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Ui bTCÎ^PÏt^C^îî^^'^"^^'^^^''' INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF POULTRY SCIENCE

OFFICIAL ORGAN OF THE WORLD'S POULTRY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION

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BDITORi Dr. B. J. C. TE HENNEPE ROTTERDAM (Holland) This Review is free to all members of the World *s Poultry Science Association. All Subscriptions should be sent to the Editor : Dr. B. J. C. te Hennepe, Rotterdam, or to the Secretary- Treasurer: Dr. G. F. Heuser, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A. SUBSCRIPTIONS. $5.00 annually in advance. The personal membership of the W.P.S.A.1 amounts to $5.00 > P^^ For affiliated societies „ „ $25.00 J ^^^^ ADVERTISEMENT RATES. One page, per issue ... $12.00 Half page, per issue $7.00 TOME XII. 1939 No. 1/2

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF POULTRY SCIENCE

OFFICIAL ORGAN OF THE WORLD'S POULTRY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION

EDITOR : DR. B. J. C. TE HENNEPE ROTTERDAM (Holland) Printed in Great Britain by H. R. GRUBB, LTD., Croydon. To the Members of the World's Poultry Science Association

In the last issue of the INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF POULTRY SCIENCE, President Karl Vetter appealed to the members of our Association to do all they can to make the forthcoming Seventh World's Poultry Congress a success. May we now add our urgent appeal to this and point out to you the importance of this to the World's Poultry Science Association, thç World's Poultry Congresses and the Poultry Industry in the various countries. Every country should have representation in the United States at Cleveland, Ohio, this year. It is the particular duty of our members to help in all ways possible to get this national participation. The triennial meetings of the World's Poultry Science Association are held at that time. If we are to function strongly as an organisation, we must have attendance at its meetings. The plans for the Congress have progressed sufficiently to promise that participation in the activities will be extremely profitable and will repay an effort on the part of anyone to be present. If it is impossible for you to attend and take advantage of full Congress membership, you can lend your support and also receive the printed report of the proceedings of the scientific and educational meetings by becoming Associate Members. We hope that the World's Poultry Science Association membership will respond to the roll call in a manner which will reflect credit upon our Association. PROFESSOR J. E. RICE, First Vice-President for America.

DR. G. F. HEUSER, Secretary- Treasurer. The United States is Ready to Welcome Congress Guests By Jos. WM. KINGHORNE, Assistant Secretary-General.

One of the basic ideas that inspired the holding of a World's Poultry Congress was that of bringing together from the four corners of the earth the result of the latest and most authentic information developed by poultry scientists. In other words, it is this contribution of research, investigational and educational developments from many nations, coupled with their practical application in the wide field of poultry husbandry, that has made the World's Poultry Congress an institution of increasing importance since its inception in 1921. The Seventh Congress to be held in Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A., from July 28th to August 7th, 1939, has as its goal at least the maintenance of the standards of attainment achieved at previous congresses and the further hope that, in the spirit of progress, those standards will be surpassed. The official invitation of the United States Government to the World's Poultry Science Association to meet in this country in 1939 was accepted at the Sixth Congress held at Leipzig, Germany, in 1936. As soon as word was received in the United States of this acceptance the leaders of the poultry industry in this country became alert to their responsibilities and realised the work that lay before them to prepare for the Seventh Congress. Ideas developed into plans ; group meetings resulted in a unified organisation of the entire poultry industry. As the weeks and months passed these plans and the results of co-ordinated effort began to assume tangible form. Visits were made by officials of the Congress and the United States Government to 35 foreign countries to extend a direct invitation to attend and participate in all phases of this coming international event. Group meetings, ranging from small gatherings in remote rural communities to large assemblies in towns and cities, were held to secure the support and co-operation of all segments of the poultry industry. By radio and press the message of the Congress has blanketed this country. Countless individuals, organised groups, commercial concerns. State and Government officials have all given their time and effort to help ensure the success of the Congress. It is now about 3 months before the Congress opens its doors to the world. Before that eventful opening day the work of the past 3 years will be completed. On that and succeeding days Congress officials will extend a hand of welcome to all. Friends, neighbours, visitors and guests from foreign lands will all be made to feel their welcome as members of a world-wide fraternity with a common objective. Since the first plans were laid for the Seventh Congress, the element of participation by other nations was held of great importance and given every consideration. The Seventh Congress has seven objectives which have materialised into seven major features. Each of these objectives and each of these features have been so planned and developed as to include any and all foreign nations that might take part in such activities. Reference has previously been made to the visits made by Congress officials to numerous foreign nations for the purpose of soliciting their attendance and participation. In addition to these activities, copies of both the Preliminary and General Announcements, special bulletins and numerous letters have been sent to a large list of individuals in other countries in the interest of the Congress. In the name of the host nation, the Hon. Cordell Hull, Secretary of State, issued an official invitation to 64 foreign governments on January 25th, 1938, to attend and take part in the Congress. Thus it is felt that every effort has been made not only to acquaint those in other countries with our plans but also to assure them of our sincere desire to have them participate in every Congress activity. Up to the present time official and unofficial reports received indicate that official delegates or observers will be present from 27 countries, namely : Argentina, Bolivia, Canada, Colombia, Cuba, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Eire, England, Fiji Islands, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Hawaii, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, Poland, Sweden, and the U.S.S.R. Representatives of 20 countries have submitted papers for the Scientific Programme. These countries are Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, Eire, England, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Palestine, Poland, Rumania, Scotland, Sweden and the Union of South Africa. In the Hall of Nations, eight countries are making plans to put on exhibits depicting various phases of poultry educational work. These are Canada, England, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan and Nether- lands. In the International Live Bird Exhibit eight countries have up to this time expressed their intention of sending fowls for this phase of the Congress. These cinclude Canada, Cuba, England, France, Hungary, India, Italy and Netherlands. There will be a total of 36 different countries participating in these various features of the Congress. It is hoped, of course, that prior to the actual opening of the Congress, there will be an even greater representation from foreign countries. Whether or not this hope is realised will in no way affect our elaborate plans for entertainment and the fulfilment of every Congress feature. Why a World's Poultry Congress? As A WOMAN SEES IT. By K. B. NiLES, Chairman^ Consumer Education ProgrammCy Seventh World^s Poultry Congress and Exposition.

I have been accused of being one of several with an unselfish enthusiasm for the Seventh World's Poultry Congress. But from the enthusiasm around me to-day, it looks as if my accuser were mistaken. Some of us, since its inception, have been working tooth and toenail on the Congress ; but for those who arrived late—better late than never ! Nature endowed the poultry industry well. In consonance as they are with native human taste, poultry and eggs are a lavish gift of wise and lovely Nature. For when in the caprice of a happy mood, she conspired with Dame Fortune, together they must have contemplated a full-functioning poultry industry, for they heaped their favouritisms handsomely upon it. Together they fabricated the poultry business, richly designing it for a great and noble destiny. And now, the broad smile of Fortune plays gloriously upon the whole poultry world tangling it in a golden chord of luck. What a splendid brand of luck, too ! Luck like that o' the Irish—and not to be tossed away. Not to be tossed away, indeed, but rather to be reared aloft full-tide to the service of the people in our markets which now it is in our gift to offer them. Here in our hands we hold the chance of lifetimes. Citizens of the world shall know well of the young colossus—the poultry industry—and with it its allied functions. Out of the laps of the gods and into the lap of the industry drops the World's Poultry Congress. Oppor- tunities the Congress will bring for consumer education are limited only by the limits of your own vision. Vision will determine the restrictions on our purse strings and purse strings will either curb or enliven capacity for work. Why shouldn't the hen be the glamour girl of 1939 ? Bear in mind that the entire industry is pyramided on nothing more substantial than the delicate palate of a fickle public appetite. So in that much vaunted (but undeniable) last analysis, the epicurean taste of the hungry throng pays all the bills—buys all the bread and butter for the whole poultry world. The only effective results of the Consumer Education Programme are the sale and satisfactory consumption of eggs and poultry. Saving money is not the world's greatest business—and few people are interested in it. Buying is the world's greatest pastime. The effective sale of any product is not made at the point of purchase but at the point of use. And if it isn't satisfactory in use, there are not likely to be any more sales—^it wasn't really sold. If people don't like to use it they won't buy it. Now in the consumer educating we do at the Institute of American Poultry Industries, they stay sold and they stay educated and they ask for more ! The Institute's consumer education programme includes lecture demonstrations, the likes of which have been held every year for 3 years at the People's Gas, Light and Coke Company, at state and national association conventions, at farm and home weeks sponsored by the universities, at the annual meeting of the National Association of Retail Meat Dealers : furnishing material to 350 key newspapers and newspaper and radio services, leading to some 16,000 outlets which regularly publish our educational releases. These releases are copied and recopied. Exclusive material on how to buy, handle, cook and eat eggs and poultry is furnished to and published in 40 leading women's magazines and trade journals throughout the year. Special advertis- ing campaigns for retail outlets, photographs for editors and writers friendly to the industry for their own special articles are supplied. We have never been able to supply fully the demand for our material. Incessant bulletin material requested by state, trade and miscellaneous organisations screams from coast to coast and up and down to make people better egg and poultry users. Radio programmes continually invite and use us and our material. Not the least of these, the Institute kitchen is a virtual mecca for those in the industry with problems of cookery, as well as nearly every other agency concerned with foods. In our consumer education department, foods and nutrition, we benefit the sale of eggs and poultry by solving a great number of problems for food agencies which use and combine our products with theirs. If I try to finish telling you all the activities of our department I will keep you here all day. Now comes the chance of lifetimes burst forth upon us, to teach the unschooled national appetite and its purveyors the nearly boundless variety of value which poultry and eggs bring to them. We must not " muff " the chance. We have set the stage to dramatise the use of eggs and poultry. There is nothing in the World's Poultry Conggress that can be expected to increase our market more than the consumer education programme. We hope to build our programme as we designed it. The consumer education programme was designed to get back our rightful markets and to attract to us new ones. It was arranged and laid out to draw the attention of the greatest buyer in the world, the great American housewife. It was designed to appeal to every person who owns a stomach and has to fill it with food every day. That goes all the way from the elderly man, the elderly woman who need enlivening food, to the big market of people who devour every year a ton of food per capita^ clear down to the growing children, the infants, and the invalids. And believe me the thing that fills this bill is the eggs. The only time you get paid is when someone eats an Qgg or a chicken. In such a well-laid scheme we offer you on a platter a made-to-order opportunity to ride hard on a gush of publicity that will carry every kind of business that joins with it into the forefront of the national buying mind. It is planned to perpetrate a contest of such national scope that it will penetrate every corner of the country and reach its finger into every home, to every person that eats. The motion picture industry is exciting intense public attention and its no pennyante prize money. They offer one quarter of a million dollars in prizes ! With the comparative figures you have in your head—^well, when the movie industry is full grow^n it may be as large as the poultry industry is now^. We hope to compile a cook book. We are prepared to do such a knock- out job on this Eggs and Poultry around the World that visitors v^ill be ashamed to go home without one. There is a unique plan for quick and easy distribution. We have planned a demonstration feature in a " Transparent Kitchen " that will have crowds around it all the time watching with round eyes. The auditorium will pack them in for our stage shows, which will dramatise every phase of the industry. We hope to have so many celebrities that it will look like open season. We will show them so many tricks and delicious ways of eating eggs and poultry and the things that go with them that we will have their mouths watering for six months after the congress. By displays, demonstrations, special small booths of varied types, we will tell our story so clearly that even a " dumb-bell '* can understand it. On the West Coast there is an exposition, the ground work for which alone cost eighteen million dollars and before they finish there will have been appropriated and spent fifty million dollars. And likewise there will be in competition with our poultry congress an exposition in the east that will not only match but seek to outdo it. If we do this thing right we will have a stream of people pouring into the congress at Cleveland on their way to and from New York City and pouring into the congress at Cleveland on their way to or from San Francisco. Practical Selling of Poultry Products Through the Congress

Through actual demonstrations, through the printed word, through talks on the radio, and other types of approach to the public, the story of poultry as a source of food is being told in detail, so that the public not only will develop a desire to use more poultry products but will actually be told how to do so. This is practical selling because it not only creates a desire, it explains how that desire can be fulfilled. The Transparent Kitchen The Transparent Kitchen is a practical way of showing through demonstration just how utilisation can be made of poultry products in the human diet. In this kitchen will be prepared recipes from the World's Poultry Congress cook book *' Eggs and Poultry Around the World." This cook book not only shows the use of eggs and poultry through recipes developed in the United States, but brings together the best recipes from all parts of the world. From this Transparent Kitchen the story of eggs and poultry will be carried through every state in the Union. It will help to sell the products of every poultry

The Food Palace In one part of the World's Poultry Congress exhibit hall there will be brought together every known use of eggs in the way of food. Through an exchange of ideas and through the development of new ideas will come a greater market. All of this takes money to perform. Consequently, help is needed. If the help comes from many, the amount needed from each is small. National Publicity Six months before the opening date of the Congress over 10,000 illustrated stories in plate form had gone to the newspapers of the United States. Each was sent only after having been requested by the editor. The publicity is continuing and editors are finding this material useful and of interest to their readers. Magazines, farm papers, radio and all other mediums of reaching the consumer are being utilised. The extent to which this programme can be carried will depend upon the funds available. Now would seem the time to build the poultry industry. Poultry Congress Highlights The visitor to the World's Poultry Congress will see the high spots of every phrase of the poultry business. Scientific Meetings.—Â gathering of the poultry scientists of the entire world to discuss the newest scientific developments as they apply to poultry. Popular Programmes.—Daily talks will be given which will cover practical phases of the industry. This constitutes a veritable short course in poultry production. Youth Programme.—^The boys and girls will have their own camp and special entertainment. Judging and demonstrations by 4-H boys and girls, Future Farmers of America, and rural Boy Scouts will tend to develop further leadership for the poultry industry. Consumer Programme.—Â variety of daily programmes, open to the public, will depict the purchase, care, refrigeration, distribution and nutrition of poultry and eggs, presenting feature demonstrations. Style Show, Puppet Show, movies and Parade of Nations. Competitive Live Bird Show.—Ât least 7,500 specimens of the best in each breed of poultry will vie for ribbons at the Congress. This will include rare and unusual breeds, even to pit games. In the Pigeon Exhibit alone, over 600 pairs of all varieites and colours of pigeons will be shown. International Live Bird Exhibit.—Interesting and unique specimens of fowl from all parts of the world will be shown, including such rarities as the long-tailed fowl of Japan, the green-footed fowl of Poland, blue-egg hens from Chile, and other unusual products of the poultry yard. Pageant of Poultry.—Â living American standard of perfection will show a male and female of each breed and variety of chickens, turkeys and water fowl. Around this display will be grouped exhibits of breeders, hatcheries and poultry organisations. Mammoth Trade Exposition.—Every company manufacturing articles used by the poultry man has been invited to exhibit its product in the Great Exposition Hall. Already the response has been sufficient to ensure one of the greatest trade expositions ever held in the history of the world. This exhibit alone is well worth the time and effort of attending. Hall of Nations and States.—Here will be exhibited the special educational features prepared by each nation and state to dramatise the outstanding features of their land. Afternoon Conference Periods One of the unique features of these periods will be the opportunity for individual flock owners to meet and talk with many of the better known poultry authorities on the following topics : (1) Poultry Feeding and Manage- ment ; (2) Poultry Breeding ; (3) Poultry Marketing ; (4) Poultry Diseases. During the afternoon of each of the 6 days listed in the short course, noted authorities other than those listed on the morning programme, will be on hand to talk personally with anyone wishing to do so.

8 EXCHANGING LIST

THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF POULTRY SCIENCE IS EXCHANGED WITH THE FOLLOWING JOURNALS

AUSTRALIA. THE AUSTRALIAN VETERINARY JOURNAL, University of Sydney, Faculty of Veterinary Science. AUSTRALASIAN POULTRY WORLD, 78a Victoria Street, Melbourne. THE JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA, Victoria Square, Adelaide. POULTRY, Goulburn Street 13, Sydney, N.S.W.32.

BELGIUM. AVISELECT, Tervurenlaan 254, S.P. Woluwe. BULLETIN OFFICIEL FEDERATION DES SOCIETES D'AVICULTURE, Douglaslaan, 13, Cappellenbosch. HET VLAAMSCH DIERGENEESKUNDIG TIJDSCHRIFT, Brusselschesteenweg 625, Gent. HET VLAAMSCH PLUIMVEEBLAD, Tervurenlaan 254, S.P. Woluwe.

BOHEMIA & PUBLICATIONS DE L'ECOLE DES HAUTES MORAVIA. ETUDES VETERINAIRES, Prof.Dr. F. Kral, Praszka 67, Brno. SBORNIK CESKOSLOVENSKE AKADEMIE ZEMEDELSKE, Ustredni Knihovna zemedelska, Sleszka 7, Prague XII.

CANADA. THE CANADA POULTRYMAN, 618 Homer Street, Vancouver. THE CANADIAN POULTRY REVIEW, 184, Adelaide Street, W., Toronto.

9 SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE, Can. Society of Technical Agriculturists, 306 Victoria Building, Ottawa.

CHINA. LING NAN SCIENCE JOURNAL, Lingnan University, Canton.

DENMARK. TIDDSKRIFT FOR FJERKRAEAVL, Gl. Kongevej 31, Copenhagen V.

EIRE. JOURNAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Dublin, C.17.

ENGLAND. BRITISH DUCK KEEPERS ASSOCIATION " NOTES," Capt. J. K. Lipscomb, St. Antony's, Swanley, Kent. EGGS, Rudgwick, Sussex. FARMER and STOCK BREEDER, Dorset House, Stamford Street, London, S.E.I. THE FEATHERED WORLD, 9, Arundel Street, Strand, London, W.C.2. HARPER ADAMS POULTRY JOURNAL, Newport, Salop. THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, 10, Whitehall Place, London. LANCASHIRE UTILITY POULTRY SOCIETY'S REPORT, 22, Chapel Walks, Preston, Lancashire. MEMOIRS UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, The Librarian, School of Agriculture, Cambridge. POULTRY, 71, Fleet Street, London, E.C.4. POULTRY INDUSTRY, W. M. Elkington, Milford, nr. Godalming, Surrey. POULTRY WORLD, Dorset House, Stamford Street, London, S.E.I.

FRANCE. LA REVUE AVICOLE, 34 Rue de Lille, Paris.

GERMANY.' ARCHIV FUR GEFLUGELKUNDE, Forsthaus Schönwalde b. Berlin, Kreis Niederbarnim. DEUTSCHE EIER-WIRTSCHAFT, Steinmetz- strasse 2, Berlin. DEUTSCHE LANDWIRTSCHAFTLICHE GE- FLUGELZEITUNG, Steinmetzstr. 2, Berhn.

10 GEFLUGEL-BORSE, Perthesstr. 5, Leipzig. DER KLEINTIERHOF, Steinmetzstr. 2, Berlin W 35. NORDDEUTSCHER GEFLUGELHOF, Nord- strasse 5, Oldenburg i. Olbg. ZUCHTUNGSKUNDE, Invalidenstrasse 42, Berlin N 4.

HOLLAND. BEDRYFSPLUIMVEEHOUDER, Misset, Doe- tinchem. SCHÄKELS, Maasstraat 106-11, Amsterdam (Z.). TIJDSCHRIFT VOOR DIERGENEESKUNDE, Fr. Hendrikstraat 112, Utrecht.

INDIA. THE INDIAN VETERINARY JOURNAL, P. Srinivasa Rao, Madras.

ITALY. LA FECONDAZIONE ARTIFICÍALE DEGLI ANIMALI DOMESTICI. Via Monte Ortigare 35, Milano. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF AGRICUL- TURE, the International Institute of Agriculture, Villa Umberto 1, Rome. RIVISTA DI AVICULTURA, Via Aurelio Saffi, 26, Bologna. RIVISTA DI ZOOTECNIA, R. Instituto Superiore Agrario e Foréstale, Cascine, Firenze.

JAPAN. JOURNAL OF THE JAPANESE SOCIETY OF VETERINARY SCIENCE, Prof. Osamu Emoto, Faculty of Agriculture, Imperial University, Hongo, Tokyo.

JUGO-SLAVIA. VETERINARSKI ARHIV, Savska Cesta 16, Zagreb.

NETHERLANDS-EAST-INDIA. LANDBOUW EN VEE- TEELT, Petjenongan 72, Batavia-Centrum. NED. BLADEN VOOR DIERGENEESKUNDE, Bataviascheweg 54, Buitenzorg, Java.

NEW ZEALAND. N.Z. POULTRY WORLD, Massay Agricultural College, Palmerston North.

11 NORWAY. NORDISK FJADERFATIDSKRIFT, Leif Svendsen, Oslo. TIDSKRIFT FOR FJAERFAEAVL, Raadhus- gaten, 9 III, Oslo.

NORTHERN IRELAND. MONTHLY REPORT OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Stormont, Belfast. THE JOURNAL OF THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, Stormont, Belfast.

POLAND. DROB POLSKI, VI. Kopernika 30, Warsaw. THE UKRAINIAN AGRICULTURAL REVIEW. Dr. E. Chraplywyj, Ruska 20, Lwow.

RUMANIA. AVICULTURA. Institutul National Zooteknic, Strada Dr. N. Staicovici No. 63, Bucarest VI.

SCOTLAND THE SCOTTISH JOURNAL OF AGRICUL- TURE, Dept. of Agriculture, York Building, Queen Street, Edinburgh.

SOUTH AFRICA. BOERDERIJ IN SUID-AFRICA, Landbouw Department, Pretoria. THE JOURNAL OF THE S.A. VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, P.O. Onderstepoort, Pretoria. THE S.A. POULTRY, PIGEON AND BIRD MAGAZINE, Box 286, Bloemfontein. THE ONDERSTEPOORT JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL INDUSTRY, Director of Veterinary Services and Animal Industry, P.O. Onderstepoort, Pretoria.

SPAIN. MALLORCA AGRÍCOLA Y AVICULTURA, Granja, Barcino, Conseil. MUNDO AVíCOLA, Arenys de Mar, Barcelona.

SWEDEN. SVERIGES FJADERFAAVELS FORENINGS TIDSKRIFT, Agronom Sune Träskman, Vasa- gatan 5, Stockholm.

12 SWITZERLAND. L'ELEVEUR SUISSE, Case Postale 90, Lausanne-Gare. DER GEFLUGELHOF, Mr. H. Küderli, Zolli- kofen (Bern).

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. CACKLE AND CROW, The Poultry paper, 116 Church Street, New Haven, Connecticut. EXPERIMENT STATION RECORD, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. INTERNATIONAL BABY CHICK NEWS, 3223 Troost Avenue, Kansas City, Mo. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. NEW ENGLAND POULTRYMAN, 4 Park Street, 2, Boston, Mass. NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRI- CULTURE EXPERIMENT STATION PUBLI- CATIONS, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. THE NEWS LETTER, College of Agriculture, Moscow, Idaho. OHIO AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BIMONTHLY BULLETIN, Wooster, Ohio. POULTRY ITEM, SellersviUe, P.A. POULTRY SCIENCE, Dr. G. F. Heuser, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. POULTRY SUPPLY DEALER, 1230 West Washington Boulevard, Chicago. POULTRY TRIBUNE, Mount Morris, Illinois. U.S. EGG AND POULTRY MAGAZINE, 110 North Franklin Street, Chicago.

13 OFFICERS

Honorory Past Presidents—Dr. Sir Edward Brown, Devonshire House, Theale, Reading, Berks, England. Mr. F. C. Elford, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada. Mr. W. A. Kock, Lykkevej 9, Charlottenlund, Denmark. Prof. A. Ghigi, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy. President—Mr, K. Vetter, Neue Ansbacher Str. 9, Berlin, W.50. Secretary "Treasurer—Dr. G. F. Heuser, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A. First Vice-President for America—Prof. J. E. Rice, Mexico, N.Y. First Vice-President for Europe—Prof. S. Castelló, Arenys de Mar, Barcelona, Spain. First Vice-President for Southern Hemisphere—Mr. J. J. Jordaan, South Africa. Vice-presidents—Prof. Dr. K. Beller, University, Giessen. Mr. P. A. Francis, Ministry of Agriculture, 10, Whitehall Place, London. Mr. C. S. Th. van Gink, Voorburg, Z.-H., Holland. Prof. Chas. Voitellier, 89 Rue Erlanger, Paris 16ème, France. Secretary for Continental Europe—Dr. B. J. C. te Hennepe, State Serum Institute, Rotterdam, Holland. Editor International Review of Poultry Science—Dr. B. J. C. te Hennepe, Rotterdam.

MEMBERS OF COUNCIL AUSTRALIA Mr. J. B. Merrett. BELGIUM Mr. F. K. Chrispeels. Prof. J. F. Frateur. Mr. K. de Rycke. BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA . Prof. F. Krai. CANADA Prof. R. K. Baker. Mr. W. A. Brown. Prof. F. N. Marcellus. DENMARK Dr. J. Traberg. EGYPT Dr. M. Askar Bey. EIRE Miss Mary Hennerty. ENGLANii Mr. A. Arbuthnot. Dr. E. M. Cruickshank. Capt. E. T. Hainan. Mr. T. Newman. Mr. Gordon Stewart. FRANCE Prof. P. Lesbouyries. Mr. Achille Fould. GERMANY Dr. J. Filler. Prof. F. Lehmann. Dr. L. Weinmiller. HOLLAND Prof. Dr. L. de Blieck. Dr. B. J. C. te Hennepe. ITALY Prof. E. Giacomini. Prof. A. Pirocchi. Prof. V. Vezzani.

14 JAPAN Prof. K. Kimura. NEW ZEALAND Mr. J. A. Kissling. NORTHERN IRELAND .... Mr. J. Getty. Mr. J. G. Rhynehart. Miss M. J. Sheedy. PALESTINE Mr. Alexander Livshutz. POLAND Dr. Laura Kaufman. Dr. M. S. Gutowska. SCOTLAND Miss M. M. Macleod. SOUTH-AFRICA Mr. W. A. Bartlett. Mr. D. Jacobs. Mr. C. A. Pereira. SPAIN Mr. R. de Escauriaza. SWEDEN Mr. M. de Wachenfeit. SWITZERLAND Mr. M. K. Kleb. Mr. J. Ph. Stoeckli. UNITED STATES Prof. J. G. Halpin. Dr. M. A. Juli. Prof. W. F. Kirkpatrick. Prof. J. H. Martin. Prof. L. F. Payne. Prof. R. B. Thompson. URUGUAY Prof. E. Llovet.

Editor INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF POULTRY SCIENCE Dr. B. J. C. te Hennepe, Rotterdam.

15 PATRONS

AUSTRALIA. Official Secretary. Commonwealth of Australia, Australia House, Strand, London, W.C.2. CANADA. Department of Agriculture of Canada, Ottawa. EIRE. Department of Agriculture, Government Buildings, Dublin, C.17. ENGLAND. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 10, Whitehall Place, London, S.W.L FINLAND. Ministry of Agriculture, Helsingfors. NORTHERN IRELAND. The Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Stormont, Belfast. SCOTLAND. Department of Agriculture, 29, St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh. UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. Office of the High Commissioner for the Union of South Africa, Trafalgar Square, London, England.

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

CANADA. Canadian National Poultry Record Association, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. DENMARK. Danmarks Fjerkraeavler Forening, Gl. Kongevej 31, Copen- hagen V. ENGLAND. National Poultry Council of England and Wales, 73 Southamp- ton Row, London, W.l. FRANCE. Société Centrale d'Aviculture, 34 Rue de Lille, Paris. GERMANY. Reichsverband Deutscher Kleintierüzchter, Neue Ansbacher Strasse 9, Berlin, W.50. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. American Feed Manufacturer's Asso- ciation, Inc. R. M. Field, Executive Vice-President, 53 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. Institute of American Poultry Industries, 110 North Franklin Street, Chicago, 111. International Baby Chick Association, 3718 Broadway, Kansas City, Missouri. National Association of Egg Case and Egg Case Filler Manufacturers, E. P. Lannan, III W. Washington St., Room 1337, Chicago, 111. Northeastern Poultry Producers' Council, Leon Todd, Secretary, State Department of Agriculture, Trenton, New Jersey. Poultry Science Association, Prof. W. A. Maw, Macdonald College, Quebec.

16 MEMBERS IN GOOD STANDING January 1st, 1939

Honorary Life Member—Prof Salvador Castello, Arenys de Mar, Barcelona. Hon. H. R. Motherwell, Ottawa, Canada. Dr. Raymond Pearl, John Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A. ALGERIA Miss Jeanne Bernard, Ecole Ménagère agricole. Jardin d'Essaie, Alger. ARGENTINA Mr. Ricardo Banus, Calle Santa Fe 4419, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA Mr. E. Hadlington, Dept of Agriculture, Farrer Place, Box 36a, G.P.O. Sydney, N.S.W. Mr. P. Rumball, Dept. of Agriculture, Brisbane, Queensland. Major G. D. Shav^, Poultry Advisor, Dept. of Agriculture, Perth, Western Australia.

BELGIUM Dr. A. Buelens, Kasteel de Heester, St. Lenaarts. Mr. Carlo Boddaert, Rue du Pont de Malte 117, Gand. Ing. J. Camerlinckx, Platte Lootsraat 48, Kesseloo, Leuven. Mr. F. K. Chrispeels, Tervurenlaan 254, S. P. Woluwe Mr. Achiel Comhaire, Asper. Mr. P. Crahay, Pluimveebedryf van Groot Peeteren, Alken. Prof. Frateur, Boschhoven, Bekkevoort. Prof. L. Geurden, Eendrachtstraat 69, Gent. Mr. H. Graff, Rue du 15 Août 2, Ans. Mr. W. P. van den Heuvel, Postbox 12, Merxem, Antwerpen. Mr. M. van Hollebeke, Hooglede. Mr. Alfred Keymeulen, Douglaslaan, Cappellenbosch. Mr. K. de Rijcke, Station, Gavere. Mr. O. de Rijcke-Cornelis, Machelen, Deinze. Dr. Geo. Vandevelde, Gravenstraat 18, Nazareth, O.VI. Mr. A. Vervaeke, Rigo Broederij, Komen. Dr. R. Willems, Directeur du Laboratoire de Recherches Vétérinaires, 99 Groeselenberg, Uccle, Bruxelles.

BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA Dr. J. Hlouska, Statni Vyxkumne Ustavy Zemedelske, Na cvicisti 2, Prague XIX. Prof. Dr. Fr. Král, Tierärztliche Hochschule, Prazská 67, Brno. Dr. J. Krizenecky, Cerna Pole, Brno. Dr. G. Sticha, Veterinärabteilung, Landesamt, Brno.

BRAZIL Director Paulo de Lima Correa, Department of Agriculture, Sao Paulo» Brazil.

17 B BULGARIA Prof. G. S. Chlebaroff, Postfach 227, Sofia. Mr. Ywan Tabakofî, P.O. Box 227, Sofia. Minister of Agriculture, Sofia. CANADA Prof. R. K. Baker, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. Prof. P. E. Bernier, S te. Anne de la Pocatiere, Quebec. Mr. J. Biely, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Mr. J. I. Brown, 83, Columbia Avenue, Westmount. Mr. W. A. Brown, Dominion Life Stock Branch, Ottawa. Dr. W. H. Cook, Division of Biology and Agriculture, National Research Council, Ottawa. Mr. F. C. Elford, Experimental Farm, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. Mr. A. R. G. Emslie, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa. Mr. W. H. Fairfield, Experimental Station, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada. Prof. W. R. Graham, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario. Prof. A. Gratton, Institut Agricole D'Oka, La Trappe, P.Q. Prof. J. P. Landry, Agricultural College, Truro, Nova Scotia. Prof. F. N. Marcellus, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario. Prof. W. A. Maw, Macdonald College, Quebec. Mr. H. F. Murwin, Experimental Station, Harrow, Ontario. Mr. Abel Raymond, Price House, Room 820, Quebec. Mr. George Robertson, Dominion Experimental Farm, Ottawa. Mr. G. A. Robertson, Box 275, St. Catherines, Ontario. Mr. L. E. O'Neill, Ontario Poultry Association, Parliament Buildings, Toronto. Mr. R. V. Wilcox, Canoe, B.C. Brother Wilfrid, Oka Agricultural Institute, La Trappe, Quebec.

CUBA Colonel L, de la Torriente, 17 esquina a 6, Vedado, Habana.

DENMARK Prof. V. Adsersen, Veterinary Highschool, Bulowsvej 13, Copenhagen. Dansk Andéis Aegexport, Axelborg, Copenhagen V. Mr. Verner Hagerup, Brobyhus Poultry Farm, Snekkersten. Mr. J. Kr. Hansen, Fiona, Ravnebjerg pr. Holmstrup. Mr. E. Hansen, Vester Voldgade 7 and 9, Copenhagen. Mr. C. Hartmann, Skandinavian Packing Co., Ltd., Lyngby, Copenhagen. Mr. L. Hartmann, Skandinavian Packing Co., Ltd., Lyngby, Copenhagen. Mr. A. Högsbro Holm, Agricultural Council of Denmark, Copenhagen. Honse og Svinefoderfabrik A/S, Esbjerg. Konsultant W. A. Kock, Lykkevej 9, Charlottenlund. Miss Inger Larsen, Höjager, Landerslev pr. Krogstrup. Mr. H. Mortensen, Dansk Andéis Aegexport, Esbjerg. Mr. Oluf Nielsen, Frederiksborgvej, Roskilde. Miss Esther Pilegaard, Frederiksborgvej, Roskilde. Dr. J. Traberg, Storehedinge. Mr. Per Ulrik, Trondhjems Plads 4, Copenhagen.

EGYPT Dr. Ahmed Fareed Bey, Director, Veterinary Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Cairo. Dr. Mohamed Askar Bey, 10 Madrasat-Wali-el-Ahd Str., Abbassiah, Cairo. Dr. Ibrahim Fahmy Salem, Sub-Director, Veterinary Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Cairo.

IS EIRE Mr. A. Carton, Egg and Poultry Merchant, 21, Blackhall Place, Dublin. Miss M. Hennerty, Dept. of Agriculture, Upper Merrion Street, Dublin. Mr. B. McCormick, Egg and Poultry Exporter, Market Street, Monaghan. Mr. P. McCormick, Egg and Poultry Exporter, Market Street, Monaghan. Mr. Denis Philpott, Department of Agriculture, Dublin. Miss E. A. Spratt, Ivy House, 19, Newenham Street, Limerick.

ENGLAND The Hon. Florence Amherst, 1, Kinnerton Studios, Wilton Place, London, S.W.I. Mr. J. Amsden, Sevenoaks, Weald, Kent. Mr. A. Arbuthnot, Sinah Warren, Hayling Island, Hants. Mr. R. H. Axworthy, The Standard Laboratory, 45, Castle Street, Reading. Mr. W. Barningham, Beach Mount, Bowden Road, Altrincham, Cheshire. Mr. T. D. Bell, Oakhurst, Fifers Lane, Old Catton, Norwich. Mr. W. P. Blount, The County Hall, Lewes, Sussex. Mr. F. C. Bobby, Dudley House, Riverdale Road, Twickenham, Middlesex. Mr. A. H. Brain, Midland Exp. Poultry Farm, Great Barr, Birmingham. Sir Edward Brown, " Devonshire House,'* Theale, Reading, Berks. Mrs. J. Brundrett, Beach Mount, Bowden Road, Altrincham, Cheshire. Capt. S. W. Clift, Woodnorton, Moor Green Lane, Moseley, Birmingham. Mr. A. E. Cope, Northfield House, Over Lane, Belper, Derby. Dr. Ethel M. Cruickshank, School of Agriculture, Cambridge. Major C. H. Eden, Ditchampton House, Wilton, Salisbury. Mr. W. D. Evans, The Kibworth Hatcheries, Kibworth, Leicestershire. Mr. Percy A. Francis, 10, Whitehall Place, London, S.W.I. Mr. G. E. Garner, The Lawn Poultry Farm, Weedon, Northants. The Right Honourable Lord Greenway, Stangrove, Edenbridge, Kent. Mr. F. H. Guernsey, Ministry of Agriculture, Cornwall Buildings, 45, Newhall Street, Birmingham. Mr. E. T. Hainan, School of Agriculture, Cambridge. Mr. H. P. Hamilton, The Laboratory, Goring, Reading. Mr. Wm. Hamnett, Worsleydene, Pedders Lane, Blackpool. Lady Hannon, The Mount Farm, Farnham Royal, Buckinghamshire. Mr. G. Hartmann, Shell-Mex House, Strand, W.C.2. Mr. Cl. A- Herbert, Heydown Farm, Heathfield, Sussex. Mr. A. E. Holman, Raywell, Packman Lane, Kirkella, nr. Hull. Mr. H. Howes, Harper Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Salop. Mr. F. H. Jones, Shire Hall, Nottingham. Miss E. E. Kidd, Millers Mutual Association, 40, Trinity Square, London, E.C.3. Mr. E. B. Lomax, c/o R. Silcock & Sons, Ltd., Hanley Hall, Edmund Street, Liverpool 3. Mr. G. A. Longden, Draycott Lodge, near Derby. Major Ian Macdougall, 73, Southampton Row, London, W.C.I. Dr. Harold H. Mann, Woburn Experimental Station, Aspley Guise, Bletchley. Mr. J. B. Merrett, 102, Denbigh Street, Victoria, London, S.W.I. Miss Vera C. Milner, Agricultural Department, Castle Street, Exeter. Mr. C. T. Monck-Mason, Stonestile, Charing, Kent. Mrs. T. Newman, Pitfield, Rudgwick, Sussex. Mr. J. H. Oerlemans, British Provimi Ltd., 69, Lots Road, Chelsea, London, S.W.IO. Mr. M. F. Phelan, Northam, North Devon. Mr. T. R. Robinson, 25, Campden Hill Gardens, Kensington, London, W.8. Mr. R. B. Shaw, Midland Agricultural College, Sutton Bonnington, Lough- borough.

