Asia. Trafficking forsexualexploitationisthemajordetected in recent years of traffickingforforced labourhasbeenasignificant trend labour detectionsisincreasing. The increasing detections exploitation isthelargestcategory, theshare offorced While amongthedetectedtraffickingvictims,sexual FIG. 15: America is a likely underestimation as this category does America isalikelyunderestimation asthiscategory ofdetectedtraffickingforforced labour inSouthportion in South America,thepercentage isaround 40. The pro- detected victimsare exploitedinforced labour, whereas America andtheCaribbean,more than50percentofthe of theAmericas,however. In North America,Central There are somedifferences between thetwosubregions in nearlyidenticalproportions. labour andtraffickingforsexualexploitationare detected regional In overview). theAmericas,traffickingforforced reported victimsare traffickedforforced labour(seethe the subregion ofSouth Asia, over 80percentofthe accounts fornearlytwothirds ofthedetectedvictims.In labour isthemajordetectedformoftraffickingasit South Asia,EastAsiaandthePacific, traffickingforforced labour are farhigherthan inEurope andCentralAsia.In In theotherregions, theshares oftraffickingforforced overview). 71 percentofthevictims(seealsoregional sexual exploitationisfrequently detected,accountingfor Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 0% 5% 0720 0921 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 for forcedlabour, Share ofdetectedvictimstrafficked 32% 33% 35% 2007-2011 36% 40% 1 Theinterpretative 3ofthe notesonarticle Trafficking inPersons 11 Some countries inSouth Americahave legislationthatisnotfully 10 ing, illegaladoption, pornography), forced marriages,benefitfraud,baby sell- crime, forbegging,pornography(includinginternet in forced labourandsexualexploitation,forcommitting period. These typesare trafficking formixed exploitation fied by thenationalauthoritiesduringreporting exploitation, forced labourororganremoval were identi- Globally, tentypesofexploitationdifferent from sexual would beconsiderablylarger. tims oftraffickinginpersonsforforced labour globally would beconsidered trafficking victims,theshare ofvic- ‘slavery conditions’ orslavery-like trafficking process. If thevictimswhoare exploitedunder extent theyare inexploitative situationsasaresult ofa recorded astraffickingvictimsitisunknown towhich conditions’.slavery-like These victimsare notofficially not includethelargenumberofvictims‘slavery and FIG. 16: Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. the Middle East Middle the where this amounts to a practice similar to slavery asdefinedinthe where thisamountstoapracticesimilarslavery adoption istobeconsidered asapurposeoftraffickinginpersons Protocol (seeA/55/383/Add.1, paras.63-68)indicate that illegal related to‘slavery conditions’ andslavery-like inthesecountries. Protocol-compliant legislationmayinsteadbeprosecuted ascrimes may beprosecuted astraffickingforforced labourincountrieswith in linewiththeUN Trafficking inPersons Protocol. Offences that Central Asia Central Europe and Europe South Asia South and Pacific and Africa and Africa East Asia, East Americas region, detected trafficking victims, Forms ofexploitationamong %2%4%6%8%100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% slavery like servitude and Forced labour, Sexual exploitation 6 26% 66% 6 4 10% 4% 64% 10% 47% 26% 37% 48% 53% 2010-2012 (ormore recent) 11 armedcombatandforrituals. 10 inSouth America of exploitation Other forms Organ removal

by 8% Global overview I

MAP 3: Countries that report forms of exploitation other than forced labour, sexual exploitation or organ removal, 2010-2012 Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014

Cases have been reported in the country

Begging Commits crime Illegal adoption or child selling Forced marriages Child soldiers Pornography data not available Benefit fraud countries not covered Mixed exploitation Source: UNODC. Note: The boundaries shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines represent undetermined boundaries. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined.

There are pronounced regional differences with regard to between the profile of the detected victims and the type these ‘other forms of exploitation’. While in Europe and of exploitation is only partial, however, and an analysis of Central Asia, this category mainly includes begging and the profiles commonly associated with the different types victims trafficked to commit (often petty) crime, in Sub- of trafficking reveals some significant nuances. Saharan Africa, it often entails trafficking of children for Globally, the vast majority of detected female victims are armed combat (‘child soldiers’). In Asia, the issue of forced trafficked for sexual exploitation, whereas most of the marriage is also frequently reported for victims who are detected male victims are trafficked for forced labour. not trafficked for sexual exploitation, forced labour or organ removal. However, a closer look at the broad category of trafficking for forced labour reveals that this is not a crime that only During the reporting period, cases of trafficking for organ involves male victims. In fact, about one third of the total removal were detected and reported by 12 countries. These number of victims detected globally who were trafficked victims account for about 0.2 per cent of the total number for forced labour are females, and about two thirds are of victims. Most of the detected victims of this form of males. In other words, females are also trafficked for forced trafficking are males. labour in significant numbers. In general, the profiles of the victims of trafficking reflect An analysis of the regional differences shows that in Africa the types of trafficking that are more commonly detected and the Middle East, as well as in South Asia, East Asia in different parts of the world. The observed correlation and the Pacific, females account for the majority of the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave detected victims trafficked for the purpose of forced Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery (cited in the labour. Although the data coverage for these vast regions Travaux Préparatoires of the Negotiations for the Elaboration of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime is relatively poor, which makes it difficult to draw strong and the Protocols Thereto, p. 347). conclusions, exploitation in domestic labour – which

35 36 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 FIG. 17: often affectswomen FIG. 18: 2 See, forexample, Surtees, R., 12 total numberofvictimstraffickingforsexualexploita- does existanditisnotnegligible.About 3percentofthe trafficking ofmalesforthepurposesexualexploitation majority ofthedetectedvictimsare females.Nonetheless, Looking attraffickingforsexualexploitation,thevast the victimsofthistypetrafficking. two regions, femalescompriseapproximately onethird of the Americas,althoughnotasfrequently asmales.In these ing forforced labourinEurope andCentralAsiain Females are alsofrequently detectedasvictimsoftraffick- quently from someareas withintheseregions. This formoftraffickinghasbeenreported relatively fre- Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 0.1% Malaysia, Agencies andtheEmployment ofCambodian Domestic Workers in Inter-Agency Project onHuman Trafficking (UNIAP), Institute toCombatHuman Trafficking, 2007; andUnited Nations Europe: Developing prevention andassistanceprogrammes, REMOVAL ORGAN (or more recent) Forms ofexploitationamongdetectedfemaleandmaletrafficking victims, labour, victims oftrafficking forforced Gender breakdownofdetected July 2011. 7% OTHERS 14% LABOUR FORCED 35 2010-2012(ormore recent) 12 -maybeoneoftheexplanations. % Labour Trafficking inSouth-eastern 65 79% EXPLOITATION SEXUAL % Recruitment NEXUS 8% EXPLOITATION SEXUAL FIG. 19: The share ofdetectedvictimsexploitedintrafficking for lower endoftherange,whereas itishigherinEurope. per cent.In AfricaandtheMiddle East,theshare isinthe relatively low across allregions, rangingbetween 2and5 victims varies significantlybetween regions. It is,however, amongthetotalnumberofdetected the exactproportion In thecaseoftrafficking of malesforsexualexploitation, types ofexploitation. About onefifthofmalevictimswere subjectedto‘other’ tion), some8percentare exploitedinthesexindustry. only atthedetectedmalevictims(alltypesofexploita- tion detectedbetween 2010and2012are males.Looking Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. East Asiaand Central Asia Middle East Middle Europe and South Asia, thePacific Africa and 1% Americas REMOVAL ORGAN 8% OTHERS more recent) labour, victims oftrafficking forforced Gender breakdownofdetected %2%4%6%8%100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 69% 23% 68% 45%

by region, 2010-2012 (or 83% LABOUR FORCED 2010-2012 31% 77% 32% 55% Global overview I

FIG. 20: Gender breakdown of detected TRAFFICKING FLOWS victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation, 2010-2012 (or more Trafficking in persons is a crime of global scope that leaves recent) virtually no country unaffected. An analysis of the geographic dimension of this crime, that is, where victims are trafficked to and from, can help in identifying and moni- toring acute situations and inform the prioritization of 97% 3% anti-trafficking efforts. Information regarding the citizenships of detected victims in their destination countries is crucial for mapping the trafficking flows, and many Member States were able to provide such information to UNODC. In addition, data regarding the destination countries of victims who have been repatriated to their own (origin) countries can also shed light on trafficking Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. flows. Analyses stemming from such data is presented separately. FIG. 21: Gender breakdown of detected victims of trafficking for ‘other’ Information regarding the citizenships of victims was pro- forms of exploitation than forced vided by 83 countries. It refers to a total of 27,052 victims labour, sexual exploitation or organ of trafficking in persons detected between 2010 and 2012 removal, 2010-2012 (or more recent) (or more recently) whose citizenship was reported. With regard to repatriation, information was provided by 35 countries, covering 4,441 own citizens (relative to the reporting countries) who had been repatriated by other 73% 27% countries where they had been detected as victims of trafficking. The broad geographical dispersion of victim detections is well known. Between 2010 and 2012, victims with 152 citizenships were detected in 124 countries across the world. At least 510 trafficking flows13 were detected glob- Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. ally. This should be considered an absolute minimum as it is based on official data reported to UNODC which does not include the hidden cases of trafficking; the actual forms other than sexual exploitation, forced labour or number of flows is likely to be significantly higher. organ removal has increased from 3 per cent in 2006 to 6 per cent in 2010 and 7 per cent in 2011 worldwide. Victims can be trafficked either domestically (within the Between 2010 and 2012, some 60 per cent of the victims borders of one country14) or transnationally (crossing at falling into this category were women or girls. The broad ’other forms’ category includes very different types of traf- 13 Defining a ‘flow’ as one origin country and one destination country ficking in persons that often involve victims with different with at least five detected victims during the 2010-2012 reporting profiles. Trafficking for forced armed combat - or child period. This also includes the case of domestic trafficking in which the country of origin and destination coincide. soldiers - targets mainly boys. Mixed forms of labour and 14 Transnationality is not a requirement for establishing a traffick- sexual exploitation mainly affects women, whereas forced ing in persons offence. The Legislative Guides to the Trafficking in marriages usually involve victims that are girls or young Persons Protocol (and the Convention against Transnational Organ- ized Crime, which the Protocol supplements) state that ‘It must women. Trafficking for begging and/or committing petty be strongly emphasized that, while offences must involve transna- crime mainly involves children, both girls and boys, as tionality and organized criminal groups for the Convention and its international cooperation provisions to apply, neither of these must does trafficking for the production of pornographic mate- be made elements of the domestic offence.’ (UNODC, Legislative rial. For some other forms of exploitation, including for Guides for the implementation of the United Nations Convention against Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto, Section A, Implementation fraudulent state benefit claims and other purposes not of the Protocol, Article 18.) Domestic trafficking in persons cases are listed here, the profile information is not known. reported by most of the countries that submit data to UNODC.

37 38 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 within thesamesubregion). also oflimitedgeographicalreach (theyoftenhappen andatleastoneborder crossingcountry -theyare usually national –meaningthattheyimplicatemore thanone another. While mostdetected casesoftraffickingare trans- trafficking; thatis,beingtraffickedfrom oneregion to of thetotalnumbervictimsexperiencedtransregional were traffickedcross-border. However, only27percent per centofthedetectedvictimsover the2010-2012period least oneborder between different countries).About 70 with destinationsinotherareas. although there are alsosometransregional trafficking flows the Middle East, Western Europe andNorth America, trafficking are more oftendetectedintheaffluentareas of between originsanddestinations. Victims ofthistype flows provide theclearest illustrationofthedistinctions the totalnumberofdetectedtraffickingflows, andthese Transregional traffickingcomprisesabout27percentof large city. tion intomore affluentareas; oftenthecapitaloranother poorer traffickedforexploita- areas ofthegiven country domestic traffickingofteninvolves victimsfrom relatively casessubmittedby Memberthe court States suggeststhat collect thisinformationsystematically, informationfrom tively richerones.Similarly, althoughUNODCdoesnot within agiven geographicalarea being exploitedinrela- type -oftenseesvictimsfrom relatively poorer countries gional trafficking–whichisthemostcommonlydetected crimeandthebusinessofexploitation organized As willbediscussedlaterinthesectionon FIG. 22: Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 34% (WITHIN NATIONALBORDERS) DOMESTIC 37% SAME SUBREGION CROSS-BORDER WITHIN (or more recent) by geographicalreach, Breakdown oftrafficking flows 26% TRANSREGIONAL 2010-2012 3% SUBREGION FROM NEARBY Traffickers, , intrare- forced labour. The traffickersevaded USvisarequirements intotheUnitedcountry States andexploitedthemin members (whowere brothers) traffickedvictimsfrom their ica, anEasternEuropean criminalgroup withatleastfive In case,submittedby the United onecourt States ofAmer- graphically confinedscheme. require more amore skillsandcapitalthanstarting geo- ting upatransregional traffickingoperationsalsooften extents.Set- toinvolve otherstovarying often necessary single offendertotrafficoneortwovictimsalone,itis exploitation commences. While itmaybepossible fora trol thevictimuponarrival atdestination,before the the victimduringtravel andawaytocollectcon- of sending andreceiving countries,lodging,supervision inboththe localtransportation national transportation, intothedestinationcountry,permits toallow entry inter- visasorother offenders generallyneedvalid passports, itout. of carrying To trafficsomeoneacross continents, A keyfeature oftransregional traffickingisthecomplexity case isminimal,buttheprofit potentialalsopalesincom- described above, thepreparation andmanagementinthis comparison tothetransregional traffickingoperation exploit hersexuallyagainstpayment tothetrafficker. In andforced todrinkalcoholinorderstarved formento shop, butwasinsteadlockedupintheshop, threatened, recruited with apromise ofcashierwork intheoffender’s ficking onegirlforsexualexploitation. The girlwas from El Salvador where awomanwasconvictedoftraf- cases,forexample,onecase arrangements inthecourt place ofbusiness. There were several instancesofsuch ing forthevictimsastheymayusetheirown residence or Moreover, traffickersmaynotneedtoacquire speciallodg- –canoftenbeeasilyarrangedby private car.– ifnecessary travel documentsandcostlyflighttickets,transport less preparation andorganization. There isnoneedfor Domestic trafficking,ontheotherhand,tendstorequire imprisonment. sentence oflifeplus20years, andtheother, 20years’ members have sofarbeenconvicted;onereceived aprison tal andlabourtosetuprun. Two ofthegroup ate considerableprofits, italsorequires alotofskills,capi- properties. While suchatraffickingoperationmaygener- work ascleanersandjanitorsinvarious largecommercial wereTheir passports takenawayandtheywere madeto lodgedandcontrolled. victims hadtobetransported, into theUnited States. Once intheUnited States, the tourist visasandthenarrangingforthemtobesmuggled on by having thevictimstravel toaneighbouringcountry Global overview I

MAP 4: Shares of detected victims who are trafficked into the given country from another subregion, 2010-2012 Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014

Share of detected victims from other subregions subregions used in the report countries not covered 0 2 20 60 100 data not available Source: UNODC. Note: The boundaries shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines represent undetermined boundaries. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined. MAP 5: Shares of detected victims by subregional and transregional trafficking, 2010-2012

99% 1% 61% 39% Eastern Europe Western and Central Asia and Central Europe 58% 42% North America, North Africa and Central America the Middle East 32% 68%

and the Caribbean Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 96% 4% 97% 3% South East Asia Asia and the Pacific

97% 3% Sub-Saharan 94% 6% Africa South America

subregions within from outside used in the report the subregion the subregion or country countries not covered Source: UNODC. Note: The boundaries shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines represent undetermined boundaries. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Sudan and South Sudan has not yet been determined.

39 40 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 FIG. 23: MAP 6: Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Jammu andKashmirhasnotyetbeenagreed uponbytheparties.ThefinalboundarybetweenSudan andSouthSudanhasnotyet boundaries. Thedottedlinerepresents approximately theLineofControl inJammuandKashmiragreed uponbyIndiaandPakistan Note: Theboundariesshownonthismap donotimplyofficial endorsementoracceptancebytheUnited Nations.Dashedlinesrepr Source: UNODC. E astern EuropensandCentralAsians North AfricansandMiddleEasterns Note: thevalues in destinationsubregions to totalvictimsdetected Share ofthenationalitiesvictims Western andCentralEuropeans of thetotalvictimsdetectedindestinationsubregions The arrows showtheflowsthatrepresent 5%andabove N&C AmericansandCaribic victims, Citizenships offoreignvictims, origins, Main destinationareasoftransregionaltrafficking flows(inblue)andtheirsignificant and theCaribbean Central America North America, SubSaharan Africans below1%are notshown. South Americans 2010-2012 2010-2012 South Asians East Asians Americans South Asia South in 3% America South in 4%

countries notcovered by subregion,sharesofthetotalnumberdetected and Central Western Western Europe Asia East in 2% Sub-Saharan Africans The Middle Europe Central Western, in 7 10% 17% 2% 2% 4% 6% 1% %25% 6% East and Central Europeans Eastern Africa North East, Middle in the 18% 33% 6% Asians South Caribbean and the America Central North, in 3% 5% 7% Asians East Africa Saharan Sub- in . Thefinalstatusof esent undetermined 3% beendetermined. Asia Central Europe, Eastern in

Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 Global overview I parison. The investments of traffickers into the trafficking FIG. 24: Diffusion of trafficking flows within process seem to be related to the expected profits as the and out of the subregion of origin traffickers aim at maximizing their return – as in any other (number of countries where citizens of countries in the given subregions business. were detected), 2010-2012 (or more Looking specifically at transregional trafficking, the recent) Middle East15 registers the highest share of inbound traf- EAST ASIA ficking from other regions. More than half of the victims detected in that area were trafficked from other regions. For Western and Central Europe and North and Central SOUTH ASIA America and the Caribbean, this was true for about 40 per cent of the detected victims. The origins of victims SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA involved in transregional trafficking flows are also very diverse, with victims coming from countries in most other SOUTH AMERICA regions.