19 Mr. A. W. Sizer, Cuber Works, Hull. Mr. M. W. Slade, Mallards Court, Stokenchurch, High Wycombe, Bucks. Mr. A. T. Smith, Quaker Oats Ltd., Southall, Middlesex. Mr. Gordon Stewart, Send Manor Estate, Ripley, Surrey. Mr. H. L. Tabor, 28-30, Leadenhall Market, London, E.C.3. Mr. C. Y. Williams, The Elms, Kelsall, Chester. Mr. Keith Wilson, The Land Settlement Association, 43, Cromwell Road, London, S.W.7. Mr. J. Worthington, Middlesex County Council, 10, Great George Street, Westminster, London, S.W.I.

FINLAND Prof. G. von Wendt, Animal Husbandry Department, University, Helsingfors. Mr. E. E. Toivonen, Hämeenlinna. FRANCE Mr. G. Andrieu, Ferme d'Aviculture, Saints (Seine et Marne). Mr. Raymond Boivin, Pontanevaux, Saone et Loire. Miss L. Bouges, Vieilles Barzelles, Poulaines, Indre. Mr. René Caucurte, Moulin de la Madeleine, Samois-sur-Seine (S. & M.). Mr. Cournault, Méréville sur Moselle (Meurthe et Moselle). Mr. A. Chéron, Villers en Vexin (Eure). Mr. A. Duquesne, Montfort, Eure. Mr. Achille Fould, 92, Avenue Henri Martin, Paris, XVIème. Mr. E. Huault, Villers les Thilliers en Vexin (Eure). Prof. P. Lesbouyries, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, Alfort. Dr. G. Lissot, Vétérinaire, Pacy-sur-Eure (Eure). Miss J. Martin, Ecole Nationale Professionelle, Bourges (Cher.). Institut Pasteur, Service des Vaccins Vétérinairs, 25, Rue Dutot, Paris. Mr. Pierson, Rue Cambacères, 10, Paris, 8e. Station d'Etudes sur la Pathologie des Animaux de Basse-Cour, Alfort. Prof. Chas. Voitellier, 89 Rue Erlanger, Paris, XVIème. Mr. Wiltzer, Député, 15 Rue de la Gendarmerie, Metz (Moselle). GERMANY Dr. O. Bartsch, Geflügelhof, " Forsthaus Schönwalde," Kr. Niederbarnim, bei Berlin. Prof. Dr. K. Beller, Frankfurter Str. 87, Giessen. Dr. Julius Beyer, Falkenberg (O.-S.). Dr. A. von Burgsdorff, Garath bei Benrath a. Rhein. Dr. O. Eckstein, Penzinger Str. 107, Wien XIII. Mr. J. Eickel, Saarlandstr. 28, Hamm (Westf.). Mr. M. O. Engelskind, Landstrasse-Hauptstrasse 102, Wien III. Mr. H. Esser, Hohenzollernstr. 185, M.-Gladbach. Dr. R. Fangauf, Geflügelzucht-Lehranstalt, Kiel-Steenbek. Dr. J. Filier, Lindenstr. 32/34, Berlin, S.W.68. Geflügel-Börse, Perthesstr. 5, Leipzig C 1. Dr. B. Grzimek, Waldstr. 38, Berlin-Johannisthai. Dr. O. Hübner, Mitterndorf, a. d. Fischa, Niederdonau. Hygienisches Institut der Tierärztlichen Hochschule, Berlin. Hygienisches Institut der Tierärztlichen Hochschule, Hannover. Institut für Tierzucht und Milchwirtschaft der Universität, Hansastrasse 25, Breslau. Mr. J. Jaeger, Halle a. d. S.-Cröllwitz. Dr. W. Kupsch, Roentgenstr. 10, Berlin-Charlottenburg. Dr. H. Lang, Oberer Hardthof, Giessen. Prof. Dr. Franz Lehmann, Bürgerstr. 21, Göttingen. Prof. Dr. med. Dr. phil. Ernst Mangold, InvaHdenstr. 42, Berlin N4.

20 Mr. E. Morstadt, Stefanienstr. 45, Lahr (Baden). Dr. Mühlberg, Schulstr. 67, Norden, Ostfriesland. Ir. G. Neumann, Löweistrasse 16, Wien I. Mr. F. Niklas, Höhenstr. 6, Gonzenheim, Post Bad Homburg v. d. H. Mr. Fritz PfenningstorfF, Steinmetzstr. 2, Berlin. Prof. Dr. R. Reinhardt, Zwickauer Str. 57, Leipzig. Mr. A. Riedel, Gross-Kölzig (N.-L.). Mr. H. Salzwedel, Kloster Seebach (Krs. Langensalza). Mr. F. C. R. Schünemann, Billbrookdeich 42, Hamburg. Prof. Dr. Seifried, Institut für Tierpathologie, Veterinärstr. 6, München 22. Mrs. von Treuenfels, Damerow bei Karow, Mecklenburg. Mr. K. Vetter, Wanfried a. d. Werra. Prof. Adolf Walther, Panz (Markt Schwaben), Baihof. Dr. L. Weinmiller, Erding bei München. Dr. H. Zeller, Reichsgesundheitsamt, Unter den Eichen 82-84, Berlin- Dahlem.

HOLLAND Kon. Ver. Avicultura, Bronovolaan 30, Den Haag. Mr. H. Bonda, Boompjes 46, Rotterdam. Berteis* Oliefabrieken, N.V., Amsterdam, Oost. Ir. H. Blankenberg, Kanaalstraat 254, Ijmuiden. Prof. Dr. L. de Blieck, Biltstraat 168, Utrecht. Mr. C. Dijkstra, Voorthuizen. Mr. Oscar Feigl, Hunnenweg, Voorthuizen. Mr. C. S. Th. van Gink, Parkweg 180, Voorburg (Z.-H.). Handelsmaatschappy Trouw & Co., Koningsplein 1, Amsterdam. Dr. B. J. C. te Hennepe, State Serum Institute, Rotterdam. Mr. K. von Henning, 't Heidehuis, Wezep. Mr. D. de Jongh, Charlotte de Bourbonlaan 58, Zeist. Mr. H. O. Köhler, Benoordenhoutscheweg 109, Den Haag. Dr. F. Lubberink, Oranjestraat 3, Heimond. Mr. J. Mantel, Huis ter Heide. Prof. Dr. van der Plank, Veterinary Highschool, Utrecht. Ir. N. H. Siewertz van Reesema, p. a. N.V. Mij. tot Expl. der Oliefabrieken. Calvé-Delft, Delft. Jhr. P. J. H. Röell, arts, Soest. Mr. J. Sluis, Weesperkarspel. Ir. J. G. Tukker, Beekbergen. N. V. Veemesta, Coolsingel 79, Rotterdam. Mr. B. K. van Veen, fa. Misset, Doetinchem. INDIA Mr. Nurul Islam, Assistant Marketing Officer, 15, Probyn Road, Delhi. Mr. C. R. Thompson, Government Board Expert, Trivandrum. Mr. S. N. Roy, c/o The Roy's Pedigree Poultry Farm, " Eggland " P.O. Netra, 24-Pargs, Bengal.

IRAQ Dr. Darwish Haydari, Director of the Southern Farm, Rustam, Baghdad. ITALY Fratelli Babini, Russi, Ravenna. Dott. M. Bonavita, Vecchiazzano, Forli. Prof. F. Clementi, Via Flaminia 43, Roma. Dr. E. Cortis, Ministero dell'Agricoltura, Roma. Prof. A. Cugnini, Istituto di Zootecnia della R. Universita, Bologna.

21 Barone di Carpinello, Polizzi Generosa, Palermo. Aw. C. Faravelli, Soriasco, S. Maria della Versa, Pavia. Mr. G. Geronazzo, Via Cervignano 2, Milano. On. Prof. A. Ghigi, Istituto di Zoologia della R. Univ., Bologna. Istituto Agrario Sperimentale S. Michèle all'Adige, Tren ta. Prof. Dott. A. Pirocchi, Istituto Sperimentale di Zootecnia, Via G. Celoria 2, Milano. Cav. Dag. Stabilimento Avicolo Industriale Tenuta Valdrua, Rivaita Bormida. Dott. M. Righi, Stazione Provinciale di Avicultura, Corticella, Bologna. Dott. Alula Taibel, Vice Direttore della Stazione Sperimentale di Pollicultura, Rovigo. Prof. A. Vecchi, Istituto di Zoocultura, Bologna. On. Prof. V. Vezzani, Istituto Zooteenico e Caseario per il Piemonte, Lucento, via di Pianezza iii, Torino.

JAPAN Prof. K. Kimura, Faculty of Agriculture, Imperial University, Hongokn, Tokyo. Mr. Masatomi Ohga, Zen-Ko-Ren, 2, 1-chôme, Yurakucho, Tokyo.

LATVIA Mr. V. Talce, Department of Agriculture, Kalpaka Bulv. 6, Riga.

MOROCCO Mr. Lefevre, Directeur de l'Agriculture, Rabat. NETHERLANDS-EAST-INDIA Veeartsenykundig Institut, Buitenzorg, Java. NEW ZEALAND Mr. C. J. C. Cussen, Department of Agriculture, Private Bag, Wellington. Mr. J. H. Kissling, Massey Agricultural College, Private Bag, Palmerston North. Mr. J. N. McLean, Editor " N.Z. Poultry World," Box 379, Wellington. Mr. A. E. Salisbury, The Hutt Valley Poultry Co., Ltd., Box 25, Upper Hutt, Wellington. Miss M. Watson Stewart, Cheriton Stud Poultry Farm, Tauranga.

NORTHERN IRELAND Mr. F. R. Best, Managing Director, Lurgan Box Making Co., Ltd., Boxmore Lodge, Lurgan. Miss G. Best, Lurgan Box Making Co., Ltd., Boxmore Lodge, Lurgan. Mr. J, Getty, Ministry of Agriculture, Stormont, Belfast. Mr. J. G. Rhynehart, Ministry of Agriculture, Stormont, Belfast. Miss M. Sheedy, Ministry of Agriculture for Northern Ireland Belfast

NORWAY Mr. Ingebr Five, Ski, Oslo. Mr. K. Grepstad, Frogner pr. Skein. Mr. L. Svendsen, Box 61, Hvalstad.

PALESTINE Mr. Ben-Ami Ben Dor, c/o Kadoorie Agricultural School, Mt. Tabor. Mr. Z. Ben Adam, Superintendent, Poultry Station, Acre. Mr. Z. Dembo, Ramath, Haschavim.

22 Mr. N. Fiat, Principal, Kadoorie Agricultural School, Mt. Tabor, near Nazareth. Dr. G. S. Grasovsky, District Veterinary Office, P.O. Box 321, Tel-Aviv. Mr. L. E. Josselson, Irgun Magdiel, Magdiel, Nr. Tel-Aviv. Dr. A. Komarov, P.O. Box 486, Haifa. Mr. A. Kwint, The Registered Poultry Breeders* Association, Tel Josef, P.O. Ain Harod. Mr. J. Levy, Misra Settlement, Afule. Mr. Kurt Lewy, 74 Choveve Zionstreet, 74 III, Tel-Aviv. Mr. A. Livshutz, Department of Agriculture, Jerusalem. Mr. Channo Maisel Shochat, Canadian Hadasah Agricultural School for Girls, Nahalal, near Haifa. Mr. H. Sheftelowitz, Poultry Instructor, Karkur, Gan Haschomron. Mr. Taran, Poultry Attendant, Stock Farm, Acre. Mr. D. Uri, Agricultural Research Station, P.O. Box 15, Rehovot. Mr. T. Weinman, Mikveh Israel Agricultural School, Tel-Aviv.

PERU Victor Marie, Instituto de Altos Estudios Agrícolas del Peru, Estacioa Experi- mental Agrícola de la Molina, Lima. POLAND Dr. M. S. Gutowska, Université Agricole, Bakowika 8, Warsaw. Dr. L. Kaufman, Government Institute of Agricultural Research, Pulawy. Prof. Dr. Z. Moczarski, The University, Solacka 10, Poznan.

SCOTLAND Captain A. M. Holm, Hazelden Poultry Farm, Newton Mearns. Miss E. L. Ireland, East Balmirmer, Arbroath. Miss M. M. Macleod, 29, St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh. Mr. A. M. Prain, Eastwood, 79, Colinton Road, Edinburgh.

SOUTH AFRICA Mrs. Ackermann, Mizpan, Frans Hoek, C.P. Mr. A. Arneil, Arneil's Dairy, Queen Street, Port Elizabeth. Mr. H. S. Barnes, P.O., Boskop, Transvaal. Mr. W. A. Bartlett, Box 7499, Johannesburg. Mrs. R. C. Bristow, Masbaba Ranch, P.O. Louis Trichardt, Transvaal. Mr. P. Bronks, Merchants Egg Exporters' Association, P.O. Box 2971, Johannesburg. Mr. C. Campbell, P.O. Box 472, East London, C.P. Mr. H. Curtis, c/o Egg Circle Ltd., Claremont, Cape Town. Mr. M. Druker, Cape Egg Exporters* and Merchants Association, P.O. Box 897, Cape Town. Mr. W. Callender-Easby, Vrijstaatsche Ko-operatieve Eiervering Bpk., Postbus 488, Bloemfontein. Mr. L. Forsythe, P.O. Box 1606, Durban, Natal. Mr. R. Heiman, Dalmore Poultry Farm, Retreat, Cape Province. Mr. G. Hibbet, P.O. Box 1795, Johannesburg, Transvaal. Mr. G. H. Human, P.O. Box 19, Sandflats. Mr. D. Jacobs, Electric Poultry Farm, 70, Walton Road, Germiston, Transvaal. Mr. J. J. Jordaan, Department of Agriculture, Prudential House, Pretoria. Mr. C. R. Leibenberg, School of Agriculture, Grootfontein, Middleburg. Mr. E. T. Lombard, Poultry Officer, c/o Egg Circle, East London. Mr. J. P. van der Merwe, Agricultural College, Glen, Orange Free State. Mrs. E. O'Connor, Woodvale, P.O., Slurry, Transvaal. Mr. C. A. Pereira, School of Agriculture, Glen, Orange Free Stat3.

23 Mr. D. S. Prinsloo, Division of Economies and Markets, Union Buildings, Pretoria. Miss Dora Pybus, P.O. Box 286, Bloemfontein. Mr. A. A. Reed, School of Agriculture, Cedara, Natal. Mr. R. J. Theunissen, P.O. Box 1, Theunissen. Mr. T. Tooth, c/p Poultry Keepers' Association, P.O. Paddock, Natal. Mr. G. J. Visagie, Omega Poultry Farm, P.O. Vyfhoek, Potchefstroom. SPAIN Prof. Salvador Castello, Arenys de Mar, Barcelona. Mr. Ricardo de Escauriaza, Estaccion Experimental Agrícola, La Coruna. Prof. A. Barcelo Garcia de Paredes, Escuela Nacional de Avicultura, Mallorca, Conseil. SWEDEN Mr. J. Fors, Wallingatan 37, Stockholm C. The Library of the Agricultural College of Sweden, Ultuna, Uppsala. Capt. Theo Näsström, Osterede. Mr. Nils Olsson, Poultry School, Hammenhög. Mr. M. de Wachenfeit, Royal Swedish Legation, 27, Portland Place, London, W.l, England. SWITZERLAND Mr. L. Bolter, Geflügelfarm, Birkenau, Buchs (Kt. St. G.). Mr. H. Ebbell, Oberwangen, Bern. Mr. T. Hardmeyer, Pare Avicole, *' le Rossignol,'* Vandœuvres, Genève. Mr. K. Kleb, Küsnacht, Zürich. Dr. E. Saxer, Fellenbergstrasse, Bern. Mr. H. Sequin, Coppet near Genève. Mr. J. Ph. Stoeckli, Châteauneuf, Sion. Mr. L. Valko, Helios-Farm, Rothrist. Mr. T. Weilenman, Opfikon bei Zürich. TURKEY Dr. Kadri Bilgemre, Tavukculuk Enstitüsü Müdürü, Ankara. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Mr. W. H. Allen, Secretary, Department of Agriculture, Trenton, New Jersey- Mr. Samuel Althouse, Poultry Item, Sellersville, Pennsylvania. Prof. V. S. Asmundson, Poultry Division, University of California, Davis, California. Mr. M. F. Barnes, Department of Agriculture, Bureau Animal Industry, Box 403, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Mr. H. G. Barott, Poultry Technologist, U.S. Animal Husbandry Experiment Farm, Belts ville, Maryland. Mr. Earl W. Benjamin, Pacific Egg Producers Inc., 178 Duane Street, New York City, New York. Mr. H. A. Bittenbender, Room 226, Public Auditorium, Cleveland, Ohio. Mr. W. Kallender, Easby, P.O. Box 488, Bloemfontein, Orange Free State. Mr. M. W. Buster, Poultry Co-ordinator, Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D.C. Prof. T. B. Charles, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hamp- shire. Prof. Cora Cooke, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota. Dr. S. Eriksen, Dr. Salbury's Laboratories, Charles City, Iowa. Mr. C. D. Gordon, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama. Mr. A. B. Godfrey, Junior Poultry Husbandman, U.S. Animal Husbandry Experiment Farm, Belts ville, Maryland.

24 Prof. J. C. Graham, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Massa- chusetts. Prof. J. G. Halpin, Wisconsin University, Madison, Wisconsin. Mr. J. C. Hammond, Poultry Experiment Farm, Glendale, Arizona. Prof. J. A. Hannah, Box 190, State College, East Lansing, Michigan. Mr. R. R. Hannas, ** American Poultry Journal," 536 SO. Clark Street, Chicago, Illinois. Mr. J. A. Hanson, Corvallis, Oregon. Dr. H. M. Harshaw, Assistant Biochemist, U.S. Animal Husbandry Experiment Farm, Beltsville, Maryland. Mr. R. C. Hartman, National Poultry Digest, Hanover, P.A. Dr. V. Heiman, Kasco Mills Inc„ Waverley, N.Y. Mr. V. Helgen, 142 N. Taylor Street, Decatur, Illinois. Mr. W. A. Hendricks, Junior Biologist, U.S. Animal Husbandry Experiment Farm, Beltsville, Maryland. Dr. G. F. Heuser, Cornell Univeristy, Ithaca, New York. Mr. P. I. Higley, Monroe County Farm Bureau, 528 Mount Hope Avenue, Rochester, Nev^ York. Dr. W. R. Hinshaw, Box 506, University, Davis, California. Prof. R. E. Jones, Agricultural College, Storrs, Connecticut. Dr. M. A. Juli, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. Dr. B. F. Kaupp, 5650 Pershing Avenue, St. Louis, Mo. Dr. O. B. Kent, 141 W., Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, Illinois. Mr L. B. Kilbourne, 43-47, South Water Market, Chicago, Illinois. Prof. W. F. Kirkpatrick, Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs, Connecticut. Dr. C. W. Knox, Poultry Geneticist, U.S. Animal Husbandry Experiment Farm, Beltsville, Maryland. Mr. H. M. Lamon, Adams Centre, New York. Mr. J. E. Lay ton. Rural Route 3, Seattle, Washington. Mr. R. Leach, California Polytechnic School, San Louis Obispo, California. Mr. Alfred R. Lee, Associate Poultry Husbandman, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Mr. C. E. Lee, Beacon Milling Co., Cayuga, New York. Prof. D. R. Marble, State College, Pennsylvania. Mr. Stanley J. Marsden, Associate Poultry Husbandman, U.S. Range Livestock Experiment Station, Miles City, Montana, U.S.A. Dr. R. P. Marsteller, Dean, School of Veterinary Medicine, 225-228 Administration Building, College Station, Texas. Prof. J. H. Martin, Regional Poultry Research Laboratory, East Lansing, Michigan. Prof. C. L. Morgan, Clemson Agricultural College, Clemson College, South Carolina. Mr. R. B. Nestler, Patuxent Research Refuge, Bowie, Maryland. Dr. R. T. Parkhurst, Massachusetts State College, Amherst, Massachusetts. Mr. L. J. Parks, c/o J. W. Eshelman & Sons, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Prof. L. F. Payne, Kansas Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas. Dr. R. Pearl, 1901 E. Madison Street, Baltimore, Maryland. Mr. R. A. Piel, 50 Locust Street, Garden City, L. 1, New York. Mr. H. C. Pierce, The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co., 420 Lexington Avenue, New York. Prof. A. G. Philips, Allied Mills, 3400 Board of Trade Building, Chicago. Mr. J. P. Quinn, Chief Scientific Aid, U.S. Animal Husbandry Experiment Farm, Beltsville, Maryland. Prof. D. H. Reid, Box 355, College Station, Texas. Prof. James E. Rice, Mexico, New York. Dr. A. L. Romanoff, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Mr. Carl H. Schroeder, Larrowe Milling Co., Detroit, Michigan. Prof. Ross M. Sherwood, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas.

25 Mr. H. J. Shrader, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Prof. A. C. Smith, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota. Mr. L. W. Steelman, R.D.I., Lansdale, Pennsylvania. Mr. L. J. Sutton, Nutritional Feed Mill, Garden Grove, California. Mr. L. W. Taylor, Poultry Division, College of Agriculture, Berkeley, California. Prof. Wm. D. Termohlen, Poultry Section, Agricultural Adjustment Admini- stration, Washington, D.C. Prof. R. B. Thompson, Oklahoma Agricultural College, Stillwater, Oklahoma. Prof. W. C. Thompson, New Jersey Agricultural College, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Dr. Harry W. Titus, Biological Chemist, U.S. Animal Husbandry Experiment Farm, Belts ville, Maryland. Mr. G. A. Trollope, HoUister, Mo. Prof. H. L. Wilcke, State College, Ames, Iowa. Dr. H. S. Wilgus, Head Poultry Department, Colorado State College, Fort Collins, Colorado. Mr. B. Winton, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S.D.A., Washington, D.C. Mr. P. B. Zumbro, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S.D.A., Washington, D.C. URUGUAY Prof. Eduardo Llovet, Calle Cuarein 1565, Montevideo. Servicio de Avicultura (Sección Forestal) Vivero Nacional, Estación Toledo, (Dto. de Canelones). Mr. Socrates Rodríguez, Biblioteca Dirección de Agronomia, Calle Uruguay 761, Montevideo. WALES Mr. H. E. Davies, Padeswood Hall Demonstration Centre, Mold, Flintshire. Mr. H. Powel Evans, Werna, Tregarron, S.O. Financial Statement for 1938 Secretary- Dr. te Î 3ir Edward Major J. Receipts. Treasurer. Hennepe. Brown. MacDoughal. % Fl. £ s. d. £ s. d. Balance on hand, Jan. 1st, 1938 351.22 61 5 6 74 14 10 Subscriptions ... 680.00 937.00 96 0 0 49 0 0 International Review ... 109.25 210.00 U.S. World's Poultry Congress Committee 500.00 Transfers from Hon. Treas. ... 1434.00 Miscellaneous ... 0 1 0 !$1640.47 fl.2581.00 £157 5 6 £123 15 10 Italy, Not received. May 1st, 1939 120.00 Expenditures. Deficit, Jan. 1st, 1938 . 195.67 Internat. Review, Xî, XU, f... 643.56 945.31 64 9 6 Travel Expenses 51.21 762.40 Postage, Telegrams, etc. 20.42 72.00 6 17 6 1 1 5 Printing supplies 5.75 73.70 2 13 8 0 10 5 Clerical Assistance 2.50 600.00 8 10 0 6 0 0 Transfers to contingency 100.00 Exchange on Cheques 0 1 6 $823.44 fl.2649.08 £82 10 8 £116 1 6

26 BREEDING

The connection between the Colour of the Eyes, the Mortality, and the Production of White Leghorns, H et Verband tusschen de oogkleur van Witte Leghorns en de Herfte en de productie. Dr. J. B. van der Meulen. Landbouw- kundig Tijdschrift, Vol. 50, 1938, p. 868. An investigation, in which 406 White Leghorns of two different strains were used, on the connection between the colour of the eyes of normal healthy pullets at the beginning of the laying period on the one hand and the production and mortality during the pullet year on the other hand, led to the following conclusions :— 1. The mortality amongst hens with abnormal colour of the eyes (brown-grey and/or blue) is considerably higher than that amongst birds with normal orange coloured eyes, and the production of the former is on the average lower than that of the latter. 2. Birds with one normal and one abnormal coloured eyes, correspond to birds with normal coloured eyes as far as mortality is concerned, but their average production resembles more than that of birds with two abnormal eyes. 3. Not only an abnormal eye colour but also an abnormal shape of the pupil seems to point to higher mortality and the highest mortality is probable amongst birds which have both an abnormal colour, as well as an abnormal shape of the pupil. 4. The impression was obtained that the mortality risks were greater, inasmuch as the eye colour diverged more from the normal, but it was not possible to determine this sufficiently accurately. 5. The mortality amongst birds with abnormal coloured eyes was due to widely differing causes. No connection between any particular eye variation and any specific disease seems to exist. Only comparatively few cases of death were due to paralysis, but the frequency of paralysis as a cause of death is probably higher amongst birds with abnormal, than amongst birds with normal eyes. 6. There is little or no difference in food consumption between birds with normal and birds with abnormal eyes. 7. There is little or no difference between the average weight of eggs produced by birds with normal and abnormal eyes. 8. The differences in production and mortality between birds with normal and abnormal eyes are only relative ; birds with normal eyes of one strain may have a lower average production and a higher mortality than birds with abnormal eyes of another strain. 9. The conclusions laid down in this article can be explained by accept- ing that some of the hereditary factors which determine the powers of resistance and production of the birds also do influence their eyes. At the same time, it is possible that some environmental circumstances which affect the powers of resistance and production may also influence the colour of the eyes ; furthermore, it is possible that various diseases and abnormalities in the incipient stage may first become apparent in eye abnormalities. 10. The future average production of a flock of White Leghorn pullets may be increased and the mortality reduced by removing all birds with eye abnormalities. When selecting birds for breeding pens, it is desirable to reject all birds with eye abnormalities.

27 Artificial Incubating of Poultry. Die Künstliche Brut unseres Hausgeflügels, Ein Ratgeber zur sachgemässen Durch- führung aller Arbeiten bei der künstlichen Brut von Hühnern, Enten, Gänsen, Puten unter Berücksichtigung der verschiedenen Systeme, Dr. Walter Kupsch. Ed. : Fritz Pfenningstorf, Berlin, 1938. Contents : Natural and artificial hatching ; The development of the embryo ; The choice of eggs for hatching ; The temperature during hatching ; The humidity during hatching ; Ventilation ; Turning the eggs ; The causes of bad hatching results ; The hatching room ; Various kinds of incubators ; Attending the incubator ; The hatching of duck eggs ; The hatching of goose eggs ; The hatching of turkey eggs ; The causes for the failure of hatching of turkey eggs ; The causes for the failure of hatching ; Literature. Germ-Content of Hatching Eggs in connection with Navel Infection of Chickens, Beziehung des Keimgehaltes bebrüteter Eier zur Nabelinfektion bei Kücken, Bayer. Veterin. Polizeiliche Anst., Schleiszheim. Thesis, Mün- chen, 1937. In eggs, in which the germ had died, the following germs were found : Bad, pulloruniy B. coli^ Staphylococcus Diplococcus. They were chiefly found in the yolk sack. Navel infection in chickens is also caused by these bacteria. From the yolk sack they can reach the peritoneum and so cause peritonitis. B. coli are also frequently found in the heart blood. From various facts the writer concludes that part of the causes of navel infection should be sought in the

Task and Aim of Small Animal Breeding in regard to Produc- tion, with a Guide by the State Ministry of Food and Agriculture regarding Assistance and Advice in connection with Export Possibilities, Aufgaben und Ziele der Klein- tierzucht in der Erzeugungsschlacht mit den Richtlinien des Reichsministeriums für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft für die Gewährung von Beihilfen und den Erläuterungen und Ausführungsbestimmungen dazu. Published by the State Association of German Small Animal Breeders. 120 pages. Price RM. 1.15. Obtainable from Fritz Pfen- ningstorff, Berlin, W.35. The numerous measures taken by the State for the promotion of small animal breeding in Germany and especially poultry, have been combined in this book and the limits of their application are dealt with. Experience has proved that in practice very little is known of these numerous advantages and that the professional poultry breeder, especially, very often is not aware that he, too, can find in these publications useful hints regarding the building of poultry houses, the buying of foster-mothers, etc. The professional poultry breeder should, however, have a certain knowledge of all these regulations in order to be in a position to furnish his customers with the necessary advice. This is strongly recommended to all, as the knowledge contained therein is of the greatest importance. Moreover, the poultry breeder will find much

28 of interest in the book regarding the measures taken for promoting the scientific side of small animal breeding. Besides an introductory note dealing with the task and object of small animal breeding, a number of interesting notes are given which deal with the results obtained up to the present in connection with the measures taken for promoting small animal breeding. New Light on the Risk of Breeding from Pullets. Pease. Cambridge. Monthly Report of Government of North- ern Ireland. Ministry of Agriculture, March, 1939. 1. Longevity cannot be obtained from short-lived dams, 2. Pullets should not be used for breeding as it cannot be foretold whether or not they will live throughout the pullet year. 3. Eggs from birds which have been laying for some time are not so satisfactory for the production of chicks that will live as those near the beginning of the laying cycle. 4. The first eggs of clutches within the laying cycle are to be preferred to those produced later in the clutches. Hen Inherits Ability to Lay Egg with Thick White. Dr. C. W. Knox. The U.S. Egg and Poultry Magazine, 1938, p. 719. At the National Agricultural Research Centre, Belts ville, Maryland, have been bred two flocks which prove that the thick, white characteristic is inherited. One flock lays eggs that average 68 per cent, thick white. Eggs from the other flock average only 45 per cent, thick white. The average fresh ç^gg has from 50 to 52 per cent, thick white. Eggs with a large amount of thick white also are better for storage. In storage it is the thick white of an Qgg that tends to become thin and watery. Eggs with a large amount of thick white do not reach this stage as rapidly as do eggs with a large amount of thin white.

Additional Light to Breeding Pens. Die Beleuchtung der Hühner. H. Die Beleuchtung der Zuchttiere in ihrem Einflusz auf Befruchtung der Eier, auf die Brut und die Aufzucht der Küchen. Dr. O. Bartsch. Archiv für Geflügelkunde, Vol. 12, 1939, p. 313. Giving breeding pens additional light by means of electric bulbs has no unfavourable influence on fertilisation and hatchability of the eggs, either those hatched early in the season (January-February) or later. The rearability of the chicks was not influenced in any unfavourable way. There was no difference between the egg production of pullets hatched from the eggs of parents which had been illuminated and that of non-illuminated parents as far as could be judged during the time they were under observation (till November 30th). The economic advantage of lengthening the day artificially in breeding- pens due to a much greater number of early chicks and consequently of early pullets is considerable. The use of lights makes it possible for breeders and poultry keepers to raise a large number of healthy, virile chicks and this is of great economic importance to our farmers. Artificial Lights for White Leghorn Pullets. A. E. Tomhave. Annual Report, University of Delaware. Agricultural

29 Experiment Station, Newark, Delaware. Bulletin No. 214, November, 1938. Four pens, each containing 56 White Leghorn pullets were started in this experiment in September, 1937. Two pens of pullets are on a scratch and mash ration and two pens are being fed on an all-mash laying ration. One pen of birds on the scratch and mash ration and one pen on the all-mash ration were supplied with artificial lights, while the two remaining pens were without lights. Morning lights were used to give a 13^ to 14-hour day. The use of lights in connection with the all-mash ration produced a higher percentage of large eggs than where no lights were used. This did not hold true, however, where the scratch and mash rations were used. The average price received for all eggs produced during the 10-month period was as follows: all mash, no lights, 21-6 cents.; all mash, lights, 23-5 cents. ; scratch and mash, no lights, 22-0 cents. ; scratch and mash, lights, 23-6 cents. This would indicate that the birds under lights maintained production when Ggg prices were high while the birds without lights had gone into a pause. At the end of the 10 months, the all-mash pen with lights had returned ^26.50 more for eggs than the unlighted pen and the scratch and mash ration pen, with lights, had returned $27.37 more for eggs than the unlighted pens. All four pens will be continued through 12 months of production. During the coming laying year a study will be made of the influence of lights on White Leghorn pullets hatched on February 15th, March 15th, April 15th and May 15th. Lighted and unlighted pens will be carried through the laying year from each of the four different hatches. The Light Requirements of Laying Hens. J. S. Carver and H. L. Garver. Agricultural Experiment Station, Pull- man, Washington. Bulletin No. 368, December, 1938. This study was planned to determine the quality and intensity of light and the duration of lighting required for optimal laying conditions. Four groups of 20 laying hens were placed in separate individual hen compartments where all the lighting conditions could be controlled. The compartments were equipped with force ventilation, no light was permitted to enter from outside and all lighting was controlled by time clocks. All of the hens were fed on the same rations the result of four duplicate lots as follows were studied: 3 hours of total light in 24 ; 10 hours, 17 hours and 24 hours. The birds receiving 17 hours of light in each 24 produced most heavily. Effect of Light on Reproduction. Poultry Tribune, February, 1938. Further information on the effect of lengthening the normal day on egg production and breeding behaviour has been obtained by workers at Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut. The work was done with pheasants, and it is of interest that this species was induced to reproduce at a time entirely outside the normal season. One cock-pheasant and four hens, 151 days of age, were subjected to gradually increased night-lighting from October 5th to December 5th. Breeding plumage and behaviour were assumed within 8 days and the first egg laid by one hen on November 8th. Often eggs set on November 29th, three hatched at 26 days of incubation on Christmas day. Fertility was 50 per cent. Both sexes were, therefore, completely activated at 185 days of age, chicks being hatched 138 days earlier than normally. It is concluded that it is possible to get pheasant eggs at any time in autumn, winter and spring, and have chicks hatched and reared for liberation

30 whenever desired, if warm brooder houses are used. The authors do not contend that this is yet a practical procedure, but they have demonstrated the possibility. Pedigree Breeding and Inbreeding in Fowls, I, A. G. Dumon. Agricultura (Louvain), Vol. 41, 1938, p. 11. Data are reported on the hatchability and weights of birds in brother X sister, dam X son, daughter X sire, half-brother X half-sister, and non- related matings. Little, if any, deleterious effect from in-breeding was evident. Relation between Production, Hatchability and Rearing, Zusam- menhänge zwischen Legeleistung, Befruchtung, Schlupf und Aufzucht beim Huhn, E. Andrä. Archiv für Geflü- gelkunde, 1938, No. 10. Summary : 241 birds with different pullet egg records, from three breeders were divided in four groups (up to 200 eggs, 201 to 225, 226 to 250, 251 to 300\ fertilisation of their eggs, hatchability and chick mortality were compared. On the average very few more infertile eggs were found in the groups with the highest production, but hatchability and rearing results were better. The group with the highest egg records gave 4 per cent, more chicks notwithstanding a few more eggs were unfertilised, and chick mortality was 6 per cent, less than in the group from the hens with the lowest pullet records. Although it is generally believed that very good layers and record pullets are unsuitable as breeders, the experiments showed that this was not true in the birds compared. Method of Replacement and Hatching Time, Umtrieb und Schlupf zeit in der Hühnerhaltung, R. Römer. Publisher: Dr. Paul Schöps, Leipzig, 1937. Summary : A short retrospection is given on the development of poultry keeping in the last 10 years, together with statements on the importation of eggs and chickens during the last time. The development and standard of production is ascertained, with a simultaneous explanation by means of official and semi-official statistics. The poultry census taken in 1934-1935 is analysed and from this has been deduced that the replacement of flocks in Germany extends over a period of approximately 4 years. The expression " Method of Replacement '* is explained by means of different examples. A flock of Leghorns, consisting of 1,200 hens which has been kept for 2 years, viz., from 1928 to 1930, and where due allowance has been made for normal losses, serves, with its minutely fixed results and its conversion into 1,000 birds, as the basis for a critical investigation of the comparative merits of :— 1. A method of replacement extending over 1 year. 2. A method of replacement extending over 2 years. 3. The so-called " Short-termed Method of Replacement." The last system, which is considered to be the best in every respect, is based upon a rearing method combined with a laying control beginning in July, in which the bad layers are continuously rejected from July till October and 25 per cení, of the pullets that are laying to the last, are kept over for a second year. Thus a flock of 1,000 birds will eventually show the picture of 200 hens (25 per cent, of the pullets kept for a second year) and 800 pullets. This method of rearing was worth while adopting both from a point of view relating to political economy as well as to that of private economy and continues to be so until the present

31 day according to the calculations of 1928-1929 which were succeeded by those of 1934-1935. It must be admitted, however, that the conditions for a total profit are no longer so favourable to-day as they used to be some time past. In such cases where the " short-termed '' or 1 year's method of replacement—the latter with or without a laying control—should prove impracticable, for these methods of replacement are not everywhere feasible, a minimum period of the 2 years' replacement should be adopted. The consumption of foodstuffs in the dififerent systems of replacement on the one side, and the proceeds from eggs and poultry meat on the other, have been calculated for Germany according to the figures obtained from the Experimental Institute, which seem to be attainable everywhere else as well. Thus it is proved that by the regeneration of the present German stock of poultry the requirements of the country could be wholly met and present day importation could be avoided. The institution of further measures such as increasing the efficiency and laying capacity of the birds, improved methods of feeding and promotion of health would doubtless lead to the greater part of the requirements in poultry products being satisfied. In order to enforce the regeneration in larger circles, the marking of age, as it was already done years ago, will be recommended again. If in the event of such marking not being adopted generally, compulsory measures may be necessary. Furthermore, the lucrative development of poultry keeping is also urged upon as a necessity in obtaining profitable returns. Too low prices for eggs in winter, and too high costs of rearing and maintenance, partly in consequence of too high prices for foodstuffs for the pullets on the one side, and too low proceeds for table chickens on the other, put a check to the regeneration of the stock, and consequently to the increase of production. Prices do not stand in an appropriate relation to each other. The intensive or short termed keeping of pullets in contrast to the extended system or " exploitation method " whereby every egg possible is extracted from each bird by the adoption of all management practices possible, are critically pointed out in an extra paragraph. DiflFerences are caused by various hatching periods. Hens belonging to the same year show différent efficiency according to their being hatched either in February or in May. This question is also treated by referring to other and older investigations without, however, reaching a definite and hardly possible conclusion as to the advantages and disadvantages of distinct hatching periods. 115 surveys, explanatory statements and advice regarding questions of an incidental nature, such as weight of egg laying in relation to age, calculations of laying results, etc., have been dealt with ; 112 treatises of native and foreign authors, as far as the former have been published on the topic within the last 10 years—are critically treated in the appendix. In the chief part of the work, the contents of these treatises is referred to with statements of figures without any partiality as to their approving or disapproving tendencies, so that the reader will be able to acquaint himself, without recourse to any further literature, with the views of other experts. Poultry'Breeding. Geflügelzucht. Short report for the period from January 1st, 1933, until April 1st, 1935. Dr. Walter Kupsch. Year-Book for Animal-Breeding, Vol. 27. Publishers : M. and H. Schaper, Hannover, 1936. A report regarding publications in the poultry-breeding line with detailed bibliography. The following sub-divisions are made and discussed : Questions of Economics, Business Management, Utilisation of Eggs and Poultry, Breeding and Heredity, Hatching and Rearing, Nutrition and Feeding, Stable Construction, Geese, Ducks and Other Poultry. As the material is very extensive publications of German newspapers and journals only were considered.

32 Breeding Poultry for Desirable Factors Necessary for High Egg Production and Viability with Special Reference to the Method of Selection of the Breeding Males. A. E. Tomhave. Annual Report, University of Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark, Delaware. Bull. 214. Nov., 1938. 1. Fall and Winter Intensity of Egg Prod-ction. These results are similar to results obtained in previous experiments and indicate that the intensity of the fall and winter egg production of the sisters of a male may be an indication of the transmitting ability of that male of the factor concerned with the fall and winter intensity of ^gg production. Data obtained during the past few years will be completely summarised and prepared for publication as soon as time will permit. 2. Mortailty in the Laying Flock. This study is being continued to determine the effect on mortality in the adult flock when the breeding birds are selected upon the basis of viability within the entire family, eliminating entire families from the breeding programme when the family shows high mortality, and using only hens in the breeding pen from the families that show the best viability. Results to date are promising, but the data are not sufficiently complete to warrant conclusions. A study is now underway to study the viability of the progeny of cockerels when the cockerel's family have had either high or low mortality in the pullet family from the time the pullets were housed to February 1st. One of the cockerels heading up a pedigreed pen of hens had ten sisters placed in the laying house with no mortality to February 1st. The two pens of pedigreed hens to which these cockerels were mated were as similar in every respect as it was possible to select. 3. Relationship of the Age of Breeding Hens to the Viability of the Progeny. This study is being continued to determine the relationship between the age of breeding hens and hatchability of eggs and the viability of the resulting chicks.

Selected Males Increase Weight of Pullets' Eggs. Dr. C. W. Knox. United States Department of Agriculture, 1938. Pullets going into production generally lay small eggs. Because such eggs are small, they grade lower and bring lower prices. By using selected males—at the National Agricultural Research Centre, Beltsville, Maryland—Dr. C. W. Knox and M. W. Olsen of the Bureau of Animal Industry in 4 years have developed White Leghorn pullets which start laying large eggs so much sooner that the December average egg weight has jumped from 21-9 ounces per dozen to 24-6 ounces per dozen. There was no culling of pullets during the test. As a result, the average egg weight for the entire first year of production went from 23-4 ounces per dozen to 24-8 ounces per dozen ; 24 ounces per dozen is the minimum weight for large eggs in the top United States grades. Males used in the breeding pens were selected on the basis of their sisters' average egg weight the first 2 years of the test, and during the past 2 years were selected on both their sisters' and daughters' average egg weight. Average egg weight made steady gains as shown by the December averages from year to year. The eggs averaged 21-9 ounces for December of 1934, the year the test began. For the same month in 1935, before the breeding work had time to produce results, average weight dropped to 21-2 ounces per dozen. But in December 1936, it jumped to 22-9 ounces and then to 23-2 ounces in 1937 and 24-6 for December, 1938.

:18 Genetic Growth Constants in Domestic Fowl, I. M. Lerner and V. S. Asmundson. University of California. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 286. Computation of growth constants for cross-bred fowls from Warren and others, gave evidence of the action of sex-linked growth factors in the Rhode Island Red X Leghorn crosses. The decreasing early growth rate of late hatches led to compensatory growth later. Differences in adult weight were reflected in early growth rates.

The Influence of Type of Sire on the Body Size of the Progeny. W. A. and A. J. G. Maw. United States Egg and Poultry Magazine, Vol. 44, 1938, p. 78. Results are given on the comparative body measurements and size of the progeny of three Barred Plymouth Rock roosters—one short-bodied and early maturing, one of average type, and one rangy and upstanding. The preliminary analysis showed that the extreme types influenced the type of progeny. The medium and more compact males sired birds with greater percentages of flesh, whereas the progeny of the rangy sire were rangier, having lower percentages of flesh. The Sex Ratio of the Domestic Fowl and its bearing upon the Sex-linked Lethal Theory of Differential Mortality, F. A. E. Crew. Royal Society of Edinburgh Proc, Vol. 58, 1937-38, p. 73. Males constituted 50-34 per cent, of the 515,976 chicks alive at hatching and 51-03 per cent, of 8,565 embryos dying in the shell. Among 2,216,051 chicks hatched in a commercial hatchery, there were 51-38 per cent, males. Variations in the sex ratio were found to be related to the type of breeding and strains from which the eggs were obtained. It is considered that these results do not lend support to the theory that sex-linked lethals cause greater mortality in the females than in males. Characteristic differences in the sex ratios of the chicks hatched were observed in the diflPerent strains.

On the Inheritance of Pendulous Crop in Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo). V. S. Asmundson and W. R. Hinshaw. University of California. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 276. A study if the inheritance and relation of environment to the pendulous crop condition in Bronze and Bourbon Red turkeys showed that the condition was apparently controlled by the inter-action of a pair or pairs of recessive genes with the environment. No Bourbon Reds and none of the birds even from the pendulous crop parents developed the condition when raised at Tómales, California, where the mean maximum temperature was about 74° F. with high humidity and little sunshine. On the other hand, progeny from pendulous crop birds raised at Davis, where the mean maximum temperature was 20° higher with more hours of sunshine and lower humidity, showed the pendulous crop condition in from 50 to 100 per cent, of the birds. The incidence of pendulous crop birds among the progeny of normals from pendulous crop parents was about 25 per cent. The importance of climatic conditions in the appearance of this condition is emphasised.

34 The effect of certain Groups of Environmental factors upon the Expression of Broodiness. W. H. Burrows and T. C. Byerly. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 324. Broodiness was induced in non-broody laying hens and young pullets by raising the temperature and placing the birds in a darkened coop with young chicks. The time required for the stimulus to be effective varied from 18 hours to 12 days. Leghorns were less responsive than cross-bred hens. Contrary to expectation, the pituitaries of such birds were not higher in prolactin than the pituitaries of laying hens. Moderate temperatures, slow temperature changes, light and removal of eggs inhibited the development of broodiness.

Linkage Relations of Crest^ dominant White and Frizzling in the Fowl, D. C. Warren, Kansas State College, F. B. Hutt. The American Naturalist, Vol. 70, July, 1936. Summary : The data here presented definitely establish the fact that crest, dominant white and frizzling belong to the same linkage group. It is shown that these genes have the arrangement in the chromosome of Cr-I-F with approximately 12 per cent, crossing-over between Cr and I and 17 per cent, between I and F. Since the percentage of crossing-over between Cr and F is 29, the distance in the chromosome between Cr and F, as measured by the summation of the segments Cr to I and I to F, is practically identical with that secured by directly measuring the percentage of crossing- over between Cr and F. This indicates that little double crossing-over occurs in the approximate distance of 29 units on this chromosome. In segregation of these genes in birds heterozygous for all three, no double cross-overs were recorded in 284 gametes. Evidence is adduced to support the view that cerebral hernia is ordinarily the homozygous expression of crest, but a number of irregularities were found in the manifestation of cerebral hernia. It may appear in hétérozygotes or may be suppressed in homozygotes. The rates of crossing-over were very similar in the two sexes, there being some evidence for a slightly higher amount in females. The Geneticists Objectives in Poultry Improvement. Prof. F. B. Hutt. Department of Poultry Husbandry. Cornell University. The American Naturalist, Vol. 72, 1938, p. 268. In this report, an attempt is made to show the way in which the straight- forward work of progeny testing is interrelated with attempts to extend what is now known about the genetics of the fowl. Genetics of the Fowl, VII, Breed Differences in Susceptibility to Extreme Heat, F. B. Hutt. Cornell University, Ithaca. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 454. During 6 days of heat more intense than had been experienced at Ithaca during the last 11 years, when maximum temperatures reached 101, 103 and 102° on three successive days, the mortality from heat prostration was recorded in three breeds not previously exposed to natural selection for resistance to such conditions. Deaths from heat were 1*79 per cent, in White Leghorns, 5-26 per cent, in Rhode Island Reds, and 5-16 per cent, in Barred Rocks. The differences between Leghorns and each of the heavy breeds are statistically significent. There were no significant differences between breeds with respect to mortality from causes other than heat before, during, and after the heat wave. The greater resistance of the Leghorns is apparently independent of their smaller body size. It is shown that laying birds are no more susceptible than non-layers. Susceptibility to heat is independent of the current rate of egg production and of genetic capacity for laying as measured by the antecedent egg production for 9 months or more. Susceptibility to heat tends to increase with age, stock less then 4 months old being completely resistant to the conditions of this test. The association of this physiological character and others with the morphological and colour characteristics constituting the White Leghorn breed is briefly discussed. The genetic constitution of the White Leghorn appears to give that breed more control over its thermo-regulatory processes than is available to the others compared with it. Genetics of the Fowl, IX, Naked, a new sex-linked mutation, F. B. Hutt and P. D. Sturkie. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Journal of Heredity, Vol. 29, 1938, p. 371. Summary : A hereditary character, naked, reducing the down of chicks and the plumage of adults is described. Pterylosis is normal, but the feathers do not erupt properly from their follicles. Remiges and rectrices are few or lacking. Naked fowls are easily distinguishable from normal ones at all ages. This condition is caused by a sex-linked recessive gene w, which on the average is lethal to about half of the affected chicks during the last 2 or 3 days of incubation. Among naked chicks hatched, mortality was 55 per cent, during the first 6 weeks of life. Homozygous males are no more affected than hemizygous females. Cysteine and cystine had no effect on the growth of feathers when fed in comparatively large doses. Skin transplants indicate that the defect is localised in the feather follicles. Other conditions reducing the extent of the plumage in the fowl are briefly discussed and it is suggested that the naked mutation is of recent origin. Body Weight, Egg Weight, Sexual Maturity and Growth Rate in the Domestic Fowl, N. F. Waters. Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Poultry Science, Vol. 16, 1937, No. 5. Maximum adult e^gg weight is attained when the bird reaches maximum adult body weight at approximately 10 months of age. After 11 months of age there is no significant increase or decrease in G^gg weight until about 16 months of age at which time there is more or less fluctuation in egg weight. This study indicates that the time to obtain a measure of the first year's maximum G^gg weight is after the bird has attained its maximum body weight at approximately 10 months of age. Measurements made during the 11th to 16th months of age should give a reliable indication of the inherent egg weight for the first year. Data on White Plymouth Rocks show that the average egg weight for the first year is highly correlated with the second year's average egg weight.

36 Birds maturing sexually at or about 120 days grow faster during the first 6 months of age than do the later sexually maturing birds. All groups, however, attain approximately the same weight at 10 months of age. It is suggested that inherent differences in rate of growth operate independently of maximum adult weight at 10 months of age. The rate of growth manifested in all groups seems to be associated with sexual maturity. The ultimate body weight of a bird is not affected by date of sexual maturity and the early sexually maturing birds attain a maximum body weight at 10 months of age equal to that of the late sexually maturing birds.

The Influence of Inbred Sires Top-crossed on White Leghorn Fowl N. F. Waters. Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 490. Experimental results over a 5-year period demonstrate that the crossing of highly inbred White Leghorn sires with random-bred White Leghorn females improves the fertility and hatchability of the eggs and the viability of the chicks at 8 and 24 weeks of age. Certain of the inbred families seem to be better than others as sources of good sires for top-crossing. The crossing of good inbred strains of poultry with random-bred strains suggests a method of increasing the fertility and lowering the mortality in the domestic fowl during the embryonic development and during the first 6 months of the growing period. Cidling the Flock for Egg Production. T. W. Noland. Missouri Poultry Station Bulletin No. 39, 1938. Methods for culling pouhry by physical examination are fully described and illustrated. A Weekly Standard for Egg Production. C. S. Platt. New Jersey Stas., Hints to Poultrymen, Vol. 25, 1938, No. 3. A standard chart for the weekly egg production of pullet and hen flocks throughout the year, based on several years' records of the New Jersey egg-laying tests, is presented. By the use of simple calculations as described, the production of a flock for any given week may readily be compared with the standard. The Usefulness of Winter and Summer-Fall Egg Yield Records as Criteria of Poultry Breeder Selection. W. C. Thomp- son and F. P. Jeffrey. New Jersey Agricultural Experi- ment Station, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Bulletin No. 612, 1936. Contents : Three seasonal egg yield records ; Data employed ; Specific problems undertaken ; Summary and conclusions.

Breeding for Egg Production. L. W. Taylor and 1. MICHAEL Lerner. Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, California Bulletin No. 626, 1938. The purpose of this bulletin is twofold : (1) to review the present knowledge of the genetics of egg-production and egg-quality characters and (2) to demonstrate what may be accomplished by the application of the

37 principles and methods discussed in the text in bringing about rapid improvement in egg production. For this purpose, data from the California Agricultural Experiment Station flock, as well as from literature on poultry breeding, are used. In the limited space of a bulletin, only a small part of the published work on the subject can be reviewed. Only those papers which are directly drawn upon are cited. Similarly, the analysis of the Experiment Station data has necessarily been confined to the more important general considerations, with many details omitted. These data confirm in a striking manner the adequacy of the progeny test method of breeding poultry, when this method is applied to the individual characters affecting production and viability. We believe that the application of similar principles should enable a poultry breeder to accomplish substantially the same type of flock improvement. The presentation of dogmatic methods of procedure for pedigree breeders has purposely been avoided because conditions vary widely from flock to flock. Emphasis is thus laid on broad principles which may be adapted to specific circumstances found in diflferent flocks. However, a more definite breeding programme for multipliers' flocks is advanced. The effect of Hereditary and Environmental Factors on the Interior Quality of the Egg. L. A. Wilhelm. An experiment was completed which shows the eflFect of temperature and environmental conditions on ç^gg quality throughout 52 consecutive weeks. The daily production of 60 White Leghorn pullets was studied. When eggs are gathered frequently, there is no relationship between temperature and G^gg quality. Three major breaks occurred during the course of the year. The first major drop in quality occurred the first week in April, the second in June, and the low was reached in July after which there was a slight increase in quality. Egg quality did not appear to be influenced by any of the factors studied under the conditions of this experiment. Two hundred pullets of known ancestry have been housed for further studies of the method of inheritance of albumen quality and of ^gg hatchability. A study of the relationship of the albumen index of eggs to their appearance when fried or poached was conducted in co-operation with the Division of Home Economics. An apparatus for measuring the resistance of Qgg shell to a crushing and puncturing force was devised. A high degree of correlation was found to exist between egg shell thickness and crushing and puncturing resistance. The Time Factor in Egg Production, B. W. Heywang. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 240. Analyses of time of egg production records of groups of Rhode Island Red and White Leghorn pullets in their first and second laying years, confined in open pens and in small individual laying batteries, and fed ad libitum and at restricted levels gave evidence that age, restricted diet or close confinement did not afifect the mean time interval between successive eggs. There was a significant diflference between the breeds, the mean time interval being 27-69 and 28-21 hours for two-egg cycles, 26-56 and 26-97 for three-egg cycles, and 25-86 and 28-16 for four-egg cycles for the Rhode Island Reds and White Leghorns respectively. It appeared that a highly irregular time sequence between successive eggs may occur occasionally. The Measurement of Egg Weight. F. P. Jeffrey. New Jersey Experiment Station. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938 p. 179.

38 In a study to determine which of several egg weight measurements was best suited for the use of investigators of egg weight inheritance and the practical poultry breeder, dam-daughter correlations were determined for each of 14 measures of pullet year egg weight and of the mean second year egg weight using only records of March to May hatched birds. The mean weight of the first ten eggs in March was statistically superior to any measure taken before the birds reached body size maturity, but not superior to mean annual egg weight. Theoretical objections to the use of the mean annual egg weight and points favouring the use of the mean weight for the first ten eggs in March are advanced.

Genetic Growth Constants in Domestic Fowl, T. M. Lerner and V. S. Asmundson. Berkeley, California. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, No. 4. Schmalhausen's growth constants, based on the postulate that rate of growth is inversely proportional to the elapsed time, were computed on Warren's data for cross-bred fowls and on data for Leghorns and Rocks. By the use of such constants evidence of sex-linkage in the Red X Leghorn cross made by Warren is adduced. Differences in growth constants between breeds and strains and between sexes are demonstrated thus con- firming our previous reports. The decreased early growth rate exhibited by later hatches within breeds is found to lead to compensatory growth in later stages. Differences in early growth rates between breeds reflected the differences in adult weight. Definitive weights within breeds are found to be independent of the differential patterns of growth in the early stages. Relation of Plumage Colour to Sex in Rhode Island Red Chicks, F. A. Hays. Massachusetts Experiment Station. Bulle- tin No. 347, 1938. A total of 3,200 pedigreed Rhode Island Red chicks has been described for brown and black pigment spots or stripes on head, neck and back. The value of such pigment areas as an indicator of sex at hatching has not been determined. The relafion of this early pigmentation to adult plumage colour is being studied. Improving Poultry through the National Poultry Improvement Plan, P. B. Zumbro, M. W. Buster and J. D. Sykes. United States Department of Agricultural Misc. Publ., No. 317, 1938. Further information is presented regarding the National Improvement Poultry Plan, including an explanation of the plan of administration ; the labels, designs and terminology employed ; the various classes provided for, and who may participate and who will benefit by the plan. Early Maturity and Persistency of Laying, Poultry Tribune, April, 1939. Results recently reported from the University of California indicate that in the strain of White Leghorns kept at the university, there is no close relation between earliness of sexual maturity and persistency of laying at the end of the pullet year. This is in contrast to the results previously reported for Rhode Island Reds observed at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experimental Station,

39 These findings emphasise the necessity of continuous selection for each of the characters involved in high egg production, if a high level of flock performance is to be maintained or improved. From the viewpoint of practice, it may be somewhat immaterial whether the one or the other of these alternative explanations is correct. The important thing to remember is that both traits, early maturity and persistency, seem to be definitely inherited, and that selection for either one is effective in improving the laying performance of a flock. Date of Hatch Ajfects Profits, Poultry Tribune, December, 1937. A poultry management study of 115 commercial Qgg farms made by the Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station provides some interesting data on the relation of date of hatch to costs and returns in egg production. AH but two of the flocks consisted of White Leghorns. Figuring the egg production from the time laying commenced to October 31st of the following year, the average yields for pullets hatched in different months were : February, 211 eggs ; March, 192 ; April, 181 ; May, 169 ; but for the 12-month period November 1st to October 31st, there was practically no difference in ç^gg yield. The February and March hatched pullets produced a larger percentage of their eggs in the high price months than did the April and May-hatched pullets. They also produced an appreciably larger proportion of large-size eggs during the high price season. The value of eggs per pullet for the laying season, was $5.47 for the February pullets, S4.91 for the March pullets, $4.10 for the April pullets, and $3.61 for the May pullets. The average cost of producing a pullet to 5 months of age was 85 cents, in each of the 4 months, the slightly higher fuel cost for the early hatches being offset by the higher prices received for cockerels sold as broilers. There was no significant difference in the cost of producing eggs, as related to date of hatch, nor were there any differences in mortality or culling practices. Can Egg Production be Predicted at Hatching Time ? Poultry Tribune, October, 1937. Several investigators have searched with little success for some means of predicting the future ç^gg production of hens by means of easily observed physical characteristics. Recently the wide variation in appearance of the genital eminence in female chicks suggested to workers in the Bureau of Animal Industry that there might be some correlation with future egg production. Over a 2-year period, 2,609 day-old female chicks were classified according to the size and nature of the genital eminence. It was possible to follow the egg production records of 970 of these chicks during the first laying year. It was concluded that size or type of the genital eminence in the day-old chick is not related to adult mortality, age at sexual maturity, rate of laying, persistance of laying, broodiness, fertility or hatching power. Pre-Incubation and Hatching Results. Poultry Tribune, May, 1937. Since fertile eggs undergo embryonic development at temperatures above ßS° F., it is obvious that many eggs laid during warm weather will have actually begun to incubate long before being placed in an incubator. E. M. Funk, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, studied the effect of this pre-incubation under controlled conditions and found that it is definitely related to later hatching results.

40 Eggs held at 101" F. for 6 to 14 hours before cooling after laying hatched just as well as those cooled at once. If held 18 hours or longer, there was a marked falling off in the percentage of eggs which hatched. Unless eggs were held too long at this temperature, there was a decrease in the number of hours required for the eggs to hatch after being placed in the incubator, and this decrease corresponded closely to the length of time they were held at 101° F. immediately after laying.

A Test of Crossbred Chickens, Single Comb White Leghorns and Rhode Island Reds, C. W. Knox and M. W. Olsen. U.S.D.A. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 193. Comparison was made at Belts ville, Maryland, of the size and egg production of pure-bred Rhode Island Red and Single Comb White Leghorn fowls and cross-breds between several general purpose breeds and White Leghorns mated with Rhode Island Reds, Black Minorcas and White Plymouth Rocks. The eggs from which the birds were hatched were procured from breeders selling the different kinds of eggs. The average hybrid was superior to the pure-breds in early body weight and viability, but egg production of hybrids was less than that for pure-breds and the percentage of broodiness among cross-breds was much greater. Progeny from crosses of general purpose breeds were generally superior to the progeny from the White Leghorn crosses. It was evident that different results might be obtained from crossing different strains from the same breeds.

Goose Raising. A. G. Taylor. Experiment Farm, Ottawa, 1936. Contents : Breeds of geese : Toulouse, Embden, African, Chinese ; Selection of Breeding Stock ; Management of Breeding Stock ; Rearing the goslings ; Marketing.

Sex Determination in Geese, Poultry Tribune, December, 1938. t Most goose raisers would welcome an easy method of accurately determining sex in geese at any age from hatching to maturity. It is reported that a variety of geese commonly found on farms in Alabama is of such a genetic make-up that the sexes can be distinguished at any age on the basis of down or plumage colour. The males are white except for an occasional grey feather while the females are grey or parti-coloured with some white areas on certain individuals. At hatching time, the males have light, and the females dark grey down. It is stated that, without exception, these geese have bred true for this sort of sexual dimorphism. Furthermore, the iris of the adult male eye is sky-blue, while that of the female is dark grey or brown. The eye-colour difference is not apparent in young goslings.

Artificial Breeding of Turkeys. W. H. Burrows and S. J. Marsden. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 408. Summary : 1. Thirty-one turkey hens, artificially inseminated with 0-05 c.c. of turkey semen at intervals of 1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks, laid 948 eggs with an average fertility of 80 per cent.

41 2. During periods of 30 days duration between inseminations, these hens laid 464 eggs, of which 83-1 per cent, were fertile. 3. In a pen of ten hens and an old Tom, which had given poor results, fertility was increased from 7-5 per cent, to 88-4 per cent, when the fertilisation process was changed from natural mating to artificial insemination. 4. Embryonic mortality was slightly higher in the incubated eggs from artificially inseminated hens than in eggs from hens naturally mated.

Loss in Weight of Incubating Eggs, Poultry Tribune, April, 1937. Workers at the National Agricultural Research Centre have recently reported the results of controlled variations in temperature and humidity on the loss in weight of hen's eggs during artificial incubation. They conclude that loss in weight of fertile eggs during incubation depends principally upon the relative humidity to which they are subjected, and that the loss decreases in direct proportion to the increase in the humidity. An increase of 1 per cent, in relative humidity caused a decrease of O'Ol per cent, per day in the loss in weight and vice-versa. Varying the temperature between 96° and 99° F. had only a slight effect on the loss in weight. A pronounced increase in the weight loss occurred as the temperature was raised above 99°, and this loss became progressively greater with each degree rise of temperature up to the limit of 103-5° observed. At this temperature the loss was one-third greater than at 99° F. Loss in weight increases as incubation proceeds, and is relatively less (i.e., on a percentage basis) in large eggs than in small eggs.

Study of Artificial Incubation of Game Birds. Ill, Effect of Air Movement on the Incubation of Pheasant and Quail Eggs, IV, Interrelation of temperature, humidity and air movement in the incubation of pheasant and quail eggs, A. L. Romanoff. Cornell University, Ithaca. Bulletin No. 687, 1938. III. In the final analysis of the data on the influence of the rate of movement of air in the incubator, under ordinary conditions of temperature and humidity, on the hatching of pheasant and quail eggs, the following summary (Fig. 5) may be drawn. 1. In general, the pheasant eggs are less sensitive, both to a high rate of movement of air and to a great diflPerence in temperature between the top and the bottom of the iigg, than are the quail eggs. 2. Both pheasant and quail eggs are sensitive to a high rate of movement of air during the latter part of incubation, and to a gr^at difference in temperature between the top and the bottom of the egg during the early part of incubation. 3. The high rate of movement of air in the incubator up to 5 miles per hour is undesirable for pheasant eggs and disastrous for quail eggs during the latter part of incubation. 4. The great difiference in temperature between the top and the bottom of the egg, up to 5° F. for every inch of elevation, is not desirable for pheasant eggs and is disastrous for quail eggs during the early part of incubation. 5. In the practice of artificial incubation of pheasant eggs, it would seem advantageous to incubate them in an agitated-air type of incubator and then transfer them for hatching into an incubator of the still-air type. 6. In the practice of artificial incubation of quail eggs, it would seem advantageous to both incubate and hatch them in a slow-agitated-air type of incubator.

42 IV. From the study of the inter-relation of temperature, humidity and air movement, on the hatchability of eggs and the viability of brooded pheasants and quail, it was revealed that :— 1. There is a definite, yet specific-to-species, relationship among the three important physical factors of incubation—temperature, humidity, and air movement. 2. There should be a proper adjustment of incubation conditions in respect to temperature and humidity according to the rate of air movement in the incubator. 3. The proper adjustment of temperature and humidity allows the more extensive use of agitated air type incubators for greater efficiency of operation in the hatching of pheasant and quail eggs. 4. Pheasant eggs that have been incubated for the first 20 days in an agitated-air type incubator may thereafter be hatched most successfully in a still-air type incubator with a slightly lowered temperature (about ()'5° F. lower) and relative humidity (about 3 to 5 per cent, lower) from the average conditions recommended for the type of incubator for continuous incubation and hatching. 5. Quail eggs may be incubated and hatched most successfully in an agitated-air type incubator, provided that with an increase of air movement there is a corresponding increase in both temperature (up to 0-25° F. higher) and relative humidity (about 2 to 3 per cent, higher). Artificial Incubation of some Upland Game Birds' Eggs, A. L. Romanoff, G. Bump and E. Holm. Cornell University, 1938. 1. The average normal temperature for the incubation of pheasants, grouse and quail eggs is (1) in an agitated-air type incubator about 99 i"" F. and (2) in a still air type incubator from 101|^° to 103| F. for the pheasants and from 102° F. to 104° F. for grouse and quail eggs, depending upon the make of incubator. 2. At a constant humidity and air movement, pheasant eggs require higher temperature at the beginning and lower temperature at the end of incubation, perhaps as much as 2° F. diflference. 3. At a constant humidity and air movement, quail and grouse eggs require almost constant or even slightly raised temperature towards the end of incubation or about i° F. 4. The average normal relative humidity for the incubation of pheasant, grouse and quail eggs in either agitated-air or still-air type incubators is about 65 per cent. 5. Pheasant eggs develop best if exposed to a higher humidity at the beginning and a lower one at the end of incubation. The reduction should be from about 70 per cent, relative humidity to 60 per cent. 6. Quail eggs require somewhat lower humidity at the beginning and higher at the end of incubation, that is, rising from 60 per cent, relative humidity to 70 per cent. 7. In practice it is usually best to incubate pheasant eggs in an agitated- air type incubator then on the 20th day to transfer for hatching into a still air type. 8. In practice it seems advantageous to incubate and to hatch quail eggs in a slow-agitated air type incubator. 9. Pheasant eggs that have been incubated for the first 20 days in an agitated-air type incubator may thereafter be hatched most successfully in a still- air type incubator with a slightly lower temperature (about i° F.) and lowered relative humidity (about 3-5 per cent.) from the average conditions recommended for the type of incubator where continuous hatching is practised. 10. Quail eggs may be incubated and hatched most successfully in an agitated-air type incubator, provided that with an increase of air movement

43 . there is a corresponding increase in both temperature (up to i° F.) and relative humidity (about 2 to 3 per cent.). 11. The rate of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is in proportion to the size of the embryo. Very little fresh air is needed at the beginning of incubation. However, it should be increased to an abundant supply at the time of hatching. 12. Pheasant, grouse or quail eggs should be incubated preferably in their natural position, that is horizontally, though they can be hatched successfully in a vertical position—blunt end up. 13. Turning from two to four times daily from the beginning up to the 20th day of incubation of pheasant, grouse and quail eggs should be sufficient. Some practical suggestions for the beginner are covered at the end of the booklet with a bibliography of books and bulletins on the propagation of pheasants, grouse and quail.

Embryonic Mortality in the Fowl. VIL On the relation of Malpositions to the Size and Shape of Eggs, F. B. Hutt. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 345. Weights and measures of length, breadth, and diameters at 13 mm. from each end were taken on eggs of White Leghorns and heavy breeds incubated during two hatching seasons. Comparisons were based upon 659 which hatched, 183 in which embryos died at 18 to 21 days in the normal position, and 1,170 in which embryos of 18 to 21 days were found dead in malpositions. Eggs containing embryos dead in this period but in the normal position did not differ significantly and consistently in size, dimensions or shape from those which hatched. In each of the two breed groups eggs in which embryos died in malposition III (head under left wing) exceeded controls in all dimensions and by statistically significant differences in weight and length. Position VI (beak over right wing) occurred in eggs consistently larger in every comparison in both breed groups, but not significantly so. Other malpositions were not significantly related to Qgg size. Among 5,724 embryos alive at 18 days, the frequency of subsequent deaths in malposition III increased sharply with increasing size of ç^gg. In those heavier than 60 grammes, this abnormally occurred in 20-14 per cent, of late dead embryos, a frequency over five times as great as its incidence of only 3-95 per cent, in eggs smaller than 52 grammes. It is suggested that this malposition is to a large extent responsible for the well-known fact that embryonic mortality rates are higher in large eggs than in those of medium size.

The effects of Jarring upon the Embryogeny of Chick Embryos. K. A. Stiles and R. L. Watterson. Anat. Record, Vol. 70, 1937, p. 7. Jarring eggs with a 490 gramme hammer for 1 minute at 15 minutes intervals from the 4th to the 12th hour of incubation reduced hatchability from an average of 45 per cent, so that only 1 egg in 155 hatched. The vitelline circulation and various parts of the nervous system were especially sensitive. Serial sections of 72 hour embryos showed lack of vitelline circulations and the trapping of the normally free moving corpuscles in blood islands. About 60 per cent, of the embryos died between the 2nd and 3rd days and others ceased developing up to 11 days.

44 Influence of Earthquakes on Hatchability of Incubating Eggs- Philippine Agriculturist, Vol. 26, 1938, p. 902. It is popularly believed in the Philippines that incubating eggs w^hen overtaken by an earthquake will fail to hatch. On August 20th, 1937, an earthquake of intensity VI-VIII, at Manila rocked Luzon. At the time of this earthquake there were 3,420 eggs in eleven incubators in the College of Agriculture, from at least five breeds of chickens. The author determined the hatchability of the fertile eggs in the incubators and found that the eggs hatched just as well as if not better, than those not overtaken by an earthquake. Biochemistry and Biophysics of the Developing Hen's Egg. III. Influence of Temperature. A. L. Romanoff, L. L. Smith and R. A. Sullivan. New York. Cornell Station Mem. No. 216, 1938. Continuing this line of investigation the effect of exposure of eggs to various temperatures at successive stages of embryonic development was studied by using long or weekly exposures and short or 24 hour exposures to ranges in temperature at various stages of incubation. All other physical features of incubation, except temperature, were held constant throughout. An extensive bibliography is appended. During the early stages of incubation embryonic growth was greatly stimulated by high temperature and retarded by low temperature. Thermal effect lessened with advance of incubation, and after 10 days both high and low temperatures slightly retarded growth. After short (24 hour) exposures to high or low temperature, even in the early stages of incubation, post-exposure growth was eventually slightly retarded. Temperature extremes, either high or low, caused a greater number of defective and abnormal embryos than a temperature range near the normal. The development of the aliantois, with its blood vessels and the concentration of uric acid in the alian tois, corresponded closely to the growth rate of the embryos. The rate of assimilation of albumin and the disappearance of the free glucose was most rapid at high and slowest at low temperature, indicating that carbohydrate metabolism and growth of the embryo were both favoured by slightly raised temperatures during early stages. Embryonic mortality was reduced during early incubation by slightly high temperature and during the latter part of incubation by slightly low temperature. Ruptured yolk sacs and a sticky appearance of the egg were specific symptoms of high and low temperatures respectively. The haemorrhagic condition and various malpositions of the embryo were not specific, occurring under both extremes. Low temperature markedly increased and high temperature slightly decreased the length of the incubation period. The effect of exposure to extremes lessened with the advance of the incubation period. Growth in Weight and Cell Number : Genetic effects in the chick embryo and chick. T. C. Byerly, W. G. Helsel and J. P. Quinn. U.S.D.A. Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 78, 1938, p. 185. A study was made at Beltsville, Maryland, of the weights of embryos and cell numbers per unit of area from the liver and neural tube of embryos after from 2 to 20 days of incubation and up to 10 weeks of age from Silkies, Single Comb Rhode Island Reds, and reciprocal crosses between them. The average weights of the Rhode Island Red eggs were considerably greater than the average weights of the Silkie eggs, and the embryos in the Rhode Island Red eggs grew more rapidly than in Silkie eggs whether they were pure bred or hybrid. Evidently the ç^^'g is a more important factor in determining

45 embryo size than genetic constitution for adult size. Size differences in the embryos did not appear during the 1st week of incubation, but during the 11 to 17 day period genetically larger embryos were generally heavier than genetically smaller embryos even in eggs of similar weight. Hatching weight was a closely related factor to egg weight. The growth rates after hatching were similar for all groups, but the rate dropped after 2 weeks for Silkies, after 4 weeks of Silkie cJ X Single Comb Rhode Island Red ?, and after 6 weeks for Single Comb Rhode Island Reds and Single Comb Rhode Island Red (^ X Silkie $. The logarithm of the embryonic weight plotted against the logarithm of age was linear. There was no evidence of inherent differences in rate of cell division in birds of genetically different mature sizes. Cell counts were made on White Leghorn embryos as well as on the other breeds and crosses.