The other regions and subregions are very different and NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN hardly report transregional trafficking. The shares of domestic and intraregional trafficking in these regions are SUBREGION OF ORIGIN EASTERN EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA above 95 per cent. While there are relatively small shares of victims trafficked in from other regions in some of these NORTH AFRICA AND MIDDLE EAST countries, the overwhelming majority of the victims detected in East Asia are citizens of other East Asian countries, in South Asia they are mainly South Asians, in Africa WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE they are generally Africans and so forth. Considering the dispersion of victims from different areas, 0 102030405060 it is clear that some origin areas have a global dimension, Number of countries where these victims have been detected where victims from that particular area are trafficked Number of countries in other reregionsgions widely across the world. Other areas are more regional, Number of countries in the neanearbyrbyy subregionsuubreregion and some predominantly domestic. East Asian victims Number ooff countries in thethee samesamme subregionsubregegionon belong in the first category. Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. Victims from East Asia have been detected in all regions and subregions of the world; often in significant numbers. detected within the broader region of Europe and Central East Asians – particularly South-East Asians – have been Asia. Only a limited number of countries outside Europe detected in and/or repatriated from the most geographi- report detecting victims who are citizens of countries in cally dispersed set of destination countries of any geo- Eastern Europe and Central Asia, which means that traf- graphical aggregation of victims. This is largely because ficking originating in this area is highly relevant and East Asian victims have been detected in and/or repatri- widely spread across Europe, whereas East Asian traffick- ated from the highest number of destination countries ing is also transregional. outside that region, particularly in North America, the In addition to East Asia, other significant origin areas for Middle East and Western and Central Europe. transregional trafficking flows are South Asia (widely Victims from the subregion of Eastern Europe and Cen- detected in the Middle East and North America), Sub- tral Asia have also been detected in and/or repatriated Saharan Africa (detected in Western and Central Europe) from a large number of countries. The difference is that and South America (detected in Western and Central victims from Eastern Europe and Central Asia are mainly Europe, as well as in North and Central America). As previously mentioned, in Eastern Europe and Central 15 While the Middle East is part of the broader subregion of North Asia, South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, South America Africa and the Middle East, the data from North Africa is extremely scarce. Therefore, the information on trafficking flows in this subre- and Sub-Saharan Africa, victims from outside the region gion refers near exclusively to the Middle East. in question are rarely detected.

41 42

2 GLOBALGLOBAL REPORTREEPORO T ON TRAFFICKINGTRAFFICKING IN PPERSONSERSONS 202014 Republic. recruited by armedgroups intheCentralAfrican in May 2014thatatleast6,000children have been victims detectedare ofconcern.UNICEF reported them ascombatantsfordecades. The numberof Africa have beenforcibly recruiting children touse ent armedgroups operating inCentraland West reported from countriesinAfrica, where thediffer- been widelydocumented. Child soldieringisaformoftraffickingthathas displaced, and2.5millionare refugees). are some6.5millionSyrians whoare internally escaping conflictareas (UNHCRreports thatthere large numbersofdisplacedpeopleandrefugees It canbeassumedthatthisincrease parallelsthe detected intheMiddle Eastandin Western Europe. turmoil in2011.Most ofthesevictimshave been rarely detectedbefore thebeginningofSyrian werevictims, whilevictimsfrom very thiscountry countries intheworldreport havingdetectedSyrian this Report, duringtheperiod2011-2013,eight areas. According totheinformation collectedfor ing flows originatingfrom ordestinedtoconflict different. These are allfactorsthatamplifytraffick- lifeareguage andthemanagementofeveryday networks andfacesituations whereport thelan- creates vulnerabilitieswhenpeoplelosetheirsup- create ademandforcombatants.Mobility by itself generate genderimbalancesinconflictzones, and Conflicts oftencausedecayofnationalinstitutions, with thenumberofdisplacedpeopleandrefugees. nerable populations,inconnectionforinstance affected communities.Conflictsincrease thevul- impact onthelevel ontraffickinginpersons As otherdisasters,armedconflictscanhave an Trafficking inpersonsandarmed conflicts mented inthisandprevious Report editionsduring children over a20-monthperiodin2012-2013. tion Mission documented therecruitment of996 Congo, theUnited Nations Organization Stabiliza- African region. are mobileandoperateacross theentire Central from neighbouringcountries asthesearmedgroups Victims are notonlyCongolese,butalsochildren III In theDemocratic Republic ofthe v Similar practices have beendocu- II Most ofthecasesare I IV

I VI V IV III II in some parts oftheworld. in someparts and young womentraffickedforsexualexploitation conflict zones mayhave fuelledthedemandforgirls under theUnited Nations flag)inconflictandpost- and stabilizationforces (includingthoseoperating mented how thestationingoftroops, peacekeepers persons forsexualexploitation.It hasbeendocu- human rightsviolations,includingtraffickingin oflaw.rule This mayopenthedoortovarious ened duetosocialdegradationandtheabsenceof where organized crimeactivitiesare oftenstrength- sexual exploitation. This isduetothesituation Conflicts mayalsocreate demandforvictimsof East aswell asinSouth America. conflicts inAfrica,different countriesintheMiddle

See, forexample,United Nations, Center forStrategic andInternational Studies, 2005. brothels: peacekeepersandhumantrafficking intheBalkans, (A/67/297 (Part II)),2013;Mendelson, S.E., 2012 keeping operations fortheperiodfrom 1January to31December Activities oftheOffice ofInternal onpeace- Oversight Services A/60/861; A/61/957;A/62/890;A/63/720);United Nations, fortheyearsretary-General 2003-2008(A/58/777;A/59/782; from sexualexploitationandabuse situation intheCentral AfricanRepublic 2014; United Nations, conflict intheDemocratic Republic oftheCongo Nations, en/peacekeeping/missions/monusco/reports.shtml); United covering theyears 2010-2013(available at:http://www.un.org/ sion intheDemocratic Republic oftheCongo General ontheUnited Nations Organization Stabilization Mis- See, forexample,United Nations, ment by Armed Groups inDRC, sion intheDemocratic Republic oftheCongo), MONUSCO (United Nations Organization Stabilization Mis- Four Month Progress Report, UNICEF, Conflict inAChanging World, UNICEF, General oftheUnited Nations. A/51/306,26August 1996; Children See, forexample,United Nations, org/pages/49e486a76.html. snapshot asofJanuary 2014, operationscountry profile -Syrian Arab Republic, 2014 United Nations High CommissionerforRefugees (UNHCR) –Report oftheOffice ofInternal Oversight Services Report oftheSecretary-General onchildren andarmed - Report ofGraça Machel, oftheSecretary- Expert Machel Study 10-Year Strategic Review Children and Children inCrisis inCentral AfricanRepublic –a Report oftheSecretary-General onthe May 2014. April 2009.

available at:http://www.unhcr. VI October 2013.

Special measures for protection Impact ofArmed Conflicton Report oftheSecretary- (S/2013/787), 2013. –Reports oftheSec- , various reports (S/2014/453), Child Recruit- Barracks and Statistical Global overview I

TRAFFICKERS, ORGANIZED CRIME ease with which single individuals can victimize children. AND THE BUSINESS OF EXPLOITA- In this case, the recruitment method was simply a promise TION of a proper job in the shop. The shop owner was arrested and convicted in 2011 with a prison sentence of eight and The analysis of the patterns and flows has revealed that a half years for trafficking in persons. trafficking in persons is an intricate crime. The definition of trafficking in persons comprises a series of actions car- Similar cases are recorded everywhere in the world. In ried out by different actors, victimizing different persons Europe, the Austrian authorities reported a court case of in different ways by different means. On the surface, the a young man from Central Europe who easily managed children sold by their parents to work as street vendors or to deceive two young compatriots with a promise of a who are exploited in domestic servitude are very different decent job in Austria. Once at destination, a relatively from the transcontinental trade of women exploited in short drive from their home, the trafficker physically the commercial sex markets of Western Europe, migrants threatened them in order to force them into street pros- from Latin America exploited in agriculture in North titution. With the help of people passing by, the victims America, or men exploited in the construction sector in managed to escape, and the trafficker was convicted with the Middle East. What they do have in common is that a prison sentence of six years. A similar case was submit- they are victimized through a trafficking process. ted by Canada, where a single individual started to exploit his girlfriend in prostitution. This local trafficker leveraged Regions differ not only in terms of where the trafficking his power over the girl, and turned what had seemed like takes place or which trafficking patterns prevail. Within an intimate relationship into an exploitative situation. He the same geographical area, victims may have been traf- received a five-year prison sentence. ficked from a distant region, from a neighbouring country, Such cases do not always involve sexual exploitation, how- or from a nearby village to be exploited in brothels or the ever. In another court case, submitted by Nigeria, a woman catering industry, in agriculture or begging, or as domestic was convicted of recruiting two young boys by promising servants. All these forms and flows coexist everywhere in their parents that they would receive an education. But the world. However, while the suffering of the victims is the boys were never put into school once they arrived at the same, the trafficking organizations differ in line with the woman’s residence, which was far from their home- the process required for bringing the victims into an towns. Instead, they were made to work as street hawkers, exploitative situation. giving all the profits to the trafficker, and they also had to In which ways are domestic and transregional trafficking do her domestic work. Moreover, the boys were not fed different, and how are they similar? What is the role of properly, and were also beaten on occasion. The trafficker organized crime in human trafficking, and how do traf- was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. fickers operate? A qualitative analysis of the court cases Many other cases could illustrate how human trafficking submitted by Member States combined with a quantita- can be easily conducted by single individuals with a lim- tive analysis of the profiles of victims and offenders will ited organization in place. This is particularly true if it is help to clarify and categorize different forms of conducted against one or a few victims exploited locally. trafficking. In such cases, the individual traffickers and their victims Individual traffickers and organized are either citizens of the country where the exploitation groups takes place, or foreigners who have been living many years in that country or foreigners from a nearby location. These Non-organized domestic trafficking cases nearly always involve trafficking within the same country or between neighbouring countries, and a limited As shown in some of the court cases, coercing one ado- number of victims. lescent from the very same village or region for prostitution, for instance, can be easily conducted by one or two The fact that this type of trafficking is conducted by indi- people. In the previously discussed case from El Salvador, viduals acting independently does not mean it is uncom- the shop owner could easily deceive a young girl by taking mon. According to the data collected, domestic trafficking advantage of her age to force her into sexual exploitation accounts for 34 per cent of the total number of detected for his shop’s clients. This is an example of the relative victims, and trafficking conducted within countries

43 44 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 and ahalfyears tothree andahalfyears. convicted andreceived prisonsentencesrangingfrom one involved forced marriageandrape.Six perpetratorswere gold jewellery. For oneofthevictims,casealso tion through shoplifting,beggingandtheselling offake young girlsfrom withintheextendedfamilyforexploita- Members ofthisgroup were foundtohave traffickedfour extended familygroup from anotherEuropean country. casesreported byOne Norway ofthecourt involved an especially whentraffickersoperateinwealthy countries. the exploitationofmore victimsandthushigherrevenues, nated manner. Agreater level oforganizationmayenable victims andtooperateindifferent countriesinacoordi- operate inanorganized group In contrasttoindividualtraffickers,thosetraffickerswho Organized subregionaltrafficking of heremotionalrelationship withhim. and thegirlfriendissubjugatedtoherpimponbasis the revenues generatedby theprostitution ofhispartner, organized crimeactivity. In thisstudy, thetraffickerenjoys relationsdysfunctional intimatepartner ratherthanan for sexualexploitationthere have somecharacteristicsof shows thatavast majorityofthecaseswomen trafficked domestic trafficking.AstudyconductedinAmsterdam of this isaphenomenonwhichmaybesubstantialpart Of course,not all are operatedby individualsalone,but belonging tothesamesubregion accountsfor37percent. 7 According tothe United Nations Convention against Transnational 17 Verhoeven, M.,et.al.(2013),‘Relationships between suspectsand 16 European countries.Here, thegroup soldthevictimsto by planeorcar, totheirdestinationsinseveral Western them, This implieddeceivingthevictimsandtransporting convicted offenderswere recruitment andtransportation. tion in Western Europe. The mainactivitiesofthe pose ofsellingthemtoothercriminalgroups forexploita- from LithuaniaandotherBaltic countries,withthepur- This group specialized inrecruiting mainlyunderagegirls local citizens, whooperatedasagroup, were convicted. tion. For example,Lithuaniareported acasewhere five withregardparticularly totraffickingforsexualexploita- Many similarexampleswere cases, foundwithinthecourt material benefit. by atleastfouryears ofincarceration) inorder toobtainfinancial or tocommitatleastoneserious crime(punishable acting inconcert group ofthree ormore persons,inexistenceforaperiod oftime, Organized Crime, anorganized crimegroup isunderstood tobea violence parallelinDutch traffickingcases,’ victims ofsextrafficking.Exploitation ofprostitutes anddomestic Criminal andPolicy Research, 12 December 2013. 17 maybeabletotrafficmore 16 European Journal of

especially ifthisentailstraffickingmore victimsacross the this typeoftraffickingmayrequire anorganized network, limited geographicalrange.Nonetheless, theyshow that took placewithinthesamesubregion, thatis,withina The casesdiscussedabove refer totraffickingepisodesthat tion riskwouldhave beenlower. border orinaneighbouringBaltic country, andthedetec- required ifthevictimswere exploitedwithinthenational above, suchanelaborateorganizationwouldnothave been crossings require control oftravel documents.In thecase ing inpersonsorotheroffences–especiallyiftheborder increases the risksofbeingarrested –whetherfortraffick- The transnationalnature ofthesetraffickingprocesses coordination anddistributionoflabour. cant investments fortravel andborder crossing, andoverall activity required connectionswithothergroups, signifi- exploitation. This cleartransnationalorganized crime other groups whowouldthenforce themintosexual for longhours. This group wasabletoexploit23mostly of decentjobs.Once atdestinationthey were exploited with promises recruited labourers intheirorigincountry involved inothercriminalactivities. The traffickers by asophisticatedcriminalorganizationthatwasalso Ontario. The victimswere work forced intoconstruction victims exploitedinforced labour intheprovince of Similarly, Canada reported acaseofCentralEuropean ranging between 1and16years ofimprisonment. traffickers were convictedandreceived prisonsentences arrested someofthegroup members.In thiscase,the12 into othercountriesoncetheIsraeli lawenforcement that thetraffickerswere abletomove ofthebusiness parts The highlevel oforganizationwasalsoproved by thefact Middle Eastforaboutseven around years, 1999. starting ent countriesinEasternEurope, Western Europe andthe ferent ofthecountry. parts The group operatedindiffer- exploitation inbrothels controlled by thecriminalsindif- andtheirincluded beingsmuggledacross thedesert), (whichinsomecases crossing tothedestinationcountry from therecruitment ofvictims,totheirillegalborder ring comprisedadozen traffickerswhoseactivitiesranged European countriesintoIsrael forsexualexploitation. The ficking ringthatmoved womenfrom different Eastern zation. Israel, caseofatraf- forexample,reported acourt Some traffickingcases require substantiallevels oforgani- Organized transregionaltrafficking period oftime. borders withexploitationtakingplaceover anextended Global overview I male victims in forced labour, mainly working on differ- geographical area usually does not require a large or very ent construction sites, with recruitment, transporting and sophisticated organization. exploiting activities conducted across two continents. The Canadian authorities describe the group as highly organ- How organized are the traffickers? ized and structured around family ties. The criminals were As discussed above, the perpetrators and their levels of not only keeping the victims under constant control in organization vary from one individual managing to traffic Canada, they were also threatening their families back in one victim, to large-scale networks that are able to move Europe. Moreover, the traffickers were also using the vic- many victims from one continent to another, and to tims to conduct welfare fraud against the Canadian state. exploit them for years. There are of course no clear bound- Finally, the traffickers were involved in theft and money- aries between these scenarios, but rather, different ways laundering in Canada and Europe, which suggests that it of organizing the trafficking, as well as distinctive skills, was a sophisticated and well-organized criminal group. In assets and capacities among the participants. In addition, this trafficking case, convictions were secured by the Cana- groups and networks may change, expand or shrink over dian authorities in January 2011. The leader of the organi- time for various reasons. zation received a nine-year sentence, with other members receiving shorter sentences and/or substantial fines. Does the profile of the offender vary according to the sophistication of the trafficking operations? As discussed As the Israeli case above indicates, the endurance of cer- in the section on offenders, in general terms, traffickers tain trafficking flows may be an indicator that transna- usually either have a connection with the territory where tional organized crime networks are behind the crime. For they operate or with the citizenship of the victims. They example, Nigerian trafficking flows into Western Europe exploit victims related to their own community or citizen- have been significant for several years, and reports from ship, and they may also be citizens of the place where the different European criminal justice authorities indicate trafficking is happening. It may be easier for persons with that this trafficking flow is very well organized, and also the same citizenship to gain a potential victim’s trust. As difficult to detect (for further information on this type of shown by Zhang, many trafficking in persons operations trafficking, see the text box on page 56). Moreover, make use of this relatively easy connection with the victim Norway reported a case of one West African victim who to carry out the crime.18 And it is easier for traffickers to was rescued and assisted in Norway. This victim was ille- operate in territories where they have or have had citizen- gally smuggled from West Africa through North Africa, ship or very close links, be it in origin or destination South-Eastern and Western Europe, to finally end up in countries. Norway. The level of organization that this sort of travel requires for an irregular immigrant is considerable. Even- In a court case from Australia, 11 South-East Asian tually the victim was forced into street prostitution in women were trafficked into the country for exploitation Norway to pay back a debt of 50,000 euro to her traffick- in prostitution in different cities. The trafficker was a ers. The traffickers had contact with family members of woman originally from the same country as the victims, the victim in the origin country, along the smuggling but she was living in Australia at the time of the crime. route, and in different parts of Europe. Threats to family She was seemingly operating alone, but she did have con- members were used to keep the victim compliant. The nections in the origin country where someone was arrang- case brief stated that this “network maintained a steady ing the travel of the victims, including the acquisition of stream of women into prostitution in Europe”. visas. She also had connections with brothel owners in different parts of Australia. In July 2010, the main From the cases discussed here, and for many others col- offender was convicted and sentenced to two years and lected by UNODC, it can be concluded that the trans- three months’ imprisonment. nationality of the flows – particularly when the movement involves restricted border crossings - the victimization of In the same year, in another court case, the Danish author- more persons at the same time, and the endurance in con- ities reported having convicted an intimate couple from ducting the criminal activity, are all indicators of a high another European country for having trafficked a cona- level of organization of the trafficking network behind the 18 Zhang, S. X. (2012), Trafficking of Migrant Laborers in San Diego flow. While in the case of domestic or local trafficking, County: Looking for a Hidden Population, San Diego, CA: San Diego exploiting a limited number of victims within a limited State University.