Variation in Hatchability : Eggs of single comb White Leghorn pullets, J. W. Patton and L. A. Rauls. Veterinary Medicine, Vol. 33, 1938, p. 190. (Ref. Nutrition Abstracts, Vol. 8, 1938, p. 262.) Fifty day-old chicks were obtained from one source and reared in battery brooders on a uniform diet considered adequate in all respects. Of these, 23 pullets and a cockerel became available for laying and hatchability tests. In the averaged results of three successive hatches, the egg hatched by individual pullets ranged from 0 to 95-6 per cent, of those set ; the values for all but seven were over 50 per cent. The cause of this great variation is discussed and it is concluded that it must be due either to a major genetic factor or to variation in nutritional requirement of individuals receiving a diet which was in some respects on the border line of sufficiency. Time of Emergence of Chicks from the Shell as a factor in Poultry Breeding. F. A. Hays. Massachusetts Experi- ment Station Bulletin No. 347, 1938. Records were obtained this year on the time of emergence of 1982 chicks from the shell. Observations were made at 8-hour intervals beginning with the end of the 20th day. Only one chick emerged at the end of the 20th day and a relatively small percentage during the first third of the 21st day. The greatest proportion of the chicks emerged during the last third of the 21st day and the first third of the 22nd day. A few chicks did not emerge until the last 3rd of the 22nd day. These preliminary data show no significant relation between time of emergence and sex, mortality rate or body weight of pullets at 170 days of age. Effect of different Incubation Temperatures on Mortality of Chick Embrvos. T. C. Byerly. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 200. Eggs used in this study were produced by pullets from a cross of Leghorn males by cross-bred pullets (Rhode Island Red male X Barred Rock female). A total of 18,665 fertile eggs were incubated at temperatures of 97°, 99-75° and 102-5° F. (ratio approximately 1:2:1). Hatchability of fertile eggs at these temperatures was 49-4, 85-3 and 24-3 respectively. Greatest mortality occurred in the 97° group at morphological stages corresponding to 6 to 7 and 19 to 21 days at normal incubation temperatures, while mortality in the 102-5° group was excessive at stages corresponding to 13 to 15 and 18 to 21 days of normal development. Observations on malpositions showed a high

46 incidence of head in small end of egg at both high and low temperatures and a high incidence of head under left wing and head between legs at the higher temperatures. The relative survival in inherently weak and inherently strong embryos was not materially influenced by the use of abnormal incubation temperatures. Influence of Temperature and Humidity upon the Growth of Chick Embryos in a mechanically ventilated Incubator, R. Penquite. Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Research Bulletin No. 232, 1938. Summary and Conclusions : 1. A study has been made of the influence of temperature and humidity upon the growth of the chick embryo using a modern mechanically ventilated incubator. Daily measurements beginning the 4th and continuing through the 2üth day of incubation were made on wet weight, dry weight, total nitrogen and total ash of embryos and their extra-embryonic membranes. A total of 18,360 individual weights and determinations was made during the course of this study. 2. The data on growth were obtained from six separate incubation operations conducted at two institutions over a period of 5 j^ears. 3. The percentages of relative humidity used in this study did not cause a significant difference in the growth of the embryo as measured by wet weight. 4. The dry weight of the embryo was the best of the four measures of growth as observed from the data, 5. The various percentages of relative humidity used in this study did not cause a significant difference in the growth of the embryo as measured by dry weight. 6. There is little if any significant variation in the growth of the embryos at the dififerent humidities when totai nitrogen is used as an index. 7. A significant difference was observed on the 16th, 17th and 18th days between the total ash of embryos incubated at the various humidities. The difference obtained showed that an intermediate humidity (62 per cent.) is to be preferred to the extreme humidities. 8. The inclusion of the extra-embryonic membranes did not show that the different humidities affected the growth of the embryo significantly on the 20th day. 9. The loss of moisture from the egg is apparently influenced by five factors : Temperature of the incubator, humidity within the egg chamber, circulation of air around the egg^ shell texture and the thickness and surface area of the egg shell. 10. The study of the growth of embryos incubated in different types of incubators emphasises that the type of incubator governs the temperature and humidity at which the machine should be operated. A knowledge of the limits of the various influences is essential if standards for optimum conditions in the incubator are to be established. 11. The dry weight data for the two temperatures studied show clearly that temperature exerts a decided influence on the growth of the chick embryo during the early stages of development. 12. It is evident from this experiment that the upper limits of temperature in a mechanically ventilated incubator of the type used are between 38-3^^ C. (100-9° F.) and 40-5° C. (104-9° F.). 13. This research indicates that 40-5° C. (104-9° F.) in a mechanically ventilated incubator is equivalent to or higher in temperature than 41-6° C. (106-9° F.) in a " sectional " type incubator. 14. Growth results were practically equal when the mechanically ventilated incubator was operated at a temperature 2° F. lower than the *' sectional " type of machine,

47 The Incubation of Hen Eggs under mcreased Atmospheric Pressure. B. Cunningham. Journal of Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Vol. 52, 1936, p. 269. (Ref. Experi- ment Station Record, Vol. 79, 1938, p. 237.) Employing a pressure incubator eggs were incubated at 35 lb. pressure and at constant relative humidity and temperature comparable to the control lot incubated at normal atmospheric pressure. After 9 days' incubation, the average v^eight of the embryos developed under pressure was 2-07 grammes as compared with an average of 1*46 grammes for the controls, representing an increase of 42 per cent, for the pressure chicks. This early advantage of pressure incubation was not maintained to time of hatching. Eggs incubated for 18 and 19 days under pressure and then allowed to hatch in a normal incubator gave chicks of approximately the same weight as the controls. However, the pressure-hatched chicks showed some advantage in post-hatching rate of growth. Eggs incubated under pressure lost moisture more slowly than those at normal pressure at the same relative humidity, raising the question as to whether an increase in weight of the pressure embryos might not be due to inhibition of water. The effect of Humidity on the Developmental Rate of Chick Embryos Incubated under increased Atmospheric Pressure. B. Cunningham. Science, Vol. 87, 1938, p. 90. In further studies eggs were incubated at a pressure of from 25 to 30 lb. under a reduced humidity so that the moisture lost from them during incubation was practically the same as in control eggs incubated at normal pressure and humidity. Both lots were incubated at 100° F. After 11 days' incubation, the average weight of the embryos developed under pressure was 6-07 grammes as compared with 3-69 grammes for the controls, giving rather conclusive evidence that pressure was the primary factor responsible for the acceleration. On Moisture in Incubators, Ueber den Feuchtigkeitsgehalt der Luft in Brutapparaten und seine praktische Messbarkeit durch Instrumente, Dr. O. Bartsch. Archiv für Geflü- gelkunde, 1938, No. 8/9. 1. Allgemeines über Luftfeuchtigkeit in Brutapparaten. Summary : The problem of moisture for the artificial Brood is discussed and methods for the fixing of the relative moisture of the air are described. Experiments with hair hygrometers and psychrometers are described and the unreliability of the former is shown. The use of the ordinary wet thermometer or of an electric wet thermometer is recommended and a promising constructional method for a practical wet thermometer is proposed. Humidity and Hatching Results. Poultry Tribune, December, 1938. Extensive observations at the National Agricultural Research Centre, Beltsville, Maryland, have established quite accurately the effect of variations in relative humidity during incubation on the hatching percentage. Using two diflierent temperatures, 100° F. and 102° F., the relative humidity was varied under controlled conditions from 8 per cent, to 87 per cent. During these tests, the oxygen content of the air was maintained at 21 per cent, and the carbon dioxide content was kept below 0-5 per cent.

48 The efïect of humidity was essentially the same at both incubating temperatures. The optimum relative humidity was almost exactly 60 per cent, and as it varied in either direction the percentage hatch decreased, at first slowly and then more rapidly, until at 8 per cent, relative humidity only 15 per cent, of the fertile eggs hatched. Humidities within a range of 10 points either way from the optimum do not seriously afiFect hatching results, but small hatches and poor quality chicks are to be expected at either high or low humidities. Variation in humidity did not have much effect on either heat elimination or gaseous exchange in the developing embryos during the first 10 days, but did have a marked effect during the third week of incubation. Accurate control of humidity during the latter half of the incubation period seems, therefore, to be especially important. Early Identification of Fertility in Hens' Eggs. M. W. Olsen and C. W. Knox. Bcltsville, Maryland. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 36. Summary : The results indicate that fertility of both white and brown-shelled eggs can be detected at an earlier period than is now commonly used by commercial hatcherymen. The most practical time to candle eggs to detect fertility was found to be at 16 to 20 hours, inclusive, when eggs were incubated at 100° and at 30 hours if eggs were incubated at 90°. The percentage of hatch of fertile eggs incubated at these temperatures was 77-6 and 78-0 respectively, although the chicks from the eggs incubated at 90° the first 24 hours hatched 8 to 12 hours later. An ordinary commmerical egg candling machine equipped with a 75-watt daylight bulb and the operator wearing a pair of dark blue glasses was found to aid in detecting fertile eggs. Such equipment was found to give approximately as good results as when blue or blue-green glass filters were used in the candling machine. Time of Hatch and Rate of Growth, Poultry Tribune, May, 1937. Kempster and Funk, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, have recorded growth rates for White Leghorns, Rhode Island Reds, and White Plymouth Rocks over a period of 5 years. They found that chicks hatched in February made more rapid growth during the first 16 weeks than did chicks hatched later. All April hatched chicks made low gains at 12 to 16 weeks of age, but made up for it, in part, by rapid gains at 16 to 20 weeks. On the basis of average weights at 20 weeks of age, the pullets hatched in February were from 17 to 25 per cent, heavier than those hatched in April. By November 1st, all groups within any one breed were about equal in weight. Actual gains in all breeds were most rapid at 8 to 12 weeks of age. Five-year average weights for the three breeds, as reported in grammes, were as follows, with corresponding equivalent weights in lbs. :—

Age in White Leghorns. Rhode Island Reds. White Plvmouth Weeks. Rocks. Grammes. Lbs. Grammes. Lbs. Grammes. Lbs. 0 39 0-09 42 0-09 41 0-09 4 182 0-40 190 0-42 184 0-41 8 448 0-99 484 1-07 490 1-08 12 739 1-63 853 1-88 866 1-91 16 977 2-15 1,197 2-64 1,174 2-59 20 1,134 2-50 1,445 3-18 1,419 3-13

49 The influence of Summer Temperatures on the Rate of Growth of Chickens. H. L. Kempster. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 259. Normal growth curves, established from data collected over a number of years, shov^ed that the greatest weight increase in a given time occurred from 9 to 12 weeks of age. Early hatched chicks grew much faster when young than did those hatched late in the season, the widest difference in weight occurring at 20 weeks. After that age, growth rate was relatively faster in the late hatched birds. It is shown that these fluctuations have a close relation to fluctuations in temperature. The influence of Relative Air Humidity upon the Organism of Growing Chicks. I. A. Patrik. Transactions of the all- union Institute of Poultry Industries, Moscow, U.S.S.R., Vol. 3, No. 2, 1938. Studies on the influence of relative air humidity upon the organism of chicks were conducted at the Institute of Poultry Industries from May, 1936, to February, 1937, with White Leghorn chicks. For experiments were used six battery cages furnished w^ith humidifiers evaporating water by means of electrical heating. The variation of heating of humidifiers allowed to regulate the relative humidity of air in cages. Temperature and humidity of the air were measured by means of psychrometer (August) placed near the feeding trough so that the observations were made in the zone where the chicks consuming feed and water were kept for the most part of the day. In different groups of the trial the chicks were kept under identical conditions of temperature and under different levels of air humidity up to 20 to 23 days of age. Further, an identical air humidity was established for all chicks up to 60 or 90 days of age and then the chicks were slaughtered (at various times for different experiments). The carcases were autopsied and the intestines (the heart, liver, the thyroid gland, etc.) inspected. In the course of the experiments, chicks were weighted individually in morning before feeding on each 5th day for first 20 days and then each 10th day up to the end of the trial. Then were measured the length and height of the comb, the length of the 4th primary feather of the right wing and the amount of haemoglobin in blood. The amounts of feed and water consumed were also determined. From the results of this investigation following conclusions may be made :— 1. The standard of air humidity used hitherto on poultry plants in growing chicks are not suflftciently grounded and may be improved. 2. At a normal temperature of air the increase of relative humidity from 40 to 90 per cent, has a tendency :— (a) To stimulate although very slightly the growth of pullets ; (b) To cut the consumption of digestible foodstuffs per 1 kilo of gain ; (c) To lower the consumption of water per 1 kilo of body weight ; (d) To increase the weight of the feathering. 3. The level of air humidity influences the condition of chicks' feathering. At a low humidity the feathers are tousled and brittle. At a high humidity the feathering is smooth and the feathers are like compact plates with barbs in the web hooked completely together.

50 4. An alteration of the relative air humidity level from 40 to 90 per cent, does not influence :— (a) The development of genital glands and the comb and the development of most intestinal organs of chicks. (b) The growth rate of feathering (the length of feathers). (c) The illness and mortality of chicks. 5. During the chick growing the relative humidity in cages shall be kept at levels from 40 to 90 per cent, for chicks of all ages. 6. Among the physical factors of air influencing the growth of chicks (temperature, cleanliness of air, humidity), the humidity is of secondary importance. Therefore, at an invariable ventilation the air conditioning in poultry plants growing chicks during hot weather may be brought about by decreasing the air temperature only. The percentage of air humidity thus increased will not cause any pathological symptoms in chicks. Brooding Chicks under Electric Hovers, . F. L. Fairbanks and J. H. Bruckner. New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Bulletin No. 366, 1937. Contents : Brooding periods ; Conditions in the brooder house ; Insulation for the brooder house floor ; Temperature under the hover ; Ventilation ; Size of brooder room ; Selection of hover ; Wiring for electric hovers ; Care and management of chicks ; Results of electric brooder tests ; Summary.

The effect of Environmental Temperature on Mortality^ Rate of Growth, and Utilization of Food Energy in White Leghorn Chicks. C. F. Winchester and M. Kleiber. Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 57, 1938, p. 529. White Leghorn chicks were raised at environmental temperatures of 16^ 18^ 21°, 35° and 38° C. from 5 to 14, 15 or 16 days of age inclusive. Groups of five chicks were kept at controlled air temperatures and were matched by groups of ten chicks kept in a conventional brooder. Both the control and the experimental groups had free access to feed which was considered qualitatively complete. The respiratory exchange of the chicks kept at controlled air temperatures was measured, and the fasting katabolism was determined. Food consumed and excreta were weighed and were analysed for nitrogen, carbon and energy content. No deaths occurred among the chicks kept at 21° C. or above, nor among the control birds. Of five chicks kept at 18° two had died by the end of the 10th day of the experiment, and of the same number kept at 16° three had died. Post-mortem examination of the birds lost at 16° and 18° C. disclosed no observable abnormalities of the internal organs, but in each the alimentary tract was entirely filled with food. The mean growth rate of the control birds was 4-4 ±0-3 grammes per day, while that of the experimental chicks ranged from 2-2 ¿0-4 grammes at 16° C. to 4-5 ±0-3 grammes at 35° during the first 8 days of the experiment. Food consumed was approximately a linear negative function of the environmental temperature. Availability of food, or — '- was somewhat the greater food at higher temperatures than at 16° and 18° C.

51 The CO, production reached a maximum at 18^ C, and decreased as environmental temperature increased. CO, production per kgJ (0-75 power of body weight expressed in kilogrammes) was less at 16° than at 18°). Energy of body substance gained per day exhibited a minimum of 45-7 Cal. per kg.l at 18° C, and a maximum of 88-3 Cal. per kg.î at 35° during the first 8 days of the experiment. At 16°, 63-5 Cal. of net energy was stored as gain in body substance per kg.î per day. The environmental temperature had a pronounced effect on the composition of body substance gained. The amount of fat stored per gramme of increase in body weight was greatest at 35° and 38° C. At 18° no fat was stored, while at 16° fat storage was exceeded only by that at 35° and 38° during the first 8 days of the experiment. The gain of protein per gramme increase in body weight was greatest at the lowest environmental temperature. The absolute increase in protein at 16° was exceeded at all the higher temperatures except 38°. The gain in protein varied from 0-224 grammes (38°) to 0-375 grammes (16°) per gramme of increase in body weight. Maximum energy content per gramme of weight gained was 3-24 Cal. at 16°, and the minimum per gramme of weight gained was 1*35 Cal. at 18°. The minimum amount of water (0-509 gramme per gramme increase in body weight) was stored at 16° ; the maximum (0-762 gramme per gramme increase in body weight) was stored at 18°. The following fasting katabolic rates were determined : 158 Cal. per kg.^ per day at 21° C, 98 Cal. per kg.^ per day at 35°, and 87 Cal. per kg.i per day at 38°. The partial efficiency or the increase in net energy per unit of the corresponding increase in food energy, was determined for environmental temperatures of 21°, 35° and 38° C. At 35° and 38° C. total eflSciency, or total energy in the produced body substance expressed as percentage of the available food energy taken in, was 36 per cent, during the first 8 days of the experiment, while at 21° total net energy was 23 per cent, of the available energy. At 18° net energy was 15 per cent, of the available energy, and at 16° it was 20 per cent. Influence of Cardiac Drugs on Growth of Chick Embryos, M. Yambe. Mitt. med. Akad. Kyoto, Vol. 20, 1937. p. 1109 ; Japanese Journal of Medical Sciences, IV Pharmacology, Vol. 11, 1938, No. 1, Abstracts, 33 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 8589^ Vitacamphor, digalen and cardiazole showed similar effects ; low concentrations stimulated growth rate, while strong solutions depressed growth. Influence of various Narcotics on Growth of Cultures of Embryo Chick Heart and Spleen, H. Takeguchi. Fukuoka Acta Med., Vol. 31, 1938, p. 19 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, 8592^ Pantocaine, nupercaine, scurocaine, tropacocaine, Na evipan, avertin and bancaine in concentrations of 0-00005 per cent, in a nutrient medium had a slight but detectable inhibitory effect on the growth of embryo chick heart and spleen in cultures. At a concentration of 0-05 per cent., the inhibitory action of avertin, tropacocaine and Na evipan was more striking. There was still, however, a certain amount of tissue growth. In the case of pantocaine, nupercaine, scurocaine and bancaine, there was no outgrowth of tissues. Egg Turning and Pipping Position, Poultry Tribune, January, 1938.

52 Although it is common knowledge that the chick rotates in the shell during hatching, the ability of chick embryos to turn on their long axis just prior to hatching time is a point on which there has been sharp difference of opinion. A recent paper by workers in the U.S. Department of Agriculture contains some new information on the subject. Eggs were turned twice daily in a forced draft incubator until their transfer to a hatcher. Some of the eggs were also turned on the 19th and 20th days, while others were left unturned. The position of the chick at pipping was then recorded for all eggs which pipped. Eggs which were placed horizontally and then not turned after the 18th day of incubation were pipped on the upper shell surface in 90 per cent, of the cases. Eggs which were placed horizontally and turned about their long axes on the 19th day of incubation were pipped on all surfaces. When placed horizontally and turned about their long axes on the 20th day of incubation, about 60 per cent, of the pipped eggs were pipped on the lower shell surface. It is concluded that about half the embryos in horizontally placed eggs which were turned about their long axes on the 19th day oriented themselves with respect to gravity through their own efforts. Inheritance of Egg Weight and Quality, Poultry Tribune, April, 1938. At the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station three lines of Rhode Island Reds have been carried through nine generations to study the genetic behaviour of egg weight, egg shape, shell texture, shell porosity and shell pigmentation. In all three lines, maximum egg weight occurred in March, or at an average age of about 11 months. The results indicated that, in general, there is no advantage in selecting for hatching purposes pullet eggs that weigh more than 26 ounces to the dozen. The most suitable breeding females for producing large egg daughters were those which attained standard egg weight (two ounces per egg) within 60 days after laying commenced. The condition of ridged shell was not inherited, but the sandy shell character was found to depend on recessive genes. High shell porosity depends largely on one recessive gene. Shell flecking appears to be independent of inheritance. The data do not indicate that egg shape is governed by inheritance. Several genes were involved in shell colour. Of the eight shades of colour observed, a pinkish cinnamon seemed to be most desirable, because females laying such eggs had very few daughters laying light-coloured eggs. Top-Crossing to Improve Fertility. Poultry Tribune, January, 1939. Experimental results obtained at the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station over a 5-year period indicate that the crossing of highly inbred White Leghorn sires with random-bred White Leghorn females improves the fertility and hatchability of eggs, and the viability of the chicks which are hatched. As might be expected, certain of the inbred families proved to be better than others as sources of good sires for top-crossing, which is another way of saying that the progeny test is the only final measure of results in poultry breeding. The crossing of good inbred strains with random-bred strains does, however, suggest a specific approach to the problem of increasing the fertility of eggs, lowering embryonic mortality and lowering the mortality of the resulting chicks during the first 6 months of life.

53 Shell Thickness and Hatchability. Poultry Tribune, March, 1939. It is not uncommon to hear a flockowner explain poor hatches on the assumption that the shells of the eggs were so thick that the chicks could not pip in the normal fashion and so died at hatching time. The facts are, however, that in most cases the eggs with thick shells will hatch better than eggs with thinner shells. The nutritional and hereditary factors which result in thick shells are also directly related to hatching power. A recent report from the California Agricultural Experiment Station shows that shell thickness is inherited, that thick shell and thin shell lines were readily established by selection, and that the thick shell line gave decidedly better hatching results than did the thin shell line. The stock used was White Leghorns and the hatching percentage of fertile eggs was 82 and 92 for the thick shell line, and 58 and 76 for the thin shell line, in the 2 years mentioned in the report. The genetic basis for inheritance of an ability to produce thick shelled eggs is undoubtedly complex, and the effect of nutritional factors cannot be overlooked, but thick, strong shells are definitely favourable to high hatching power.

Unprecederited Record of Sustained High Egg Production in the Domestic Fowl, G. O. Hall. Journal of Heredity, Vol. 29, 1938, p. 51. An account is given of a White Leghorn hen that produced 1,515 eggs in 8 years, averaging over 200 eggs per year for her first 7 years' production.

The Science of Heredity for Animal Breeders, Angewandte Vererbungslehre für Tierzüchter, Dr. H. F. Krallinger. University Breslau. Ed. : Eugen Olmer, Olgastrasse 83, Stuttgart, 1937. A review in popular form of the facts discovered by the science of heredity. It deals with the various sections of the science of heredity in connection with various farm animals and poultry.

Notes on Cross-Beak in Fowl, W. Landauer. Journal of Genetics, Vol. 271, 1938, No. 1. A discussion on four different types of cross-beak in connection with hereditary factor.

Factors affecting the Hatching Weight of Brown Leghorn Chickens. N. Galpin. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 58, 1938. The weight of the chicken is dependent on the weight of the egg. Big eggs produce big chickens. The weight of the thyroid gland diminishes from the beginning of the lay and begins to increase again as from July. The maximum is reached in October-November, during the moult and when production is low. It is possible that the fluctuations in the weight of the eggs and chickens is dependent on the fluctuations in the metabolism which, in turn, is dependent on the thyroid gland.

54 Weight and Hatchability of Turkey Eggs. T. C. Byerly and S. J. Marsden. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 298. Eggs above or below the mean weight had lower hatchability than those within the middle range. Incubation Conditions and Hatchability of Turkey Eggs. T. C. Byerly, S. K. Haynes and S. J. Marsden. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 253. The various combinations of incubation factors studied included incubation temperatures of 99-75° or 97° F., 45° angle or horizontal position of eggs and turned three times daily or unturned. In each of seven incubations, one lot of eggs was transferred from the control incubation conditions to experimental conditions at 12, 15, 18, 21, 24 and 25 days' incubation respectively. Eggs turned fewer than 24 days averaged 4-4 per cent, lower in hatchability than the turned controls,which was statistically significant. Longer eggs were more adversely affected by lack of turning than shorter eggs. The differences in hatchability due to temperature or position were of small significance under the conditions of these experiments. Temperatures of 93°, 95°, 97°, 98-5° and 99-75° for the 25 to 28 days of incubation gave similar hatchability results, but a temperature of 102° for this period markedly reduced hatchability. NUTRITION

VITAMINS VITAMIN A Artificial Drying of Grasses of Various Kinds. S. J. Smjetnieff. Transactions of the all-union Institute of Poultry Industries, Moscow, U.S.S.R., Vol. 3, No. 2, 1938. The aim of experiments was to ascertain the relative A vitamin value of following artificially dried grasses : a sowing mixture of clover with Timothy grass, and sowing mixture of vetch with oats and nettle. Samples of these grasses were gathered under controlled conditions brought to a dryer and thoroughly dried. The chemical analysis has shown that the contents of crude protein in meal of Timothy grass and clover was 15-4 per cent., in meal of vetch and oats, 17-4 per cent., of nettle, 28-9 per cent. The contents of carotene fraction as expressed in B. carotene was in clover-Timothy meal, 0-029 percent., in vetch and oats meal, 0-028 per cent., in nettle meal, 0-026 per cent. ; these data being nearly the same. For biological estimation of dried grass White Leghorn chicks were used, which were kept in cages and fed with basal ration without vitamin A. As a source of this vitamin the experimental groups received 2 and 5 per cent, of grasses studied. As was shown by the experiments there was practically no difference in growth and mortality in the experimental groups although the rate of growth in the control group receiving only the basal ration was significantly lower. At the 40th day of the trial the percentage of chick mortality of the control group amounted to 92-8. As a result of these trials it has been established that mixtures of clover and Timothy or vetch with oats and nettle, artificially dried are ample sources of vitamin A in the feed rations. No appreciable difference in A vitamin value of the dried grasses was detected. Considering that dried nettle is of value as a source of vitamin A and at the same time contains a high amount of protein and principal equivalents, the expediency of widely using artificially dried nettle for chick feeding is evident. Grass Meal and Alfalfa Meal Eggs, April I2th, 1939. The Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture has been carrying out various experiments in connection with the battery system of housing laying stock. Among the work done was a comparison between dried grass meal and Alfalfa meal in rations designed for intensive work. The experiment was carried out over a period of 6 months with battery- housed laying stock. At the end of 3 months the rations being fed to two groups of 81 birds were reversed so that the effect or influence of any particular ration might be more easily detected. Group I were fed the Standard " Battery" Ration A, which contained 10 per cent. Lucerne meal ; while Group II received the same ration with the

56 exception that 10 per cent. Dried Grass Meal was substituted for Lucerne Meal, Ration B. There was no addition to this diet other than a small quantity of oyster shell grit. Comparisons of yolk colour revealed no difference in the effects of the meals. The results of this trial are inconclusive, showing that grass meal can be substituted for Lucerne meal, without claiming, however, any special advantages over the latter. During the period of trial, dried grass meal was more expensive to buy than Lucerne meal, but should the cost of production fall to levels which allow of competition with good quality Lucerne (Alfalfa) meal, then, possibly there might be profit in its use. Vitamin A for Chicks. Vitamin A voorziening van kuikens, J. C. van Schoonneveldt. Editor : H. Veenman, Wageningen, Holland, 1937. From the results of these experiments can be drawn the following conclusions :— Unirradiated cholesterol possesses no vitamin D activity. In agreement with V^addell irradiated cholesterol appears to be as efficient as cold liver oil in acting as anti-rachitic agens for chicks. North Holland blue cockerels are more susceptible to hypovitaminosis A than pullets. A deficiency of vitamin A could not be neutralised by incorporating 4 per cent, of a particular sample of alfalfa hay meal in the mash ; obviously, North Holland blue chicks are not capable to utilise the carotene of this kind of alfalfa hay. The lowest dose of palm oil has already been sufficient for dis- posing of the deficiency. Palm oil proves to be a good source of provitamin A for chicks.

Vitamin Content of Oils from Cannery Trimmings of Salmon from the Columbia River and Puget Sound Regions, R. W. Harrison, A. W. Anderson, A. D. Holmes and M. G. Pigott. U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Ref. No. 36. Washington, 1937. The data substantiate the importance of salmon cannery waste as a significant source of vitamins A and D.

Vitamin A Requirements of the Laying Hen, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 1936, p. 15. In September, 1934, seven pens of pullets were started on an experimental regime which was continued for 1 year. The variable factor was vitamin A, the following quantities in U.S.P. X 1934 units being consumed per lb. of feed ; Pen 1, 400 units ; Pen 2, 700 units ; Pen 3, 1,200 units ; Pen 4, 2,200 units ; Pen 5, 3,800 units ; Pen 6, 4,100 units, and Pen 7, 30,000 units. That the birds of the series of pens were actually consuming the vitamin A factor in order of the amounts consumed per lb. of feed was evidenced by the fact that the values for the liver vitamin A of the birds which died fell in essentially the order of the increasing amounts of the factor fed. Further- more, the vitamin A content of the eggs from Pen 1 was considerably less and that of Pen 7 was considerably more than the value which had been obtained in a previous experiment when birds were fed the same ration which was supplied to Pen 6, 57 The quantity of the factor in the ration of Pen 4, 2,200 units per lb., the minimum level which might be expected under farm conditions, proved as satisfactory as the larger quantities fed to Pens 5, 6 and 7, yet this amount, 2,200 units is considerably less than that present in the poultry rations commonly fed in New Jersey. In Pen 4, the factor was provided by 35 per cent, of yellow corn and 2-5 per cent, of dried alfalfa, in the whole ration, and one- eightieth of 1 per cent, of a cod liver oil concentrate. The corn and alfalfa furnished 1,800 units, and the concentrate 400 units per lb. of ration. The quantity of corn and alfalfa in the mash and scratch was that usually employed in a laying ration. Hence a laying ration of this type can be expected to contain at least 1,500 units per lb. of the carotene type of vitamin A. Ordinary practice is to supplement the ration with a fish liver oil, such as cod liver oil or a fish liver oil concentrate. If a good grade of product is used the oil at the usual level of 1 per cent, or a concentrate at j per cent, can be expected to supply an additional 2,000 to 4,000 units of the factor per lb. of feed. Hence the laying rations now in use will contain v3,500 to 6,000 units of vitamin A per lb., depending upon the quality of the feeding materials used. Corn and alfalfa lose some of their vitamin A potency upon storage, but the values used in the calculations of this experiment are typical of products actually used in poultry rations. The hens which survived the first year of experiment were continued into a second year along with other birds of the same age in an adequate number to constitute a suflficiently large population per pen. Vitamin A, principally in the form of carotene, was fed to the extent of 46,000 units per lb. of feed, but even this quantity did not improve performance as compared with a pen of birds which received the usual farm ration. Further studies with pullets showed essentially the same results as were noted during the first year of experiment. It is evident, therefore, that the addition of more vitamin A to the usual poultry ration is of no value in improving egg production and hatchability or in reducing mortality. Vitamin A Requirement of the Laying Hen, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 1936-37. In the preceding annual report it was pointed out that the addition of more vitamin A to the laying rations ordinarily employed in New Jersey is of no value in improving egg production and hatchability or in reducing mortality. The work of the first year was repeated, using both pullets and hens, and was brought to a close in October, 1936. The rations fed during the 2nd year covered a range of vitamin A intake from a level below (1,385 U.S.P. units per lb. of feed) that which would be fed by most practical poultrymen to one which was much higher (46,000 U.S.P. units per lb. of feed). During 1 year of observation no significant differences were observed in ^gg production, mortality, fertility, hatchability or viability of the chicks. The quantity of vitamin A per egg determined biologically for the pen which received the lowest level of this factor per lb. of feed (1,385 U.S.P. units), was 300 U.S.P. units, whereas that for the highest level fed (46,000 U.S.P. units) was 1,800 U.S.P. units. Hence, although the intake of vitamin A was increased 33 times, the output in the eggs became only sixfold. The average vitamin A values in Moore units per gramme of liver of the birds of the lowest and highest level pens were 40 and 8,700 respectively. The greater part of the vitamin A of the highest level group was supplied by carotene, but even at this high level the yolk colour did not become darker. Hence the laying hen converts carotene to true vitamin A in an efiScient manner. The question is raised occasionally as to the possibility of producing " certified " eggs, such as those with high vitamin A and D content. It is apparent from the work on this project that the transfer of vitamin A from the

58 ration to the egg is inefficient, and, therefore, the production of eggs of high vitamin A content would not be feasible commercially. Furthermore, many of the articles of food available for the human dietary are rich in vitamin A.

Vitamin A Deficiency in Chicks Fed Purified Rations containing Cod Liver Oil. H. R. Bird and J. J. Olsen. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, Vol. 38, 1938, p. 870. (Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 7079. Nutrition Abstracts, Vol. 8, 1939, p. 598.) Growing chicks are subject to a type of paralysis of nutritional origin characterised by ataxia, loss of equilibrium, staggering gait and lack of growth ; this has been ascribed to vitamin B4 deficiency. Loss of equilibrium is not a part of the vitamin B4 syndrome, which is characterised chiefly by inco-ordina- tion of the leg muscles. The loss of equilibrium is due to a complicating vitamin A deficiency which can occur in diets containing cod liver oil owing to the rapid destruction of this vitamin. In experimental work standard vitamin A concentrates should be given directly twice weekly to chicks on synthetic diets.

Changes in the Throat and Trachea due to Lack of Vitamin A. Durch Vitamin A Mangel hervorgerufene Veränderungen des Kehlkopfes und der Luftröhre bei Hühnern, Prof. O. Seifried and 1. Sassenhoff. Deutsche Landwirtschaft- liche Geflügelzeitung, December 8th, 1939. Summary : Observations and experiments have proved that lack of vitamin A can lead to changes in the throat and trachea of hens which, with the naked eye cannot be distinguished from the type of laryngitis and laryngeal pox-diphtheria. Strictly speaking microscopic examination makes it possible to recognise sickness due to lack of vitamin A in an early stage and to distinguish the two other illnesses mentioned. The sickness due to lack of vitamin A even in the form as described above can be prevented and cured, too, by the feeding of adequate rations of vitamin A (green fodder, green vegetables, salad, spinach, swedes, liver oil, etc.).

The Chemistry of Vitamin A and Substances having a Vitamin A effect. L. S. Palmer. University of Minnesota. Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 110, 1938, p. 1748. The chemical and physiological relations between vitamin A and its precursor carotenoids, a-carotene, j8-carotene, y-carotene, and cryptoxanthin are discussed in this review paper. The author points out that " vitamin A is the only vitamin so far discovered which is a product solely of animal metabolism from precursors which are metabolic products only of plants." The bibliography lists 25 references.

59 VITAMIN B Absorption of Vitamin Bi Through the Skin, Die Resorption des Vitamin Bi durch die Haut, M. Kasahara, J. Hayashi, T. Yokonowa and R. Furumi. Klinische Wochenschrift, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 939. Pigeons showing acute signs of vitamin Bj deficiency were cured by rubbing 0*5 gramme of a salve, containing 20 I.U. of vitamin Bi as betaxin, on to the skin of the breast.

Stability of vitamin B^ of vacuum-dried animal tissues during storage, A. Arnold and C. A. Elvehjem. Food Res. Vol. 3, 1938, p. 367. (Ref. Nutrition Abstracts, Vol. 8, 1939, p. 625). The criterion of vitamin Bj potency was the prevention of polyneuritis in chicks fed upon Elvehjem's diet No. 242a. The results were expressed in international units on the basis that the amount of vitamin Bi needed to protect all the chicks in a group of four receiving this ration for 5 weeks is 20 I.U. per 100 grammes of ration. The values thus arrived at for the dried materials, ox spleen, hog brain, ox kidney and ox lung were, respectively, 2-0, 1-6, 5-0 and 2-0 I.U. per gramme dry weight. After storage for 2 years in vacuum packed cans the corresponding values were 2-0, 1 -3, 4-0 and 1 -6. Genetic Resistance to Deficiency of Vitamin B^ in the Chick, W. F. Lamoreux and F. B. Hutt. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Genetics, Vol. 22, 1937, p. 198. Comparative resistance of White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red chicks to deficiencies of vitamin Bi was determined by feeding a standard chick ration previously autoclaved 5 hours at 248° F. In each of the four trials the Leghorns showed greater ability to survive upon a ration deficient in Bithan did the Reds. New Technique for the Biological Estimation of Vitamin B^ by means of the Adult Pigeon^ and Determination of the Comparative Vitamin Potency of the International Stand- ard for Vitamin Bi and of Pure Synthetic Vitamin Bi Hydrochloride, Nouvelle technique de dosage biologique de la vitamine B^ avec le pigeon adulte^ et détermination de la valeur vitaminique comparée de Vétalon international de vitamine B^ et du chlorhydrate synthétique pur de vitamine B^, L. Randoln and P. le Gallic. Comptes Rendus Société Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 1052. Pigeons maintained on a basai diet consisting of purified casein 6, purified fibrin 5, purified albumin 5, butter fat 4, purified dextrin QQ^ salt mixture 4, agar agar 8 and filter paper 2, supplemented with 2 grammes of autoclaved liver per head daily were given daily specified amounts of the acid clay adsórbate previously used as international standard for vitamin Bi or of a sample of pure synthetic vitamin Bj. The body temperature of the birds was observed daily and the number of days which elapsed before it fell below

60 41-5° C. was about 20, in the groups of pigeons receiving daily less than 30 mg. of the acid clay adsórbate or 8 y of vitamin Bi but with larger doses of these materials, the number of days increased rapidly. In prophylactic tests the efficacy to maintain body temperature of a dose of 38 mg. of the acid clay adsórbate was the same as that of 12 of y vitamin Bi. The I.U. of vitamin Bi previously represented by 10 mg. of the acid clay adsórbate was, therefore, equivalent to 3-1 y of vitamin Bi hydrochloride.

Effect of Complete Vitamin B Deprivation^ Severe Carbo- hydrate Imbalance and Treatment of these Conditions^ on the Composition of the Muscle in Pigeons, Influence de Vavitaminose B totale^ du déséquilibre alimentaire gluci- dique aigu et de leur guérison, sur la composition du muscle du pigeon, R. Lecoq and R. DufFau. Bull. Soc. Chim. biol., Vol. 20, 1938, p. 898. (Ref. Nutrition Abstracts, Vol. 8, 1939, p. 620.) The muscles of pigeons suffering from polyneuritis due to vitamin Bi deficiency contained considerably more lactic acid, acid soluble phosphates and orthophosphates, and less creatine phosphate than those fed on the same diet with dried yeast. After cure of the polyneuritis with vitamin B^ the values for the above constituents approached the normal except that for creatine phosphate which remained low. The inclusion of 66 per cent, galactose in the diet containing yeast caused severe polyneuritic crises during which the muscle lactic acid and the acid soluble phosphates and orthophosphate were very high. The daily injection of 10,000 " pigeon units " of vitamin Bi did not prevent these crises but brought the values for the above fractions slightly nearer to the normal. Substitution of glucose for galactose cured the polyneuritis and brought the muscle constituents to their normal values.

Sensitivity to Acetylcholine of the isolated small Intestine of the normal and of the Polyneuritic Pigeon. Sensibilité à r acetylcholine de l'intestin grêle isolé du pigeon normal et du pigeon atteint de polynévrite. M. Beauvallet. Comptes Rendus Société Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 1020. As earlier studies had shown that vitamin Bi sensitised the isolated intestine of rats and cats to the action of acetylcholine, the effect of deprivation of the vitamin prior to isolation of the intestine was investigated. The isolated small intestine from pigeons showing definite symptoms of polyneuritis was, however, not appreciably less sensitive to acetylcholine than small intestine from normal birds.

A new Reaction for distinguishing Vitamin B^ Deficiency from Conditions due to Hunger. Synthesis of Vitamin Bi from Pyrimidine and Thiazole in the Pigeon. Eine neue Reaktion zur Unterscheidung der B^ Avitaminose vom Hunger zustand. Synthese von Aneurin aus dem Pyrimidin- und Thaziol-anteile im Tauben-organismus. E. Abder- halden and R. Abderhalden. Klinische Wochenschrift, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 1195.

61 The effect of vitamin Bi in restoring the normal response of the intestine to acetylchoHne in pigeons deprived of the vitamin but not in starved birds is noted. Oral or intramuscular administration of the pyrimidine and thiazole components of vitamin Bi (aneurin) was effective in curing polyneuritic symptoms in the pigeon ; the ability of the bird to synthesise the vitamin molecule from its separate components was thus indicated.

Cure of Vitamin Bi Deficiency in the Pigeon by administration of the Thiazole and Pyrimidine Coniponents of Vitamin Bi. Die Heilung der B^-Avitaminose bei der Taube durch Zufuhr derThiazol' undPyrimidinkomponente desAneurins. E. Abderhalden and R. Abderhalden. Pflügers Archiv, Vol. 240, 1938, p. 746. Full details are given of experiments on the effects of administration of pyrimidine and thiazole to polyneuritic pigeons. The minimum effective doses of the two components were amounts which would yield 2 to 4 mg. of vitamin B, on synthesis. The greater the doses given the more rapid the response of the bird to the vitamin. If one component was given by mouth and the other by intramuscular injection, the cure of polyneuritis was slower than if both were given simultaneously by the same route. A retarded reaction was also observed when one component was injected into the right side of the breast and the other into the left. Further Experiments on the Prevention of Nutritional Encepha- lomalacia in Chickens, T. G. Ni. Chinese Journal of ' Physiology, Vol. 13, 1938, p. 229. (Ref. Nutrition Abstracts, Vol. 8, 1939, p. 636.) Further studies of the factor in Chinese gelatin which prevented nutritional encephalomalacia in chicks indicated that the substance was not lipoid in nature and was not destroyed by alkaline hydrolysis and subsequent ether extraction of the gelatin. Various amino-acids were tested and found inactive. It is suggested that the active substance may be similar to vitamin B4, deficiency of which can also cause brain lesions in the chick as described by Keenan et al. The Metabolism of Pyruvic Acid in Vitamin B^ Deficiency and in Inanition. M. A. Lipschitz, V. R. Potter and C. A. Elvehjem. Wisconsin Experiment Station. Journal of Biol. Chem., Vol. 123, 1938, p. 267. Continuing this line of investigation, the oxygen uptake and removal of pyruvate by liver, kidney and brain tissue from normal, fasted, and polyneuritic chicks were determined. Various concentrations of pyruvate substrate were employed. These tissues from polyneuritic chicks showed an impaired ability to utilise the pyruvate substrate as compared with tissues from normal birds, brain tissue showing the greatest derangement in this respect. Liver and kidney tissue from fasted birds declined in pyruvate-removing ability, approaching the level of such tissues from polyneuritic birds, but brain tissue from fasted birds was not so affected. Feeding glucose to fasted chicks restored the normal pyruvate-removing capacity of the liver, while such feeding of polyneuritic chicks resulted in deposition of liver glycogen and an increased though subnormal ability to remove pyruvate. These findings suggest that in polyneuritis inanition is not the sole reason for deranged pyruvate metabolism.

62 VITAMIN D Poultry Problems, Experiments in connection with Poultry Keeping, ], C. van Schoonneveldt. Publisher : H. Veenman and Zonen, Wageningen, Holland, 1937. Cholestrol, Provitamin D and ergosterol are various substances from which, by means of treatment w^ith ultraviolet rays, different kinds of vitamin D can be obtained. The vitamin D obtained by subjecting ergosterol to violet rays is not identical with natural vitamin D as contained in cod liver oil. During the first 12 and 13 weeks of life North Holland Blue chicks require about 55 to 73 international units of vitamin A per day. When stored, Barnevelder eggs lose more weight than do White Leghorn eggs. The quality of the shell depreciates during the transition period, winter- spring. Stronger shells are formed with a Ca ; P ratio of 1 -5 to 2 : 1 in the food than with 0-9 to 1 : 1. Addition of cod liver oil to the food caused a weakening of the shells of White Leghorns and a strengthening of Barnevelders.

Irradiated Cholesterol and Vitamin D, Poultry Tribune, January, 1938. It has been shown by a number of workers that equal dosages of cod liver oil and irradiated ergosterol, when measured in rat units, are not by any means equivalent in effectiveness on chicks, the oil being many times as effective as the ergosterol. This and other observed differences between species have encouraged critical studies of vitamin D and its precursors, until a recent paper states that at least eight forms of vitamin D have been artificially prepared, and that tw^o known forms in fish oils may also be different from the artificial products. Workers at the Wisconsin and Ohio Agricultural Experiment Stations have given special attention to the comparative effects of irradiated cholesterol and cod liver oil on growing chicks. A recent paper from the latter station reports a test in which laying pullets were kept for 6 months in pens from which all direct sunlight was excluded. They received varying amounts of cod liver oil and irridated cholesterol as sources of vitamin D. The results showed that both sources of vitamin D were equally effective for laying birds and that for optimum hatching results the ration must contain enough of one of these to supply the laying bird with 50 or more U.S.P. units of vitamin D per 100 grammes of total ration.

Menhaden Fish Oil as a source of Vitamin D for Grozving Chicks, J. O. Halverson, F. H. Smith, F. W. Sherwood and R. S. Dearstyne. North Carolina Station Tech. Bull., No. 57, 1938. A series of four experiments, three of which were with small groups of chicks in small thermostically controlled starting batteries and the fourth of which was with a larger number of chicks in a compartment brooder house, gave evidence that from h to 1 per cent, of good quality commercial menhaden fish oil supplied an adequate amount of vitamin D for the normal growth and skeletal development of chicks. The results were measured in terms of weekly and total gains in weight, the extent of bone calcification and the total ash and calcium content of representative bones. One-fourth of 1 per cent, of menhaden oil proved inadequate in vitamin D, while a similar amount of cod liver oil produced normal calcification. Yellow corn (30 per cent, of mixtures) supplied the chief amount of vitamin A in the starting ration, which proved ample for normal growth.

63 Vitamin D found in Wool Grease. E. Zoller. The U.S. Egg and Poultry Magazine, April, 1937. Arnes, Iowa—A method of producing vitamin D chemically from wool grease, which may replace, in part, the use of cod liver oil in poultry feed as a source of bone-building tissue, has been developed by Lester Yoder, research assistant professor of animal chemistry and nutrition at Iowa State College. Vitamin D appears in different forms, the common ones being in fish liver oils and sunlight irradiated products. The different forms react with various degrees of efficiency on different animals. Dr. B. H. Thomas, head of animal chemistry and nutrition at the college, found that the vitamin D produced from wool grease is more efficient than that found in cod liver oil for producing bone tissue in chicks. Vitamin D may also be produced chemically from soy bean oil and corn oil, but wool grease is the cheapest raw material for commercial production. It has been found that about 8 lb. of grease can be extracted from 50 lb. of sheep wool. Wool grease is a by-product of textile mills for which there is no steady market.

Effects on Chicks of Oil Supplement in Mash, Agricultural College, Hawkesbury. Poultry, December 17th, 1938. The result shows that the 1 per cent, pilchard oil was almost equal to 1 per cent, of medicinal cod liver oil as far as calcification of the bones is concerned, and having regard to this fact it is difficult to account for the general condition of the chickens receiving pilchard oil not being as satisfactory as those having cod liver oil. It is possible, however, that the position which they occupied in the battery brooders may have had some influence, as those receiving pilchard oil were in the middle compartment, the no-oil group in the top and the cod liver oil lot in the lower compartment. Thus during the warmer days the top lots would be hotter than the lower ones, and consequently no definite conclusion could be arrived at with regard to the relative merits of pilchard oil and cod liver oil as far as the general development of the chicks is concerned. It is probable that further tests will be undertaken next year to determine this aspect.

The alleged Toxicity of Free Fatty Acid and Nitrogen in Cod Liver Oil, H. D. Branion, A. F. Dawson, J. R. Cavers and 1. Motzok. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 213. Tests at the Ontario Agricultural College in which cod liver oils varying in acidity from less than 1 to over 20 per cent, were fed at 1, 2 and 3 per cent, levels in the diet of growing chicks and also the feeding of oils in which cod fatty acids either predominated or were added gave evidence that free fatty acids in cod liver oil are not toxic as judged by weight-feed-gain ratios, mortality, calcification, feathering, and post-mortem examinations. Feeding ** blown '* cod-liver oil also gave no harmful effect, indicating that the oxidation products arsing during the development of rancidity are non-toxic. There was no evidence that the nitrogenous materials present in these cod liver oils were harmful, suggesting that differences may exist in the relative toxicity of the nitrogen fraction of various oils since the nitrogen provided by cod liver oil in these diets was greater than the amount shown to be injurious by other investigators. A study of the Comparative Effects of Various Mash Mixtures for Layers in Battery Laying Cages. F. P. Olivares. Dep.

64 Animal Husbandry, Manila. Philippine Agriculturist, Vol. 26, 1937, p. 403. Two per cent, cod liver oil was found to be sufficient to prevent leg weakness and, for this purpose, slightly more efficient than sardine oil. In another trial various combinations of fishmeal, maize meal, copra meal and rice bran were compared for egg production. While a mixture of these in the proportions 2-5-1-2, gave the best results, a mixture of 2-3-2-3, was almost as good. A high proportion of rice bran to maize meal depressed the egg yield. With certain combinations 2 per cent, cod liver oil was not sufficient to prevent leg weakness.

VITAMIN G The effect of Riboflavin and the Filtrate Factor on Egg Pro- duction and Hatchability. S. Lepkovsky, L. W. Taylor, T. H. Jukes and H. J. Almquist. Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Berkeley. Hilgardia, Vol. 11, 1938, p. 599. Conclusions : Of the water-soluble vitamins, riboflavin is of primary importance in in sustaining good hatchability. It is also important for high winter egg production of hens. There is evidence that some practical poultry rations may not contain enough of this vitamin for maximum egg production and hatchability. Riboflavin deficiency in hens is associated with an increased fat content of the liver. Riboflavin deficiency in eggs can be detected by the lack of a pronounced greenish yellow colour of the albumen and by characteristic defects in the embryos developed in the eggs after a period of incubation. The filtrate factor, under the conditions studied, seems to have no function in maintaining normal egg production or hatchability. It is, however, important in producing a chick resistant to a dermatitis caused by a deficiency of this vitamin. The riboflavin and the filtrate factor content of eggs is directly influenced by the diet of the hen. Evidence is presented concerning the essential nature of an unidentified factor influencing the health and reproduction of hens fed a ration consisting largely of polished rice and fish meal. The importance of vitamin interactions in the proper balancing of rations is indicated by results obtained in this investigation. Vitamin G Depletion in Laying Hens. Poultry Tribune, March, 1938. An interesting and important point in various phases of poultry feeding is the rate at which depletion of the reserves of nutrients stored in the body of the fowl takes place with continued egg production. A recent paper from Cornell University contains information of this sort with respect to vitamin G (riboflavin). The significant conclusions from the Cornell experiments are :— 1. The rate of depletion of the vitamin G reserves of hens is rapid. 2. In this investigation a small decline in the hatchability of eggs laid by hens fed a diet deficient in vitamin G was observed during the 3rd week of experimental feeding, and a sharp decline during the 4th week. No further decline occurred until the 9th week. 3. The building up of vitamin G reserves is just as rapid as the rate of depletion, provided an adequate amount of the vitamin is supplied. Maximum

65 E hatchability was attained during the 2nd week after supplementing the deficient diet with 900 microgrammes of riboflavin per hen per week. Smaller supplemental additions were much less effective. 4. The effect of deficiency and the improvement following vitamin G additions were demonstrated to be due entirely to the riboflavin. Both protein- free riboflavin extract and synthetic riboflavin were found to be effective supplements to the deficient diet. 5. There was considerable mortality during the 1st week after hatching among chicks from hens fed the deficient diet, even though the chick ration was adequate in vitamin G.

Further Studies on Vitamin G. Poultry Tribune, October, 1937. Technical studies in chick nutrition have changed rapidly from the simple feeding trials of a few years ago in which comparisons were made between common ingredients as sources of proteins and vitamins, to laboratory tests in which synthetic diets frequently form the basal ration and materials of known chemical make-up constitute the additions to be tested. An interesting example is that of vitamin G. Tests with chicks at the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station have shown that caseins vary in their growth promoting values, and that wheat middlings contain more of the growth factor (vitamin G) than ground wheat, probably because of the greater germ content. Autoclaving dried pork liver and yeast at an acid reaction for 6 hours at 15 to 17 lb. pressure did not destroy vitamin G ; whereas at an alkaline reaction the factor was totally inactivated in liver and partially destroyed in yeast. The factor in dried pork liver was found to be soluble in cold 20 per cent, ethyl alcohol but insoluble in cold 95 per cent, ethyl alcohol. Absorption tests showed the factor to be absorbed from an extract of dried liver by Fuller's earth, indicating that flavins were the principal constituent involved. This conclusion was then confirmed by feeding pure lactoflavin. The results show that flavins are essential in normal chick nutrition. They also suggest that the beneficial results commonly noted when milk, yeast and liver are fed to poultry are due, in large part, to the flavin content of these products. The effect of Riboflavin on the incidence of Curled Toe Paralysis in Chicks. E. L. R. Stokstad and P. D. V. Manning. Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 16, 1938, p. 279. Young chicks were fed on a basal diet of washed fish meal 20, yellow corn 40, wheat middlings 20, rice bran filtrate 3, soya bean oil 3, corn starch 12*5, sardine oil 0-5, and NaCl 1. The chicks grew slowly, weighing only 70 to 80 grammes at 28 days of age, but they did not develop symptoms of leg paralysis. When, however, riboflavin concentrates providing 50 to 200 y of riboflavin per 100 grammes of diet were added after a preliminary depletion period of 2 weeks, up to 50 per cent, of the 28-day-old birds had developed a typical leg paralysis characterised by a curling under the toes. Increase of the riboflavin content of the diet to 500 y per 100 gramme prevented the development of the paralysis. When administered from hatching in doses of 245 y per 100 grammes diet riboflavin wholly prevented the paralysis.

The Relative Vitamin G Content of Alfalfa H ay y Stems and Leaves from 10 inch and 24 inch Cuttings. V. Heiman, J. S. Carver and J. W. Cook. Agricultural Experiment

66 Station, Pullman, Washington. Poultry Science, Vol 17, 1938, p. 412. The growth promoting power of field cured alfalfa hay, as supplement for chicks to a diet of ground yellow maize, wheat bran and middlings, purified casein, Ca phosphate and carbonate, salt, granulated sugar and cod liver oil concentrate, was compared with that of dried skim milk. If the value 100 is assigned to the latter, the vitamin G (Ba) values calculated for hay made from alfalfa cut when 10 inches high were : whole plant 50, stems 30, and leaves 110. For hay made from 24 inch alfalfa the corresponding figures were 40, 20 and 100. The Utilization of Wheat and Wheat By-Products in Feeding Young Chickens, 4. Ground wheat as a source of vitamin G growth factor. Unknown factors which affect plumage colour and structure. W. E. Poley. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 390. Chicks received a diet having the percentage composition : ground wheat 30, ground white maize 41-4, meat and bone scraps 10, meat meal 13-3, extracted casein 1*8, cod liver oil concentrate 0-5, alfalfa leaf meal 3. The growth of a control group receiving in addition 3 per cent, autoclaved yeast and less white maize was much superior. Growth was improved but not raised to the level of the controls by increasing the amount of whole wheat to 50 or 70 per cent, at the expense of the maize. When both alfalfa leaf meal and autoclaved yeast were absent growth was very poor, plumage formation defective and in some cases a type of paralysis, not previously described, appeared. Further studies did not throw much light on the cause of these symptoms, but it was found that their appearance could be partly prevented by inclusion in the diet of 73-9 per cent, wheat or 15 per cent, bran, or 15 per cent, bran and 15 per cent, middlings, or 5 per cent, dried skim milk. Addition of some specimens of alfalfa leaf meal entirely prevented them but others were less effective. Dermatitis in Chicks, Poultry Tribune, April, 1937. Under laboratory conditions chicks sometimes suffer from an inflammation of the skin known as dermatitis. Research workers at the California Agricultural Experiment Station found that this condition could often be cured by feeding extracts of rice bran or of liver after vitamins B and G had already been removed. Since a similar condition in rats could be cured by the same procedure, it was only natural to assume that the two were caused by the same nutritive deficiency. Recent investigation has shown, however, that they are entirely different. Another recent finding is that extracts which are specific for chick dermatitis also cure human pellagra and " black tongue *' of dogs. The California workers have also found that for some unaccountable reason, vitamin G (lactoflavin) is more active in preventing dermatitis in turkeys than is the filtrate factor which seems to be specific for the condition in chicks. Chick Antidermatitis Factor, D. W. Woolley, A. A. Waisman, O. Mickelsen and C. A. Elvehjem. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 125, 1938, p. 715. The chick antidermatitis factor can be considerably concentrated and purified by solvent fractionation, adsorption on norite, acetylation and molecule distribution. It is acidic in nature. The activity is destroyed by acetylation and completely regained by hydrolysis, indicating the presence of OH or NHo

G7 groups but the latter is eliminated by the fact that HNO2 does not affect the activity. The free vitamin is soluble in AcOEt, dioxane and glacial AcOH in addition to the solvents previously reported and is insoluble in Et20, CeH« and CHCI3. It is extracted from aqueous solution by Et20 but not by CeHe or CHCI3. It is soluble in these three solvents after acetylation. The Ac derivative can be distilled at 100° at approximately 10-^mm. pressure. The Ba and Zn salts are soluble in absolute alcohol.

Vitamin G for Turkeys, Poultry Tribune, February, 1937. Evidence that turkeys and chickens give distinctly different reactions to a deficiency of vitamin G has been reported from the California Agricultural Experiment Station. This is of considerable scientific interest because of the rather close zoological relationship of chickens and turkeys, which w^ould suggest similar reactions to specific deficiencies. The symptoms of vitamin G deficiency in chicks v^ere slow growth, diarrhoea and emaciation. In turkeys there developed an acute dermatitis (skin affection). Symptoms first appeared after 8 days of experimental feeding, and deaths began to occur on the 21st day. The addition of 2 mg. of vitamin G (lactoflavin) to each 100 grammes of the diet completely prevented the condition during an experimental period of 3 weeks. Another point of some interest is that the dermatitis developed by these turkeys was very similar to that shown by chicks suffering from a deficiency of an entirely different factor, which was included at a high level in the turkey rations. Vitamin G deficiency in both chicks and turkeys appeared to reduce the efficiency of utilisation of food more than it reduced the appetite.

VITAMIN K Studies on the Mode of Action of Vitamin K, H. Dam, J. Glavind, L. Lewis and E. Tagehansen (with I. Svendsen). Skandinavisches Archiv für Physiologie, Vol. 79, 1938, p. 121. (Ref. Nutrition Abstracts, Vol. 8, 1939, p. 658.) The preparation of various concentrates is described. Of different methods of administering vitamin K to deficient chicks, intravenous injection was the most satisfactory, the clotting power returning to normal in 4 to 6 hours. Intramuscular injection was also effective. Subcutaneous injection of a watery emulsion was not effective, but that of a watery solution in desoxycholate was satisfactory. The part played by the various organs in the mechanism of restoration of clotting power by the vitamin was studied. Experiments in vitro indicated that the reaction did not occur in the blood ; it was not affected by gastric secretion, and it did not appear to occur in the liver, spleen or bone marrow. Ligation of the liver, without further treatment, improved the clotting power. Prothrombin had a slight vitamin K effect when administered orally to chicks. The vitamin K content of the organs of normal chicks was found to be very small in proportion to the amount of vitamin present in the diet. Prothrombin in Chickens. F. Schonheyder. American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 123, 1938, p. 349. Plasma from chicks deprived of vitamin K was previously shown to be deficient in prothrombin, but it remained uncertain whether there was a true

68 deficiency or an inactivation. A method of estimating the prothrombin in plasma was devised, depending on the fact that the clotting time varies w^ith the concentrations of prothrombin and tissue factor. The amounts of tissue factor needed to produce clotting in a given time in presence of different known percentages of prothrombin were first determined with normal plasma and the results were then applied to determining the amount of prothrombin in deficient plasma. In severe cases the prothrombin content of the plasma might be less than 2 per cent, of the normal. The haemolysing action of chicken blood against rabbit cells was used to investigate the relations of prothrombin and complement. Plasma with low prothrombin content showed no lowering of complement activity. Deficient chicks were transfused with plasma from normal birds and mammals. The avian plasma supplied the lacking prothrombin, but the mammalian did not. Conversely when mammalian plasma (human, dog, pig) was partially deprived of prothrombin by treatment with aluminium hydroxide, the addition of normal plasma from other mammals restored the clotting time to normal but that from birds did not. New Observations on the Vitamin K Deficiency of the Chick. S. Ansbacher. Science, Vol. 88, 1938, p. 221. When chicks reared for 3 days on a diet low, and then for 10 to 16 days on a diet deficient, in vitamin K, received a dose of 1 mg. of a vitamin K concentrate, the blood clotting time, which was prolonged to 30 minutes, was restored to normal within ^ hours. It remained normal for 24 hours or rather more but subsequently relapsed again. Smaller doses had little or no effect ; larger doses prolonged the period for which the clotting time remained normal. These observations are suggested as a basis for a method to be used in standardising vitamin K. Assay of a Vitamin K Preparation for Vitamin D. H. S. Wigodsky and A. C. Ivy. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, Vol. 38, 1938, p. 785. (Ref. Nutrition Abstracts, Vol. 8, 1939, p. 659.) A preparation of vitamin K which protected chicks when administered as 0-01 per cent, of the vitamin K deficient diet, was tested for its vitamin D potency by the U.S.P. XI biological method. No evidence of healing of rickets was obtained with large doses of the preparation.

Vitamin K : Its distribution and chemical properties ; methods of preparation and assay. A. E. Osterberg. Mayo Found. Med. Ed. and Res., Proc. Staff Mtgs. Mayo Clinic, Vol. 13, 1938, p. 72. A method for preparing a vitamin K concentrate from fish meal is briefly described. Essentially putrified fish meal is extracted with petroleum ether and the ether then removed in a vacuum. The residual oil showed relatively high vitamin K potency. The Chemical Concentration of Vitamin K. H. Dam and L. Lewis. Biochemical Journal, Vol. 31, 1937, p. 17. A method for the concentration of vitamin K from alfalfa is described. By this process an oil was obtained which had a potency of about 200,000 biological units of vitamin K per gramme.

69 The Requirement for Vitamin K of some Different Species of Animals, H. Dam, F. Sch0nheyder and L. Lewis. Biochemical Journal, Vol. 31, 1937, p. 22. Evidence was obtained to indicate a marked difiference in the vitamin K requirement of different species of animals. The haemorrhagic disease was consistently produced in chicks, ducklings and young geese reared on a K deficient diet, and the clotting power of the blood was restored to normal when vitamin K concentrate was administered to depleted chicks and ducklings. The disease developed very slowly in pigeons and canaries, and rats, guinea pigs and dogs were carried for extended periods on the basal diet without showing any symptoms of the disease. Experiments with rabbits and pigs were inconclusive, but typical symptoms of the haemorrhagic disease were not developed. The Coagulation Defect in Sweet Clover Disease and in the Haemorrhagic Chick Disease of Dietary Origin : A consideration of the source of prothrombin. A. J. Quick. American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 118, 1937, p. 260. Feeding spoiled sweet clover hay to rabbits markedly reduced the prothrombin level in the blood plasma and was accompanied by a distinct haemorrhagic tendency. Including 5 per cent, alfalfa or a small quantity of dehydrated alfalfa meal with the toxic hay successfully prevented the development of this disease by maintaining plasma prothrombin at a safe level. The addition of a small amount of dehydrated alfalfa meal in the ration of chicks previously depleted of vitamin K likewise effectively restored the plasma prothrombin, suggesting that alfalfa exerts a curative effect by supplying an accessory food factor required by the organism for the synthesis of prothrombin. SUNDRIES Study of the Movement of the Food in the Digestive Apparatus in Avitaminosis, Dr. I. Ghinelli. Camerino. Contri- buto alio studio délie turbe dell' apparato digerente nelle avitaminosi. Biochimica e Terapia sperimentale. Vol. 23, No. l,p. 1. Ghinelli experimented on pigeons and hens. He checked the time necessary for the passage of both vitamin-rich and vitamin-poor food through the digestive apparatus by adding coloured grains, in which the vitamin action had been suppressed by heating them in the autoclave at a pressure of two atmospheres for a period of 4 hours and colouring them with fuchsin. In the case of vitamin-rich food (fresh brewers* yeast) the coloured food w^as ejected 4 hours after feeding and ejection terminated 46 and 47 hours after feeding. After 14 days of avitaminous food the first symptoms of avitaminosis appeared, accompanied by a retardation of the passage of the food, in consequence of which the coloured grains first appeared 11 to 45 hours after feeding, while ejection did not terminate until after 105 hours. The same difference was observed in pigeons. Avitaminous food, therefore, causes considerable delay in the passage of the food through the digestive organs ; thus it would appear that vitamins have a stimulating influence on the digestive organs. The Importance of Vitamins in Feeding Poultry, L. C. Norris and G. F. Heuser. New York State College of Agricul- ture, Ithaca, New York. Bulletin No. 348, 1936. Contents : Effects of rations deficient in vitamins ; Meeting the vitamin requirements . A new Factor Required for Growth and Reproduction in the Domestic Fowl, J. C. Bauernfeind, A. E. Schumacher, A. Z. Hodson, L. C. Norris and G. F. Heuser. Depart- ment of Poultry Husbandry, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, Vol. 39, 1938, p. 108. Conclusions : It is evident from these results, and also from the knov^n character of the ration fed that a factor is required for grow^th and reproduction in the domestic fowl other than vitamins A, B, B4, Bß, D, E, K, riboflavin, the chick antidermatosis vitamin, nicotinic acid, factor W, the anti-encephalomalacia factor and the essential fatty acids. It appears improbable that this factor is the grass juice factor, since corn and w^heat are reported to be poor sources of the latter factor. It also is improbable that the factor is protein in nature. The factor is destroyed by heating in a dry atmosphere for 36 hours at 120° C. It is present in cereals, yeast and milk. A new Dietary Water Soluble Factor required by Chicks. E. L. R. Stokstad and P. D. V. Manning. Science, Vol. 88, 1938, p. 35. Chicks did not grov^ when fed on a diet of polished rice 59-5, washed fish meal 24, rice bran filtrate 5, whey adsórbate 5, salt mixture 3, soya bean oil 3, sardine oil 0-5, and vitamin Bi 200y per 100 grammes of diet. This diet was considered to supply adequate amounts of all the known chick growth factors. Growth was restored by supplementing the diet with yeast or wheat bran or middlings or alfalfa meal. The unknown growth factor could be extracted with 50 per cent, methyl alcohol, and was insoluble in ether, acetone and isopropyl alcohol. It was adsorbed on activated charcoal and Fulleras earth, and was eluted from the latter by a mixture of pyridine, methyl alcohol and water. It was not destroyed by heating at pH 11 or 1 -7. Experiments with a Factor Promoting Growth and Preventing Paralysis in Chicks on a Simplified Diet, T. H. Jukes and S. H. Babcock, Jun. Journal of Biological Chemis- try, Vol. 125, 1938, p. 169. Chicks were maintained from hatching on a basal diet of corn starch 65, fat extracted sardine meal 25, aqueous extract of rice bran 7, whey adsórbate 2, cod liver oil 1, manganous sulphate to prevent slipped tendons 0-1 and hexane extract of alfalfa meal equivalent to 1 per cent, alfalfa. The chicks grew fairly well for 2 weeks, but after 4 to 5 weeks they lost weight, developed paralysis and died. The paralysis was prevented but growth was poor when the diet was supplemented from hatching by soya bean oil ; when, however, alfalfa meal was added good growth and no paralysis occurred. The active factor in alfalfa was not extracted with hexane but was soluble in warm water and 40 per cent, ethyl alcohol but not in 90 per cent, alcohol. It was partially adsorbed by Fuller's earth from aqueous solutions at pH 5, and was eluted by a mixture of water, acetone and ammonia. Autoclaving the alfalfa for 5 hours destroyed most of the activity. The fact that the factor preventing paralysis was present in the fat-soluble fraction of soya bean, and the water- soluble, but not the hexane-soluble, fraction of alfalfa is commented on. MINERALS Iodine Hens Forbidden, Eier-Börse, December 1st, 1938. It is reported from Bucharest that some years ago a doctor there started a farm at which eggs with specially strong medicinal qualities were to be produced. The poultry were under scientific control. The food was so saturated with iodine that the eggs also showed a decisive iodine content. The farm flourished and the iodine-eggs found a ready market. They were especially sought after by people suffering from illnesses due to defective thyroid glands. The patients were not, however, under medical control, so that before long cases occurred in which, as a result of too much iodine, the patients became worse instead of better. The doses were too strong. An iodine case has now been reported which was caused by an overdose of iodine. As a result of this the Government has closed the farm. The Feeding of Iodine to Poultry, lieber zusätzliche Jodfütter- üng in der Geflügelzucht, Dr. L. Pfandler. Wiener Tierärztliche Monatsschrift, Vol. 25, 1938, p. 470. As a result of adding iodine to the food, li^l out of 200 chickens suffering from rhachitis were cured within a week. A clear improvement was obtained in nine cases. Inproved growth was obtained in 300 healthy chickens as a result of feeding iodine. The Manganese Content of Feedstuffs and its Relation to Poultry Nutrition, P. J. Schaible, S. L. Bandemer and J. A. Davidson. Michigan Station Tech. Bull., No. 159, 1938. Perosis was consistently produced in a high percentage of experimental chicks by feeding either a high mineral content ration in which bone meal was added to an otherwise satisfactory ration or a ration containing a high percentage of corn and consequently low in manganese content. Increasing the manganese content of either type of ration prevented the occurrence of perosis in most instances. The minimum manganese requirements of chicks was determined to be about 40 p.p.m. in the ration, but excess mineral in the diet necessitated a higher level. More than 40 p.p.m. of manganese in the laying ration was of no further advantage with respect to production, fertility and hatchability of eggs, embryo mortality, or number of weak and crippled chicks. The manganese content of a large number of ores and manganese-bearing compounds is reported, and with the exception of rhodonite and rhodochrosite these proved satisfactory sources of manganese in the chick ration. The manganese content of a wide variety of feeding stuffs is also reported. The manganese content varied with the plant species as well as with the fertility and acidity of the soil on which the plants were grown and the stage of maturity when harvested. Manganese and Vitamin B, Poultry Tribune, April, 1939. The role of manganese in poultry nutrition has been the subject of considerable study during the past few years, and the effects of this element are being determined for both young and mature chickens. Interesting side- lights are also being brought out through experimental studies with other animals. Studies with rats at the Montefiore Hospital, New York City, with diets high in vitamin B, showed interference with lactation, loss of the maternal

72 instinct, cannibalism and progressive loss of fertility. Normal conditions were restored when the level of vitamin B was reduced. Similar high levels of vitamin B had been fed successfully at other laboratories, but with different basal rations. In trying to discover the reason, it was found that the addition of manganese to the high vitamin B diet completely eliminated the difficulties. Continued tests seem to have demonstrated that manganese is essential to the utilisation of vitamin B in the tissues, although it is possible that other oxidative, catalytic metals, such as cobalt or copper, might also be effective. An interesting speculation also is that the level of manganese may influence the vitamin B requirement. Chickens are not often subjected to a deficiency of vitamin B, but the possibility of a need for added manganese for efficient utilisation of the vitamin should not be overlooked. Factors Ajfecting Perosts. Poultry Tribune, October, 1939. A 5-year experiment has just been reported from the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station involving careful examinations of the leg joints. X-ray studies of the bones, and hundreds of analyses of the blood and bones of chickens, all with the hope of learning more about the factors which are responsible for the cause or prevention of perosis. A ration wâs developed which was effective in producing the condition in 76 to 100 per cent, of the chicks to which it was fed. The effect of various additions to this ration could then be easily observed. Perosis was effectively prevented by giving the chickens a water extract of rice bran to drink in place of water. Ether, alcohol, and water extracts of the basal ration, when added to the basal diet, did not aggravate the condition, suggesting rather definitely that a missing factor must be the explanation of the occurrence of perosis. Water extracts of wheat bran, wheat gray shorts, wheat embryo and alfalfa did not prove very effective as preventives. Chickens consuming water extracts of rice bran had larger, smoother legs of better colour than did the controls and their rate of grow^th was increased. When the ash from 70 lb. of rice bran was added to 100 lb. of the basal ration, perosis did not occur. There seemed to be a correlation between the manganese content and the curative properties of the rations used, but high percentages of manganese were detrimental to growth. The Quantitative Requirement of the Growing Chick for Manganese. W. M. Insko, Jun., M. Lyons and J. H. Martin. Kentucky Experiment Station. Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 15, 1938, p. 621. In experiments to determine the level of manganese most satisfactory for growth and for the prevention of perosis in chicks, an all-mash ration containing 6 or 7 p.p.m. of manganese was supplemented with various levels of manganese sulphate. The addition of at least 30 p.p.m. of manganese to the basal ration was necessary for good growth and for the prevention of slipped tendons. A relatively high incidence of perosis occurred at lower levels, and the degree of bowing of the legs was inversely proportional to the manganese content of the feed up to about 30 p.p.m. A maximum level of 646 p.p.m. did not prove toxic. Manganese and Hatching Results. Poultry Tribune, March, 1939. In studies at the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station, it was found that a deficiency of manganese in the diet resulted in low egg production and high mortality among the embryos of incubating eggs. By adjusting the level of manganese in the diet of hens to levels of 13, 53, 200, 500, and 1,000 parts per million, the manganese content of eggs was directly influenced, the range being from 0-045 to 0-342 mg. per 100 grammes of dry yolk. Embryos in eggs of lov^^ manganese content usually died during the final stages of incubation, being unable to initiate or to complete the process of hatching. The minimum manganese requirement of the developing embryo wâs found to be about 0-005 mg. Chicks hatched from eggs of lovs^ manganese content and having lowr initial manganese reserves wêre no more susceptible to perosis (slipped tendon) than were those hatched from eggs of high manganese content. The prevention of perosis during early growth of chicks appeared to be dependent more on manganese intake than on the total manganese reserves at the time of hatching. Deficiency of Manganese in Poultry, Mangaandeficientie bij Pluimvee. Prof. Dr. G. M. v. d. Plank. Tijdschrift voor Diergeneeskunde, Vol. 66, 1939, p. 398. Description of perosis in chickens. The Relation of the Mineral Supplement Consumption to the Normal Skeleton Development as Judged by X-Ray Examination of various Breeds of Fowl to Six Weeks of Age. H. E. Le Masurier and H. D. Branion. University of Toronto. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 381. Heavier bone structure in males than in females, which became apparent at 4 weeks of age, was obvious at 6 weeks. There were no differences in the skeletal development of different breeds, except that size of skeleton was clearly related to the weight of the birds. In no case was a difference in calcification demonstrated. Variations in mineral consumption between sexes and between breeds were related as a rule to the size of the birds. In the case of crossbreeds, however, males required less than females in spite of their greater size and both sexes had a lower mineral requirement than the corresponding sexes of pure breeds. A Radiological Study of the Development of the Fowl to Six Weeks of Age on a Mineral Deficient Ration. H. E. Le Masurier and H. D. Branion. University of Toronto. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 270. On a mineral-deficient diet two different types of birds were observed ; a small bird with normal skeletal development and a large bird with poorly calcified bones. Radioactive Phosphorus as an Indicator of Phospholipid Metabolism. 3. The conversion of phosphate to lipoid phosphorus by the tissues of the laying and non-laying bird. C. Entenman, S. Ruben, 1. Perlman, F. W. Lorenz and 1. L. Chaikoff. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 124, 1938, p. 795. Determinations of the radio-P content of the tissues and, in the case of laying hens» of the egg yolks at intervals after subcutaneous administration of a Na2HP04 containing radio-P have shown that the tissues differed considerably in phospholipoid activity as measured by the proportions of radio-P

74 which passed into them. The activity was found, in the non-laying hen to be high in iiver, kidney and small intestine and low in other tissues. In laying hens there was also increased activity in the blood, oviduct and ovaries and radio-P was deposited in the yolks of the eggs. The Relationship between Blood Calcium and Blood Phosphorus and the effect of Variations in the Calcium Content of the Ration on Ovulation and Blood Calcium Changes in the Laying Pullet, H. J. Deobald, J. B. Christiansen, E/B. Hart and J. G. Halpin. Poultrv^ Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 114. Further studies on the calcium metabolism of laying pullets are reported. When Barred Rock pullets approaching laying age w^ere fed at a constant level of 1 gramme of ground oystershell daily, they showed a rather constant and normal blood calcium level of from 1 to^ mg. per 100 gramme of whole blood during immaturity, followed by a marked rise from about 15 to 25 days before the first egg was laid and a subsequent fall at about the same rate. Eggs production always began from 3 to 7 days after the peak in blood calcium was reached. However, at this low level of calcium intake egg production was almost completely inhibited, and egg eating was prevalent. When these pullets were subsequently divided into three groups and supplied 0, 1 gramme daily and ad libitum oyster shell, respectively, ç^gg production continued to be inhibited in the first two groups, and blood calcium continued to show a regular variation which was quite characteristic for each individual hen. The third group, after from 3 to 20 days at a very low blood calcium level, showed a rise and fall similar to pullets coming into lay and egg production began 3 days or longer after the peak in blood calcium was reached. Apparently high blood calcium is not an indication of ^gg production, since eggs were usually laid during periods of low, constant, or descending blood calcium and high production was correlated with periods of little or no variation. Total blood phosphorus was directly correlated w^ith calcium content except during the initial rise in blood calcium just prior to first laying. Effect of Different Levels of Calcium, Poultry Tribune, March, 1938. There is perhaps no more difficult technical problem than that of determining the exact mineral requirements of animals. Although much has been written about the need for and the use of calcium by the laying hens, the specific optimum levels of calcium for various conditions have not yet been determined. From the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station has come a report of 3 years' work along this line, in which the authors draw a few very definite conclusions. Observations were made on hatching results, feed consumption, feed efficiency and breaking strength of egg shells. With the grain and mash system of feeding, it is concluded that 1 per cent, of calcium carbonate in the mash, without any supplemental calcium such as oyster shells, is insufficient to meet the needs of laying hens, as measured by egg production, shell strength, or hatching power. There was little advantage in feeding a mash containing 8 per cent, of calcium carbonate in contrast to one containing 5 per cent, under the conditions of these experiments. Since hens fed the regular ration plus oyster shells actually consumed less calcium than did those fed a mash containing 8 per cent, of calcium carbonate, and yet produced eggs which were superior for both hatching and market purposes, it is suggested that either excessive amounts of calcium carbonate are poorly utilised or coarsely ground calcium carbonate is more efficiently utilised than is the finely ground product. Sulphur Compounds and other Substances in Bird (Goose) Muscle and Arthropods, H. Fuchs. Zeitschrift für Biologie, Vol. 98, 1938, p. 430. Analyses showed that goose muscle contains glutamic acid, tyrosine, leucine, alanine and valine, A description of the substances and methods of analysis are given. Ejfect of Feeding Iron and Copper to Fowls on the Iron and Copper Content of the Egg, Influence de Vingestion de fer et de cuivre sur la teneur de Voeuf de poule en ces deux métaux, E. Lesne, P. TJVLVSI^ and S. Briskas. Comptes Rendus Société Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 937. The addition of Fe salts to the diet of hens did not affect the Fe content of the egg yolk but decreased the amount of Cu. The feeding of Cu supplements decreased the amount of Fe in the yolk and increased the amount of Cu. The addition of both Cu and Fe to the diet increased the Fe content of the yolk, but did not affect the Cu content. Egg white contains small amounts of Cu but no Fe : the Cu content was not affected by Fe or Cu ingestion. Eggs contain more Cu and Fe in spring than in winter. The Occurrence of Papillomatous Growths on the Feet and Legs of presumably Iron-Deficient Turkeys, M. W. Emmel. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Associa- tion, Vol. 94, 1939, p. 234. Description of a case where 14 of 30 young poults on a presumably iron-deficient ration developed papillomatous growths on the feet and legs. Formed '^ Mineral Feed'' for Farm Animals and Poultry. M. D. Knapheide, P. Caldwell and W. P. Elmslie. Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, 7160. A *' mineral feed " is thoroughly mixed with hot paraffin, blackstrap molasses and hydrol and moulded into blocks under pressure.