45 46 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 tional intoDenmark andforced herintoprostitution for travel across thecontinent, several border crossings and toArgentinainacomplexschemethatinvolved country country, forhavingtrafficked girlsfrom theCaribbean women, twolocalcitizens andtwocitizens ofaCaribbean The Argentineauthoritiesreported theconvictionof four toChileforsexualexploitation. neighbouring country convicted forhavingtraffickedtwowomenfrom thesame –were- aChileanandcitizen ofaneighbouringcountry prostitution. In arecent casefrom Chile,twotraffickers for trafficking victimsfrom theBalkans intothecountry a casefrom Malta, aMaltese nationalwasconvicted for the traffickerswere citizens ofthedestinationcountry. In between EasternEurope andIsrael describedpreviously, In othercases,likethesophisticatedringoperating ban. expelled from Denmark withapermanententry 14 monthsto3years. Most oftheoffenderswere also and theoffendersreceived prisonsentencesrangingfrom perpetrators andthevictimscoincidedalsointhiscase, exploitation inforced prostitution. The citizenships ofthe brought atleasteightyoung womentoDenmark for ferent levels withinthegroup hierarchy. The group different competencesandactivities describe as organized acriminalgroup thenationalauthorities persons from EasternEurope were convictedforhaving one andhalfyears. In adifferent casefrom Denmark, nine In thedestinationcountries,convictedtraffickersmay be traffickers’ level oforganization. inquestion). country This isconfirmedregardless ofthe local citizens (indifferent depending onthe proportions, whereas destinationcountriesconvictbothforeign and tries. Origin countriesmainlyconvictlocalcitizens, from theprofile ofthetraffickers operatinginorigincoun- nation countriesofcross-border traffickingisdifferent offenders, theprofile ofthetraffickersoperatingindesti- Considering theaggregated dataonthecitizenships ofthe exploitation. of citizenship tieswiththevictimsor the country that operatedin Western Europe. These groups hadno selling thevictimstocriminalgroups from theBalkans Baltic countriestobeexploitedinotherwas tioned Lithuaniangroup thatrecruited womenfrom the in anotherby citizens ofathird country. The above-men- andare exploited victims thatoriginatefrom onecountry however.The generalpatternisnotarule, There are also exploitation indifferent nightclubs. well-organized andstructured inrelation totheir …and organized indif- cal origincountries. This indicatesthatgenerally, local ers, there are foreign few traffickersdetectedinmore typi- As discussedintheanalysisofprofiles oftheoffend- citizens. when theyare foreigners, theyoftenexploittheirfellow tries, traffickerscanbelocalorforeign citizens; however, victims oftenbeingfellow citizens. In destinationcoun- -areportation carriedoutby localcitizens, withthe tions inorigincountries-suchasrecruitment andtrans- trafficking, theoverall patternisthattraffickingopera- This reinforces theideathatwhenitcomestocross-border the samecountry. detected there, sothetraffickersandvictimscomefrom selected destinationsandthecitizenships ofthevictims between thecitizenships ofthepersonsconvictedin destination countries,there isastatisticalcorrelation the victimstheytraffic.Focussing onlyoncross-border either localcitizens orcitizens oftheorigincountries 9 In Western andCentralEurope, theshare ofthecitizenships ofthe 19 in sexualexploitationisleveraging hispower over herfor from thevictims. The ‘loverboy’ whoexploitshisgirlfriend extorted economic benefitfrom thelabourandservices tims), thevast majorityoftraffickingisaimedatobtaining that compriseasmallshare ofthetotalnumbervic- removal forritualsandsomeotherforms ofbodyparts tims. With exceptions afew (suchaschildsoldiers, common: thebusinessaround theexploitationofvic Different traffickingoperationshave onekeyelementin gional trafficking: The economicinterest oftransre- victims incross-border oreven transregional trafficking? distance trafficking,whydotraffickersbothertoexploit ficking require lessorganizationthanmediumandlong- If,own country? asstatedabove, domesticandlocaltraf- don’t traffickerssimplytrafficthesamevictimsintheir If victimsare traffickedby their own compatriots,why they are thendetectedby nationalauthorities. origin countriesmove tothedestinationcountrieswhere of theorigincountry. On theotherhand,traffickersfrom conviction profiles, thisisusuallydoneby localtraffickers to origincountriescollectvictimsthere. In lightof traffickers ofdestinationcountriesdonotphysicallymove 0.000), . confirmed intheUnited ArabEmirates (pearsonscoeff0.748;sign correlation isstronger (pearsonscoeff0.985;sign0.000),and also correlated (pearsonscoeff0.828;sign0.000).In Argentina,thesame victims andoftheoffendersdetected between 2010and 2012are 19 followthemoney - Global overview I profit. The families exploiting domestic help in Africa or around $400.20 The price of women may not only be a housing restavek children in the Caribbean are benefiting direct function of the profit potential as the perceived risk from the labour of these children. The debt bondage associated with carrying out the crime also plays a role, as schemes behind some West African or East Asian traffick- does the demand for sex services. Nonetheless, broadly ing networks are leveraging the migration dream of the speaking, the richer the country, the higher the profits the victims to exploit them in forced labour or in the com- exploitation business can generate, and the more the mercial sex market. Trafficking in persons is motivated by exploiter is willing to invest for a victim to be exploited profit maximization and organized by traffickers trying there. to maximize benefits and minimize costs. The higher the profits, the greater the economic incentives to conduct The same logic applies to trafficking for labour exploita- the trafficking crime. tion. The average legal salary of a labourer in the construction industry in the United States is about US$2,200 per There are always economic gains involved in exploiting month.21 In Central America, such work is legally remu- people, domestically or abroad. At the same time, exploit- nerated at $60, on average, per month, and farmers in the ing them in relatively richer countries (in relation to the same area are paid around $30 per month.22 Even when origin country) is economically more advantageous selling the work of his or her victims for half of the legal because the services the traffickers demand from the vic- salary, the margins the Central American traffickers will tims have a higher monetary value there. be able to generate by exploiting fellow citizens in the In the case previously discussed, about a local national construction sector in North America are far higher than exploiting his girlfriend on his own in Canada, the author- in the origin countries, particularly when the living costs ities estimated that this trafficker profited about are reduced to the minimum by providing sub-standard US$180,000 during the 8 months of the victim’s exploi- conditions. Thus Central American traffickers want to tation in the commercial sex market. This means that the move their victims and exploit them in North America trafficker was able to earn on average $750 per day where the profits can be much higher. through this exploitative business. In Denmark, the There are also significant differences in the values of the national authorities reported that a victim from a country labour markets in Central Europe or the Balkans in com- in the Balkans who was forced into sexual exploitation by parison to Western European countries. According to legal two compatriots earned them at least $50,000 over 18 standards, a labourer in agriculture or in the construction months. The exploitation of the 11 South-East Asian vic- sector may be paid around 250 euros per month in the tims who were trafficked to Australian brothels lasted for Balkans, 100 euros in Eastern Europe and 1,500 euros in some two years and resulted in a net profit of between Western Europe.23 While traffickers do not assess where US$55,000-65,000, at a minimum. Such amounts would to traffic their victims on the basis of legal salary levels, be all but impossible to earn from prostitution in poorer such levels nonetheless give an indication of the value of countries. The authorities in the Philippines have reported the labour extorted from the victims of trafficking in dif- that victims of sexual exploitation in the Philippines were forced to serve their clients for a price of US$10-20 per ferent countries, and thus, where it is more economically time. The same price level was reported by the Chilean profitable to exploit the victims. authorities. The previously discussed Canadian case of the well-organ- Although the data is scarce and anecdotal, it is nonetheless ized criminal group exploiting Central European victims clear that the business of sexual exploitation is more prof- in forced labour is illustrative. The victims were forced to itable if operated in richer countries. This is also illustrated work long hours in the construction sites in Canada; made by the fact that the prices traffickers pay for women to harder by living under the threat that their families may exploit in the sex industry varies in line with whether the 20 The GDP per capita for these countries was: Japan: US$38, 492 trafficking is conducted in richer or poorer countries. (2013); Slovenia: $22,059 (2012); and Argentina: $14,760 (2013). According to information provided by the Japanese (World Bank, World Development Indicators, GDP per capita in authorities, the price of women in trafficking in persons current US$). 21 See International Labour Office (ILO), LABORSTA database on cases ranges around US$20,000. In Slovenia, the authori- wage statistics, available at: http://laborsta.ilo.org/STP/guest. ties reported values around $4,000. In Argentina, the price 22 Ibid. for a woman to be exploited in commercial sex ranges 23 Ibid.

47 48 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 is exploitedinforced labour, orsexual domesticservitude providedThe services by thevictims,whether heorshe Austria. would have beententimeslessthanthosegeneratedin ness hadbeenconductedintheBalkans, therevenues least 100,000euros intotal.If thesameexploitative busi- This exploitative businessguaranteedthetraffickersat rescued andthetraffickersarrested andlaterconvicted. tion continuedforeightmonthsuntilthevictimswere 2,000 euros permonthforthetraffickers. The exploita- that thework ofeachvictimgeneratedprofits ofabout the cleaningsectorinAustria. The authoritiescalculated the Balkan area whowere exploitedinforced labourin The picture issimilarinthecaseofsixvictimsfrom tences inCanada. fickers miscalculatedtherisksandare now facingjailsen- exploitation intheirorigincountries.However, thetraf- were muchhigherthanwhatcouldhave comefrom the group generatedby exploitingthevictimsinCanada equate accommodation).Asaconsequence,theprofits living (minimized by forcing thevictimstolive ininad- ited toone-offtravel costsofvictimsandlocalcost times more. than itwouldhave beeninCentralEurope, aboutfive fickers, andthevalue oftheirlabour wasmuchhigher derived by thework ofthesevictimswere keptby thetraf- have suffered violencebackinEurope. The revenues 5 According toILO LABORSTA, themonthlypayforalaborer inthe 25 According toILO LABORSTA (op.cit.), theaverage monthly payfor 24 alsowhentheanalysisfocuses trafficking, andthisistrue ing shows thatrichercountrieshave largershares ofsuch (GDP) percapitaandtheshare oftransregional traffick- positive correlation between thegross domesticproduct gional traffickingthanthepoorer oftheword. parts A flows, therichregions oftheworldattractmore transre- For thesereasons, asshown inthesectionontrafficking prevent victimsfrom reporting tonationalauthorities. such aslanguageandmigrationstatus(oftenillegal)may increased vulnerability tocontrol and coercion, asfactors to thetraffickersintermsofvictims’ potentially higher andlabourisalso where thedemandforsuchservices exploitation, are sold at higherpricesinrichercountries per monthfortheperiodconsidered. inhotelsandrestaurantsBalkans wasaround 220euros forservices euros permonthfortheperiodconsidered. inCanadawasaround 2,000 a laborer industry intheconstruction . Also, richercountriesmayoffersome‘advantages’ 25 24 Also,theinvestments oftraffickersare lim- geographical scopeofthetraffickingisusuallylimitedto tims thanricherones.However, inpoorer countries,the suffer less.Poor countriesmayattractmore vic- orfewer countries, orthatthevictimsexploitedinpoorcountries This doesnotmeanthatthere islesstraffickinginpoor flows. These includeissuesrelated tojobmarkets, migra- ditions thathave animpactonthedirections oftrafficking In additiontoeconomicfactors,there are also othercon- victims intheoppositedirection. Middle East-whilethere islittletogainfrom moving victims there -to Western Europe, North Americaorthe poorer countrieshave aneconomicinterest ofmoving attracts victimsfrom allover theworld. Traffickers in origin countriesfrom different regions. The ‘global north’ tries seevictimstraffickedinfrom alargernumberof domestic orsubregional trafficking,whiletherichercoun- ment levels. on individualregions, orwhencontrolling fordevelop- 7 Ananalysisofvariance (ANOVA) amongtheshares ofcitizenships of 27 Theshare ofthevictimstraffickedfrom outsideoftheregion ofdetec- 26 crime. Acorrelational analysisbetween thelevel oforgan- relation tocross-border traffickingflows isorganized The samedatashow thatanotherfactortoconsiderin victims are traffickedalongtheflow between them. world. trafficking flows ofthe between them,alsoinrichparts tion isstrongly correlated withtheintensityof ofdestina- of originandacountry ity between acountry between 2010and2012shows thatgeographicalproxim- A statisticalanalysisofthedataonvictimsdetected and profits A trade-off betweenorganization trafficking activities. themselves well enoughtoconducteffective transregional ficking route. Relatively traffickersare few abletoorganize the measures implementedby countriesalongthetraf- plicated andmayinvolve significantrisksdependingof indicated before, totrafficvictimsinternationallyiscom- and lawenforcement andborder control efficiency. As tion policy, regulation, prostitution policy, legalcontext higher thantransregional trafficking. shows traffickingfrom withintheregion ismore thanthree times groups, victimsfrom withinthe region and from outsidetheregion, foreign victimsoftraffickingdetectedatdestination dividedintwo 0.729; sign0.000). 2011 show asignificantandstrong positive correlation (pearsonscoeff tion fortheperiod2010-2012,andGDPpercapitayear 27 In general,theclosertwocountriesare, themore 26

Global overview I

FIG. 25: Correlation between the share of transregional trafficking victims detected and GDP per capita, recorded in the countries of destination

90,000

80,000 Qatar

70,000

60,000

50,000

United Arab Emirates 40,000 Canada

30,000 Israel Finland United Kingdom 20,000 Bahrain

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT PER CAPITA (2011) PERPRODUCT CAPITA GROSS DOMESTIC 10,000 South Africa Costa Rica

0 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Share of victims detected originating from outside the region

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. ized crime28 measured at the origin country level, and the It is important to note that these results only refer to cross- share of citizens of these countries detected in the major border trafficking. This statistical link does not exist destinations of transregional trafficking (Western Europe, between domestic trafficking and organized crime. North America and the Middle East) proved significant Domestic trafficking happens everywhere, and it seems and positive.29 This means that the higher the prevalence to be unrelated to the level of organized crime. of organized crime in the origin countries, the more vic- The relationship between organized crime and cross-bor- tims of these origin countries are detected in the major der trafficking flows is also confirmed by linear regressions destinations. that combine these indicators. The origins of cross-border trafficking towards North America, Central America and 28 Measured by the Composite Organized Crime Index (COCI) (Van the Caribbean is an exponential function of the level of Dijk, J., The World of Crime, Sage Publications, 2008, pp. 162-167) 30 and the organized crime perception index referring to the year 2013 organized crime in these origin countries. The more the of the World Economic Forum (Schwab, K., The Global Competitive- origin countries are affected by organized crime, the more ness Report 2013–2014, World Economic Forum, 2013). outward trafficking there is from these countries towards 29 For Western and Central Europe, the share of the citizenships among victims of cross border trafficking for the period 2010-2012, and North and Central America and the Caribbean. the Organized Crime Index COCI register a significant and positive correlation (pearsons coeff 0.577; sign 0.000), confirmed by using Compared to the results emerging for North and Central the World Economic Forum perception index 2013 (pearsons coeff -0.402; sign 0.000). For North and Central America, the share of the America and the Caribbean, a stronger relationship is citizenships among victims of cross border trafficking from outside found between organized crime and the origins of traf- of the region for the period 2010-2012, and the Organized Crime ficking towards Western and Central Europe. The higher Index COCI register a significant and positive correlation (pearsons coeff 0.379; sign 0.007), confirmed by using the World Economic Forum perception index 2013 (pearsons coeff -0.302; sign 0.014). 30 ‘TiP to N.Am’: Origins of cross border trafficking detected in North When intraregional trafficking is considered this last one is stronger and Central America and the Caribbean, in terms of share of victims (pearsons coeff -0.742; sign 0.001). For the Middle East, the share detected by citizenship detected there. ‘OCWEF’ : Organized Crime of the citizenships among victims of cross border trafficking for the Perception Index measured by the World Economic Forum in Schwab, period 2010-2012, and the Organized Crime Index COCI registers a K. The Global Competitiveness Report 2013–2014, World Economic significant and positive correlation (pearsons coeff 0.564; sign 0.000), Forum. Linear regression: Ln(TiP to N.Am)= -610*OCWEF-2.882. and it is much stronger if single regions of origin are considered. (Rsq. : 0.111; Sig.0.041; OCWEF Sig 0.041; Cost Sig 0.031).

49 50 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 interaction between twoterritorialunits. It ispossibletoapplythebasicgravitymodelhuman This intuitive findingwaslaterelaborateduponby other paragraph ofthissection. is inlinewiththestatisticalresults describedinthefirst imity isaninverse functionofpopulationmobility. This intense theflows between them,thusgeographicalprox- states thatthemore distantthetwocountries,less migration flow between thetwocountries. The modelalso tination; thelargerpopulations,more intensethe demographical power ofthecountriesoriginanddes- tion flows between twocountriesisafunctionofthe The Gravity Models ofMigration theorized thatmigra- tion field ofmigrationstudies. The Gravity Models ofMigra- larities andanalyticalsuggestionscanbefoundwithinthe Broader discussionsofcross-border traffickingflows, simi- the flows. show thatsuchpresence of maycauseasignificantpart and are directed towards othercountries,butstatistics traffickingflowscertain countries originatefrom certain The presence oforganized crimealonecannotexplainwhy ficked to Western andCentralEurope). trafficking (consideringonlynon-European originstraf- tries in Western andCentralEurope), andtransregional intra-regional trafficking(consideringonlyorigincoun- ofEurope.these parts The relationship issignificantfor arevictims whoare detectedin citizens ofthatcountry the origincountry’s level oforganized crime,themore 3 Ibid; Haynes, K.E.,andFotheringham, A.S., 33 Stewart, J.Q., 32 ‘TiP toEu’: Origins ofcross border traffickingdetectedin West- 31 about halfcanbeexplainedby thepopulationsizes ofthe Western andCentralEurope between 2010and2012, factor. Considering thecross-border flows detectedin trafficking flows ifthemodelincludesorganized crime two territories. models, aimedatexplainingthemigrationflows between factors, developed more complexmigrationgravity social scientistswho,consideringdifferent intervening Interaction Models, Science, 93,1941:89-90. 0.002); Cost(Sig 0.000). Eu)= 0.091*COCI-9.627 -(Rsq.:0.435;Sig: 0.002)-COCI (Sig 0.000). Linearregression fortrans-regional trafficking:Ln(TiP to 11.304 -(Rsq.:0.470;Sig: 0.000)-COCI(Sig 0.000);Cost(Sig sion forintra-regional trafficking:Ln(TiP toEu)= 0.075*COCI- citizenship detectedthere. COCI, Van Dijk, op. cit.Linear regres- ern andCentralEurope, intermsofshare ofvictimsdetectedby 32 considerthespatialmobilityofapopulationasan 33 An inverse socialinfluences, distancevariation forcertain

Sage Publications, 1984. 31

Gravity andSpatial considered inthisReport, suggestthatdomesticandtraf- of theprofile ofthevictimsdetectedin128 countries cases,incombinationwithastatisticalanalysis of thecourt In summary, theresults ofaqualitative analysisofsome ing flows. have acompletemappingofthedeterminantstraffick- socio-economic factors,shouldbeconsidered inorder to criminal justiceandinstitutionalresponses, aswell as of thecross-border trafficking flows. Elements suchas context. It isclearthatthismodeljustexplains50percent crime. the destinationcountries,andby theirlevels oforganized countries oforigin,by thedistanceofthesecountriesto 4 ‘TiP toEu’: Origins ofcross border traffickingdetectedin Western 34 ations isthattheytendtoinvolve several victimswhoneed Another characteristicoflongerdistancetraffickingoper- working incoordination toexploitthevictims. orfellow citizens ofthevictims,orperhapsboth, country theyare eithercitizens ofthedestination tination country andinthedes- are citizens of thatcountry origin country ited. In thesecases,asageneralpattern,traffickersinthe ficked from richertowards lim- poorer countriesisvery than inthepoorer countries. The numberofvictimstraf- from theexploitative businessare normallymuchhigher from poorer towards richercountries, where theprofits sregional traffickingflows dooccur, theygenerallymove The sameanalysisalsoshows thatwhenregional ortran- ple, acouple. are oftenorganized traffickers;forexam- by oneorafew zation. The investments andprofits are limitedandthey ing countriesandtheydonotusuallyneedmuchorgani- orbetween neighbour- are traffickedwithinonecountry characterized by relatively smallnumbersofvictimswho common formsoftraffickingglobally. These forms are ficking between geographicallyproximate countriesare determined by organized crime applied to the migratory determined by organized crimeappliedtothemigratory This analysisshows thathumantraffickingflows are also towardscountry Western and CentralEurope. origin country, thebiggertraffickingflow from that tination areas, andthemore organized crimewithinthe Dist toEU (Sig 0.000);POP(Sign 0.037);Cost(Sig 0.000). 0.624*Dist toEU.(Rsq.:0.464;Sig: 0.000) -COCI(Sig 0.000); ing isthefollowing; Ln(TiP toEu)= 0.656*COCI+0.3*Ln(POP)- considered; The multivariate regression forcross border traffick- ern andCentralEurope. ‘Pop’; thepopulationsize ofthecountries between thecountriesoforiginsandgeographicalCentre of West- measured by Van Dijk 2010. ‘Dist toEU’:thegeographicaldistance ship detectedthere. ‘COCI’:CompositeOrganized Crime Index and CentralEurope, intermsofshare ofvictimsdetectedby citizen- 34 The largerthepopulation,closertodes- Global overview I

TABLE 1: Typology on the organization of trafficking in persons

SMALL LOCAL OPERATIONS MEDIUM SUBREGIONAL OPERATIONS LARGE TRANSREGIONAL OPERATIONS

Domestic or short-distance trafficking Trafficking flows within the subregion or Long distance trafficking flows involving flows. neighboring subregions. different regions.

One or few traffickers. Small group of traffickers. Traffickers involved in organized crime.

Small number of victims. More than one victim. Large number of victims.

Some investments and some profits Intimate partner exploitation. High investments and high profits. depending on the number of victims.

Border crossings with or without travel doc- Border crossings always require travel Limited investment and profits. uments. documents.

No or very limited organization required. Endurance of the operation. to cross one or more borders. This means that they also tive responses around the world has been very strong. In require significant skills, capital and organization, partic- November 2003, almost two thirds of countries did not ularly when the border crossing is restricted. When such have a specific offence that criminalized trafficking in per- operations are successful, it is usually because they are run sons, or even just some forms of this crime. At the end of by a large, transnational and well-organized criminal net- the year 2006, three years after the Protocol entered into work. A sizable criminal organization is able to traffic force, this share had dropped to 28 per cent. Now, in more victims across longer distances and towards more 2014, 5 per cent of countries do not have specific legisla- profitable destinations, and to exploit them there for a tion that criminalizes trafficking in persons. longer period of time. As of August 2014, of the 173 countries considered for On this basis, a typology of three different trafficking types this analysis, 146 (85 per cent) criminalize all aspects of can be drawn up. The types have some features in common trafficking in persons explicitly listed in the UN Traffick- as the categorizations are broad. Few trafficking cases ing in Persons Protocol. belong squarely in one category. This typology – which can be tailored to local circumstances – can be helpful in About 10 per cent of the covered countries have partial understanding the organization of trafficking in persons legislation. These countries do criminalize trafficking in and what are some of the common features of this crime. persons specifically, but their legislation may only cover some victims (for example, only children, women and/or THE RESPONSE TO TRAFFICKING foreigners) or certain forms of exploitation (for example IN PERSONS sexual exploitation).

Legislation on trafficking in 5 per cent of the countries considered (9 of 173) do not persons: Progress, but many people have any offence in their legislation that specifically crimi- remain without full legislative protec- nalizes trafficking in persons, or even just some forms of tion it. It is likely that instances of trafficking may be prosecuted in these countries by leveraging other articles of the The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking criminal code, such as slavery, forced labour, pimping, in Persons, Especially Women and Children, which sup- child stealing or others (which may also happen in coun- plements the United Nations Convention against Trans- tries that have specific legislation on trafficking in per- national Organized Crime, entered into force in December sons). However, it is very unlikely that these instruments 2003. The impact of the Protocol on the national legisla- are tailored to address the issue of victim assistance. More-

51 52 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 100% the worldthatmore thanothersneedstofillthelegisla- Africa andMiddle Eastregion of appearstobethepart Looking inmore detailatthelegislative coverage, the mensurate tothegravityofcrimescommitted. over, thesanctionsfortraffickersmaynotbecom- people -live inasituationwhere traffickingisnotcrimi- about onethird oftheworld’s population-some2billion -ofthelegislationshowsstatus -lackorpartiality that withthe Combining thepopulationsize of thecountry Protocol. definitions notinlinewiththeUN Trafficking in Persons victims by thenationalauthoritiesastheseare usinglegal standards, butwhomaynotbeconsidered astrafficking constituting anoffenceaccording totheinternational countries, there are persons living intraffickingsituations legislation.As aresult,America stillhave partial inthese Large anddenselypopulatedcountriesinAsiaSouth also emergeasproblematic. this istakenintoconsideration,regions otherthanAfrica of countrieswithoutadequatelegislationinplace. When toconsiderthepopulationsize important it isalsovery of trafficking,tenare in thisregion. On theotherhand, countries withoffencesthatcriminalize onlysomeaspects ficking inpersonsoffence.In addition,whenconsidering tive gap. Eight countriesinthisregion lackaspecifictraf- FIG. 26: 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 0% November 42% 2003 col, the UNTrafficking inPersonsProto- partially orinfullcompliancewith criminalizing trafficking inpersons, Share ofcountriesaroundtheworld 2003-2014 December 72% 2006 November 75% 2008 August 91% 2012 August 95% 2014

FIG. 27: of thecountriescovered, recorded aboutonefourth, a viction duringthereporting period.Anotherlargeshare data collectionforthisReport didnotrecord asinglecon- About 15percentofthe128countriescovered by the low.remains very of convictionsforthecrimetraffickinginpersons collected forthe2010-2012periodshows thatthenumber The dataoninvestigations, prosecutions andconvictions rife Criminal justiceresponse: level legislationmaybeincompatible. difficult,ascountry- ities ofothercountriesisoftenvery authorities. In addition,cooperationwithnationalauthor- charges even whentheyare detected by lawenforcement exploiting thesevictimsmayfacelightornocriminal obtain. There isalsotheriskthattraffickers whoare whichvictimsofhumantraffickinghave therightto port of theworld’s populationwithouttheprotection andsup- ficking inPersons Protocol mayalsoleave vast segments Legislation whichisnotincompliancewiththeUN Traf- impunity. of convictionsmakestraffickinginpersonsacrimevast tocol. lowThis situationcombinedwithavery number nalized asrequired by theUN Trafficking inPersons Pro- 100% Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 0% No specificoffence Partial Most/all forms November 2003-2014 number andshareofcountries, persons withaspecificoffence, Criminalization oftrafficking in 2003 (19%) (23%) (58%) 100 33 40 November (18.5%) (25.5%) (56%) 2008 97 32 44 16 August (13%) (78%) 2012 (9%) 135 22 impunityis (84.5%) (10.5%) 9 August 2014

146 (5%) 18 GlobalGlG obal overviewoverview I

Confiscated assets and compensation of human trafficking victims It is generally believed that confiscating the pro- Persons ProtocolIV make specific references to com- ceeds of crime is both an appropriate punishment pensation of trafficking victims and the possibility and an effective prevention tool. Confiscation is a of using confiscated proceeds for the purpose of deterrent for criminals who try to maximize their compensation. Many countries have laws that profits, and it also prevents illicitly acquired assets enable victims of crime to claim compensation for from being reinvested into the legitimate economy. the damages they have suffered.V Despite this legal Confiscation can also serve as a mechanism to dis- framework, compensation remains one of the weak- rupt criminal activities, help create an image that est rights of trafficked people.VI Although confis- crime does not pay and increase public confidence cated assets seem to provide a logical and in the criminal justice system.I In addition, confis- appropriate source for such compensation, very few cated assets can be used to compensate the damage countries seem to have sufficient resources to imple- suffered by trafficking victims. ment the idea. Low numbers of convictions combined with limited use of financial investigations Many countries face significant challenges related hinder efficient confiscation of assets in human to the confiscation of assets in trafficking in persons trafficking cases. In order to have efficient and II cases. Traffickers do their best to hide the illicit functional compensation schemes based on confis- profits or place the detected assets beyond the reach cated assets, countries need to improve their crimi- of the criminal justice system. Also, the lack of nal justice responses, particularly by focusing more funding often undermines the effectiveness of on financial investigations. financial investigation and confiscation efforts. Given these challenges, are there any successful I See, for example, UNODC, Digest of Organized Crime Cases, confiscations in trafficking in persons cases, and are 2012; RAND Europe, Study for an impact assessment on a pro- posal for a new legal framework on the confiscation and recovery of these funds substantial enough to be used as com- criminal assets, report prepared for the European Commission pensation for victims of trafficking? Directorate General Home Affairs, 2012. II COMP.ACT - European Action for Compensation for Traf- Very little information exists on funds that have ficked Persons, Toolkit on Compensation for Trafficked Persons: been confiscated in relation to trafficking in per- Findings and Results of the European Action for Compensation for sons convictions. The data that UNODC has Trafficked Persons, 2012 (www.compactproject.org). III received from some 10 Member States in Europe, Articles 14 and 25 (2). IV Asia and the Pacific, and Central and South Amer- Article 6 (6). V ica indicates that some countries have been success- See, for example, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Office for Democratic Institutions and ful in confiscating assets related to trafficking in Human Rights, Compensation for Trafficked and Exploited Per- persons cases between 2010 and 2013. However, sons in the OSCE Region, 2008; European Union, Europa – the yearly amounts vary greatly from a few thou- Summaries of EU Legislation, ‘The rights of crime victims’, 2014, available at: http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/ sands to 6 million US dollars. When the confiscated justice_freedom_security/judicial_cooperation_in_criminal_ funds are compared to the number of detected vic- matters/l33091_en.htm; Buchanan, C. (editor), Gun Vio- tims the funds remain below 9,000 dollars per lence, Disability and Recovery, Surviving Gun Violence Project, Sydney, 2014, pp. 37-40. victim; in most cases below 2,000 dollars per victim. VI COMP.ACT - European Action for Compensation for Traf- ficked Persons, Toolkit on Compensation for Trafficked Per- Both the United Nations Convention against Trans- sons: Guidance on representing trafficked persons in compensation national Organized CrimeIII and the Trafficking in claims, 2012 (www.compactproject.org). limited number of convictions, between 1 and 10, in at the world remained stable compared to the 2007-2010 least one of the years between 2010 and 2012. period. During that period, the number of countries that About 40 per cent of the countries covered reported more reported no convictions was about 16 per cent of the total than 10 convictions, out of which, some 16 per cent had sample, whereas 23 per cent of the countries reported less more than 50 convictions in at least one of the years here than ten convictions in one year. considered. Data limitations prevent a comprehensive comparison The number of convictions and their distribution around between the number of convictions and the number of

53 54 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 detected victims.Amongthecountriesthatreported on period. This meansthatfrom aglobal,aggregated perspec- of countriesrecorded decreasing trends over thesame saw anoticeableincrease. However, another10percent tions over the2010-2012period,whilejust13percent countries reported arelatively stablenumberofconvic- period 2010-2012confirmsthis. The vast majorityofthe the absolutenumberofconvictionsperyear duringthe of how manycountriesreported increases ordecreases in shows signsofchangeinrecent few years. Anassessment Overall, theglobalpicture ofthecriminaljusticeresponse a trafficker. tification ofavictimdoesnotleadtotheprosecution of justice response. In other cases,itappearsthattheiden- between thedetectionofvictimsandaproper criminal vict thetraffickerscouldexplainwhythere isnocorrelation icant numberofvictims,theuseotheroffencestocon- of thecountriesthatrecord convictionsandasignif- few not turnintoafinalsentenceforthetraffickers.For some tims, thisdoesraisethequestionofwhyresponse does their countriesby identifyingandpossibly assistingvic institutions are responding tothetraffickingoccurringin nificant numberofvictims. While thissuggeststhat local ornorecordedfew convictions,however, detectedasig- number ofvictims.About onethird ofthecountrieswith limitedconvictions alsoidentifiedorassistedavery orno both indicators,mostofthecountrieswithfew 36 UNODC, 35 UNODC/UN.GIFT, persons wasknown tobeaproblem. Moreover, over the wide wasexpectedinthosecountrieswhere traffickingin the lasttenyears, agradualincrease ofconvictionsworld- As more countriesintroduced adequatelegislation over to mediumterm. also shows thatthesituationhasnotchangedinshort limited.Itfickers thatoperateintheirterritoriesisvery successfully managetopunishatleastsomeofthetraf- The dataabove shows thatthenumberofcountries that number ofconvictionsdecreased from 21to13percent. cent. Similarly, theshare ofcountrieswithincreasing was 71percent, 2007, theshare ofcountries withstableoruncleartrends not changedsignificantlysince2003.Between 2003and share ofcountriesreporting stableconviction trends has tive, thesituationremained unchanged.Moreover, the cent 37. 36 butbetween 2010and2012,theshare was77per Global Report on Trafficking inPersons 2012, 35 between 2007and2010itwas60per Global Report on Trafficking inPersons p. 85. , 2009,p. - 17% of convictions some years after the entry intoforce ofthe of convictionssomeyears aftertheentry criminal justiceresponses wouldleadtoarisingnumber years, therelast few hasbeenaperception thatproper FIG. 28: through thecriminaljusticesystemproceeds according that inmostlegaltraditions, theprocessing ofcases ences between countries.However, itisreasonable toargue does itdevelop? There are considerableprocedural differ Where doesthe criminal justiceresponse andhow start analysis ofthecriminaljusticeresponse From investigationtoconviction;abrief and atdifferent stagesofthecriminaljusticeprocess. the overall criminaljusticeresponse atthenationallevel The wideregional differences obscure different levels of 2010 period(0.1per100,000population). remained basicallyunchanged incomparisontothe2007- ally, thenumberofconvictions per100,000population and theMiddle Eastregister rateswell below 0.1.Glob- reports arateabove 0.1,whiletheAmericasandAfrica lation (around 0.3).South Asia,EastAsiaandthePacific Central Asiareports more convictionsper100,000popu- of convictionsperpopulationisconsidered, Europe and the largeabsolutenumbersofconvictions. When theratio lous countries. Their populationsize alonecouldexplain bers ofconvictionsperyear, thesewere popu- oftenvery thatsomecountriesreported largenum- While itistrue level more orlesseverywhere. low place, thenumberofconvictionsisstableatavery more countriesinthe world now have solidlegislationin limitedextent. pened, orperhapsonlytoavery While UN Trafficking inPersons Protocol. This hasnothap- NOT AVAILABLE INFORMATION Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 15% NO CONVICTIONS year, shareofcountries, Number ofconvictionsrecordedper 16% CONVICTIONS MORE THAN50 26% 26% 50 CONVICTIONS BETWEEN 10AND CONVICTIONS LESS THANTEN 2010-2012 - Global overview I

FIG. 29: Trends in the number of recorded FIG. 30: Probability of first-instance convictions between 2010 and 2012, conviction for persons investigated share of countries for trafficking in persons

DECREASING TRENDS 10% ? INCREASING Operating traffickers and trafficking networks TRENDS 13% STABLE OR UNCLEAR TRENDS 100 77% persons investigated by the police Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. to a similar flow. One may consider three main steps within the process that will ultimately lead to either a 45 conviction or an acquittal. Step one is the formal act of persons prosecuted initiating a criminal procedure. This is normally done when the crime is reported and recorded by the authorities. The investigation of the case could lead to the iden- tification and arrest of crime suspects when the crime is often regarded as cleared. The second step starts when the 24 case is turned over to the prosecution service and the sus- persons convicted in first instance

pects are formally charged, on the basis of the evidence Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 collected during the investigation phase. The third step is the trial and its outcome, where the suspect is either found guilty or acquitted. Not all suspects end up being con- Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. victed; some may have been wrongly accused, or the evidence may not have been strong enough for a conviction. criminal justice systems to deal with trafficking in person Moreover, it can be assumed that not all traffickers are cases. This, in turn, might be a result of the limited capac- identified by the police forces. ity of the police, prosecution and judges to respond to It is very challenging to assess the risk of arrest for a traf- human trafficking crimes. However, considering global ficker as the number of active traffickers in a certain area and regional averages always risks obscuring different per- is difficult to estimate. However, it is possible to estimate formances. In Western and Central Europe, about 30 per- the risks of facing a first-instance conviction for a poten- sons among those suspected and 50 of those prosecuted tial trafficker who has been identified by the police. At are convicted in the first instance. These values are high the global level, an average of some 24 per cent of those in comparison to the other regions of the world, which persons who are suspected or investigated by the police explains the higher number of convictions per 100,000 for conducting human trafficking activities are convicted population discussed above. South Asia, East Asia and the (in the first instance). In detail, it appears that about 45 Pacific, as well as the Americas present lower ratios of per cent of those suspected by the police are prosecuted. persons suspected per conviction compared to Europe. Of the persons prosecuted, 55 per cent are convicted. However, also within the regions, significant differences can be found at the country-level. In these regions, it is From the analysis above, it appears that less than one in also possible to identify countries where a larger number four suspects face conviction. This reflects the relatively of those suspected or prosecuted for trafficking in persons low conviction ratio, which measures the efficiency of proceed to receive convictions.