CARBOHYDRATES Feeding of Grain to Young Birds, Versuch über den Einfluss der Verfütterung von verschieden hohen Körnermengen auf die Jungtierentwicklung, I. Zöllner. Archiv für Geflü- gelkunde, 1938, No. 7, p. 203. Summary : Different rations, with a different proportion of grain and mash were fed to White Leghorn chicks from approximately 10 to 18 weeks. It was shown that the proportion grain to mash had a definite influence upon rapidity of growth. It may be possible by feeding more mash to later broods, to get several subsequent broods mature at the same time. Only sexual maturity was not delayed as much as growth by an excess of grain. An additional experiment of 4 weeks' duration shows that a reduction of the amount of grain made the animals eat more mash, so that they grew more rapidly. Keeping growing chicks on stubble may stunt their growth, but

76 bringing them back on a ration high in mash afterwards balances things again so that the pullets can attain a satisfactory bodyweight before laying, if they are put in laying houses early enough. Feeding Poultry Without Grain. Geflügelfütterung ganz ohne Getreide. L. Weinmiller and K. Mantel. Archiv für Geflügelkunde, Vol. 12, 1938, p. 245. Three groups of pullets received a mash containing no cereals. One group received also 50 grammes whole maize, a second 20 grammes and the third no grain at all. Within 3 months the third group fell far behind in production and health, but recovered quickly when given 10 grammes maize daily. The best results were given by the first group. No differences were observed in hatchability of eggs. The general conclusion is drawn that although cereals and cereal meals are indispensable, the amounts fed can be greatly reduced below the levels commonly practised. The Substitution of Wheat Offals {Screenings) for Whole Grain in Fattening Poultry. Prof. A. N. Aleinikoft. Transac- tions of the all-union Institute of Poultry Industries, Moscow, U.S.S.R., Vol. 3, No. 2, 1938. From the results of the tests and the data obtained it appears that the following conclusions may be drawn :— 1. Thé inclusion in the diet of up to 50 per cent, of heavy wheat offals which do not contain cockle or ergot, has no negative influence upon the efficiency of fattening cockerels. 2. The limit determining the ratio of the offals in the diet is the amount of the poisonous weeds present. , 3.,The offals may be included in the diet in such a quantity that the amount of injurious admixtures should not exceed :— For cockle ...... 0-5 per cent. „ergot 0-1 ,, darnel ...... 1-0 j, 4. The presence in the diet of bran up to 1 per cent, or of wheat meal (^up to 10 per cent.") affected with bran, does not react objectionably upon the fattening. 5. Further studies of toxic admixtures in the offals, and in particular the effect of the saponin upon the gains and fattening of poultry, are needed. The Utilization of Wheat and Wheat By-Products in Feeding Young Chickens. 1. The effect of the fineness of grinding wheat. 2. Alfalfa leaf meal as a Vitamin A supplement for ground wheat. 3. Ground wheat, bran and middlings as sources of the antineuritic Vitamin B. W. E. Poley. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 331. 1. Suitable supplements were sought for poultry rations composed mainly of wheat for use in the wheat growing areas. Groups of 50 Barred Plymouth Rock day-old chicks were maintained for 8 weeks on a ration of ground wheat 74 and 75, meat and bone scraps 12, meat meal 5, dried skim milk 5, alfalfa leaf meal 3, and cod liver oil concentrate 0-25. Wheat, ground coarse, medium or fine, was used for three different groups. The weight increase with coarse and medium ground was the same but with the fine ground wheat, owing to the consistency of the ration, 75 per cent, of the group had deformed beaks before they were 3 weeks* old and the experiment had to be terminated. 2. With a diet of meat and bone scraps 20, skim milk 5, NaCl 1, and ground wheat 67, and with vitamin D supplied by means of artificial or natural ultra-violet irradiation, addition of 3 per cent, of alfalfa meal supplied sufficient vitamin A for chickens. 3. From experiments with groups of 15 chicks it was concluded that the minimum amount of ground wheat was 30 per cent., and of bran or middlings 20 per cent., needed to supplement a ration almost devoid of vitamin B (Bj), of which the main constituent was " degerminated " maize. Adult fowls were not protected from polyneuritis by inclusion of 45 per cent, wheat in a ration of which the remainder was degerminated yellow maize.

The Utilization of Wheat and Wheat By-Products in Feeding Young Chickens. 5. Protein supplements for ground wheat. W. E. Poley, Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 399. By increasing the amount of meat and bone meal from 12 to 16 per cent, in a ration containing 5 per cent, dried buttermilk and 70 per cent, ground wheat, a better weight increase was obtained. Inclusion of 20 per cent, wheat bran resulted in a further slight improvement. The optimum lev^el of soya bean meal in a mash already containing 5 per cent, meat and bone meal and 5 per cent, dried milk was 20 per cent.

Fattening Young Cockerels with Potatoes. Junghähnchenmast mit Kartoffeln. W. Stahl. Archiv für Geflügelkunde, 1938, No. 10. summary : Experiments with potatoes in fattening cockerels showed that they ate 2*5 times as much of the rations (according to Lehmann) as swine. Not- w^ithstanding this the daily growth was 33 per cent, less than in swine, the utilisation of the food 40 per cent, less good. For this reason it is uneconomical to use potatoes in fattening cockerels ; in particular instances, however, when poultry brings a correspondingly better price than pork, feeding potatoes may be profitable. Potato flakes are more economical to use than old stored potatoes in which much of the nutriment may be lost. Molasses and Mutton Fat in Fattening Rations. Poultry Tribune, March, 1938. Gains in body weight and increase in fat are extremely variable among birds on standard or experimental fattening rations. In group feeding trials at the Dominion Experimental Farms, Ottawa, Canada, it was found necessary to use at least 40 individuals in each experimental group, in order to obtain reliable results. Even then, differences of less than 10 per cent, cannot always be demonstrated. Using such groups, it was found that the addition of 5 per cent, mutton fat to a standard fattening ration increased the gains by 18 per cent., the efficiency in use of feed by 27 per cent.> increase in percentage of fat by 15 per cent, and the percentage of grade A birds by 17 per cent. The addition of 5 per cent, calcium carbonate as ground oyster shell improved palatability as indicated by a 10 per cent, increase in feed consumption. The addition of 5 per cent, of molasses did not affect gain in weight, feed consumption, or increase in fat, but there w^ere 10 per cent, fewer Grade A birds in the molasses group. Distillers^ By-Products for Poultry. Poultry Tribune, March, 1939. Workers at the Massachusetts State College have been studying the value of distillers' dried grains and distillery slop as sources of protein and vitamins for poultry. The tests confirmed the findings of other investigators that the protein of these products is of rather low biological value and does not possess growth-promoting properties to any great degree. Distillers' by-products contain little or no vitamin A, very little vitamin C, and only small amounts of material having anti-rachitic properties. The addition of 10 to 15 per cent, of either distillers' grain or concentrated slop to poultry rations did provide effective amounts of vitamin B and riboflavin, both of which are essential for optimum growth and reproduction. It is emphasised that such by-products are an economical source of these two vitamins in either poultry or livestock rations, though the feeder should remember that there is little likelihood of a deficiency of vitamin B in any practical poultry ration.

The Influence of Distillery Slop on the Production of Chicken Fat, G. D. Buckner, W. M. Insko, Jun., J. H. Martin and A. Harms. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 369. Chicks contained less fat and were of poorer flavour after cooking when thick distillery slop was substituted for part or all of the maize in the diet. The quantity of oil in the uropygeal glands was unaffected, as was also its I value and refractive index. The I value of the body fat, however, was higher where maize had been displaced by distillery slop.

The effect ofEosin andMethylene-Blue when used for Denaturing Grain. Effetti delV eosina e del blu di metilene usati come denaturanti delle granaglie. Dr. M. Reghi. Rivista di Avicultura, Vol. 5, 1935, p. 533. Eosin is absolutely harmless for poultry. It is not absorbed into the tissues. It only colours the mucosa of the digestive apparatus. It does not influence the lay nor does it colour the yolks. A solution of 0-01 per cent, is sufficient to colour the grain. A solution of 0-01 per cent, méthylène blue is not harmful. Solution of 0-5 to 1 per cent, might be harmful to weak birds. If the solutions are too strong they influence the colour of the yolks as the colour is absorbed by the body. Contrary to other investigators Righi has never succeeded in influencing the colour of the muscles and organs with méthylène blue. From these experiments it will be seen that eosin is preferable to méthylène blue for the denaturing of grain.

Toxic Effects of''Alkali " Grains. Poultry Tribune, October, 1937. Poisoning of chickens and other livestock by grain grown on alkali soils can now be explained in many instances by the fact that the toxic grains contain the poisonous element selenium. Careful studies of the effect of this element on chickens have been made at the South Dakota Agricultural Experi- ment Station. A balanced ration composed largely of grains grown naturally but containing 15 parts per million of selenium gave the following results when fed for a period of 5 weeks. 1. Laying hens lost weight during the period of experimental feeding and egg size decreased correspondingly. 2. Egg production and fertility were not appreciably affected. 3. Feed consumption decreased appreciably. 4. Hatchability decreased to zero. No normal chicks were hatched from eggs laid after the 7th day of feeding on the grains containing selenium. The toxic effects disappeared within about 1 week after restoring the hens to normal diets. 5. Embryo mortality was characterised by monstrosities which have been shown to be typical of selenium poisoning, 6. Feeding elemental sulphur at a level of 1 per cent, did not offset the effect of selenium. 7. Eggs from the control pen gave a hatching percentage of 87 during the experimental period, clearly eliminating the possibility of unfavourable incubating conditions as a factor in the low hatches from the selenium groups. Fat Requirements and Metabolism of the Chicken. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 1936, p. 18. From a survey of the literature concerning the causes of mortality in poultry flocks it became evident that a number of factors such as heredity, management, disease, nutrition and physiological characteristics, must be considered. This department is best fitted to attack the problem from the standpoint of nutrition and of the determination of physiological characteristics such as blood composition and endocrine relationships. Protein, mineral and vitamin nutrition has been extensively explored, but complete information has not been obtained concerning these factors. The work on the vitamin A requirements of the laying pullet was an attempt in this direction. Little attention has been given to carbohydrate and fat nutrition in the case of the chicken. Since the hen puts out considerable quantities of fat in the eggs, it seemed desirable to make a study of the fat requirements and the metabolism of this class of constituents. Studies are now in progress on the effect of a fat-free ration on the growth and development of young chicks. Fat balance studies with laying and non- laying hens are also under way. Fat Requirements and Metabolism of the Chicken, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 1936-37. In view of the possibility that some of the consituents of the fat group, particularly certain fatty acids, may be necessary during the growth of the chick and of the fact that the hen puts a considerable quantity of fat into the egg, it seemed desirable to investigate the role of fats in the nutrition of the chicken, especially since little or no attention has been given to this field of investigation. Good, although not optimal, growth was shown by chicks maintained for the first 14 weeks of life on an ordinary all-mash ration extracted with petroleum ether so that it contained less than 0-08 per cent, fat and adequately provided with the necessary vitamins. The normal ration contains 3-0 to 4-0 per cent. fat. The retardation in growth of the chicks on the low fat ration was not nearly so marked as that resulting from a lack of certain vitamins, amino acids or minerals. Apparently the ether-extractable substances are not important in the growth of the chick, and the usual growing ration seems to be adequate with respect to this class of substances. When the normal ration was supplemented with 21 per cent, corn oil, a very marked retardation in growth ensued, and poor conforniation of the body was shown. Adjustment of the protein level, which had been lowered by the

SO incorporation of such a high percentage of oil to that of the normal ration caused some improvement in the growth rate. Iodine numbers of the depot fat stored by the chicks of the several groups revealed that the fat deposited by the low fat group was more saturated than that of the normal, whereas the value for the high fat group approached that of the group fed corn oil. The literature does not record studies of the fat balance of laying and non-laying hens. When hens received an all-mash ration containing 5-11 per cent, fat and were laying, the output of fat in the droppings and eggs averaged 74 per cent, of that consumed. When hens were in a non-laying condition, only 12 per cent, of the fat ingested was excreted in the droppings— a quantity essentially the same as that in the droppings of the laying birds. These studies are being continued with normal and low fat rations.

Digestibility of Starch and N-free Extracts, Ueber Stärke und N-freie Extraktstojfe in Futtermitteln und ihre Verdaulichkeit bei Geflügel und Schweinen. A. Hock. Tierernährung, Vol. 10, 1938, p. 249. 1. The content of starch and the share of starch of the N-free extracts were ascertained in a higher quantity of different kinds of forage. 2. The trials as described in a former paper about the digestibility of different kinds of starch by poultry have been continued with beans, peas and vetches. Further the digestibility of the starch of raw potatoes was tested with pigs. In all cases the digestibility was nearly complete (91 to 100 per cent.). 3. The question, if the raw potato starch, as by poultry, by pigs, too, only partly will be digested enzymatically, but the other part bacterially, could not be proved, as the indicator method which had been employed in the single parts of the small intestine was failing. The high share of starch on the contents of the under part of the small intestine allows not only an enzymatic, but also a bacterial digestion to be concluded. 4. The digestibility of the non-starch share of the so-called N-free extracts of different forages was tested with hens, pigeons and pigs. By hens and pigeons most of these extracts were scarcely digested, whilst by pigs the digestibility of the non-starch part of the N-free extracts is considerable.

Digestibility of Different Kinds of Starch, Ueber die Verdauung verscheidener Stärkearten, A. Hock. Tierernährung, Vol. 10, 1938, p. 3. 1. The digestibility of the starch of barley, of that of oats and of that of maize as well as the digestibility of soaked and of crude potato starch was tested with hens. The digestibility of all tested kinds of starch with the one exception of crude potato starch was nearly complete ^94-0 to 100 per cent.). The digestibility of crude potato starch vacillated between 36 and 93 per cent. 2. The question, if the starch of barley and soaked potato starch as well as crude potato starch are digested by the help of enzymes, was answered by determining with indicator substances the digestibility in the upper parts of the intestinal tract. With the exception of crude potato starch, the tested kinds of starch were completely digested by enzymes, whilst for the crude potato starch the enzymatic digestibility amounted to 37 to 42 per cent. 3. The method for determination of starch, as described in Biochem Z. 294, page 336, has somewhat been changed for small quantities of substance and of starch and refined for small quantities of starch.

81 F PROTEINS The Differentiation of Protein amounts in the Diet of Chicks according to Growing Periods, A. A. Prévo, T. M. Poli vano wa. Transactions of the all-union Institute of Poultry Industries, Moscow, U.S.S.R., Vol. 3, No. 2, 1938. These tests were conducted in order to determine more exact differentiated rates of protein in the diet of chicks during battery growing. In addition, the protein ratio was changed according to the growth periods of various intensivity. Two parallel tests were conducted with 19 groups of White Leghorn chicks (total, 1,370 birds) the first test lasted 5 months and the second 3 months. The differentiation of protein supplement was studied on a basis of three different protein levels : 14, 17 and 20 per cent, of crude protein in the diet. Besides, in separate groups the protein ratio in the diet was increased only at the period of the most rapid growth of the chicks, as it is shown in the tables. In the test the diets were composed of three beforehand provided feed complexes (mashes) protein, grain and mineral. In the second test the results of the first experiment were verified and, by the way, was shown the efficiency of fish-meal and meat-meal protein (denatured by the industrial process) upon the growth of chicks. As a result of the tests the conclusions may be as follows :— 1. The differentiation of protein supplement in connection with biologic periods of chicks growth tells to a great extent on the rate of their growth. Changes of the growth constant indicate more regular growth of chicks receiving less protein during the whole period of growth in that case when the protein level varied according to separate phases of growth. 2. The trial showed the expediency of use in growing battery chicks following three levels of differentiated protein supplements : (1) in growing chicks for meat production up to 90 days in limits of 14 to 20 per cent, of protein ; (2) and (3) in growing pullets for battery layers flock 18 to 14 per cent, of protein. 3. The methods of meat meal production (high temperature, etc.), may decrease to a great extent the biological value of the meal, especially when used for baby chicks. For chicks over 50 to 60 days of age, denatured protein is not injurious. 4. The composition of grain and protein foodstuffs used in the experiments gave good results as to the gains, thus being advisable to poultry plants growing and fattening chicks in batteries. 5. The method of determining the protein supplement by the crude protein, calculating the whole protein in the ration, may be recognised more suitable method than the other. 6. The utilisation of feed during the first 2 months of chicks' life, is more effective in groups with increased protein supplement fed, at the age of 60 to 100 days in groups with 17 per cent, protein and at the age from 100 to 150 days in groups with 14 per cent, of protein.

Protein Levels for Layers, Tests at Leeds University. Poultry World, November 4th, 1938. Two groups of 80 birds were used and were housed in folds running over a new seeds ley. The high protein group received a basal mixture of meals containing 12 per cent, of added protein supplements made up of equal parts of white fish meal, meat meal and ex. soya bean meal. The same grain and basal mash mixture was used for the low protein group. 82 Mortality for both groups was the same. There was practically no difference in the consumption of mash and grain per bird, but there was some evidence that the birds in the low protein group were consuming more herbage, as the sward, after the fold unit was moved each day, was distinctly shorter and thinner. The difference in the cost of food per bird was very slight, being only 6d. in favour of the low protein group over the 2 years. In general, the output of eggs, also the weight of eggs, were slightly in favour of the high protein group throughout the 2 years. At only one period was there any marked difference in the rate of egg production. In the autumn of the 1st year, that is, the 3rd to 5th periods inclusive, the egg production in the low protein group fell to a very low level owing to the birds going into a partial or complete moult. It is probable that the protein content of the ration of the low protein group was insufficient to meet the birds* requirements for both Ggg production and body growth, with the result that after the birds had been on the low protein ration for 2 to 3 weeks the protein deficiency became a limiting factor in production, and moulting resulted. The average value of eggs produced per bird shows a return in favour of the high protein group of 4/6 in the 1st year and 2s. in the 2nd, or 6/5 over the 2 years. It is concluded that under the conditions which obtained in this experiment, where the birds had access to a liberal amount of grass, the output per bird and egg size were slightly in favour of the high protein group. Digestibility and biologic Value of Potato-albumen for Pigs and Hens, Verdaulichkeit und biologische Wertigkeit von Kartoffeleiweiss beim Schwein und Geflügel. Prof. E. Mangold. Der Forschungsdienst, Vol. 5, No. 1. Digestibility of Potato-Albumen Products in Poultry and their suitability as a Source of Albumen for Chickens, Versuche über die Verdaulichkeit neuer Kartoffeleiweiss Produkte bei Hühnern und über ihre Eignung als Eiweissfutter zur Küken aufzuckt, E. Mangold, A. Hock and H. Dam- köhler. Archiv für Geflügelkunde, Vol. 11, 1937, p. 382. Two new potato albumen products which were prepared according to W. Kroner's method with a view to their being used as potato albumen for the feeding of animals, were examined, both as regards their digestibility in hens and their qualities as albumen food for the rearing of chickens. These were :— (1) Potato-albumen flakes prepared asa technically pure potato-albumen in Necklau by means of heat coagulation and drying of potato juice albumen. (2) Potato-albumen pulp flakes prepared in Vietz by drying the coagulated potato juice albumen in pulp. When fed to Rhode Island hens the digestibility of potato-albumen pulp flakes was : raw protein, 60*7 per cent. ; N-free extract substance, 35 per cent., and total organic substance, 48-4 per cent. The value of both kinds of flakes as albumen food for chicken-rearing was subjected to two sets of experiments. In the first, three groups of 1 day Leghorn chicks were kept under observations for 12 weeks. All were given the same basic food, to which was added an albumen food as follows : Group I, whale meal ; Group II, Vietz potato-albumen pulp flakes ; Group III, potato- albumen pulp flakes and as much skimmed milk as they liked. At the end of the 12 weeks the average weight of Group III was 700 grammes. Group I 517 grammes and Group II 409 grammes.

83 In the second experiment three groups of Leghorn hen chicks were kept under observation for 6 to 14 weeks. Group I was given fish meal, Group II Vietz flakes, and Group III Necklau flakes. The average weights were : Group I 925 grammes, Group II 475 grammes. Group III 529 grammes. These experiments prove that the new potato-albumen products are of practical use in the feeding of poultry but only for the purpose of increasing the value of the albumen of the total ration, for which skimmed milk is specially recommended.

Protein Levels of Rations in Growing Chicks, A. E. Tomhave. Annual Report, University of Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark, Delaware, Bulletin No. 214, November, 1938. Reducing the protein level of the ration from 18*2 per cent, protein to 16 per cent, at the 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th week did not result in material decrease in weight at 20 weeks for White Leghorn pullets. More feed was required, however, to produce 1 lb. of gain where the protein level was reduced at the earlier periods than where the reduction was made at the end of the 12th week. There appeared to be a direct relationship between the number of bare-breasted birds and the level of protein fed. The earlier the protein level was reduced the greater was the number of bare-breasted birds at 20 weeks. Similar results in growth were obtained with Barred Rock pullets as reported above with White Leghorns. The bare-breasted condition appeared, however, to be more pronounced with Barred Rocks than was the case with White Leghorns. This project is to be continued with Barred Rock chicks.

The Utilisation of Food Elements by Growing Chicks, II, A comparison of Protein Concentrates from single and multiple sources. III, A comparison of Calcium Carbonate and Calcium Sulphate as sources of Calcium, IV, Meat Meal and Fish Meal compared with Meat Meal, Fish Meal and Soybean Meal as Protein Concentrates, V, A comparison of Cottonseed Meal and Linseed Oil Meal as portions of the Protein Concentrate, C. W. Ackerson, M. J. Blish, F. E. Mussehl. Agricultural Experiment Station, Lincoln, Nebraska. Bulletins Nos. 94, 96, 97, 100, 1937, 1938. IL—1. The effect of adding to a basal ration a protein concentrate consisting of meat scraps alone was compared with one made up of a mixture of meat scraps, fish meal and dried buttermilk by means of growth and body analysis experiments. 2. The percentages of nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus contained in the chicks of the lot fed the mixture of three proteins were slightly higher than those found in the lot fed meat scraps as the concentrate. 3. The percentage rate of gain and the gain per gramme of nitrogen fed were greater in the lot fed the mixture of proteins as the concentrate. 4. The retention of nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus was greater by the chicks of the lot fed the mixture of meat scraps, fish meal and dried buttermilk.

84 III.—1. The utilisation of nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus was studied with two lots of growing chicks by means of growth and body analysis experiments. One lot had calcium added to the ration in the form of sulphate and the second received calcium carbonate, the additions being made on an equivalent calcium basis so that the experimental variable was the source of the calcium. 2. The percentage rate of gain and the gain per gramme of nitrogen fed were identical in the two lots. 3. No significant differences were found in the utilisation of nitrogen, calcium or phosphorus by the birds of the two lots. IV.—1. Two groups of 15 newly hatched chicks were fed rations differing in the composition of the protein concentrates. One lot received ration 2MFX, in which the concentrate was a mixture of meat meal and fish meal. In ration 3MFSX one-third of the meat and fish meals was replaced by soya bean meal. The protein levels of the concentrates and of the rations as fed, were identical. 2. The composition of the chicks at the end of the feeding trial was determined, and the composition of the gains calculated. 3. The gain in live weight per gramme of nitrogen or dry matter fed was practically identical in the two lots. 4. The retention of nitrogen by the chicks of the two lots was not significantly different. 5. The variation within lots was as great as that between lots ; hence the slight variations in the retention of calcium and phosphorus were not judged significant. V.—1. Two lots of newly hatched chicks were fed rations differing only in 5 per cent, of their make-up. In the ration of one lot five parts of linseed oil meal were added to 95 parts of the base, and in the other ration a mixture of 4-5 parts of cottonseed meal and 0-5 part of starch was added, to keep the protein level the same. The remaining portions of the two concentrates were made up of five parts each of meat scraps and fish meal. 2. The amounts of feed consumed by all chicks of both lots were kept identical by hand feeding all chicks equal amounts daily. 3. The compositions of the chicks at the end of 6 weeks' feeding trial were determined, and the compositions of the gains calculated. 4. The lot fed cottonseed meal made slightly better gains per unit of feed and nitrogen fed. 5. The retention of nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus was slightly higher for the lot fed cottonseed meal.

Protein Values of Concentrates. E. J. Robertson and J. S. Carver. Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Washington. Bulletin No. 368, December, 1938. The gross protein values of several common poultry concentrates were determined, using previously reported methods. Day-old White Leghorn cockerels were fed a low protein mash composed of cereal grains for a 2-week preliminary period. The content of this ration was adjusted to 8 per cent, protein, 1 per cent, calcium and 0-7 per cent, phosphorus. An addition of 3 per cent, of the protein under test was made to this ration, and the net gain for a 2-week test period was compared to the net gain from casein arbitrarily given a value of 100. Gross protein values determined were : crude casein 100, Alaska herring fish meal 101, a blend of 60 per cent. Alaska herring fish meal and 40 per cent, dried Alaska peas 97, dried buttermilk 91, a blend of 70 per cent. Alaska herring fish meal and 30 per cent, domestic soya bean meal 85, dried skim milk 78, Manchurian soya bean meal (hydraulic) 57, domestic soya bean meal (expeller) 46, Brazilian meat meal 43, Brazilian meat and bone meal 32, dried Alaska peas 27, and dehydrated alfalfa 25. Protein Requirements of Laying Hens, J. S. Carver and E. I. Robertson, and J. W. Cook and J. L. St. John. Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Washington. Bulletin No. 368, December, 1938. The effects of various methods of feeding on the protein consumption of laying hens were studied. The birds were trapnested for a 4-week preUminary period, and a distribution made at the beginning of the experiment on the basis of Qgg production, body weight and physical condition. Results of nine 28-day periods show no great difference in feed consumption from the various lots. The hens fed on an all-mash ration laid at the rate of 46-6 per cent, production ; the duplicate lots where grain was fed in the litter as a supplement to the mash laid at the rate of 56-7 per cent. ; where grain was fed in the litter supplemented with pellets at the rate of 5 lb. per 100 birds per day, hens laid at the rate of 55-6 per cent. ; the lots of hens fed the same as the previous lots except that the grain was fed in hoppers laid at the rate of 53-6 per cent. The highest production of 59-6 per cent, was obtained in the duplicate lots that had cracked corn, wheat and oats and a 40 per cent, concentrated mash before them in hoppers at all times. Scratch grain was fed at the rate of 7 lb. per 100 birds per day to all lots except the all-mash and the concentrated whole grain lots. Grain fed at this rate, either in hoppers or in litter, with and without pellets, constituted about 30 per cent, of the diet of the birds. With the whole grain concentrate lots, the hen-mixed ration consisted of wheat 57 per cent. ; corn, 13 per cent. ; oats, 10 per cent. ; and concentrated mash, 20 per cent. These birds, in balancing their own ration, consumed a feed approximately 1 per cent, higher in protein than the other lots. Fish By-Products for Poultry. J. S. Carver and E. I. Robert- son. Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Wash- ington. Bulletin No. 368, December, 1938. Using the curative method developed at this Experiment Station last year, a study was made to determine the vitamin D content of salmon meal as affected by methods of preparation and storage. Sexed, day-old cockerels were run in duplicate lots on a depletion ration for 8 days and then placed on the curative rations which contained various estimated unitages of vitamin D from salmon meal untreated, salmon meal pelleted, salmon meal to which 5 per cent, oat flour had been added, salmon meal plus 5 per cent, pelleted oat flour, salmon fat extracted from salmon meal untreated, and the de-fatted salmon meal from the remaining after-fat extraction. After 8 months of storage, the same feeds again will be assayed for their loss in vitamin D. Preliminary results indicate, as in last year's experimental work, that this specially prepared salmon meal contains over 400USPX units of vitamin D. What are Proteins ? B.W. Fairbanks. University of Illinois, Urbana. The North American Veterinarian, Vol. 19, 1938, No. 10. Proteins are of importance in nutrition and their study is very complicated. While their elementary composition is rather simple, it is impossible to discuss proteins in definite chemical terms. Variations in their physical properties do permit a satisfactory classification of these high molecular weight and complicated compounds. The building stones of the proteins are the amino acids and these have been identified and their chemistry worked out. The study of protein nutrition is in reality a study of the amino acids. The chemical determination of proteins in feeds and tissue is accomplished by analysing for nitrogen and multiplying the results by a factor which expresses the protein and nitrogen relation. This does not give a scientifically accurate

86 measure of the protein content of the sample as some of the nitrogen is present in non-protein form. Many of these non-protein nitrogen compounds are of importance and are frequently discussed in nutrition literature. Broiler Feeding Experiments, A. E. Tomhave. Delaware Station. Bulletin No. 210, 1938. November-hatched cross-bred chicks (Barred Plymouth Rocks X Rhode Island Reds) were used. The final average weight of the broilers at 11 weeks of age was in direct relationship to the level of protein in the ration, being lowest at 16 per cent, and with only slight differences in average weight of birds on the 18, 20 and 22 per cent, protein levels. The feed required to produce 1 lb. of gain for the 11-week period was 3-78, 3-63, 3-6 and 3-69 lb. on these respective levels. As the broilers increased in age and weight the efficiency of the feed in producing a unit of gain decreased. When an 18 per cent, protein ration was fed the highest cash returns over cost of production and the lowest cost per lb. of broiler was obtained when all birds were fed throughout a 14-week period. Feeding a dry fattener mash in place of the regular broiler mash during the last 8 days of the feeding period decreased gains, required more feed per unit of gain and failed to improve pigmentation or fleshing of the birds. The influence of Dried Buttermilk in Rations on Fatality with Coccidiosis in Chicks, E. R. Becker and H. L. Wilcke. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 405. Mortality from coccidiosis was greatly reduced when soya bean meal displaced all the 10 per cent, dried buttermilk which the ration contained. Increasing the buttermilk to 40 per cent., on the other hand, did not further increase mortality from the disease. Mortality on this high level of milk feeding could be lowered by omitting wheat middlings, alfalfa, meat scrap, fish meal, oyster shell and salt, leaving only yellow maize, ground oats, wheat bran and cod liver oil. Apparently some of these other materials had an effect supplementary to that of dried buttermilk. The variation in the Nutritive Value of Casein, H. D. Branion, R. L. Martin, E. B. Robertson, L. A. Stephens and R. van der Hoorn. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 301. Groups of about 12 day-old chicks of mixed sexes were fed for an experimental period of 12 weeks on a diet of corn starch 46, dried brewer's yeast 15, wheat germ middlings 10, salt mixture (McCollum 185) 4, and cod liver oil 5, together with 20 parts of casein derived from 1 of 12 different samples. The weight increase of the chicks with the various caseins varied widely, the maximum, increase being nearly double the minimum. The place of origin of the casein was more significant than the mode of preparation. " Arthritic " symptoms developed with some of the caseins, possibly as a result of differences in ash content. Six of the caseins were tested in a rachitogenic diet supplemented with cod liver oil, and the growth of the chicks again showed significant differences. Three of the caseins were tested in the Cornell ration, deficient in vitamin G (Bg). Differences in the growth of the chicks were marked, but there was not considered to be any difference in the degree of dermatitis shown after 10 weeks. Thirteen caseins were tested in a mixed grain ration containing 1 per cent, yeast and there was some variation in growth rate and feathering ; some

87 chicks developed dermatitis which healed spontaneously, and paralysis. It is concluded that caseins vary in their content of riboflavin and of chick antidermatitis factor. The nature of the last is discussed. Fish-Meal for Growing Ducklings, F. M. Fronda. Philippine Agriculturist, Vol. 27, 1938, p. 18. When fish meal constituted 5 to 30 per cent, of the ration of ducklings there was a direct reciprocal increase in the weights of these ducklings ; beyond 30 per cent, fish meal in the ration, the weights decreased. Increased mortality rate was noted in ducklings fed 30 per cent, or more fish meal. Fish Meal for Poultry, Poultry Tribune, March, 1937. The Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, in co-operation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, has been studying the nutritive value for chicks of fish meals of different kinds prepared in various ways. It was found that the protein of fish meal was significantly better than that of meat scrap for promoting growth, but that there was some loss of the anti-pellagric factor in the processes of cooking, centrifuging and drying at high temperature, during the normal preparation of some kinds offish meal. Meal prepared from haddock heads and tails were found to be higher in vitamin G but poorer in proteins than that prepared from the edible portions of the fish. Experiments with rats showed that high drying temperatures, such as are used in flame drying, significantly lowered the digestibility of the protein in haddock meal. The protein of vacuum-dried haddock meal was superior to that of flame-dried meal. Meat Scraps and Dried Milk in Starting Rations, Poultry Tribune, April, 1938. At the Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station many tests have been run to determine the relative value of various protein supplements in rations for young chicks. A recent report from the station gives the results of several years' work. With the basal rations used, somewhat more rapid growth was obtained with 15 per cent, of meat and bone scraps and 5 or 6 per cent, of dried milk than with 12 per cent, of meat scraps and 4 per cent, of dried milk, but the cost per unit of gain was about the same on each ration. When chicks were given a ration containing 20 per cent, of a combination of meat and bone scraps and dried skim milk in three different proportions, 3:1,1:1, and 1 : 3, respectively, there were no differences in rate of growth or in mortality during the first 10 weeks. There were no differences in the amount of feed required to produce a unit of gain, nor in the efficiency with which male and female chicks converted feed into gains. With the rations used in these trials, there was apparently little difference in the relative feeding value of dried buttermilk and dried skim milk, when fed on an equal protein basis. Similarly, when dried milk and dried whey were used to supply equal amounts of protein, there were no differences in rate of growth, but when equal quantities of the two products were used, the dried milk rations were somewhat more efficient than those containing dried whey. The use of Fish Meal in Duck Rations for Egg Production, F. M. Fronda and L. L. Mencias. Department of Animal Husbandry, Manila. Philippine Agriculturist, Vol. 26, 1937, p. 290. Thirty per cent, fish meal in the ration gave a better egg yield than either 20 or 40 per cent. Mortality was excessive at the higher levels of fish meal, and