55 56 GLOBALGLOBAL REPORTREPORT ONON TRAFFICKINGTRA IN PERSONS 2014 children whiletheformerare inthestreets. trol usedby themadamsisguarding thevictims’ The Spanish authoritiesreported onemeanofcon- rian womenwhomanagetheexploitationphase. the victimsare controlled by mally secure theloyalty ofthevictims.In Europe, well asthreats tofamilymembersbackhomenor- sponsor. The beliefinthepower ofthe order topaybackthe debtcontractedwiththe ally exploitedby beingforced intoprostitution in the control ofthecriminalorganizations,andsexu- Once atdestination,thevictimsare already under European countriessincethelate1990s, gional flow inthissubregion. Present indifferent Europe, makingthisthemostprominent transre- number ofdetectedvictimsin Western andCentral accounted formore than10percentofthetotal 2007-2012 period,Nigerian victimsconstantly of themostpersistenttraffickingflows. During the Europe forthepurposeofsexualexploitationisone Trafficking ofyoung womenfrom Nigeria to Europe? Do confraternities control thetraffickingofNigerian victimsin Europe. Once the debtispaidback,thevictimsare spent by theorganizationtotransfer victiminto expenses. Investigators estimatejust10,000euros is the protection. The debt willraiseforadditional 70,000 euros thatwouldcover justthetravel and The victims’ debtcould amounttosome40,000- ritual called the trip. Alocal‘priest’ blessesthecontractwitha with amemberoftheorganizationthatsponsors from AfricatoEurope, thewomensigna‘contract’ by peerpressure. In order tofinancetheir migration are convincedtomigrateby meansofdeceptionor Typically, duringtherecruitment phase,thevictims nization ofthetraffickingrings. reasons ofitsendurancemaybethestructured orga- Sicily. the seapassagefrom North AfricatoLampedusaor Similarly, ontheroute toItaly, theywillattempt and cross theborder intoCeutaorMelilla inSpain. travel through theSahel, theSahara toNorth Africa countries. In thecaseoflandroute, theywill orofneighbouring ofthecountry the mainairports Victims traffickedtoSpain, forinstance,mayflyto main smugglingmigrationpathsby land,seaorair. v juju. ı

ııı The traffickingroute follows the madams ; olderNige- juju ıı oneofthe ritualas ıı

members oftwogroups, called the investigation 34personswere arrested. These were investigation named‘CULTS’. Asaresult ofthe In March 2014,theItalian authoritiesconcludedan traffickers totheauthorities. in thetraffickingcrime,thustheywon’t report the ring. In thisway, victimsare alsolegalaccomplices their favour, theirown andtheywillrun trafficking they believe thatoneday, thissystemwillwork in exploitative situationmaystillacceptsuchstatus,as exploiters by exploitingothergirls. Victims infull become traffickersotoemancipatefrom their chy tobecome reduced. In thatcase,theymaymove upthehierar- erate withthe being exploited,somevictimsmaydecidetocoop- titution ortobecoming alternativesthat theyhave tocontinuingpros- few hundreds ofdeathsover decades thelastfew late 1970siswell documented, andthere have been lent conflictsbetween theseconfraternitiessince the versity campusconfraternities inNigeria. The vio- about adozen asuni- criminalgroups thatstarted The In thearea ofRome (Italy), the in theory free. in theory different countriesin West African, inNorth Africa, locally butconnectedtoother cellsestablishedin through a systemofcells(called Investigators describethesegroups tofunction presence inEurope ismore recent, however. some parts ofSpainsome parts sinceatleasttheyear 2007. presence ofthesegroups have beendetectedin tion similartoother, betterknown light alevel oforganization,violenceandintimida- since atleast2008. The investigation brought to ofItalyconfraternities, operative insomeparts in different ofItaly. parts had connectionsinothercountriesEurope and Benin CitytoItaly viaLome’ (Togo), andthatthey trafficking ofyoung areas womenfrom therural of these groups were directly involved inmanagingthe sexually exploited. The investigators report that the territoriesandstreets where thevictimswere have beenfightingforover sixyears forcontrol of Eiye andthe ıı madams However, someofthemmayfeel controllers. Aye inorder tohave theirdebt confraternitiesare twoof madams v Some victimscanalso ıv

themselves. While Eiye forum Eiye andthe mafias. ) operating and vi . Their The Aye Aye v

GlobalGllobo al overviewoverview I in the Middle East and in Western Europe. The of marijuana in the area under confraternity con- local confraternity cells are involved in different trol. v criminal activities wherever they operate. This includes trafficking in persons for the purpose of The Spanish investigators define the trafficking in sexual exploitation, drug trafficking, counterfeiting, persons originating from Nigeria as having a serious documents falsification and money-laundering. incidence in Spain (in 2013, 13 per cent of the They maintain a rigid hierarchical structure headed victims detected and 8 per cent of the suspects by a directorate and each forum is independent. The arrested in Spain were Nigerian citizens). Some members have a specific functional and hierarchical investigators suspect most of the Nigerian groups role; they are connected by familiar or other rela- operating this trafficking operate under the control v tional ties. They have defined rules, initiation ritu- of the confraternities. als and hundreds of members operating in Africa The endurance of this trafficking flow in almost all and on or in other continents. They use a combina- Western European countries indicate this maybe tion of money collectors, cash mules and corrup- the case also in other countries of the continent, tion to launder and transfer illegal profits from although further investigative work would be v Europe to West Africa. needed to verify this. As far as these confraternities’ involvement in the human trafficking activity is concerned, it appears I The primary information for this text box was collected from that the role may change according to the different law enforcement officers specialized on trafficking in persons and organized crime in Italy and Spain. The information con- organizational capabilities of the local forum. In cerning Spain was gathered from intelligence reports received some cases the local forum does not directly engage from the national authorities of the Centro de Inteligencia in the recruitment, transportation and exploitation Contra el Crimen Organizado (CICO), the Fuerzas y Cuerpos de Seguridad del Estado (Guardia Civil y el Cuerpo Nacional of victims, but rather ‘taxed’ and supervised the de Policia), and from the Mossos d’Esquadra for what con- madam-driven networks that operate independently cerns specifically the Autonomous Community of Catalonia in but within the territory under the confraternity’s Spain. In Italy, the information was extrapolated from investigative files provided by the Procura Distrettuale Anti Mafia on control. In some other cases, the confraternities are the operation CULTS, completed in March 2014. directly managing the recruitment, transfer and II Primary information collected for this study as indicated in exploitation of the victims. They also applied a note I. See also Carling, J., Migration, Human Smuggling and ‘taxation’ to free prostitutes who want to operate in Trafficking from Nigeria to Europe, International Organization v for Migration (IOM), 2005; Carchedi, F. and Orfano, I., La the areas under their control. Tratta di Persone in Italia; Evoluzione del Fenomeno ed Ambiti di Sfruttamento, Osservatorio Tratta, FrancoAngeli, Milano, Whether or not they do operate the human traffick- 2007; UNICRI, Trafficking of Nigerian Girls to Italy - the data, ing directly, the confraternities may facilitate it the stories, the social services, 2010. when they have some leverage to exert. For instance, III Juju is a traditional religious belief of the Yoruba people of investigative evidence shows that the confraternities Southwest Nigeria on the spirit world affecting the everyday life and it is predominantly practiced is in the Edo state and are able to bribe officers in some European airports the River Niger Delta region. Juju was originally created by to facilitate the transit of victims into the European the early Europeans and it has its origins in the French word Union free movement area. These groups access joujou, meaning toy or plaything. Juju refers to a small object that is believed to contain energy that brings luck and protec- institutions in Africa and Europe in order to secure tion. The early Europeans mistakenly understood these objects travel documents and impunity. They use system- to be the focus of worship and named the religious belief as atic corruption and violence to protect and expand juju. (Anti-trafficking Consultants: http://www.antitrafficking- consultants.co.uk/tactics/) v their profits from the trafficking. IV See Lo Iacono, E., ‘Victims, Sex Workers and Perpetrators: Grey Areas in the Trafficking of Nigerian Women’, Trends in On the basis of the evidence collected by the inves- Organized Crime, 2014. tigators, it is clear that the confraternities play an V Primary information collected for this study as indicated in important role in interfacing with other criminal footnote I. organizations that operate in the same territory, VI Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board, Nige- either peacefully or violently. For instance, in Italy, ria: The Black Axe Confraternity, also known as the Neo-Black Movement of Africa, 2005 (Response to Information Request, the members of the Eiye arrested were in business available at: http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/Eng/ResRec/RirRdi/ with a group from the Balkans for the distribution Pages/index.aspx?doc=433931).

CHAPTER II REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

Following the global overview, the regional overviews will Western and Central Europe is a region that is both an go into more detail about the trafficking situation in the origin and a destination for trafficking in persons. Coun- four regions considered in this Report. The regions are tries in Central Europe and the Balkans are mainly origin presented in separate sections which first discuss the pro- areas for cross-border trafficking into the rest of Europe. files of offenders, then victims, then trafficking flows and These countries also detect significant levels of domestic finally the regional responses to the trafficking crime. trafficking. The richer countries in Western and Southern Europe are generally destinations for victims trafficked TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS IN from other regions (Asia, Africa and the Americas) and EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA for European victims trafficked from Central Europe and the Balkans. Most of these countries also report consider- • Victims are often adult women. able levels of domestic trafficking. • Sexual exploitation is prominently detected. • Traffickers from this region are mainly prosecuted Profile of the offenders there. The profiles of traffickers convicted in this subregion • Diversity of trafficking flows, particularly in Western and Central Europe. broadly reflect the different roles of countries in the trafficking process. Western and Central European countries In this Report, Europe and Central Asia is divided into convict citizens of their own country and foreigners in two subregions, namely Western and Central Europe, as near equal proportions. As shown in map 7 (p. 60), some- well as Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The two subre- what more than half of the offenders convicted during the gions display some similarities in terms of the patterns 2010-2012 period were citizens of the country of convic- and flows of trafficking in persons, summarized above. tion. About 30 per cent of the traffickers were foreigners Other aspects are quite different, particularly in relation from countries within the same subregion. Compared to to trafficking flows. Since the data from this region is the global average, countries in Western and Central solid, particularly for Western and Central Europe, the Europe convict fewer own citizens (even though they do two subregions will be presented in separate sections. make up a majority of offenders) but more foreigners from within the subregion. Western and Central Europe37 • Diversity of trafficking flows. Considering origins from outside Western and Central Europe, the largest share is made up of traffickers from • Many foreign offenders; mostly from within the subregion. Africa and the Middle East. This group accounts for some 10 per cent of the total number of people convicted. Most • Mostly adult women victims. of these offenders are citizens of countries in West and • Sexual exploitation very prevalent. North Africa. However, the relevance of West African traf- • All countries have Protocol-compliant legislation. fickers (some 6 per cent of the convicted offenders) is limited in comparison to the large share of victims from 37 As the data coverage in this region is solid, it is possible to present more detailed analyses of the trafficking patterns and flows. In order this region that are detected in Western and Central to do so, the following geographical aggregations will be used in this Europe. section when appropriate: ‘Western Europe’ - Austria, Denmark, Fin- land, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Other significant groups of foreign traffickers from out- Switzerland and the United Kingdom; ‘Southern Europe’ - Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Spain and Turkey; ‘Central Europe’ side the subregion are Asians and citizens of countries in - Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slo- the Americas. These groups each account for some 5 per vakia and Slovenia; and ‘the Balkans’ - Albania, Bosnia and Herze- govina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia and the cent of the offenders in this region. Offenders from East- Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. ern Europe and Central Asia comprise a small, but sig-

59 60 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 nificant share, with2percentofthetotal. The citizenship Source: UNODC. MAP 7: 8 For more cases,pleaserefer informationonthecourt tothesection 38 destination ofcross-border also trafficking,thisistrue subregion thatencompassescountriesoforiginaswell as typical destinations.As Western and Central Europe isa vastly different offenderprofiles thanareas thatare more origins forcross-border traffickinginpersonstendtohave The globalfindingsshow thatareas thatare more typical mitted by Member States. confirmed by casessub- aqualitative analysisofthecourt found inotherdestinationsoftraffickingpersonsand are considered inbothcategories. The sameresult was detected in Western andCentralEurope, whenforeigners tion between thecitizenships ofoffendersandvictims of exploitation in thesection major regional aggregations. Astatistical analysispresented of thedetectedforeign traffickingvictims, atleastby profiles oftheforeign offendersbroadly mirror theprofiles 3,539 personsconvicted 100% isequivalentto and theCaribbean Central America on Methodology. shares ofthetotal, Citizenships ofconvictedtraffickers inWestern andCentralEurope,bysubregion, America indicatedthatthere isaquantitative rela- Traffickers, crimeandthebusiness organized South 0.5% 38 4% Local nationals 2010-2012(ormore recent) 51% 6% West Africa and Central Western Europe 3% 3% Others Europe (cross-border) 1.5% 22% 4% Southern Europe FIG. 31: and the Balkans Central Europe Central Europe Source: UNODCelaboration onnationaldata. (cross-border) Western and (cross-border) and theMiddleEast North Africa The Balkans 5% Central Europe, border trafficking inWestern and of originanddestinationcross- foreign offenders amongcountries Distribution ofnationaland %2%4%6%8%100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Foreign offenders National offenders and CentralAsia Europe Eastern 1% 0 60% 40% 4% South Asia 2010-2012 East Asia 92% 8

% Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 Regional overviews II

FIG. 32: Prosecutions for trafficking in per- FIG. 33: Convictions for trafficking in persons sons in Western and Central Europe, in Western and Central Europe, by by gender, 2010-2012 (or more recent) gender, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

23% 77% 22% 78%

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. there. Countries in the Balkans and Central Europe39 are of the total number or victims. Adult victims thus com- mainly origin areas (with most victims trafficked to West- prise more than 80 per cent of all detected victims in this ern Europe) and thus convict largely local citizens. More subregion. than 9 in 10 convicted traffickers in these areas are own The detection of child trafficking in Western and Central citizens. Countries in Western and Southern Europe - Europe is not as common as in other regions. Children mainly countries of destination - convict large shares of account for almost 20 per cent of the detected victims, foreigners, approximately 60 per cent. Almost all - about whereas globally, this group makes up nearly one third of 97 per cent - of the foreigners who were convicted of traf- victims. Girls are much more frequently detected than ficking in persons in Western and Central Europe were boys. Out of every five children trafficked in Western and detected in the more typical destination countries of cross- Central Europe, four are girls and one is a boy. border trafficking. FIG. 34: Gender and age profiles of victims In terms of the gender of the offenders, countries in West- detected in Western and Central ern and Central Europe prosecute and convict somewhat Europe, 2010-2012 (or more recent) fewer women than the global average. Some 23 per cent of those prosecuted and/or convicted of trafficking in persons in this subregion are women, compared to some 28 per cent at the global level. 62% 19% Countries within the subregion report significant differences in the shares of women who are prosecuted and convicted. Some countries, for example in the Balkans, have very low shares of convictions of women. In other 16% 3% countries, including in the Baltic area, women comprise nearly one third of the convicted trafficking offenders. Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. Profile of the victims Most of the detected victims in this subregion – approxi- On average, countries in Western and Central Europe mately 65 per cent - were subjected to sexual exploitation. detect more adult victims and more women victims than This seems to be connected to the high share of females other (sub)regions. A majority of the detected victims of among the total number of detected victims since traf- trafficking in persons in Western and Central Europe – ficking for sexual exploitation largely affects women. Traf- some 63 per cent - are adult women, whereas the second ficking for sexual exploitation does not only affect females, largest group is adult men, who account for 19 per cent however. Some 4 per cent of the victims of this type of

39 For this analysis, 15 countries that are more typical origin than desti- trafficking were males in Western and Central Europe nation countries for cross-border trafficking have been considered. during the 2010 – 2012 period.

61 62 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 65% For instance,about 1.5percentofthedetectedvictims purposes otherthansexualexploitationorforced labour. detected. Some 9percentofvictimswere traffickedfor ‘other’ formsoftraffickingare relatively frequently In Western andCentralEurope, victimsexploitedin while about70percentwere males. labour. About 30percentofthesevictimswere females, Western andCentralEurope were exploitedinforced in thissubregion. 25 per centofthevictimsdetectedin tion impliesthatforced labourislesscommonlydetected The largeshare ofvictimstraffickedforsexualexploita- tries, andintermsofdomestic trafficking. Central Europe andtheBalkans towards theothercoun- are largelytraffickedwithinthesubregion, mainlyfrom From anoriginpointofview, victimsfrom thissubregion a significantoriginanddestinationarea simultaneously. associated withthissubregion. Asmentionedbefore, itis ern andCentralEurope isthediversity oftraffickingflows The moststrikingfeature oftraffickinginpersons West- Trafficking flows type oftrafficking. tims accountforsome72percentofthevictimsthis and CentralEurope between 2010and2012,femalevic- purposes isconcerned,forvictimsdetectedin Western As farasthegenderdistributionfortrafficking‘other’ mixed sexualandlabourexploitation. for theproduction ofpornographicmaterial,aswell as include forced marriages,welfare fraud,children exploited petty) crime.Other typesofexploitationinthis category were traffickedforthepurposeofcommitting(often were traffickedforbegging,whilemore than1percent FIG. 35: EXPLOITATION SEXUAL Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 0.1% REMOVAL ORGAN 2010-2012 (ormore recent) in Western andCentralEurope, Forms ofexploitationdetected 9% OTHERS 26% LABOUR FORCED

zenships, displayingavast variety oftraffickingflows countries detectedvictimsofmore than130different citi- As adestinationarea, Western andCentralEuropean FIG. 36: accounts forabout80percent ofthedetectedvictims. for countriesinCentralEurope andtheBalkans, it per centofthetotalnumber ofdetectedvictims,while Southern Europe, domestic traffickingaccountsfor16 considers themore affluentcountriesin Western and on different areas withinthesubregion. When theanalysis However, thetraffickingflows are different whenfocusing are citizens ofcountrieswithinthesubregion. six in10victimsdetected Western andCentralEurope trafficking anddomesticshow thatmore than Europe. Added up, theshares ofsubregional cross-border total numberofvictimsdetectedin Western andCentral Domestic ofthe trafficking accountsforaboutonefourth of parts Western andCentralEurope. area have been identifiedinsignificantnumbersall from countriesintheBalkans. Victims from theBalkan in thesubregion. The vast majorityofthesevictimscome ern andCentralEuropean countrieshave been detected nearly 40percent. Victims from approximately 40 West- region accountsforthe largestshare ofdetectedvictims, Cross-border traffickingoriginatingfrom withinthesub- tion area forvictimsfrom elsewhere. Western andCentral Europe isalsoasignificantdestina- ficking inpersonsisthekeyfeature, atthesametime, tries. In otherwords, whilethesubregional nature oftraf- the subregion, butalsofrom abroad rangeofothercoun- here between 2010and2012were mainlyfrom within directed oftheworld. tothispart The victimsdetected Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 2010-2012 (ormore recent) Western andCentralEurope, trafficked forforcedlabour in Gender breakdownofvictims 31 % 69 %

Regional overviews II

MAP 8: Origins of victims trafficked to Western and Central Europe, by subregion, share of the total number of victims detected there, 2010-2012

100% is equivalent to 16,718 detected victims

within Western Western and Central and Central Europe Eastern Europe Europe 62% and Central Asia 7% 8%

19% South Asia, East Asia Americas and the Pacific

Africa and the Middle East

Source: UNODC. Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014

MAP 9: Origins of victims trafficked to Western and Southern Europe, share of the total number of victims detected there, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

100% is equivalent to 14,775 detected victims Other Europe (cross-border) Percentages are written Domestic for values above 3% 16% 4% 13% Central Europe Eastern Europe Western 7% and Central Asia and Southern Europe 27% 7% The Balkans Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 16%

North Africa East Asia and the Middle East South Asia Central America and the Caribbean West Africa

Other Sub-Saharan Africa

South America

Source: UNODC.

63 64 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 MAP 11: MAP 10: Source: UNODC. Source: UNODC. and theCaribbean for values Percentages are written 1,943 detectedvictims 100% isequivalentto Americas Central America North America, 5% above3% number ofvictimsdetectedthere, nations, of victimsdetectedatspecificdesti- as aproportionofthetotalnumber from CentralEuropeandtheBalkans, Destinations oftrafficking victims Origins ofvictimstrafficked toCentralEuropeandtheBalkans, 2010-2012 and Southern and Southern Western Europe 40% and theBalkans Central Europe Domestic Sub-Saharan Africa 79% Europe Other 2010-2012(ormore recent)

Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014

Europe and the Balkans Central Central Europe (cross-border) Trafficking from countriesin theotherEuropean subre- theless significant. ing thelimitedpopulationof thesecountries,itisnone- of theBaltic countries. This is asmallshare, butconsider- in Western andCentralEurope were traffickedfrom one Moreover, more than2percentofthedetectedvictims monitored inthefuture. the Caribbean.It isthusatraffickingflow that shouldbe Europe, inNorth particularly andCentralAmerica of countriesinthisarea have beendetectedoutside and asopposedtothevictimsfrom theBalkans, citizens Europe compared totheperiod2007-2010.In addition, Europe have beenincreasingly detected intherest of are rare. Trafficking victimsoriginatingfrom Central as detectionsofvictimsfrom theBalkans outsideEurope significant.Itremains very is,however, limitedtoEurope Trafficking from the Balkans intotherest ofthesubregion (13 percent). from theBalkans (27percent)andfrom CentralEurope Western andSouthern Europe report significantinflows tries inEasternEurope. The more affluentcountriesin of thesamearea, aswell asvictimsfrom proximate coun- receive traffickingvictimsfrom neighbouringcountries countries inCentralEurope andtheBalkans mainly As forcross-border traffickingfrom withinthesubregion, 5% (cross-border) The Balkans 9% and CentralAsia Europe Eastern

share ofthetotal and thePacific South Asia,EastAsia

Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 Regional overviews II

FIG. 37: Evolution of the origins of trafficking into Western and Central Europe, 2007/2010-2010/2012

2010-2012 100% is equivalent to Other 16,718 detected victims 2% Europe 1% 2007-2010 North Africa 2% 2% 100% is equivalent to Central and Middle East 16,808 detected victims

Europe 7% 12% 3% Sub-Saharan 2% Africa, other

14% 14% West Africa domestic detail

trafficking 26% 24%

The Balkans 29% 25% 64% 62% 18% 19% 7% 7% 7% 8% 5% 4% Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 detail within Western Africa and East and Americas Eastern Europe and Central the Middle South Asia and Central Asia Europe East

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. gion, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, into Western and Western and Central Europe is the only region to detect Central Europe, accounts for about 4 per cent of the total victims from every other region in significant numbers. number of detected victims, which is a very similar value Looking specifically at the origins of transregional traf- to what was reported for the 2007-2010 period in the ficking flows, the trafficking of Africans, particularly West Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2012 (almost 5 per Africans, appears to be the most significant. Detections cent). of West Africans are second only to that of people from Although subregional trafficking is more prominently the Balkans in terms of shares of the total number of vic- detected, the share of victims who are trafficked transre- tims who are trafficked cross-border. West African victims gionally to Western and Central Europe is almost 40 per have been detected in 20 countries across most of Western cent. This share reaches peaks of 50 per cent in the coun- and Central Europe. The relevance and endurance of this tries of Western and Southern Europe, while such traf- trafficking flow across many parts of Western and Central ficking is marginal for the countries in Central Europe Europe might indicate the presence of a well-organized and the Balkans. The dispersion of these victims’ origin structure behind the flow. countries is remarkable. Victims with some 80 non-Euro- Trafficking from other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa is also pean citizenships were detected across Western and Cen- detected. Moreover, victims from North African countries tral Europe between 2010 and 2012. This subregion is - especially from the Maghreb - are broadly dispersed. clearly one of the main destinations for transregional traf- These victims are detected in limited numbers but in dif- ficking. Other wealthy areas also receive a lot of inbound ferent countries. cross-border trafficking, but that tends to come from countries that are relatively close in geographical terms. The detection of victims from the Americas used to be

65 66 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 FIG. 38: largely limitedtoSpain andPortugal. This haschanged, international standards. offence ontraffickinginpersonsthatwaslinewiththe their criminalcodeafterthisdatetointroduce aspecific December 2003.More thanhalfofthecountriesamended intoforce oftheProtocolextent, affectedby theentry in oftheworldwas,toaconsiderable lation inthispart sons Protocol today. The historicalevolution ofthelegis- legislation thatisinlinewiththeUN Trafficking inPer- Central Europe considered inthisReport have national In termsoflegislation,allthecountriesin Western and Response totrafficking inpersons Europe, butinlimitednumbers. been detectedinmanycountries Western andCentral many countries.Additionally, South Asianvictims have East andSouth-East Asianvictimshave beendetectedin about 6percentofthetotalnumberdetectedvictims. Western andCentralEurope. This group accountsfor Asian victimsare alsodetectedinsignificantnumbers countries. quite aremarkable share forrelatively smallanddistant some 9countriesin Western and CentralEurope. This is 1.5 percentofthetotalnumberdetectedvictimsin Victims from theCaribbeanaccountedforapproximately Europe. number ofvictimsdetectedin Western andCentral American victimsaccountedfor6percentofthetotal of thissubregion. During the2010-2012period,South and theCaribbean-have beendetectedinothercountries South America,andtoalesserextent,CentralAmerica and nowadays, victimsfrom theAmericas–primarily 9 2003 NO OFFENCE TOTAL NUMBEROFCOUNTRIESCONSIDERED,N:39 Source: UNODCelaboration onnationaldata. Historical evolutionofthelegislationinWestern andCentralEurope, 12 OFFENCE PARTIAL 18 FORMS MOST /ALL 2008 2 OFFENCE PARTIAL 2 NO OFFENCE before December 2003,theoffenceswere oftenintro- While several ofthecountrieshadspecificlegislation in persons. tries hadadoptedproper legislationtocombattrafficking closed, however, asafterjustfive years, mostofthecoun- Central Europe andtheBalkans. The gapwasquickly in 2003,6were in Western Europe, while12were in Among the18countrieswithproper legislationinplace setting uptheirlegislative counter-traffickingframework. in CentralEurope andtheBalkans were thequickestin geographicalanalysisshowsA further thatthecountries Member States intheyear 2000. Trafficking inPersons Protocol thatwasadoptedby the amended asaresult of thepoliticalpushgeneratedby the many ofthesecountriesaswell, thelegislationwas duced eitherintheyear 2002orearlierin2003.So for FIG. 39: Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 4 7 PER YEAR CONVICTIONS LESS THANTEN NOT AVAILABLE INFORMATION CONSIDERED, N:32 TOTAL NUMBEROFCOUNTRIES 35 FORMS MOST /ALL reported, the numberofconvictionsperyear European countriesaccordingto Number ofWestern andCentral 2010-2012 2012 13 8 CONVICTIONS PERYEAR BETWEEN 10AND50 CONVICTIONS PERYEAR MORE THAN50 2003-2012 39 FORMS MOST /ALL Regional overviews II

In Western and Central Europe, eight countries recorded for a subregion which mainly experiences intraregional more than 50 convictions in at least one year during the and domestic trafficking in persons and which is mainly 2010-2012 period. an origin area for trafficking victims. On average, 30 per cent of trafficking in persons suspects Some 3 per cent of the convicted traffickers in Eastern in Western and Central Europe received a conviction in Europe and Central Asia come from other (sub)regions; the first instance. About half of those prosecuted got a most of them from Western and Central Europe, but also first-instance conviction. some from the Middle East. Both are areas of destination for victims who are citizens of countries in Eastern Europe Eastern Europe and Central Asia and Central Asia. For example, in the court cases submit- • Most of the detected trafficking is intraregional; few ted to UNODC by Member States, a case from Belarus victims trafficked from other regions. saw a man from a country in Western and Central Europe • Many female traffickers and victims. convicted in Belarus for his involvement in trafficking • Mainly sexual exploitation, but more forced labour local women via his own country to another Western than in Western and Central Europe. European destination for sexual exploitation. He was living in Belarus and targeted poor women looking for • All countries have Protocol-compliant legislation. work opportunities abroad. Through promises of well- One of the key characteristics of trafficking in persons in paid work, he deceived the victims to travel abroad. Their Eastern Europe and Central Asia is the strong involvement first stop was the offender’s home country where the of women, both as traffickers and victims. women were met by his accomplices. While this man was the only offender sentenced in the case (he received a Profile of the offenders prison sentence of seven years), the case brief made it clear Considering both prosecutions and convictions, almost that several others were also involved. half of the traffickers in Eastern Europe and Central Asia are women. While women are more involved in traffick- Profile of the victims ing in persons than most other crimes, a female offending While the prominent detections of women victims in the rate of some 50 per cent is exceptional as the global aver- entire region has already been mentioned, in Eastern age for trafficking in persons is around 30 per cent. Europe and Central Asia it is particularly high, at 77 per cent. This is the highest share of women victims of any The vast majority of the traffickers convicted in this sub- (sub)region. region – more than 90 per cent - are local citizens convicted in their own countries. About 8 per cent are Some 15 per cent of the detected victims are men, which foreigners from countries within Eastern Europe and Cen- brings the share of adult trafficking victims in this subre- tral Asia. This is an expected citizenship profile breakdown gion well above 90 per cent. This is a very large share in

FIG. 40: Prosecutions for trafficking in persons in Eastern Europe and Central FIG. 41: Convictions for trafficking in persons Asia, by gender, 2010-2012 (or more in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, recent) by gender, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

46% 54% 56% 44%

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

67 68 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 About 50victimsoftraffickinginpersonsfor thepurpose Asia are women;some30 percent. labour victimsdetectedinEastern Europe andCentral ficked forforced labour. Arelatively largeshare offorced About 26per cent ofthevictimsdetectedhere are traf- for more than70percentofthevictims. is by farthemostcommonlydetectedform,accounting In termsoftheformsexploitation, sexualexploitation trafficking mainlyconcernsgirls. are children. Asin Western andCentralEurope, child tral Asia,asonlyabout8percentofthedetectedvictims compared toadult traffickinginEasternEurope andCen a globalperspective. Detected childtraffickingismarginal FIG. 42: FIG. 43: 8% AND CENTRALASIA EASTERN EUROPE FOREIGNERS - Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 77 recent) Central Asia, detected inEasternEuropeand Gender andageprofilesofvictims more recent) (by region/subregion), in EasternEuropeandCentralAsia Citizenships ofconvictedtraffickers 90% OFFENDERS NATIONAL % 2% CENTRAL EUROPE WESTERN AND 6 % 2010-2012(ormore 15 2010-2012(or % 0.5% MIDDLE EAST AFRICA AND 2 % - 26% FIG. 45: ficked from neighboring countrieswithinthesubregion. in thissubregion are eitherdomesticallytraffickedortraf- Moreover, nearlyall-99percentofthevictimsdetected the subregion forexploitationthere. outside EasternEurope andCentralAsiatraffickedinto gion. In otherwords, there foreigners few are from very trafficking orcross-border traffickingwithinthesubre- gion, regardless ofwhethertheyare victimsofdomestic ern Europe andCentralAsiaoriginatefrom that subre- Most ofthevictimswhoare detectedincountries inEast- Trafficking flows tims were males. Europe andCentralAsia.About 80percentofthesevic- ered inEurope andCentralAsia;38oftheminEastern of organremoval were detectedduringtheperiod consid- FIG. 44: LABOUR FORCED Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. (or more recent) Europe andCentralAsia, ficked forforcedlabourinEastern Gender breakdownofvictimstraf- 2010-2012 (ormore recent) Eastern EuropeandCentralAsia, Forms ofexploitationdetectedin 1% REMOVAL ORGAN 30 % 2% OTHERS 70 2010-2012 % 71% EXPLOITATION SEXUAL

Regional overviews II

MAP 12: Destinations of trafficking victims from Eastern Europe and Central Asia, as a proportion of the total number of victims detected at destination, 2010-2012

99.3%

4% Eastern Europe Western and Central Asia and Central Europe

North America, 6% 2.5% Central America North South East Asia and the Caribbean Africa and Asia and the Pacific the Middle East

Flows of less than 1% of detected victims at destination

Source: UNODC. Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014

From an origin perspective, victims from Eastern Europe Response to trafficking in persons and Central Asia have been detected in or repatriated from All countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia now a large number of countries, especially in Western and have legislation in line with the UN Trafficking in Persons Central Europe. Victims from this subregion have also Protocol. Similar to Western and Central Europe, the year been significantly detected in the Middle East and in East 2003 marked the moment when a wave of new legislation Asia. While detections of these citizens are decreasing, at started to be introduced. least in Western and Central Europe, North America and the Middle East, displacement of these trafficking flows Among these countries, the Central Asian ones needed to other regions or intra-regionally cannot be excluded. most time to have legislation fully in line with the inter-

FIG. 46: Historical evolution of the legislation in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 2003-2012

TOTAL NUMBER OF COUNTRIES CONSIDERED, N:12

2003 MOST / ALL 2008 MOST / ALL 2012 MOST / ALL FORMS FORMS FORMS NO OFFENCE 4 6 11 12

PARTIAL NO OFFENCE OFFENCE 2 1 Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

69 70 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 • • • For thisreason, theywillbeconsidered togetherinthis they displaymanysimilaritiesintermsofthepatterns. some respects, regarding particularly traffickingflows, South America. While thetwosubregions are different in of North andCentralAmericatheCaribbean, The region oftheAmericas encompassesthesubregions AMERICAS TRAFFICKING INPERSONSTHE region, however, thisinformationwasnotavailable. ficking inpersonsperyear. For twocountriesinthissub- reported havingbetween 10and50convictionsfortraf- Most ofthecountriesinEasternEurope andCentralAsia of 2convictionsper100,000population. and intheworld,are registered intheBalkans, withapeak the highestratesofconvictionsperpopulationinEurope, are higherthanin somewhat Western Europe. However, rest oftheworld,andaverage ratesinEasternEurope in Europe andCentralAsiaishighincomparisontothe The numberofpersonsconvictedper100,000population Protocol. national standards ofthe Trafficking inPersons 13 percentoftheforeign traffickerswere convictedin oftheworld.Someto behigherthaninmostother parts eign traffickersincountriesof origininthisregion seems region anomalous. issomewhat offor- The participation fickers are convictedindestinationcountries,theAmericas Keeping inmindthe global findingthatmostforeign traf- tion countriesforSouth Americanvictims. the traffickersinthisgroup are citizens oftypical destina- are traffickersfrom countriesinotherregions. Some of of othercountriesintheregion, whereas some3percent offenders). About 17percentoftheoffendersare citizens (about 80percentofthetotalnumberconvicted ofcitizenshipficking inpersonstheirown country the offendersinAmericasare people convictedoftraf- can bepresented. oftheworld,most Asinotherparts analysis of lackdatafrom keycountries,onlyapartial With regard tothecitizenships oftheoffenders,asaresult Profile oftheoffenders ing flows attheend. section, withasubregion-specific briefanalysisoftraffick-