88 20 per cent, was considered most economical. The results have an important bearing on the duck industry in the Philippines since they disprove the suggestion made locally that duck raising can be profitably carried on only near a lake or stream where there are plentv of snails. Soybean Oil Meal for Poultry, R. M. Bethke. Ohio Agricul- tural Experiment Station. The U.S. Egg and Poultry Magazine, February, 1939. In summary it can be stated that all experimental work has shown that a good quality soya bean oil meal is a first class poultry feed. High Temperatures Improve Soybean Oil Meal. Poultry Tribune, April, 1937. Experiments at the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station have shown that the temperature to which soya bean oil meal is subjected during the process of oil extraction is more important in determining the nutritive value of the meal than is the particular process used. Hydraulic meals have previously been found to be none too satisfactory sources of protein for growing chicks, but it appears that this can be explained by the rather low temperatures previously used in the hydraulic process. In the Wisconsin tests, chicks fed hydraulic meals cooked at 105° and 121° Centigrade for 90 minutes weighed about twice as much at 8 weeks of age as did chick fed ground raw soya beans as the chief protein supplement. The medium and high temperature hydraulic meals were also definitely superior to low temperature hydraulic soya bean oil meal cooked at 82° C. (about 180° F.). High temperature expeller meals were found to be entirely suitable in rations fed to laying hens over a period of 11 months. Peanuts and Peanut Meal for Chickens. Poultry Tribune, February, 1938. Workers at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station have been investigating the value of peanut products as ingredients in poultry rations. They found peanuts and peanut products to be readily eaten by the birds, some fowls even preferring peanuts to corn. It was also found that mature birds, after becoming accustomed to them, would eat whole peanuts, shell and all, without attempting to pick the kernels out of the shells. When fed as the sole protein supplement, peanut meal gave better results in egg production than any other peanut products. The eflSciency of the peanut products for hens was materially improved by the addition of sufficient skim milk to furnish 50 per cent, of the supplementary protein. When peanut products were fed to chicks as the sole protein supplement, growth was very unsatisfactory, but considerable improvement occurred when animal protein supplements were used to supply a part of the needed protein. As with egg production, peanut meal was better for growth than any of the other peanut products tested. Protein in Fattening Rations. Poultry Tribune, November, 1938. In the so-called Sussex method of fattening as used in England, the chickens are fed a mixture of ground oats and skim milk. Increasing scarcity of liquid skim milk led to studies in the use of dried skim milk, and a comparative test of difiFerent levels of this supplement in the fattening ration. From the School of Cambridge comes a report on one test in which a mixture of 5 per cent, dried skim milk and 95 per cent. Sussex ground oats was

89 compared with a mixture of 20 per cent, dried skim milk and 80 per cent. Sussex ground oats. Analyses of the carcasses of representative fowls before and after a 16-day fattening period showed that the chief change in comparison was an increase in fat storage. The 5 per cent, milk ration (12-5 per cent, protein) was as effective as the 20 per cent, milk ration (16-1 per cent, protein). The rations were successfully used in pellet form and fed dry. Influence of Rations on Egg Weight. Poultry Tribune, Octo- ber, 1937. Experiments at the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station have shown that the mean annual egg weight of White Leghorn pullets varies considerably according to the ration which they are fed. The most significant finding was that within the limits used in the tests the mean annual egg weight decreased definitely and significantly with increased percentages of protein in the ration. Increasing the protein content of the ration from 12 per cent, to 15 per cent, resulted in a decrease of two grammes in average egg weight for the year. Mean annual e^gg weight increased in all pens with an increase in number of eggs and number of clutches per month. There was no evidence to indicate the superiority of one protein supplement over another, the important difference being in the level of protein used. The Fate of Tryptophane in the Growing Chick. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Report, 1936, p. 18. Although an extensive series of experiments was conducted, a chick ration deficient only in 1- tryptophane was not developed. Observations of the effect of a ration in which low tryptophane was the principal deficiency indicated that this compound might bear a relation to bone formation. It was demonstrated, however, that an insufficient supply of 1- tryptophane does not prevent normal bone formation in growing chicks. During the course of the investigations it was noted that 1-tryptophane, 1-histidine and 1- cystine are essential for the growth of young chicks. Nutritional Disease of Chicks caused by Feeding Dried Eggs. W. C. Tully. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 355. Summary : A review of the literature on the feeding values of egg albumen and of dried egg (dried egg is used to mean whole eggs, without shell and shell membranes, dried) is given. Experiments are reported with 22 lots of chicks fed commercial dried egg^ and egg white, where these products were used both as the only source of animal protein and with various supplements. The effect of egg feeding was measured by growth, the appearance of a pellagra syndrome and in some of the experiments by haemoglobin and blood serum and albumin determinations. When a ration containing 15 per cent, of commercial dried egg is supplemented with 10 per cent, of dried buttermilk and 5 per cent, of meat scraps the incidence of a pellagra syndrome is very slight and growth is excellent. Dried egg fed to growing chicks as the only source of animal protein resulted in highly significantly better growth than that produced by a ration containing the same amount of protein from dried buttermilk. It is probable that this increased growth was not due altogether to the protein. However,

90 the addition of yeast to the dried egg protein ration still further increased growth to a highly significant extent. Commercial dried egg is not all prepared by the same method and different samples give different results in feeding experiments. Dried egg white even when supplemented with yeast, milk, or combinations of these in rations believed otherwise complete failed to produce good growth and chicks were affected with a severe pellagra syndrome. Poor growth and the pellagra syndrome in an equally severe form resulted from the feeding of either raw egg white or commercial dried egg white in rations otherwise complete. Heating the dried egg white at a high temperature had no effect on its nutritional value. However, when dried egg was fed at the same protein level, growth was incomparably better and the pellagra syndrome almost absent. The vitamin A of the egg yolk probably was the cause of the increased growth, but there was undoubtedly a factor apart from vitamin A which tended to prevent this nutritional disorder. The work of other investigators is substantiated in that coagulating egg white in some way markedly improved its nutritional value. Haemoglobin studies are reported for chicks from seven of the lots. The range of the means of the lots was from 4-9 to 8-9 grammes per 100 c.c. The first report on the serum albumin and globulin content of chick blood is given. In normal chicks the percentage serum albumin is similar to that of dogs but the globulin is considerably lower. The mean percentage serum albumin of normally grown 8-week-old Leghorn chicks was 4*18 ± 0-5, the serum globulin 1*44 ± 0'14. These blood constituents vary to quite an extent with the ration and the age of the birds but the relation between these blood proteins and the pellagra syndrome is not clear cut. Chicks much stunted in growth and suffering severely from the pellagra syndrome when fed a complete ration for a short time grow at a very rapid rate and all external signs of the nutritional disease disappear.

SUNDRIES

The Value of Silage is Over-estimated, Der Wert von Silage und von frischen Grünfuttergaben bei Hühnern wird überschätzt. R. Fangauf and A. Haensel. Archiv für Geflügelkunde, 1938, No. 10. In an experiment with six groups of 30 White Leghorns pullets and one cockerel each, which lasted from November till April it was tried whether it was possible to save food by giving greens in very high portions (white cabbage, kale, swedes, and ensilaged kale and alfalfa). The results were as follows :— 1. The hens did not consume very much of the green stuff, even when it was cut up very fine the hens only took about 30 grammes daily. 2. The hens fed on greens did not consume less water. It was impossible to save mash. 3. Number and weight of the eggs were not increased, but rather diminished. 4. The groups fed on greens did not utilise their food as economically as the other groups. 5. Body weight was not influenced. 6. Hatching quality of the eggs was not improved. The value of feeding greens in winter can only lay in their dietetic influence, it does not pay to make the hens consume very large quantities.

91 Ranges for the Laying Flock. L. M. Derry. New Mexico Station Bulletin No. 285, 1938. A test extending over an entire laying year was conducted to compare the value of alfalfa range, a combination of winter wheat and Sudan grass range, fresh cut alfalfa fed in dry lot, and a combination of cod liver oil, dried buttermilk and alfalfa leaf meal without green feed as supplements in the ration of laying pullets. The largest returns over feed cost were received when alfalfa range was provided. Allowing birds free access to such range gave highest ^gg production and lowest mortality, but limiting access to the range to 2 hours daily markedly improved the quality of the eggs. Neither the wheat and Sudan grass range nor the cut alfalfa were as efficient as the alfalfa range. The pen receiving cod liver oil, dried buttermilk and alfalfa leaf meal without succulent green feed produced practically as well and had only slightly higher mortality than those on alfalfa range, but feed costs were significantly higher. Experiments at Par afield Poultry Station, C. F. Anderson. Journal of Agriculture of the Department of Agriculture of South Austraha, Vol. 42, 1939, p. 584. The evidence available strongly suggests that diet may influence to a ver}* considerable degree the bacterial flora and the normal bacteriostatic properties of eggs produced by hens fed upon such diet. With the object of obtaining further information on this point it is proposed to conduct at Parafield Poultry Station an experiment in which the eggs of groups of birds fed on different diets are submitted to detailed examination. The object of the experiment is to determine whether :— 1. The bacterial flora, if any, of the new laid egg is influenced by diet. 2. The normal bacteriostatic effect of the egg is influenced by the diet. 3. The diet has any influence upon the keeping qualities of the eggs. The results of (1) and (2) will be correlated with the findings in this section. 4. The production is influenced by diet.

The necessity of Crude Fibre for Hens. Untersuchungen über den Futterballastbedarf von Legehennen. Dr. L. Wein- miller and Dr. K. Mantel. Zeitschrift für Tierernährung und Futtermittelkunde, Vol. 2, 1939, p. 66. Crude fibre is the indigestible organic substance of food. Three experiments were carried out at Erding which lasted for 3 years. In the first experiment the birds were given food exceptionally poor in crude fibre ; in the second, food exceptionally rich in crude fibre content, and in the third food with an average crude fibre content. The experiments proved that too much or too little crude fibre depreciates the nutritive value. The crude fibre-rich group, which received 8 grammes ballast per bird and per day more than the crude fibre-poor group, achieved the same standard of production, but they consumed 8 grammes more total nutritive matter per day and per bird. This proves that a surplus of crude fibre in the food does not result in a depreciation of productive capacity but that an increase of crude fibre in the food is uneconomical. The allocation of the content of crude fibre was perfectly balanced in these experiments. In the first of these experiments the birds were given 15, 18 or 21 grammes crude fibre ; in the second 22, 26 or 30 grammes per bird and per day. In this case the nutritive proportion and the total nutritive consumption

92 were well balanced. In the case of laying hens (White Leghorn and Brown Italians) a ration of 21 grammes crude fibre per bird and per day proved to be the most favourable. Alfalfa and Plumage Colour. Poultry Tribune, December, 1938. An interesting relationship between feeding and feather quality has been reported recently on the basis of studies made at the Purdue Agricultural Experimental Station. With certain deficient rations, plumage abnormalities were detected in Barred Plymouth Rock chicks at 4 weeks of age, when the first feathers replaced the original down. The abnormalities persisted and involved most of the feathers as the chicks grew. The feathers appeared rough, were brittle and were very poorly formed. There was a tendency for the barbs of the feathers to separate. In extreme cases, the back and body feathers somewhat resembled hair. Pigmentation of the feathers was also affected. In females, there was almost complete absence of white barring, and in males there was almost complete absence of black barring. In most instances, the feathers were normally barred at the tips, indicating normal growth and coloration when the feathers first started, and while the chick still had some reserve of nutrients derived from the egg. Of special interest was the fact that certain samples of alfalfa leaf meal, when used at a level of only 3 per cent, of the ration, supplied the factor or factors necessary for normal feather structure and colour. The exact nature of the factor or factors involved has not been determined. How Much Alfalfa? Poultry Tribune, April, 1939. There is ample evidence in the poultry industry of the tendency to go to extremes in the use of certain management and feeding practices, a recent example being the use of alfalfa meal. Because it is known to be a valuable ingredient in poultry rations some persons have used it at too high levels. The results of a test at the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station are of interest in this connection. Five different groups of hens were fed rations in which the mash used contained 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 per cent, of alfalfa leaf meal. There was a close association between the amount of alfalfa fed and the depth of yolk colour. Analysis of the yolk colour showed an increase in the amount of red and a decrease in the amount of yellow and black with increasing levels of alfalfa leaf meal. Hatchability was not appreciably affected by any of the first four levels, but when 20 per cent, of alfalfa was fed there was a considerable decrease in hatching power. Similarly, ^gg production and efficiency of feed utilisation in terms of eggs were lowest for the lot fed 20 per cent, of alfalfa leaf meal in the mash. While optimum levels of alfalfa were not established by these feeding trials, it is clear that too high levels are detrimental. Kentucky Bluegrass in Chick Rations. Poultry Tribune, January, 1938. Workers at the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station have shown that neither irradiated nor unirradiated fresh bluegrass fed ad libitum to White Leghorn chicks will replace cod liver oil as a source of vitamin D, but that irradiated dried bluegrass will. This conclusion led to the question of whether dried Kentucky bluegrass might be used in an all-mash ration for battery brooded chicks.

93 A recent paper gives the results of a test in which air-dried bluegrass was substituted for mixed wheat feed in one ration and for both mixed wheat feed and part of the dried skim milk in another ration. This meant that one ration contained 17 per cent, and the other 27 per cent, of dried bluegrass. The protein content of these rations and also of the control ration was approximately 15 per cent. The quantity of total feed eaten decreased as the percentage of dried bluegrass increased. The number of chicks in each lot at the beginning of the test was 30. After 10 weeks, there were 29 remaining in the control lot, 21 in the lot receiving 17 per cent, of bluegrass, and 10 in the lot getting 27 per cent, of bluegrass. The average weights were respectively 552, 345 and 329 grammes. The conclusion reached by the authors of the paper is that because of the bulkiness of air-dried bluegrass, due to its high fibre content, it is not a satisfactory ingredient in all-mash rations for growing chicks. Practical Poultry-Feeding. E. H. Lloyd and J. Biely. Univer- sity of British Columbia, Vancouver. Department of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 107, 1938. The primary function of this bulletin is to assist the farmer, but its collections of tables and notes dealing with composition of poultry foods will also prove useful for reference to those engaged in research and education. Contents : Introduction ; Nutrients ; Composition of common feeds used for poultry ; A complete or balanced ration ; Grain and grain by-products ; Protein concentrates ; Minerals ; Green feed ; Vitamin supplements ; Selec- tion of feeds in formulating the ration ; Compounding the ration ; Feeding management ; Feeding young stock ; Feeding growing stock ; Feeding laying birds ; Feeding broody hens ; Feeding moulting hens and breeders ; Fattening birds ; Particulars in management.

Crop and Gizzard Contents as an aid to the Identification of Poultry. W. P. Blount. The Veterinary Journal, Vol. 94, 1938, p. 459. A report on the theft of poultry. On examination of the crop and gizzard of the poultry found with the accused, it was proved they must have come from a farm a great distance away where a number of poultry had been stolen. Is Instinct Guide to Correct Diet ? Poultry Tribune, April, 1939. It is sometimes claimed that chicks and other young animals have the instinctive ability to choose the proper ingredients or mixtures of ingredients to make a complete diet and to guard against any nutritional deficiencies, provided they have access to all the necessary food materials. A series of experiments dealing with this interesting question recently has been reported from the University of California. Among other things, it was found that chicks could discriminate consistently between normal or control diets and those which were distinctly salty, bitter or sour. They disliked the latter three and would not eat them if other feed was available. They did not, however, show any preference or distaste for diets containing as high as 20 per cent, of sugar. Chicks deficient in vitamin G, when given the opportunity to choose between a bland basal diet containing the vitamin, and a diet lacking the vitamin but flavoured with dehydrated molasses, chose equal quantities of each,

94 regardless of whether they had previously been fed a flavoured or unflavoured ration. Similarly, chicks deficient in vitamin G (lactoflavin) when offered a choice between dehydrated alfalfa meal and a bland basal diet lacking the vitamin did not choose sufficient quantities of alfalfa meal to prevent an acute deficiency of vitamin G. Comparative Growth and Feed Consumption of Roasters^ Capons and Pullets, G. E. Annin and J. G. Halpin. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 419. Summary : In these trials and with the strains used there was not a significant difference in growth or feed consumption between capons and cockerels nor was there a difference between cross-breds and pure-breds. Due to rapid increase in the amount of feed required to produce 1 lb. of gain after the 24th week of age, it seems advisable for a producer to market his capons as soon as they will command the usual premium paid for capons over heavy roasters. Late hatched sister pullets of capons or heavy roasters can be profitably held for winter Qgg production and then sold for meat in the spring when poultry meat prices are usually the highest. Methods of Feeding Laying Hens, Poultry Tribune, March, 1939. Six different methods of feeding a given ration to laying hens were tried out over a 3-year period at the Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station as follows : (1) mash self-fed, grain hand-fed one-third in the morning and two- thirds in the evening ; (2) mash self-fed, grain hand-fed in the evening ; (3) mash self-fed, grain self-fed in the afternoon ; (4) mash self-fed, grain hand-fed in the morning ; (5) mash self-fed, grain self-fed all day ; and (6) an all-mash mixture self-fed all day. There were no significant differences between any two systems of feeding as shown by G^gg weight, mortality, gain in body weight, fertility or hatchability. The cost of feed per dozen eggs was lowest for the all-mash method and highest for the system in which the grain was hand-fed early in the morning. Egg production was slightly higher under the all-mash system. The net result of the entire experiment is expressed in the conclusion that any of the systems may be used successfully in the feeding of laying hens. New Jersey Poultry Rations, C. S. Platt. Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Bulletin No. 645, 1938. Rations for baby chicks, growing or laying birds, capons, birds for roasting, and breeding stock are suggested, together with information on the amount of feed and when to feed it. Turkey Feeding Experiments^ 1933-1937, F. B. Headley and E. W. Knight. Reno, Nevada Station Bulletin No. 148, 1938. ^ This series of experiments was designed to study the effect of various levels of protein, fat, and ash and different ratios of animal and vegetable protein in rations on the rate of growth and development of young turkeys. The growth rate of young toms increased with increasing protein content of the ration up to 24 per cent., while beyond this point there was a slight decrease. Young hens were less affected by changing protein levels than toms. Young

95 hens made as good growth when started at 8 weeks of age on an 18-4 per cent, protein ration but did not finish as well as those receiving higher levels of protein, while toms started at this level did not grow so rapidly nor finish as well as at higher levels. With both sexes, growth rate and finish rate were as good when the protein content was reduced from 23-3 per cent, to 18-4 per cent, at 16 weeks of age and further reduced to 13-6 per cent, at 22 weeks of ag3 as when the higher level was continued throughout the feeding period. A high ash content of the ration which accompanied high protein levels resulted in numerous cases of crooked breasts and slipped tendons. Slipped tendons frequently occurred in young toms receiving over 10 per cent, of ash. After poults were 8 weeks of age an animal protein : vegetable protein ratio of about 1 : 3 gave as good results as when a higher proportion of animal protein was fed. The animal protein could be further reduced after 16 weeks of age. A marked relationship between initial weight of poults and finished weight was observed. Nutritional Myopathy of the Gizzard in Turkeys. E. Jung- herr and A. M. Pappenheimer. Storrs Experiment Station. Soc. Expt. Biol. and Med. Proc., Vol. 37, 1937, p. 520. When a simplified diet which produced a nutritional encephalomalacia in chicks was fed to young turkey poults, a selective necrosis of the smooth muscle of the gizzard wall, unaccompanied by significant lesions in other organs, resulted thus constituting a previously unrecognised nutritional disorder of turkeys. These alterations, which are described in detail, illustrate the fact that different species of animals may react in quite diverse fashion to the same abnormal diet. Effectiveness of Chondroitin as the Anti-Gizzard Erosion Factor Required by Chicks, H. R. Bird and J. J. Oleson. University of Wisconsin. Journal of Biological Chemis- try, Vol. 123, 1938, p. xi. Feeding chondroitin at 3 to 5 per cent, levels exerted a marked protective action against the development of gizzard erosions in chicks. Active chondroitin preparations were obtained by alkaline extraction and by 10 per cent, calcium chloride extraction of cartilage tissue. Experiments with a Factor Promoting Growth and Preventing Paralysis in Chicks on a Simplified Diet. T. H. Jukes and S. H. Babcock, Jun. University of California. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 125, 1938, p. 169. Employing a basal diet previously described which produced nutritional paralysis in chicks, the addition of 10 per cent, of natural alfalfa meal or hexane- extracted alfalfa meal to the diet promoted growth and protected against paralytic symptoms, while the hexane extract fed at a level equivalent to 40 per cent, of alfalfa meal had only a very slight effect. Warm water extraction of the hexane-extracted alfalfa meal removed most of the active factor. Nicotinic acid amide was inefifective against this disorder, and 15 per cent, peanut meal in the diet was only partially effective. Feeding a natural diet treated with ferric chloride did not produce these symptoms. It appeared that there are two different forms of the same active factor or factors, since a fat-soluble fraction prepared from soya bean oil and a water-soluble fraction prepared from fat- extracted alfalfa meal were equally effective in protecting against paralysis.

96 H505 in Nutrition for Laying Hens. H505 in der Junghennen- und Legehennenfütterung. Prof. P. Carstens and J. Prüfer. Archiv für Geflügelkunde, 1939, No. 1/2. 1. In a feeding experiment with 105 White Leghorn pullets in three groups, the proprietary drug called H 505 made by Pomosin Society in Frank- furt a. M. was tested. Group A was used as controls, group B got 3 per cent, and group C was given 5 per cent of the drug in the mash. The experiment started on May 15th with 8 weeks old pullets and ended at September 30th of the next year. 2. The health was excellent in all three groups, the losses were 8-6 per cent., 8*6 per cent, and 5-7 per cent. 3- Egg production was stimulated during the first half of the laying period. Up to the end of February, A produced 95-9 eggs of 51-8 grammes ; B laid 101-0 eggs of 53-2 grammes, and C 120-8 eggs of 50-9 grammes per pullet. In group C hardly any neck moult was noticed in November-December, the pullets in B moulted like the A group, but came in full production again much sooner. In the second half of the laying period the advantage was not continued. The complete results were :— A 235-7 eggs of 55-6 grammes ; B 235-3 eggs of 55-7 grammes ; C 248-2 eggs of 54 grammes. The food consumption was the same in the three groups. 4. As the stimulation of the production was especially noticeable in the first months, its use seems indicated in special cases as in the stimulation of late pullets, stimulating old birds, etc. 5 per cent, is better than 3 per cent. 5. The economic usefulness of giving H 505 will depend upon the question whether the firm will succeed in producing the drug in large quantities cheaper than is now possible in the laboratory production of experimental samples. Gastric Acidity in Chicks with Experimental Gastric Ulcers. G. Cheney. American Journal of Digestive Diseases and Nutrition, Vol. 5, 1938, p. 104. Experimental gastric ulcers may be readily produced in chicks on a deficient diet. Gastric acidity in chickens following histamine injection is comparable to that found in man. Chickens with gastric ulcers have hyperacidity. Nutrition of Pigeons. Tatsachen und Meinungen zur Fütterung der Tauben. Prof. E. Mangold. Archiv für Geflügel- kunde, 1939, No. 1/2. In this paper the results of experiments on the digestion of different foods by pigeons are communicated and the possibility of raising homing pigeons on cheap food is discussed. A list of vegetable, animal and mineral foodstufifs is appended with notes on their physiological action.

Digestion in Pigeons. Die Verdaidichkeit der Futtermittel bei der Taube. Prof. E. Mangold and A. Hock. Archiv für Geflügelkunde, 1938, No. 10. Series of digestion experiments with pigeons were used to determine the digestibility of nutrients in the food usually given to pigeons. Homers were used in the experiments. The foodstuffs tried were : Barley, oats, maize, rye, wheat, beans, vetches, peas, lentils, boiled potatoes, pigeon biscuits and sweet lupins.

97 c In general it was found that pigeons utilise protein especially well, as they digest 80 to 94 per cent, of the crude protein contained in the food» The pigeons digested almost 100 per cent, of the starch, but as to the non-starchy nitrogen-free constituents, these were digested very poorly and in aiiferent degrees according to the nature of the food. Comparisons of the results with data from poultry showed that pigeons digest crude protein 8 per cent, better than hens. In the digestion of fats, pigeons do better than hens, but these latter digest fibre and nitrogen-free extracts better than do pigeons. Data obtained with hens cannot be utilised for pigeons. Tables of digestibility of foods used for pigeons are given to serve as bases for further experiments and for calculating food rations. Pigeons gain or lose weight very rapidly when fed on one kind of food exclusively and the data so obtained can be utilised in comparing the value of different foodstuffs.

Effects of Methods of Feeding on Growth and Finishing of Bronze Turkeys, J. S. Carver and E, I. Robertson, and J. W. Cook. Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Washington. Bulletin No. 368, December, 1938. Duplicate lots of 50 each of sexed day-old Bronze poults were fed starting pelllets for 5 weeks. Between the 5th and 16th week, one lot received no scratch grain, another was hand fed scratch grain, and the third received scratch grain in hopper. After 20 weeks there was no significant difference in weight in these lots. Growth of different lots at 20 weeks was as follows : Toms, 17-3 lb., 18-0, 17-4, 17-4, 18-0 and 17-2. Hens, 12-0, 12-0, 12-0, 12-0, 12-0 and 12-0 lb. At 20 weeks of age the turkeys in all lots were redistributed on the basis of sex, body weight and lot number, so that each lot was representative of the entire group of turkeys reared up to that date. They were then placed on three different pellet fattening rations supplemented by two different scratch grains, and accurate records of feather growth, fleshing, colour of skin, picking, body weight and grades during the growing period and time of killing were made.

Unusual Poultry Feeds, Poultry Tribune, December, 1938. Several uncommon feeds have been tested recently at the California Agricultural Experiment Station to determine their value for poultry feeding. Each feed was substituted for part of the grain in a well-balanced chick mash, and gains of chicks so fed were compared with gains of other chicks fed the control ration. Meal made from orange peel and pulp was eaten readily up to levels of 20 per cent., but it acted like an inert ingredient. Increasing levels caused a corresponding and appreciable decrease in rate of gain and in gain per unit of feed consumed. Chocolate meal was not eaten readily, seemed to be toxic and at the higher levels actually caused the chicks to lose weight. Babassu meal, which is similar to cocoanut meal in analysis, gave very satisfactory results when fed at levels up to and including 10 per cent. Cull pink beans were well utilised up to levels of 10 per cent., and had no detrimental effect. Hemp seed meal, in spite of its high fibre content, efficiently replaced cereal grains up to 20 per cent, of the ration.

08 Structure and Composition of Foods, VoL III. A. L. Win ton and K. B. Winton. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1937, pp. 524 + XXV. " This volume, the third in a series of four, deals exclusively with animal products—milk, butter, cheese, ice cream, eggs, meat, poultry, fish and shellfish. . . /' Terminology of Government Food Grades. R. Russell. Journal of Home Economics, Vol. 30, 1938, p. 90 ; Experiment Station Record, Vol. 79, 1938, p. 561. The grading system adopted by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics for nine foodstuffs is given. . . . Eggs are graded : AA, Special ; A, Extra ; B, Standard ; and C, Trade. Dressed poultry : AA, Special ; A, Prime ; B, Choice ; and C, Commercial. Laboratory Reports of Examination of Foodstuffs from the Food Inspection Department, Amsterdam. J. G. Straub, A. van Stijgeren and W. J. Kabos. Chemisch Weekblad, Vol. 34, 1937, p. 730. Neither the colour of the fluorescence of the egg shell nor the PaOs content of the white is an indication of the freshness or otherwise of individual eggs, although they may be of some significance if a sufficiently large number of eggs are examined from a large consignment.

99 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ANATOMY Growth of Testis tissue in Intersexes, Over appositionele Groei van testisweefsel bij Intersexen, Prof. G. Krediet. Tijdschrift voor Diergeneeskunde, 1936, p. 726. Summary : An intersexual hen, with the aspect of a cock, had two testes on the right side and an ovariotestis with remnants of follicles on the left. A large oviduct points to the fact, that this animal used to lay eggs and now has become cock by sexual reversal. All testicular tissue shows complete spermiogenesis. In the ovariotestis new formed testis tissue is found, also with complete spermiogenesis, starting from the interstitial cells, that increase and set out themselves in rows that grow to tubes. In the same time we see the first differentiation of the epithelial cells that ends in the formation of spermia. Interstitial cells are remainders of medullar and cortical traces and as such originating from the germ-epithelium, the qualities of which they have conserved. Histology of the Oviduct of the Fowl in Relation to Variations in the Condition of the Firm Egg Albumen. R. K. Cole. Cornell University. The Anatomical Record, Vol. 71, 1938, p. 349. 1. The number and distribution of the mucin-like fibres form the structural bases for the observed variations seen in the condition of the firm- albumen layer of fresh eggs. 2. These mucin fibres are produced by the goblet cells lining the albumen-secreting region of the oviduct, particularly by those in the posterior half of that organ. 3. The height of these cells averages 11*4 micron in the anterior portion of the albumen secreting region, 15-7 micron in the middle region, 30 micron in the posterior region and reaches a maximum of 33-9 micron at the junction with the isthmus. 4. Fowls producing eggs with firm albumen of good condition possess a consistently higher goblet cell throughout the albumen-secreting region than those producing a more watery type of firm albumen. Double Oviducts in Hens, Zwei funktionsfähige Eileiter beim Huhn, V. Ridala. (Ref. Jahresbericht Veterinär- Medizin, Vol. 59, 1936, p. 446.) Review of the literature dealing with the development of the sexual organs in birds. No explanation has yet been found for the reduction of the right sexual organs. Only two cases have been reported in which the right oviduct was just as well developed as the left. The writer also described a case in which two oviducts were present. All parts of the oviducts were subjected to a histologie examination.

100 The Innervation of the Lungs in Human Beings and Hens at the Commencement of Development. Sur Vinnervation de Vébauche pulmonaire au début du développement chez Vhomme et le poulet, A. Baumann. Comptes Rendus Société de Biologie de la Vol. 128, 1938, p. 3. Anatomic study of the development of the nerves in the lungs.

Experimental Strophosomia in Chicks, Sur la Teratogenie de la Strophosomie expérimentale chez le poulet, P. Ancel and S. Lallemand. Comptes Rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 130, 1929, p. 385. Strophosomia (Schistosomus reflexus) was caused in the embryo by administering a small dose of colchichine to the egg after it had been hatching 48 hours. The various deviations are described.

The Osteogenesis of the Skeleton of the Chicken and the Pigeon, Ueber die Osteogenese des Skelets beim Haushuhn bei den Haustaube und beim Haubensteiszfuss. H. R. Schinz and R. Zangerl. Gegenbauers Jahrb., Vol. 80, 1937, p. 620. Description of the forming of the skeleton of chickens and pigeons and remarks on nomenclature, homology, synostoses. The Sympathie Nerve System in Fowls, L. K. Rona. Thesis, Budapest, 1928. (Ref. Jahresbericht Vet. Med., Vol. 63, 1938, p. 504.) Detailed description of the formation and build of the sympathie nerve system. The Structure of the Gizzard of a Hen, SulV architettura funzionale dello stomaco muscolare di polio, G. Levi. Archiv. Ital. Anat., Vol. 38, 1937, 572. Description of the muscle system and the connecting tissues of the gizzard. Attention is drawn to the great practicability in connection with the function. With the simplest means a high pressure is brought to bear on the food.

Two Cases of Hens with only One Wing, Osservazione su due casi di assenza delV ala in polli di razza Livornese Bianca, Dr. C. Melloni. Rivista di Avicultura, Vol. 9, 1939, p. 29. Description, accompanied by photographs, of two cases of hens with only one wing.

Growth Ratio of the Fowl's Tarsomet atar sus, I, Variation with respect to body weight, H, Variation with respect

101 to time. J. M. Lerner. University, Berkeley, Cali- fornia. Growth, Vol. 2, 1938, pp. 135, 141. The differential growth ratio a for the growth of the tarsometatarsus with respect to body weight in the domestic fowl is found to fluctuate in different stages of growth. While appearing as a constant for the whole period from 4 to 20 weeks of age, in reality, as observed in individual birds, it tends to increase from 4 to 12 weeks and to decrease from 12 to 20 weeks of age. The fluctuations in the value of the relative growth ratio of the tarsometatarsus with respect to body weight previously reported are shown to arise as a result of dissimilarity of the growth patterns of the component variables entering into its determination. Sex Dimorphism in the Plumage of the Domestic Fowl, A. W. Greenwood and J. S. S. Blyth. Journal of Genetics, Vol. 36, 1938, p. 53. A critical review of the more important theoretical interpretations of sex dimorphism in the plumage of the adult fowl is presented. Special consideration is given to the role of the gonads, thyroids, adrenals and pituitaries. Inherited Kidney Abnormality, Poultry Tribune, February, 1938. An interesting report of a kidney abnormality in which the left kidney is either atrophied or completely missing has been reported from the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. Fortunately, there is no indication as yet that the trouble is of economic significance because only 14 cases have been observed in four generations of the strain of White I>eghorns maintained at the station. The abnormality has appeared only in females, and in every instance the left kidney is the one which has been either atrophied or absent. Such a condition has been reported in autopsy findings of other workers, but this seems to be the first report to suggest that it is hereditary. Thirteen of the 14 cases occurred in pedigreed stock, and 12 of these were traced back to either of two males. The data were not sufficient, because of the small percentage of affected individuals, to determine the mode of inheritance, but the possibility is suggested that the defect is limited to females. It is of interest also that in all 14 cases there was a noticeable enlargement of the right kidney, in compensation for the reduction or absence of the left organ. On Asymmetric Spur Development in Fowls. C. J. Bond. Journal of Genetics, Vol. 34, 1937, p. 229. A study of spur development in 20 female progeny of ten hens with spurs mated to a Brown Leghorn and a Houdan five^toed cock showed that there were 11 with symmetric or asymmetric spur growth. Apparently, a greater percentage of the females had spurs than would be expected in general breeding stock. The female birds with spurs commenced to develop them at from 12 to 18 months of age. Although asymmetric spur development was common in females, no case of asymmetry was observed in males. In asymmetric spur development the leg bones on the spur side tend to assume a more massive and heavier character. Citing a gynandromorphic pheasant and other cases, it seems that the somatic tissue on the two sides of the body may respond differently to hormone influences. As the majority of cases of one-side spur growth have occurred in the Fi and F? generations of crossbreds, it is suggested that the asymmetry results from the interaction between heterozygosis and the

102 instability of the genetic constitution of the female i'XY). The case of asymmetery in spur development seems to be one of genetic differences in response to hormones.

Differentiation of the Chick Eye in vitro, F. Dorris. Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 78, 1938, p. 385. Summary : 1. A study was made of the differentiation in cultures of whole eyes or isolated layers of eyes from][chick embryos ranging in age from 24 hours to 7 days. 2. In eyes grown in plasma clots, normal morphogenesis is inhibited, and the typical shape of the eye cup is lost. Eyes grown in liquid media tend more nearly to retain the normal shape. 3. Whole eyes from embryos 24 to 54 hours of age, grown in plasma clots produce differentiated nervous tissue, lens cells, and pigmented tapetum. 4. Isolated prospective tapetum differentiates at the normal rate, producing typical pigmented epithelium, which tends upon continued cultivation to grow out in sheets on the surface of the clot. 5. In a single case, tapetum, explanted as part of a whole eye in liquid medium, formed typical young retina. 6. Young lens cells were found in cultures of isolated tapetum from embryos 24 to 54 hours of age and in cultures of whole eyes minus the lens vesicle from embryos up to 72 hours of age, but were absent from such cultures of older eyes. 7. Lens developed as groups of large, irregularly shaped cells (lentoid bodies). No normal elongated lens fibres were formed. 8. Retina isolated from embryos of 76 hours or less, in a high percentage of cases produced large amounts of typical pigmented tapetum. This tendency was most fully realised in cultures planted on the surface of clots, a situation which favoured the formation of epithelial sheets. This capacity is lost between 76 and 80 hours. 9. Differentiation occurs in isolated retina at approximately the same rate as in the normal embryo. All the components of the nominal retina are formed, including the ganglion cell layer, outer and inner fibre layers, middle nuclear layer and differentiated sensory layer.

Morphogenetic Function of a Vestigial Organ in the Chick. C. H. Waddington. Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol. 15, 1938, p. 361. 1. The pronephros opposite any given somite in the chick is probably determined just before the early neutral plate stage at that level, and thereafter develops independently of the somite or lateral plate mesoderm. 2. The Wolffian duct, which is first formed by the union of the prone- phric tubules, grows backwards by the multiplication of its own cells. If this elongation is checked by a transverse cut made posterior to the end of the duct, the duct does not appear behind the cut. 3. In the absence of the Wolffian duct, the mesonephros is not properly developed, appearing only as very small patches of tissue with no lumen. The Wolffian duct may, therefore, be said to induce the mesonephros which, however, has a feeble power of self-differentiation as a double assurance. 4. This provides a confirmation of previous suggestions that an organ which is vestigial in the sense that it has lost its physiological function may be retained in ontogeny because it still fulfils the morphogenetic function of providing a stimulus essential for the development of other physiologically more important structures.