Forced labourprominent. Many foreign traffickersconvictedinorigincountries. Large share ofwomentraffickers. 17% 1% FIG. 48: Overall, theshare ofwomenamongthetotalnumber Europe. victed personsinthesubregion of Western andCentral account forabout4percent of thetotalnumbercon- reporting period.Citizens ofcountriesintheAmericas tries inSouth AmericaandtheCaribbeanduring have convictedasignificantnumberofcitizens ofcoun- convicted there, however. Western European countries Traffickers from countriesintheAmericas are notonly is missing. this maybealow figure asdatafrom somekeycountries typical origincountriesofcross-border trafficking,and 2% FIG. 47: AMERICAS FOREIGNERS - THE PACIFIC EAST ASIAAND SOUTH ASIA, CENTRAL EUROPE WESTERN AND Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 12% OF ORIGIN COUNTRIES the Americas, tion ofcross-bordertrafficking in by countriesoforiginanddestina- (relative totheconvictingcountry) Convictions offoreignoffenders 2010-2012 (ormore recent) in theAmericas(by(sub)region), Citizenships ofoffenders convicted 2010-2012 80% 88% OFFENDERS OFFENDERS NATIONAL DESTINATION COUNTRIES OF

Regional overviews II

FIG. 49: Prosecutions for trafficking in whereas Canada in North America reported a much lower persons in the Americas, by sub- female conviction rate. region and gender, 2010-2012 (or more recent) Profile of the victims The profiles of the victims detected across the two subregions of the Americas are similar. Child trafficking accounts for almost 30 per cent of the total number of South detected victims, with adults making up the other 70 per America 55% 45% cent. These shares are similar to those found for the 2007- 2010 period. A closer look at the two subregions brings to light some differences in terms of the profiles of detected victims. North America, While in North America and in the South Cone of South Central America America, adult trafficking accounts for a larger share of and Caribbean 57% 43% victims than the regional average, the share of detected child trafficking is relatively high in Central America and in the northern part of South America. 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Most of the detected child victims are girls. Out of every Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. three children detected as victims, two are girls and one is a boy. This breakdown applies to the whole region. The FIG. 50: Convictions for trafficking in persons females also dominate among the adults. Adult women in the Americas, by subregion and account for approximately half of all detected victims in gender, 2010-2012 (or more recent) the Americas, whereas some 20 per cent are men. There is a clearly increasing detection rate of children in North and Central America and the Caribbean. In South America, however, the country-level trends are more South mixed. America 60% 40% FIG. 51: Age profiles of detected victims in the Americas, by subregion, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

North America, Central America and Caribbean 67% 33% ADULTS CHILDREN North America, Central America and Caribbean 71% 29% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. traffickers in the Americas is also relatively high, ranging around 40 per cent for prosecutions as well as convictions. South America These shares are similar in both subregions, even if some- 67% 33% what higher in South America. A closer look reveals that Central American countries record higher shares of female involvement in the trafficking process (which may be 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% related to the profile of the victims detected there), Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

71 72 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 ‘slavery’ orsimilarpractices. of traffickingforforced labourunderoffencessuchas exploitation, andsomeregister situationsthatmay becases have legislationthatonlycovers traffickingforsexual extent insomeSouth Americancountries.Some countries ficking forforced labourisunderreported toanunknown the share isabove 40percent.It likelythattraf- isvery half ofthedetectedvictims,whereas inSouth America, Caribbean, thisformoftraffickingaccountsformore than nently detected.In North andCentralAmericathe In theAmericas,traffickingforforced labourispromi- FIG. 52: Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 100% 100% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 0% 0% Americas, victims, number ofdetectedtrafficking Share ofchildrenamongthetotal 0720 0921 012012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 0720 0921 012012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 United States of America Mexico Canada Guatemala El Salvador Peru Paraguay Argentina

selected countriesinthe 2007-2012 Central America North America, father andson. Argentine case,there were twoconvictedoffenders– group, as approximately 10peoplewere convicted.In the In theCanadiancase,itwasclearlyanorganized crime countries by extendedfamilymembersorfriends. were traffickedfrom relatively poorer torelatively richer tion andmanufacturing,inbothcases,thevictims America (Argentina). The sectorsinvolved were construc- North America(Canada),andtheother, from South cases oftraffickingforforced labour. One wasacasefrom casessubmittedby Memberamong thecourt States were Two ofthecasesthatinvolved largenumbersofvictims ing detectedinSouth America. forced labourwould emergeasthemainformoftraffick- in personstheirresponses tothiscrime,itislikelythat and usedtheProtocol fordefiningtrafficking framework tion consistentwiththe Trafficking inPersons Protocol Assuming thatallcountriesinSouth Americahadlegisla- (sexual andlabour)traffickingforbegging. ‘other’ formsoftrafficking,includingmixed exploitation subregions, some5percentofvictimsare subjected to tral AmericaandtheCaribbean,some40percent.In both cent ofthedetectedvictims,whereas inNorth andCen- South America,suchtraffickingaccountsforsome55per region isbroadly inverse totheshares offorced labour. In The detectionoftraffickingforsexualexploitationinthis FIG. 53: and Caribbean Source: UNODCelaboration onnationaldata. America South 2010-2012 (ormore recent) in theAmericas, Forms ofexploitationdetected %2%4%6%8%100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Others Sexual exploitation 2 %54% 4% 42%

4 %41% 5% 54% by subregion Forced labour Organ removal , Regional overviews II

FIG. 54: Gender breakdown of victims 5 per cent of the victims who were trafficked for sexual trafficked for forced labour in the exploitation are males. Americas, by subregion, 2010-2012 Trafficking flows Turning now to trafficking flows in the subregion of North North and Central America and the Caribbean, 58 per America, Central cent of the relevant flows are either domestic or subre- America and 70% 30% gional. This is consistent with past Reports as well as Caribbean results from other parts of the world. Looking at detections in some detail, victims from Central America have been trafficked across the borders into neighboring countries in Central America, and victims from the Caribbean South have been detected in the Caribbean. Central American America 67% 33% and Caribbean victims have also been detected in North America. In addition, domestic trafficking is also commonly detected. Overall, the detections show a clear pattern of trafficking of persons from relatively poorer origin 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% countries towards comparatively richer destinations within Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. the same subregion. Transregional flows comprise more than 40 per cent of A closer look at the victims for forced labour shows that the detected trafficking to North and Central America and the gender profile of these victims in the Americas is very the Caribbean. This means that this subregion is a signifi- similar to that found in Europe and Central Asia. Some cant destination for such flows. The origins of flows des- 30 per cent of the victims who were trafficked for forced tined for North America are much less diverse than those labour are females, and 70 per cent are males. Less than of European countries, however. The main origin of

MAP 13: Origins of victims trafficked into North and Central America and the Caribbean, shares of the total number of victims detected, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

100% is equivalent to 2,204 detected victims

Domestic (within countries) 14% and within the subregion (cross-border) 45% Central Europe 59% and the Balkans

East Asia North America, 5% and the Pacific Central America and the Caribbean South 25% Asia 3% 7%

South America

Source: UNODC. Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014

73 74 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 detected intheUnited States andCanada. Additionally, East Asiancountriesandthesevictimswere mainly in North andCentralAmericatheCaribbeanare from East Asia.More thanoneinfourofthevictimsdetected inbound long-distancetraffickingisAsia,andparticularly FIG. 55: region ofdestination fordomesticorintraregional traf- Turning now toSouth America, thisisby andlargeasub- tries intheCaribbean. flows originatingfrom thesubregion, coun- particularly However, there are alsosometransregional trafficking within thesamecountry. nearby,are traffickedtoa richercountry ortoaricher area gional. Asaresult, oftheworld mostvictimsfrom thispart as mentionedpreviously, mostofthetrafficking isintrare- Looking atthissubregion asoriginoftraffickingvictims, comprise some3percentofthetotalnumber. neighbouring subregion ofSouth Americaasthesevictims This islargerthantheshare ofdetectedvictimsfrom the 5 percentofthetotalnumberdetectedvictimsthere. pean countries–andthesevictimsnow account forabout from Western andCentralEurope –mainlyCentralEuro- This subregion alsoreported anincreasing share ofvictims bers intheUnited States duringthereporting period. victims from South Asiawere detectedinsignificantnum- Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Caribbean, Evolution oftheoriginstrafficking intoNorthandCentralAmericathe and theCaribbean Central America within North, 65%

59% 2007/2010-2010/2012 East Asia 28%

25% ot saCentralEurope South Asia 1% 7% Source: UNODC. MAP 14: and theBalkans 2% and theCaribbean Central America North America, Flows oflessthan1%detectedvictims atdestination 5% more recent) victims atdestinations, tion ofthetotalnumberdetected America andtheCaribbean, originating inNorthandCentral Destinations oftrafficking victims 59% 1,592 detectedvictims 100% isequivalentto 2007-2010 2,204 detectedvictims 100% isequivalentto 2010-2012 America South America %3% 3% South 4% Western andCentral Western 2010-2012(or Europe 2%

Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014

propor- Middle The East

Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 Regional overviews II

MAP 15: Origin of victims detected in South America, as a proportion of the total number of victims detected in the subregion, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

100% is equivalent to 1,810 detected victims

South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific Central America Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 and the Caribbean

1% South America

94%

Domestic (within countries) 51% Source: UNODC. and within the subregion (cross-border) 43% ficking. Almost all the victims detected in South American Response to trafficking in persons countries are either citizens of the detecting country or In terms of the regional response to trafficking in persons, have been trafficked across the border from neighbouring most of the countries have specific legislation today, countries. The same broad pattern of trafficking from although for some of the countries, the legislative cover- relatively poorer towards comparatively richer areas can age is partial. All North and Central American countries be discerned. For example, Bolivians are trafficked to have a specific offence in line with the UN Trafficking in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Paraguay; Paraguayans and Persons Protocol. Among those considered, one country Peruvians are trafficked to Argentina and Chile; and in the Caribbean lacks a specific offence on trafficking in Colombians are trafficked to Chile and to some Central American countries, to mention some of the flows. persons, while four countries in South America and the Caribbean criminalize only some aspects of trafficking in In terms of inbound trafficking from outside the subre- persons. gion, this only accounts for some 6 per cent of the total number of detected victims. This share mainly comprises Most of the countries in this part of the world did not East Asian victims, as well as a limited number of victims include trafficking in persons in their criminal code before from Central America and the Caribbean. the entry into force of the Trafficking in Persons Protocol in 2003. In fact, only three countries had a specific offence As an origin area for trafficking in persons out of the sub- in line with international standards at that time, while region, South American victims have been detected in a five had partial legislation. A few years later, the situation variety of countries. The most pertinent flows are those improved. In 2008, almost half of the countries in the directed towards Western and Central Europe (some 6 Western Hemisphere had legislation on trafficking in per- per cent of the victims detected there), and North and sons in compliance with the international standards. Now- Central America and the Caribbean (some 3 per cent, adays, the situation has further improved as a vast majority mainly detected in Central American and Caribbean of the countries have full-fledged legislation. countries). A limited number of South American victims have also been detected in East Asia and the Pacific, and The criminal justice response in the Western Hemisphere in North Africa and the Middle East. shows that among the countries considered, only the

75 76 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 FIG. 56: MAP 16: Source: UNODCelaboration onnationaldata. Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 5 OFFENCE PARTIAL at destination of detectedvictims Flows oflessthan1% Asia East 2012 2003 TOTAL NUMBEROFCOUNTRIESCONSIDERED,N:31 Historical evolutionofthelegislationinAmericas, total numberofdetectedvictimsatdestinations, Destinations oftrafficking victimsoriginatinginSouthAmerica, 2 NO OFFENCE 3 FORMS MOST /ALL 23 24 NO OFFENCE FORMS MOST /ALL North America,CentralAmerica 5 OFFENCE PARTIAL and theCaribbean 3% 94% 4 OFFENCE PARTIAL America South 6 NO OFFENCE 2010-2012 (ormore recent) 2014 2008 2003-2014 1 NO OFFENCE Western andCentral 10 OFFENCE PARTIAL Europe 6%

proportion ofthe and NorthAfrica The MiddleEast 15 26 FORMS MOST /ALL FORMS MOST /ALL

Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 Regional overviews II

United States of America and Peru reported more than addition to East Asia) Western and Central Europe, where 50 convictions for trafficking in persons per year. Some they account for some 4 per cent of the total number of countries in Central America and in the Caribbean did convicted persons, and Africa and the Middle East, where not report a single conviction, while the rest of the coun- they account for some 10 per cent, particularly in the tries registered below or around 10 convictions per year. Middle East. East Asians have also been convicted in the Americas. Moreover, South Asians are convicted in large When comparing the number of suspects to the number numbers in the Middle East. of convictions, the latter are about 10 per cent of the former. There is a large discrepancy between the number Looking at the citizenships of those convicted of traffick- of cases of trafficking that are investigated by the police ing in persons in South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, and the number of persons who are convicted in the first the vast majority of traffickers come from this region. instance. On average, about 40 per cent of the prosecuted Almost all are local citizens convicted in their own coun- persons are convicted in the first instance. The United tries (97 per cent). About 3 per cent of the offenders con- States reports a share of federal convictions to prosecu- victed in this region are foreigners, and almost all of them tions of about 70 per cent, which is the largest reported come from the same subregion. This can be explained by share in the region. the fact that most of the trafficking bound for this region originates from the same area. TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS IN Very few people from Europe and Central Asia, North SOUTH ASIA, EAST ASIA AND Africa and the Middle East, or the Americas have been THE PACIFIC convicted in Asia, in spite of the fact that these areas are significant destinations for Asian victims. This suggests • Origin area for victims trafficked across the world. that trafficking flows are either maneuvered in the origin • Many female victims, and many children detected. countries, or trafficking networks operating in the desti- • Forced labour is prominently detected. nation countries recruit local traffickers to ‘collect’ victims • Most offenders come from within the region. from their origins. One of the key features of this region in terms of traffick- Regarding the gender profiles of offenders, in East Asia ing in persons is that it is a significant origin region for and the Pacific, it seems that women and men are pros- victims who are trafficked across much of the world. East ecuted in relatively equal proportions, depending some- Asian victims, in particular, have been widely detected what on the country concerned. outside East Asia. The broad dispersion of East Asian vic- The limited information on the profile of the persons tims has been evident for several years, and has also been convicted does not permit a comprehensive analysis on highlighted in previous editions of this Report. the gender distribution of the offenders. As a destination of trafficking, South Asian countries are mainly affected by domestic trafficking or trafficking from FIG. 57: Prosecutions for trafficking in the neighboring countries. Most of the victims detected East Asia and the Pacific, by gender, in this subregion are trafficked within national borders. 2010-2012 However, South Asian victims are largely detected in the Middle East and increasingly detected in North and Cen- tral America and the Caribbean. They also comprise a significant share of the victims detected in Western and Central Europe. 46% 54% Profile of the offenders The broad geographical dispersion of East Asian trafficking victims is reflected in prosecution and conviction statistics. These show that East Asian traffickers have been convicted in 15 countries in several regions. Regions convicting significant numbers of East Asians include (in Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

77 78 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 and thePacific Australia andJapan, adult womenmakeupthebulkof though femalevictimsare mostfrequently detected.In varies according tothespecificarea underconsideration, In EastAsiaandthe Pacific, theprofile ofthevictims subregionalrather partial picture. concerning othercountriesisincomplete,rendering a reported victimsoftrafficking.Unfortunately, thedata while inNepal, womenremain themostfrequently Africa. Bangladesh reports ahighlevel ofchildtrafficking, here issecondonlyto theshare recorded inSub-Saharan Looking atSouth Asia,theshare ofchildvictimsdetected children isreported relatively frequently here. lower thantheglobalaverage. Moreover, traffickingin of victimsdetectedinthisregion, whichissomewhat males accountsforabout17percentofthetotalnumber females, eitheradultsorunderagegirls. Trafficking of The vast majorityofthevictimsdetectedinAsiaare Profile ofthevictims was 26percentinNepal. persons inIndia were females. The corresponding share 40 percentofthepersonsinvestigated fortraffickingin tion indicatesthatwomenare involved. Abitmore than prosecutions orconvictions,however, received informa- gender profile ofoffenders. There isnoinformationfrom Asia. Here, littleinformationisavailable onthe very Similar problems alsohindersuchananalysisforSouth FIG. 58: Source: UNODCelaboration onnationaldata. South Asia East Asia by subregion, South Asia, Age profilesofdetectedvictimsin %2%4%6%8%100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% ADULTS

East AsiaandthePacific, 2010-2012 0 40% 60% 7 33% 67% CHILDREN FIG. 59: cally abused. were locked up, deprived offoodand/orseverely physi- cases). The victims didnotreceive theirwages,and they man andonewoman(amarried coupleinoneofthe ver, bothcasesinvolved twodefendants,ineachcase,one turnedintotraffickingcases.Moreo-as domesticservants women from South-East Asiawhoseoriginalemployment were submittedby Brunei andbothinvolved Darussalam, Member States Bothcases dealtwithdomesticservitude. Two casessubmittedby ofthecasebriefsfrom thecourt mation isavailable onthisforSouth Asia. labour inEastAsiaandthePacific are females.No infor- (more than7in10)ofthevictimstraffickedfor forced of thevictimsinthisregion isavailable. The vast majority Very informationregarding littlefurther thegenderprofile tion, forced labourand/orforced marriages. unknown ofsexualexploita- proportions/combinations tion aswell as‘mixed’ exploitationwhichmayinclude also reveals largeshares oftraffickingforsexualexploita- although thebreakdown offormsexploitationthere most frequently detectedforminEastAsiaandthePacific, in South Asiaare exploitedinlabour. Forced labouristhe A significantmajorityofthedetectedvictimstrafficked basin, theshare ofchild victimsisrelatively high. the detectedvictims,whereas incountriestheMekong Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. South Asia and Pacific East Asia %2%4%6%8%100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% by subregion, 2010-2012 South Asia, Forms ofexploitationdetectedin 5 85% 15% Others Sexual exploitation 8 1 41% 21% 38% 2 %54% 4% 42%

East AsiaandthePacific, 4 %41% 5% 54% Forced labour Organ removal Regional overviews II

Trafficking flows of the world, the vast majority of the victims detected within South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific are either The main destinations for victims from the subregion of domestically trafficked or trafficked within the same sub- East Asia and the Pacific (outside of the subregion) are North America and the Middle East, and to a lesser extent region. This is true for both the region’s subregions, South Western Europe. Victims from East Asia and the Pacific Asia, as well as East Asia and the Pacific. All countries in are also being detected in Sub-Saharan Africa and episodi- the region are origins and destinations simultaneously, cally in South America and Eastern Europe. Victims do with the exceptions of Australia and Japan, which are des- not originate from one country only, but from many of tination countries for victims from all over the region. the countries in South-East Asia. Countries in South Asia report having detected mainly Victims from South Asia are also trafficked relatively victims trafficked within the national borders; that is, widely outside their subregion, albeit in smaller numbers domestic trafficking. In addition, India also detected vic- and to fewer locations than East Asians. Victims from tims from other countries in the subregion, particularly South Asia have been detected in or repatriated from 37 Nepal and Bangladesh. Victims trafficked from other areas countries in all regions of the world. These victims, origi- – for example Eastern Europe - have also been detected nating from nearly all the countries in the subregion, in India, but only sporadically. account for some 18 per cent of the total number of The situation is similar in East Asia and the Pacific, where detected victims in the Middle East. They also comprise most victims are trafficked domestically or from neigh- significant shares of the victims detected in North and bouring countries. Thailand detects a significant number Central America and the Caribbean (where detections of of victims from the greater Mekong area. Victims from South Asians appears to be increasing compared to the the Mekong area and the poorer countries in South-East 2007-2010 period) and Western Europe. Asia are often trafficked to the richer countries. Addition- Although the region is a significant origin region for vic- ally, a small number of victims trafficked from Eastern tims of transregional trafficking, as for most other parts Europe has been detected during the reporting period.

MAP 17: Destinations of trafficking victims originating in East Asia and the Pacific, proportion of the total number of detected victims at destinations, 2010-2012 (or more recent)

Eastern Europe and Central Asia 6% Western and Central Europe 97% 25% North America, 33% East Asia Central America North and the Pacific and the Caribbean Africa and South the Middle Asia East

3% Sub-Saharan Africa 1% South America

Flows of less than 1% of detected victims at destination Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

79 80 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 in the Trafficking inPersons Protocol. While onlyafew Pacific have legislationthatcriminalizes allaspectslisted Most ofthecountriesinSouth Asia,EastAsiaandthe Response totrafficking inpersons MAP 18: sons Protocol. The countriesthatlackedproper legislation ing thedefinitionoftrafficking ofthe Trafficking inPer- as countriesinthePacific, withsomeislandstates adopt- mainly reported from South-East Asiancountriesaswell sive legislationquintupled. The improvements were Five years later, thenumberofcountrieswith comprehen- ered ascrimesinseveral countries. forced labourortraffickinginmenwere notyet consid- or traffickingforsexualexploitation. Thus, trafficking for legislation thatmainlyfocusedontraffickingofwomen criminalize thiscrimeassuch,and40percenthadpartial international standards. Half ofthecountriesdidnot had aspecificoffenceontraffickinginpersonslinewith ing inpersons.Before December 2003,justfour countries Protocol wasaturningpointinthefightagainsttraffick- more intoforce ofthe how theentry Trafficking inPersons The historicaldynamicsofthisvast region show once cussed intheglobaloverview. tions inthesecountriesisanelementofconcern,asdis- legislation,thelargepopula-countries stillhave partial Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. at destination 1% ofdetectedvictims Flows oflessthan number ofdetectedvictimsatdestinations, Destinations oftrafficking victimsoriginatinginSouthAsia,proportionofthetotal and Central Western Europe 1% the Middle Africa and North 18% East and CentralAsia Eastern Europe Eastern South 96% Asia calculations, for every 10personssuspectedby thepolice calculations, forevery data,accordingOn thebasisofthispartial toUNODC information onthecriminal justice response. age isactuallybiasedasaresult oftheabsenceproper data onconvictionsisnotavailable. So, theregional aver- Thirdly, formanycountriesinthisregion (22percent) authorities. commit isnotconsidered assuch by thenational do notfacetheriskofpunishmentsincecrimethey legislation.Manytries thatstillhave partial traffickersstill Secondly, mostoftheconvictions are recorded incoun- convictions per100,000population. convictions by populationintheregion isonaverage 0.15 tothepopulation,numberof victed, inproportion While insomecountries,thousandsoftraffickersare con- First ofall,manyAsiancountrieshave largepopulations. factors shouldbetakenintoconsiderationinthisregard. ing more than50convictions peryear. However, three higher thaninotherregions, withmanycountriesreport- oftheworldis The numberofconvictionsinthispart well asSouth Asia andsomeislandstatesinthePacific. in 2008were mainlywithinthecontinental EastAsiaas 2010-2012 and theCaribbean Central America North America, 7%

Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 Regional overviews II

FIG. 60: Historical evolution of the legislation in the Americas, 2003-2014

TOTAL NUMBER OF COUNTRIES CONSIDERED, N:35

MOST / ALL 2003 NO OFFENCE 2008 FORMS 17 22

PARTIAL PARTIAL OFFENCE MOST / ALL OFFENCE NO OFFENCE FORMS 14 6 7 4

MOST / ALL MOST / ALL 2012 FORMS 2014 FORMS 28 31

PARTIAL PARTIAL OFFENCE OFFENCE NO OFFENCE NO OFFENCE 5 2 3 1

Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. of committing human trafficking activities, 2 will face trafficking patterns and flows. The economic disparities conviction in the first instance. While the result is above between these areas – particularly the Middle East and the global average, the partiality of the information should Sub-Saharan Africa - may explain these differences. be considered. Profile of the offenders TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS IN Data on the gender profiles of offenders is scarce. From Sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria and South Africa reported AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST high shares of female involvement, nearly 50 per cent, • Scarce data from both subregions. during the reporting period. In the Middle East, the role • Trafficking flows and patterns very different in the two of male traffickers is much more prominent, and the share subregions. of females among those prosecuted or convicted for traf- • In Sub-Saharan Africa, domestic trafficking promi- ficking in persons ranges around 25 per cent. nently detected. The citizenship profiles of offenders is another pattern • Child trafficking - of both boys and girls - commonly where the two subregions differ completely. These differ- reported in Sub-Saharan Africa, whereas almost all ences are mainly related to the fact that Sub-Saharan victims detected in North Africa and the Middle East Africa is primarily a destination of domestic and intrare- are adults. gional trafficking, whereas the Middle East is largely a • Trafficking of children into armed combat significantly destination of transregional trafficking. detected in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of the persons convicted of trafficking in persons in The two subregions that comprise the region of Africa Sub-Saharan Africa are citizens of the country where they and the Middle East - that is, Sub-Saharan Africa, and were convicted. Only some 2.5 per cent of the total North Africa and the Middle East - report very different number of convicted offenders are Sub-Saharan Africans

81 82 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 2% mainly adestinationoftraffickingfrom Asia. This area This breakdown reflects thefactthatMiddle Eastis up ofNorth Africans,ratherthanMiddle Easterners. where theyweretry convicted;ashare thatislargelymade persons convictedinthissubregion comefrom thecoun- in otherregions, mainlyAsians.Just 11percentofthe victed oftraffickinginpersonshere are citizens ofcountries ficking inpersons.Some 80percentofthepersonscon- reports thehighestshare offoreign involvement intraf- The subregion ofNorth AfricaandtheMiddle East cent are foreigners from outsidetheregion. from othercountriesinthesubregion, andlessthan1per ing inadultsmainlytargetswomen, asadultmencomprise girls andboys are more orlessequallydetected. Traffick- the highestshare ofchildtraffickingin theworld,and files ofthedetectedvictims. Sub-Saharan Africareports The twosubregions alsodiffergreatly intermsofthepro- Profile ofthevictims traffickers were detectedinEurope andtheMiddle East East andEurope. AlimitednumberofMiddle Eastern fickers were ofAfrica,theMiddle detectedinotherparts Africa andtheMiddle East).Moreover, West Africantraf- cent from Sub-Saharan Africa and3percentfrom North sons convictedare from AfricaandtheMiddle East(6per In Europe andCentral Asia,some9percentoftheper- cross-border traffickingflows ofvictimsfrom thisregion. ficking inpersons,there seemstobearelation withthe Africa andtheMiddle Easthave beenconvictedoftraf- Looking atthecountrieswhere citizens ofcountriesin while limiteddomestictraffickingisdetected. experiences relatively limitedintraregional trafficking, FIG. 61: SUBREGION WITHIN THE FOREIGNERS - Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 1% 2010-2012 in Sub-SaharanAfrica(byregion), Citizenships ofoffenders convicted OTHER REGIONS FOREIGNERS - 97% NATIONALS

Sub-Saharan North Africa Middle East 11% SUBREGION WITHIN THE FOREIGNERS - FIG. 63: FIG. 62: the Middle Eastare traffickedforpurposesotherthan Almost oneinfive ofthevictimsdetectedinAfricaand children, more girlsare detectedthanboys. perspective. Among the5percentofvictimswhoare cent ofthetotal,share ofmalesislargeinaglobal region. While mostoftheadultsare women,at55per is thelargestshare ofadultvictimsanyregion orsub- almost alldetectedvictims(95percent)are adults. This In North AfricaandtheMiddle East,ontheotherhand, Sub-Saharan Africa. only 6percentofthetotalnumbervictimsdetectedin and the Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. Africa %2%4%6%8%100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 11% 20,5% Middle East,bysubregion, victims detectedinAfricaandthe Age andgenderbreakdownof 2010-2012 in NorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast, Citizenships ofoffenders convicted NATIONALS 6% 7 37,5% 57% 5 38,5% 35% 78% OTHER REGIONS FOREIGNERS - 2010-2012 1,5% 4%

Regional overviews II sexual exploitation or forced labour. A major role is played MAP 19: Destinations of trafficking victims by child soldiers in Sub-Saharan Africa, which particularly originating in West Africa, propor- affects Central African conflict and post-conflict tion of the total number of detected victims at destinations, 2010-2012 countries. Trafficking flows In terms of flows, domestic trafficking is the main type of trafficking in Sub-Saharan Africa. This type of trafficking 14% accounts for more than three quarters of the total number Western and Central of detected victims in this subregion, which is a very large Europe proportion. Cross-border trafficking flows are normally of short range. Most West African victims are detected in West Africa, most Southern Africans in Southern African North America, Central America countries and so forth. Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean also detect a limited number of victims from other regions, 100% West especially East Asia, but these victims comprise a small Africa share of the total number of detected victims. As an origin area for trafficking out of the subregion, there are two significant outbound flows from Sub-Saharan Africa. One is bound for Western and Central Europe, Flows of less than 1% and one for North Africa and the Middle East. These flows of detected victims are largely comprised of West Africans trafficked to West- at destination ern Europe, and East and West African victims detected Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 in North Africa and the Middle East (most prominently Source: UNODC. in the Middle East). MAP 20: Destinations of trafficking victims West African victims have been detected in almost all originating in East Africa, proportion Western European countries. The share of West African of the total number of detected victims at destinations, 2010-2012 victims detected in Western Europe has remained constant for the last few years, and the flows are largely comprised of women and girls trafficked for sexual exploitation. Vic- tims from East Africa are frequently detected in countries

2% FIG. 64: Origin of victims detected in Western and Central Europe Sub-Saharan Africa, shares of the total number of victims detected in the subregion, 2010-2012 10% The Middle DOMESTIC East TRAFFICKING

SOUTH ASIA, East EAST ASIA AND 76% Africa THE PACIFIC 3%

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 100% - CROSS-BORDER 21% Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. Source: UNODC elaboration on national data.

83 84 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 MAP 21: detected inthatarea. accounted forsome10percentoftotalnumbervictims in theMiddle East.During thereporting period,they per centofthetotalnumber victims,whichisrelatively Trafficking withinthesubregion accountsforsome 30 during thecurrent reporting period. which issignificantlyhigherthan the6percentshare seen detected victimsinNorth AfricaandtheMiddle East, victims madeupsome10percentofthetotalnumber ing relatively rapidly. During the2007-2010period,these detected inthissubregion. This flow appearstobedecreas- Asia; aflow thatcomprisessome6percentofthevictims Middle EastoriginatesinEasternEurope andCentral Another significantinboundtraffickingflow tothe and otherMiddle Eastern countries. Indian sub-continentare traffickedmainlytotheGulf from avariety ofcountriesinSouth-East Asiaand the not possibletosingleoutonemajorarea oforigin;victims the region ofSouth Asia,EastAsiaandthePacific. It is inbound traffickingfrom distantregions, especiallyfrom (mainly East)Africans. The region alsoexperiences The Middle EastisnotonlyadestinationforSub-Saharan 825 detectedvictims 100% isequivalentto Source: UNODC. of victimsdetectedthere, Origins ofvictimstrafficked totheMiddleEast, Americas Domestic (withincountries) and withinthesubregion 2010-2012 (cross-border) 29% 2% Sub-Saharan Africa in thissubregion over thepastdecade.In 2003,85per Nonetheless, significant improvements have beenmade Protocol intoforce. more thantenyears afteritsentry adopt legislationinlinewith the Trafficking inPersons legislation isakeyconcern.Several countriesstillneedto Saharan oftheworldwhere Africa isapart thelackof As reported in theglobaloverview, thesubregion ofSub- Response totrafficking inpersons Most ofthesevictimsare from North Africa. 2 percentofthetotalnumbervictimsdetectedthere. of victimsfrom North AfricaandtheMiddle East,about countries report detectingsmallbutsignificant numbers border trafficking.Only Western and Central European This subregion isnotasignificantoriginregion forcross- while itismore relevant forthecountriesinNorth Africa. be extremely limitedintheMiddle Easterncountries, tries intheMiddle East.Domestic traffickingappears to detected North Africanvictimshasgrown inseveral coun- appears tobeincreasing, however, asthenumberof relatively distantEastAsiaandthePacific. The share of theworld,andlower thanthenumberofvictimsfrom low whencompared topatterns recorded inotherparts 31% 1% and CentralAsia Eastern Europe Eastern Middle 10% East

The proportions ofthetotalnumber 6% 18% 33% Asia South and thePacific East Asia

Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 Regional overviews II

MAP 22: Destinations of trafficking victims cent of the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa lacked legisla- originating in North Africa, proportion on trafficking. Just two West African countries had tion of the total number of detected comprehensive laws on trafficking in persons, and four victims at destinations, 2010-2012 had partial legislation that criminalized child trafficking only. After five years, in 2008, more than half of the countries still lacked a trafficking in persons crime in their legislation, while some more countries had introduced a 2% child trafficking offence. Most of the efforts were concen- Western and Central trated between 2008 and 2012, and nowadays, 28 coun- Europe tries have legislation that is in line with the Trafficking in Persons Protocol. Still, more than 30 per cent of countries either have partial legislation or no specific offence at all. 20% North Africa The Middle As a result of the late introduction of proper legislation, East most of the countries in this part of the world report very low numbers of convictions, and the number of countries where this information is not available or accessible is very high compared to the rest of the world. Only two countries, Togo and Nigeria, reported convictions of some 50 persons in at least one of the reporting years. The other countries either reported no convictions at all, or less than ten per year. For North Africa and the Middle East, the situation in 2003 was similar to or worse than that of Sub-Saharan Sciences Po - Atelier de cartographie, 2014 Source: UNODC. Africa. No country in North Africa and the Middle East

FIG. 65: Historical evolution of the legislation in Sub Saharan Africa, 2003-2014

TOTAL NUMBER OF COUNTRIES CONSIDERED, N:42

PARTIAL 2003 NO OFFENCE 2008 OFFENCE MOST / ALL FORMS 35 11 2 PARTIAL OFFENCE MOST / ALL FORMS NO OFFENCE 5 11 20

MOST / ALL MOST / ALL 2012 FORMS 2014 FORMS PARTIAL PARTIAL OFFENCE 23 OFFENCE 28 10 10

NO OFFENCE 9 NO OFFENCE Source: UNODC elaboration on national data. 4

85 86 GLOBAL REPORT ON TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2014 FIG. 66: had anoffencethatcriminalized traffickinginpersonsas focused ontraffickinginchildren). Some improvements legislation(thatsuch. Only twocountrieshadpartial analyses elsewhere. information forothercountriesdoesnotpermitsimilar instance, andIsrael reports asimilarratio. The lackof sons intheUnited ArabEmirates are convictedinthefirst per centofthepersonsinvestigated fortraffickinginper- low,generally very withacoupleofexceptions. About 40 convictions, andwhensuchfigures are available, theyare Very countriescanprovide few dataonthenumberof Information onthe criminaljusticeresponse islimited. standards. region hadlegislation thatwasinlinewithinternational by the year 2012themajorityofcountriesinthissub- force ofthe Trafficking inPersons Protocol, however, and were into reported in thefirstfive years aftertheentry Source: UNODCelaborationonnationaldata. 1 OFFENCE PARTIAL 2012 2003 3 TOTAL NUMBEROFCOUNTRIESCONSIDERED,N:14 NO OFFENCE Historical evolutionofthelegislationinNorthAfricaandMiddleEast, 2 OFFENCE PARTIAL 10 12 NO OFFENCE FORMS MOST /ALL 3 NO OFFENCE 2014 2008 4 FORMS MOST /ALL 11 8 FORMS MOST /ALL NO OFFENCE 2003-2014 2003-2014 2 OFFENCE PARTIAL