103 Functional Changes in Fowl Sperm during their passage through the Excurrent Ducts of the Male. S.S. Munro. Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 79, 1938, p. 71. Microscopic examination in vitro and tests of functional ability involving artificial insemination, reveal that sperm of the domestic fowl as in the case of mammals, gradually and simultaneously attain motile and functional capabilities after morphological maturity in the testes and during passage through the excurrent ducts of the male. Only 24 hours or slightly longer is occupied by the sperm in negotiating the excurrent duct system, a fact which indicates that *' ripening " does not involve any extensive ageing process. However, the fact that unripened sperm placed in the hen oviduct do not attain functional capabilities although ripened sperm exist in a functional state in the oviduct for a maximum period of 1 month, shows that a male environment is necessary for the attainment of functional capacity. Testis hormone is probably the controlling factor and it produces its effect either directly by initiating protoplasmic changes wûthin the sperm or indirectly by producing a subsidiary secretion which may in turn either initiate the required protoplasmic changes directly or provide the sperm with a protective coating of colloidal material.

PHYSIOLOGY Content of Catalase in normal Hen Blood. Teneur en catalase du sang du coq et de la poule domestiques adultes normaux. R. Louvier and A. Serfaty. Comptes Rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 129, 1938, p. 553. The content of catalase is much higher in the cock than in the hen. The average figure for Leghorn cocks is 1-294 and Leghorn hens 0-298 ; for Faverolles 0-588 and 0-241 and for crossings 0-532 and Ó-195. The content varies greatly according to breed. The figures for pigeons were in agreement with those for hens. The content of catalasis also varies greatly according to age and season. Sense of Taste in the Hen. Vom Geschmacksinn des Huhnes. C. Engelmann. Forschung und Fortschritt, Vol. 13, 1937, p. 425. Experiments with hens regarding the four human tastes : sweetness, sourness, saltiness and bitterness. The taste for sweetness is present, and sugar solutions are preferred. Bitterness can be distinguished and does not appear to be unpleasant to hens. Sour solutions are unpleasant even in weak concentrates, salty and bitter solutions only in strong concentrates. Development and Regressive Processes of the Ovarian Follicles. J. Marczell. Thesis. Budapest, 1938. (Ref. Jahres- bericht Vet. Med., Vol. 63, 1938, p. 502.) Atresion of the follicles is caused by digestive disturbances and the pressure of the follicles on each other. The follicle cells degenerate and are replaced by the connective tissue cells of the theca. The yolk becomes resorbed. The cracked follicles dry up under the influence of the elastic fibres. No corpus, luteum occurs after the egg-cell has been loosened, this hormone action being of course unnecessary in birds.

104 Analysis of the sexual and seasonal Dimorphism in the feathers of Ducks, Die experimentelle Analyse des Geschlechts- und Saisondimorphismus im Gefieder der Enten. E. Swetosarow and G. Streich. Zool. Jb. Abt. Allg. Zoologie und Physiologie, Vol. 58, 1937, p. 225. (Ref. Jahresb. Veterinär-Medizin, Vol. 63, 1938, p. 419.) The feathers forming tissue in both sexes is qualitatively of the same nature. The decision as to whether the feathers will develop in a male or female direction is dependent on three factors : 1. The reactionary power of the feather forming tissue ; 2. Qualitative and quantitative changes in the gonads ; 3. The connection between the condition of the gonads and the moulting time. Hemosiderosis of the Liver and the Spleen in Fowl, Ueber Hämosiderose der Leber und Milz beim Haushuhn, Dr. O. Gaus. Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift, Vol. 46, 1938, p. 805. Contrary to mammals the haemosiderin pigmentations in the spleen of fowls are weak. The liver, on the contrary, contains a high percentage of haemosiderin. The greater part of the blood-iron metabolism takes place, therefore, in the liver. Precipitation Test for a Generic Hybrid between Guinea Hen and Leghorn Cock, K. Sasaki. Ztschr. Zucht., Reihe B, Tierzucht, u. Züchtungsbiol., Vol. 38, 1937, p. 361. Sera from the guinea-fowl and the Leghorn were found to possess proteins that are species specific when employed in the precipitation test. Both proteins were present in the scrum of a hybrid of unknown sex produced by crossing a Pearl guinea hen with a White Leghorn cock, but no new specific protein was found therein. Some effects of Thymus Removal in Chickens, G. H. Maughan. American Journal of Physiology, Vol. 123, 1938, p. 319: No differences were noted between normal and thymectomised chickens in rate of growth or time of maturity. The time necessary for the production of experimental rickets and the severity of the condition were similar. Blood Ca values for normal and thymectomised birds were the same whether the groups were fed adequate or rachitogenic diets. X-ray studies showed no difference in bone formation between normal and experimental animals. No differences were found in egg production, egg weight, ç^gg quality, shell thickness or egg membrane thickness. It is concluded that there is no justifica- tion for the belief that the thymus exercises a control in the development of egg envelope (shell and white) or that it has a role in Ca metabolism. At the conclusion of experiments microscopic search was made for unremoved thymus material. • Spermatogenesis in a Sex-Reversed Female and in Normal Males of the Domestic Fowl, Gallus domesticus, R. A. Miller. Anat. Record., Vol. 70, 1938, p. 155. spermatogenesis in the remaining testislike right gonad of a Buff Orpington female chick having the ovary removed at 4 days of age is described. The bird was killed at 10 months, 25 days of age, after having received 14 daily

105 injections of pregnant mare serum. After ovariectomy the right gonad hyper- trophied into a testislike structure in which spermatogenesis occurred. Spermatogenesis in normal males is described, including study of the number and morphology of the chromosomes. It was found that the germ cells, differentiated into spermatozoa in the right gonad of the female, still retained the female chromosome complex. The sex chromosome was never seen to divide in the reduction, nor was it paired with a smaller chromosome. Sperma- togonial chromosome counts varied from 51 to 60, and spermatocyte counts (haploid number) were most often 40.

The Ascorbic Acid Content of Chick Blood, A. D. Holmes, F. Tripp and G. H. Satterfield. E. L. Patch Cy., Boston. The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 16, 1938, p. 407. Methods for determining the ascorbic acid content of blood plasma and chick rations have been described. Data concerning the vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content of blood plasma for 8 and 12 week-old chicks have been accumulated. The absorbic acid content of the blood plasma of rapidly growing 8-week-old chicks averaged 2-039 mg. per cent. The amount varied between 1 -562 and 2-234 mg. per cent. The ascorbic acid content of the blood plasma of vigorous 12-week- old chicks averaged 2-054 mg. per cent., varying from 1-462 to 2-425 mg. per cent. A comparison of the ascorbic acid blood plasma values of cockerels and pullets indicates that there is no consistent relationship between sexes.

Heat Production and Gaseous Metabolism of Young Male Chickens. H. G. Barott, J. C. Fritz, E. M. Pringle and H. W. Titus. Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 15, 1938, p. 145. The results of a series of energy and gaseous metabolism determinations, each of 72 hours* duration, on male Rhode Island Red chickens between the ■ages of 4 and 133 days are reported. Standard calorimeter conditions of 90° F., 60 per cent, relative humidity, 21 per cent, oxygen and not more than 1 per cent, carbon dioxide were maintained. The basal energy metabolism per gramme of live weight (after ßß hours* fasting) was greatest at about 15 days of age or 70 grammes weight. Beyond this stage it declined at a rapid rate, becoming relatively constant at about 100 days of age or 980 grammes weight. The basal respiratory quotient was nearly the same for all chicks within this age range averaging 0-719 ± 0-004. Total water elimination was quite constant at all ages, averaging 2-8 ± 0-1 mg. per hour per gramme at the basal level and 3*1 i 0-1 mg. per hour per gramme 6 to 14 hours after feeding. The thermal equivalent of oxygen was 4-653 db 0-031 kg. calories per litre 10 hours after feeding and 4-377 ± 0-039 at the basal level. In very young chicks the maximum resting metabolism after ingestion of feed was about 60 per cent, above thfe basal level, whereas at 16 to 20 weeks it was only about 25 per cent, greater. Maximum energy metabolism occurred about 8 a.m., and a minimum about 8 p.m., this diurnal rhythm decreasing rapidly with age. Feeding casein or gelatin during these tests gave evidence that their specific dynamic action was about 9-7 and 8*7 kg. calories per gramme of nitrogen respectively. Fowl Sperm Immobilization by a Temperature-Media interaction and its Biological Significance. S, S. Munro.

.10(î Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology, Vol. 27, 1938, p. 281. Variations of the relative motility of 2,048 samples of fowl sperm in different dilutions and at different temperatures showed the importance of a temperature-media interaction. The temperatures ranged from about freezing to 105° F. Motility was decreased at both the high and low temperatures but was resumed when intermediate temperatures were restored. On the other hand, rat and guinea-pig sperm exhibited a different temperature response in that motility was increased at body temperature, a characteristic of mammalian sperm as contrasted with that from birds where the testes are in the abdominal cavity. The fluids appearing to support motility best at all levels, including 105°, were distilled water, semen without diluent, sperm serum, blood serum and shell gland fluid. The sperms were immotile at 105° in the oviduct and infundibulum juice, permitting storage for the fertilisation of eggs laid over a considerable period. The exact nature of the immobilising mechanism is not clear, but the results suggest that fowl sperm are immobilised in the magnum and infundibulum but are motile in the shell gland area. Liver Lipids of the Laying and Non-Laying Bird. F. W. Lorentz, I. L. Chaikoffand C. Entenmann. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 123, 1938, p. 577. In a further study the relation of diet, sex and ovarian activity to the liver lipids of the White Leghorn fowl was determined. Males of all ages and immature females showed similar concentration of liver lipids including free and esterified cholresterol, phospholipids and neutral fat. The onset of maturity caused a pronounced increase in the neutral fat in the liver of females but no change in the concentration of other lipid fractions. Increasing the fat content of the diet led to a decrease in the neutral fat content of the livers of actively laying birds. Neutral fat of the livers was more variable on a low-fat than on a high-fat diet. For birds on a high-fat diet, a significant correlation coefiiicient was found between total fatty acids of the liver and the rate of egg production (corrected for pause periods) and the number of eggs laid during the last 7 days of the trial. Similar trends occurred on the low-fat diet although excessive variability masked the correlation. Experimentally Produced Sterile Gonads and the problem of the Origin of Germ Cells in the Chick Embryo. B. H. Willier. Anat. Record., Vol. 70, 1937, p. 89. Tests were made of the developments of isolated portions of chick blastoderms in chorio-allantoic grafts. Gonads were differentiated consisting of male-like sex cords; but they were invariably sterile due in part to the lack of a mechanism for transporting the primordial germ cells to the developing gonad areas. It seems evident that a gonad rudiment may arise, and differentiate independently of the primordial germ cells, but the invariable formation of primary male sex cords and the inability to form ovarian cartex present a significant problem. Cholinesterase of Chick Embryo Heart Cultures. J. A. Thomas and D. Nachmansohn. Comptes Rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 577. A fragment of an 8-day embryo heart was cultured in the usual way. In 12 days the cholinesterase content decreased to about half the original value but remained practically constant thereafter.

107 Study of the Contractions of the Isolated Embryonic Chick Hearts. V. W. Ciacci, B. J. Miller and E. R. Lucente. Mendel Bulletin, Vol. 10, 1938, p. 104 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 7095. An examination of the effects of Locke's solution without dextrose but containing varying concentrations of NaCl, KCl, CaClg or NaHCO^. Histologically, hearts that had beat more than 7 hours showed the complete absence of glycogen. Proteinase (Cathepsin in Tissues of a Chick Embryo, B. Gold- stein and M. Gintsburg. Biochemical Journal (Ukraine) Vol. 11, 1938, p. 65 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 6679. During the development of the embryo cathepsin forms in the yolk sac, it is evidently absent from the yolk, the amniotic and the allantoic fluids. The cathepsin of the embryonic membrane of an egg has a great hydrolytic effect on the yolk and specificity toward albumin and globulin in the white of the egg, whereas the cathepsin of the organs of mammals has no hydrolytic effect on these compounds. Heat Production and Gaseous Metabolism of Young Male Chickens, H. G. Barott, J. C. Fritz, E. M. Pringle and H. W. Titus. Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 15,1938, p. 145. The basal energy metabolism per gramme of live weight after ßß hours of fasting, is greatest in the male Rhode Island Red chicken when it is about 15 days old. Thereafter the basal energy metabolism decreases rapidly until it becomes relatively constant at an age of about 100 days. In the very young chick the maximum resting metabolism after the ingestion of feed is about 60 per cent, greater than the basal metabolism, whereas between the ages of 16 and 20 weeks it is only about 25 per cent, greater. The basal R.Q. is very nearly the same for all ages between 4 and 133 days ; it is 0-719 ± 0-004. Influence of the Blood Plasma of the Chicken Habituated to Morphine and to Heroine on Tissue Cultures accustomed to these Drugs. Y. Nakazawa. Folia Pharmacol. Japon., Opera Orig., Vol. 26, 1938, p. 1 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 8579«. Morphine and heroine in certain concentrations injured cultures of iris epithelium and inhibited their growth. The tissue was easily habituated to these drugs. When placed in normal chick plasma the growth was somewhat weakened. Habituated cultures did not thrive in the plasma of chicks habituated to the drugs. The tissue is very susceptible to changes in concentration of the drug to which it has become habituated. Growth Capacities of Embryonic and Adult Tissues, Poultry Tribune, March, 1938. It is generally accepted that the tissues of adult organisms have a smaller capacity for growth than the tissues of embryonic organisms. This conception is based on the fact that as differentiation proceeds, i.e., as the organism approaches maturity, the rate at which new cells are formed steadily decreases. It has not been clear whether this decrease is due to a gradual change

108 in the cells themselves through loss of inherent properties, or whether environmental conditions appear within the organism as a whole which limit the growth of the cells. Workers at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem have been studying the problem by isolating tissues from embryonic and adult chickens and cultur- ing them in flasks. Heart fragments of uniform size were used. In tissues from 7-day-old embryos, the first evidence of growth appeared 6 hours after explanting ; with 20-day-old embryos the expiants began to grow in 10 to 12 hours ; while in expiants from adult fowls there was no evidence of growth until after 28 to 35 hours and occasionally not until after 120 hours. The actual growth capacities, as measured by end-values of size, was the same for all three, but the course of the growth curves was very different. Cells from adult organisms must, according to these w^orkers, pass through a long, latent period in vitro before the formation of new cells begins.

Body Temperature of Young Chicks, Poultry Tribune, April, 1939. Investigators at the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station recently have reported their findings in connection with individual temperature readings on nearly 600 young chicks during the first 2 weeks after hatching. There is a pronounced rise in the body temperature of the chick during the first week, amounting to more than 2° during the first 4 days. At 7 and 10 days of age there was a significant difference between the mean temperatures of White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red chicks, the Leghorns having the higher temperature. No consistent relationships were found between body temperature and sex, between temperature and body weight or between 4th and 5th day temperatures for individual chicks. Two lots of chicks were compared on the basis of daily temperatures during the first 13 days, one lot being observed from 8 to 9 p.m., and the other from 9 to 10 p.m. In every instance the temperatures recorded during the second hour were lower than those recorded during the first hour, showing that the temperature of chicks was consistently declining from 8 to 10 p.m.

Morphological and Histochemical Research on the Lipoid of the Bile Ducts of Birds, V. Erspamer. Arch, biol.. Vol. 48, 1937, p. 293 ; Physiological Abstracts, Vol. 22, p. 567. Scarlet red and Sudan Nero B staining of the epithelium of the biliary system shows the presence of a considerable amount of lipoid. Various histochemical tests indicate the presence of glycerides and cholesterol esters. No free cholesterol is found.

Blood Fat in the Fowl Poultry Tribune, May, 1938, In attempting to explain various observed facts in connection with the physiology of egg production, several investigators have made use of blood analysis. A recently reported study made at the University of California was aimed at the effect of age, sex, and ovarian activity on the concentration of various forms of fat in the blood. In male White Leghorns examined at various times from 71 to 276 days of age no significant differences were found in the blood levels of cholesterol phospholipids, or total fatty acids. Immature females were comparable with males up to 135 days of age.

109 During periods of egg laying, however, there is a marked concentration of blood fat. Values as high as 4,719 mg. i>er cent, were observed. Duration or intensity of egg production bore no relation to the increased level, so long as the bird remained in laying condition throughout the period of observation. The act of laying is not the stimulus for the rise in blood fat, for it was found to occur in pullets approaching maturity, but before laying had commenced. The level of fat in the feed had no effect on the blood fat in males or in immature females, but there was some interaction between dietary fat and ovarian activity in laying hens. Radioactive Phosphorus as an Indicator of Phospholipid Metabolism. I IL The conversion of phosphate to lipoid phosphorus by the tissues of the laying and non-laying bird. C. S. Entenman, S. Ruben, R. I. Perlman, F. W. Lorenz I. L. Chaikoff. University of California. Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 124, 1938, p. 795. Summary : (1) The content of labelled phospholipid of tissues of the laying and non- laying (moulting) bird was determined at 6 and 12 hours after the subcutaneous administration of phosphorus that had been marked by the inclusion of radio- active phosphorus. (2) Liver, kidney and small intestine showed the greatest radio-phospholipid activity of all tissues examined. The small intestine showed a much greater phospholipid activity than the other parts of the gastro-intestinal tract ; namely, gizzard, proventriculus, caeca or colon. Cardiac muscle showed a higher phospholipid activity than skeletal muscle. (3)' Although blood, muscle and bone are tissues with low phospholipid activity, they are neverthe- less significant in phospholipid metabolism in view of their size. Thus, while 5 per cent, of the labelled phosphorus administered was incorporated into phospholipid in the whole animal, 2 per cent, was found in bone, muscle and blood. (4) Egg laying produced an increased phospholipid activity in three tissues ; blood, oviduct and ovary. The increase in size and physiological activity in the oviduct was associated with a pronounced increase in its ability to deposit labelled phospholipid. (5) Labelled phospholipid appeared in the yolk as early as 6 hours after the administration of the radio-active phosphorus. Larger amounts of labelled phospholipid were deposited in the yolks at the 12-hour than at the 6-hour interval. The labelled phospholipid deposited was significantly greater in larger than in smaller yolks.

The Basal Metabolism of '^ to 4: Weeks Old White Leghorn Chickens. D. B. Smuts and J. S. C. Marais. Onderste- poort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, Vol. 11, No. 1, July, 1938. 1. By the application of the mould method the individual surface area of 17 chickens of approximately 1 month of age was determined and formulae evolved for the prediction of the surface area. The value for K in the Meeh formula was found to be 11 »2, while by the method of least squares a formula equivalent to S = 36«31 W*^^^ was obtained. 2. The basal heat production of 1-month-old chickens, when expressed per square metre of body surface, was found to be 891 calories per day. If the formula of Mitchell for estimating the surface area is applied, the basal heat production becomes 1,085 calories per day. 3. It appears that the highest basal metabolism in chickens is reached between 3i to 4J weeks.

110 HORMONES Variation in the Content of Oestrogenic Substances in the Egg during Incubation, Variation des substances oestrogènes de Voeuf de poule au cours de Vincubation, J. Ribouilleau. Comptes Rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 129, 1938, p. 1045. During a certain period of the development (12th to 16th day) the male embryo contains a much higher percentage of oestrogenic substances than does the female. Afterwards this percentage decreases rapidly in the male embryo.

The Content of Oestrogenic Substances in Fertile and Unfertile Eggs. Teneur en substances oestrogènes de Voeuf vierge et de Voeuf féconde des oiseaux, J. Ribouilleau. Comptes Rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 129, 1938, p. 910. Only fertile eggs contain oestrogenic substances. The percentage appears to vary according to the weight of the yolk. There are 1-5 to 2 y folliculine per gramme yolk present. An Oestrogenic Substance in the Feathers of certain Birds, Mise en évidence d'une substance oestrogène dans les plumes de quelques oiseaux, L. R. Chanton. Comptes Rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 129, 1938, p. 1094. The feathers of birds and the uropygenic glands contain oestrogenic substances. The quantity varies according to the sex. They contain 70 to 80 y folliculine to 100 grammes feathers in hens as against 30 to 50 to 100 in cocks.

Determination of the Threshold Value of Male Hormone for Maintaining the Comb at Normal Size, Determination du seuil de conditionnement total de la crête du coq domestique, F. Caridroit and V. Régnier. Comptes Rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 129, 1938, p. 44. The writers experimented with a view to ascertaining what quantity of testosterone propionate was necessary to maintain the size of the combs of castrated cocks. This proved to lie between 0-3 and 1*7 mg. per day.

Eunuchoidism in Cockerels, Quelques cas d'Eunuchoidisme par hypoplasie ou absence de Tissu interstitiel glandulaire chez le coq domestique, J. Benoit. Comptes Rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 234. Poorly developed comb accompanied by extensive testicular regeneration sometimes occurs in capons. These were poor in interstitial cells. This proves that these are necessary for the formation of male hormones and are not produced by the sperm delivering cells.

Ill Ejfect of Sexual Hormones on Hen Embryos, Quelques par- ticularités dans les effects des hormones sexuelles sur Vembryo du poulet. V. Dantchakoff. Comptes Rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 126, 1934, p. 177. Follicle hormone shortens embryonal development by 1 day. Testo- sterone lengthens the period of development. Folliculine does not diminish vitality. Vitality is small before and after hatching when testosterone injections have been given. Testosterone causes disturbances in the histogenetic chemicism. Experiments in connection with Broodiness, Experimentelle Untersuchungen über die Brütigkeit der Hühner, M. Eigemann. Thesis, München, 1936. It is possible to breed broody and non-broody breeds. Hormones are assumed to be the cause of broodiness. The course of broodiness can be divided into three stages. The comb, wattles and genital organs are small during broodiness. The occurrence of broodiness depends on the season and sun rays. Broodiness can be caused by the hormone prolactin. Experiments in connection with Parathyroid Glands and Calcium Metabolism, Esperienze sopra la relazione fra le ghiandole paratiroidi ed il metabolismo del calcio neue galine. Dr. Veritas. Mundo Avicola, Vol. 14, 1935, p. 89. After the removal of the parathyroid gland an increase of the calcium content in the blood takes place. Food, lacking sufficient quantities of vitamin D, causes an extra strong development of the parathyroid gland. The parathyroid glands of hens which had been kept behind glass and without cod liver oil were five times as large as those of normal hens. Experiments with Hormones, Hormonale Beeinflussung der Legetätigkeit beim Huhn, W. Eufinger. Archiv für Geflügelkunde, 1939, No. 1/2. In 1937 I carried out a number of experiments in nationally approved poultry farms with the object of influencing the Qgg production by the use of Prolan. The investigation covered a total of 1973 hens, out of which 1,024 were treated with Prolan and the remaining 949 hens were used as control hens for the purpose of comparison. As suitable for Prolan treatment were taken only such hens as had ceased their annual laying period, with the proviso that the ceasing of the laying interruption coincided with the commencement of the treatment. By such hens an increase in the laying productivity could be shown over the full trial period of 4 weeks as follows :— {a) By young hens, by injection of 5-0 rat units of Prolan an average of 3 eggs ; by injection of 12-5 rat units of Prolan an average of 8 eggs ; by injection of 100-0 rat units of Prolan an average of 7 eggs. {b) By injection of 12-5 rat units of Prolan an average of 3 eggs ; by injection of 25-0 rat units of Prolan an average of 5 eggs. Poor productivity in the case of hens influenced by unsuitable or unhealthy environment could be improved in Ca 4 weeks by :— {a) In the young hens by injection of 5 -0 rat units of Prolan practically nothing (0-05 eggs) ; by injection of 12-5 rat units of Prolan an average of 3 eggs ; by injection of 100-0 rat units of Prolan an average of 2 eggs.

112 (b) By breeding hens by injection of 12-5 rat units of Prolan an average of 3 eggs ; by injection of 25-0 rat units of Prolan an average of 2 eggs. The carrying out of the experiments in breeding farms under practical conditions showed that the Prolan treatment with the described doses can be economically successful. The Morphological Basis of Pituitary Function in Pigeons. J. P. Schooley and O. Riddle. American Journal of Anatomy, Vol. 62, 1938, p. 313. Study is reported of the histological changes in the anterior lobe of the pituitary of over 200 male and female pigeons and doves through immaturity, resting stages, ovulation, incubation and feeding of the young. From physiological studies of implanted material, as well as cytological studies, it appears that heavily granulated cells are not related to the potency or storage of hormones. Gonad-stimulating hormone seems to come from basophile cells and prolactin from acidophile cells. Some effects of Adrenalectomy in Fowls. E. H. Herrick and O. Torstveit. Kansas Experiment Station. Endocrino- logy, Vol. 22, 1938, p. 469. The effects of adrenalectomy on male fowls were studied in birds kept alive for as long as 82 days by cortical extract and salt solution. Adrena- lectomy was followed by loss of colour and turgidity of the comb within 2 to 4 days and a reduction in the size of the testicles. The combs were finally markedly reduced in size, the testes shrunken and cells degenerated, and the sickle and hackle feathers assumed caponlike characteristics. The Endocrine System and Plumage Types. I. Some effects of hypothyroidism. A. S. Parkes and H. Selye. Journal of Genetics, Vol. 34, 1937, p. 297. The effects of thyroidectomy on the colour and structure of the feathers developing on several breeds of fowls were studied at the National Institute for Medical Research, London. In general, thyroidectomy caused a loss of barbules, giving a fringed appearance to the feather which was also frequently elongated. In the Brown Leghorn there was a replacement of black pigment by red. The black of the feathers of the under surface and wing bar was replaced by white in the Silver Dorking. In the Barnevelder the size of the brown core was much more enlarged. The white spangling on most of the feathers of the Ancona disappeared so that new feathers were solid black. In Sebright Bantam feathers there was a loss in the definition of the black border, and the changes were largely dissimilar to those following gonadectomy. In the Khaki Campbell drake the dark brown feathers of the posterior dorsal area changed to the stippled silver type characteristic of the posterior ventral area. There were no noticeable colour changes in the Black Minorca, Black Leghorn, Black Plymouth Rock, or the Barred Plymouth Rock. On the Eclipse Plumage of the Mallard {Anas platyrhyncha platyrhyncha). A. Walton. Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol. 14, 1937, p. 440. The eclipse plumage of the male mallard {Anas platyrhyncha platyrhyncha) which normally appears in June and July, has been produced prema- turely in February and March by subjecting the birds to artificial light in addition to normal daylighi.

113 H Castration of male mallards did not prevent the assumption of eclipse in the first year but did so in the second year. Regenerated tissue was not found. It is concluded that the eclipse plumage is not caused by the direct action of a testicular hormone on the feather follicle, but that removal of the testis sooner or later produces an effect on some other endocrine organ or organs which consequently ceases to be sensitive to seasonal change (light) or fails to produce the hormones which bring about eclipse. Biological Dijfer enees in the action of Synthetic Male Hormones on the Differentiation of Sex in the Chick Embryo, B. H. Willier, M. E. Rawles and F. C. Koch. Nati. Acad. Sei. Proc, Vol. 24, 1938, p. 176. (Ref. Experi- ment Station Record, Vol. 79, 1938, p. 615.) Results are briefly presented on the effects of sesame oil and propylene glycol solutions of androsterone, dehydroandrosterone, androstenedione, and testosterone injected into eggs incubated from 43 to 72 hours on the differentiation of the sex organs of the developing male and female embryos. The androsterone and dehydroandrosterone have both masculinising and feminising effects, whereas testosterone propionate has a masculinising effect only upon the differentiating sex organs and tissues. The first two androgens in genetic males bring about the development of ovarian cortex and persistence of oviducts, but in genetic females they inhibit the development of the same organs. The size of the testes was reduced in genetic males by testosterone propionate, but the strong feminising action was not evident. Although the degree of intersexuality produced by given doses varied, the smaller doses induced hypertrophy of the right ovary and Wolffian ducts but larger doses were required to bring about testicular changes in the left ovary. Effect of Thyroxin and Female Hormone on one phase of Saddle Feather Development. R. M. Fraps. Soc. Expt. Biol. and Med. Proc, Vol. 38, 1938, p. 201. Continuing the studies of feather growth the effect of thyroxine or female hormone injections on saddle feather growth in the Brown Leghorn male or capon is described. Germinal Basis of Thyroxin and Female Hormone effect on Barb Origin in Saddle Feathers, R. M. Fraps. Soc. Expt. Biol. and Med. Proc, Vol. 38, 1938, p. 206. The significance of the influence of thyroxine and female hormone on the origin of barbs in saddle feathers in the Brown Leghorn male and capon is described. Luteinizing Hormone in Bird Hypophyses, S. L. Leonard. Soc Expt. Biol. and Med. Proc, Vol. 37, 1937, p. 566. The administration of doses of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg. of powdered chicken hypophyses to immature female rats was found to increase the weights of the ovaries materially except in the case of the smallest dose. The presence of the luteinising hormone was made evident by the response of 155 and 222 per cent, augmentation in the weight of the ovaries when follicle-stimulating hormone was also administered. The powdered chicken hypophyses induced luteinisation in hypophysectomised rats and induced some repair of the atrophied adrenals. All of these results show that the chicken hypophysis is capable of stimulating both follicular growth and luteinisation in the rat ovary.

114 Precocious Masculine Behaviour following Administration of Synthetic Male Hormone Substance, J. B. Hamilton. Endocrinology, Vol. 23, 1938, p. 53. Injection of 500 y of testosterone propionate into chicks, beginning on the 2nd day after hatching, induced growth in the sex organs and precocious cocklike behaviour, ahhough body growth was stunted. Crowing appeared as early as 10 days. Relative effectiveness of Testosterone-Propionate and Dihydro- androsterone-benzoate in the Chick as indicated by Comb Growth, W. R. Breneman. Endocrinology, Vol. 23, 1938, p. 44. In unoperated chicks, dihydroandrosterone benzoate was more effective in producing comb growth than testosterone propionate. The former was most effective in a single dose, whereas the latter was mot effective in a series of small doses. Continued comb growth after cessation of injection was not the result of retention and slow utilisation because comb growth was distinctly less in chicks caponised at 5 days than in unoperated chicks. Perhaps some other androgenic substances played a role. Development of other secondary sex characters was noted, including crowing at 11 days of age. Estimation of Capon-Comb Growth Hormone in Urine. E. Dingemanse and E. Laqueur. Pharmaco-Therapeutic Laboratory, University of Amsterdam. Biochemical Journal, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 651. (1) When urine, after addition of 150 ml., 25 per cent. HCl per litre, is heated for two periods of 6 hours in presence of benzene, no loss of comb growth-promoting substances occurs. (2) If 10 ml. 25 per cent. HCl are added instead of 150 ml., the yield of comb growth-promoting hormones remains the same. (3) When free androsterone and/or dehydroandiosterone is added to urine freed from comb growth-promoting substances beforehand and extracted with benzene in the presence of 150 ml., 25 per cent. HCl per litre in a boiling water bath for two periods of 6 hours recovery of activity is quantitative. (4) When, on the other hand, these acidified urines containing added free hormones are boiled without benzene a loss of 60 per cent, of activity occurs in 15 minutes and more than 80 per cent, in 2 hours. (5) Natural urine boiled with 1/10 volume 25 per cent. HCl in absence of benzene for 15 minutes may lose none of its male hormone activity, while when boiled for 2 hours some loss occurs. Boiling natural urine with double the quantity of acid always diminishes the content of comb growth-promoting substance. (6) After boiling urine in absence of benzene for 2 hours with 1/10 volume, 25 per cent HCl, no dehydroandrosterone could be detected. Experimental Modification of the Accessory Sexual Apparatus in the Hen. A. W. Greenwood and J. S. S. Blyth. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology, Vol. 28, 1938, p. 61 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 7981. Eggs were injected 48 hours after the commencement of incubation with a standard dose of 1 mg. of estrone in 1 c.c. of ethylene glycol. The form and functions in the accessory sexual apparatus of the resulting pullets were examined. Only one of a group of six females laid normal eggs when sexually mature, the remainder producing eggs devoid of shell or lacking both shell

115 and membranes. All of the birds autopsied possessed two oviducts incompletely developed both with regard to total length and length of component parts. The total weight of the two ducts approximated that of the single left oviduct in the normal hen. It is suggested that either the estrone injection to the egg interfered with the normal processes of differentiation of the MüUerian duct into the sex duct in the embryo, rendering it incapable of efficient response to the hormone stimulus subsequently supplied by the functional ovary of the individual, or that the normal level of secretion of female hormone by the fowFs ovary is sufficient only for the complete development of a single duct.

Endocrine Control of Fat Metabolism. Poultry Tribune, January, 1939. Laboratory experiments are continually adding to our information on " what makes the wheels go round '* inside the hen, and no type of experiment is more important in this respect than the sort which deals with endocrine secretions or hormones. It is well known, for example, that marked changes occur in the blood of hens prior to and during Qgg laying as compared with periods of non-laying, but the reasons for these changes are not all clear. Workers at the California Agricultural Experiment Station have been investigating this question. Using immature S. C. White Leghorn pullets, 8 to 11 weeks old, they studied the effect of daily injections of pregnant-mare serum (as a source of the gonadotropic hormone) on oviduct size and the level of various fats and fatty acids in the blood. The observed changes in the blood were strikingly similar to those observed in normal laying hens ; continued injections producing a distinct and relatively enormous rise in the blood lipids. The rise in blood lipids was not associated with the formation of yolks, but was very definitely related to the increase in the size of the oviduct.

Antagonistic effect of Androsterone on Hyperthyroid Molting of Hens. B. M. Zavadovskii and E. G. Nesmeyanova- Zavadovskaya. Bull. Biol. Med. Exptl., U.S.S.R., Vol. 3, 1937, p. 119 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 7092. A single feeding of dry thyroid gland (10 to 20 grammes) leads to marked and lasting (up to 7 days) moulting in hens and castrated roosters but produces very little or no change in the plumage of normal roosters. Injection of male sex hormones into castrated roosters restores their normal resistance to hyperthyroid moulting. Injections of synthetic androsterone simultaneously with thyroid feeding to normal hens prevented or markedly decreased moulting. The quantity of androsterone injected did not influence the degree of moulting but significantly affected the time of onset of moulting, the larger doses producing a longer delay. Thyroid feeding did not inhibit the effect of androsterone on comb growth.

Precocious Masculine Behaviour following Administration of Synthetic Male Hormone Substance. J. B. Hamilton. Endocrinology, Vol. 23, 1938, p. 53. In the newly hatched chick synthetic male sex substance, although causing stunting of body growth, can stimulate not only gross and cytological growth of organs but also, at least in the males, induction of cock-like behaviour.

116 Aggressiveness and crowing appeared in 10-day old chicks, weight 68-70 grammes, and antedated development of mature polypitch tones. This stimulation of precocious function is of interest in relation to the influence of androgenic substances upon sexual and other behaviour. A behaviour recognised as ** masculine '* can be induced by synthetic male hormone substance and can be accomplished irrespective of the knowledge of an individual that treatment is being given. Further Regression of the Capon Comb after Estrogenic Hor- mones, O. Mühlbock. Acta Brevia Neerland. Physio- logy, Pharmacology, Microbiology, Vol. 8, 1938, p. 142. The combs of four adult capons which were smeared with 500 y estradiol benzoate for four successive days decreased from 15 to 20 per cent, in size and remained small at least 4 weeks. The same effect was observed in six additional fowls. Further treatments with estrogenic substance caused no further decrease in size. If these combs were smeared with comb-growth substances they responded as did combs of normal fowls. The mode of action of this phenomenon is not clear. Influence of the Season on the Sensitivity of the Cock's Comb. K. David. Acta Brevia Neerland. Physiology, Pharma- cology, Microbiology, Vol. 8, 1938, p. 133. Wide seasonal fluctuations were observed in the increase in size of the capon's comb after treatment with 100 y of androsterone four times a week. The increase observed in the late fall and winter was about twice that observed in the summer. Assay of Male Hormones by the '' Chicken Test'' M. Danby. Acta Brevia Neerland. Physiology, Pharmacology, Microbiology, Vol. 8, 1938, p. 90. Androsterone, testosterone and testosterone propionate applied along both sides of the comb of 6-day old White Leghorn chicks for ten consecutive days produced large increases in growth over that observed in combs of control chickens. D. concludes that the chicken test is suitable for the assay of male hormones, that the sex of the chicken has no influence on the test, and that Rhode Island chickens are not suitable for the test. Physiologic Studies on the action of the Male Sex Hormones. I. Studies of capons, W. Schoeller and M. Gehrke. Klinische Wochenschrift, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 694. The hormones were given in one injection of 1 c.c. of sesame oil to capons 8 to 10 weeks old. Androstanediol (1) and testosterone (II) showed optimal effect on comb growth at about 50 r. Probably because of overflow through the kidneys larger amounts up to 1 mg. caused little further comb growth but prolonged the action. The effect of androsterone (III) and the acetates, propionates, butyrates, valerates and benzoates of I, II and III were approximately proportional to the amount used up to 1 mg. The butyrate of III showed maximum intensity of action but that of the benzoate was more prolonged with an optimal dose at 500 r. The three monoesters of I were more active than I with the greatest intensity and duration of action again in the benzoate. The propionate of II was the most active in small amounts ; the benzoate had very little activity. When the propionates and benzoates were compared at a level of 1 mg. these esters

117 of androstanediol caused the largest increases (112 and 69 per cent.) in comb area with longest duration times (47 and 60 days). Weekly injections of capons over a period of time indicated a daily requirement of 50 to 60^ of II propionate for maintenance of the comb at normal size. Single crystals of 1 and 2 mg. of II and its propionate implanted under the skin causes 14 to 24 times as much comb growth as a single dose of 2 mg. in oil and the effect was of much longer (80 to 100 days) duration. The powdered androgens, dry and suspended in various media were much less active. The results with I and III and with androstenedione were similar although the benzoate of III showed very little activity when implanted as a single crystal. Action of Estradiol Benzoate on the Comb of the Hen, V. Régnier and F. Caridroit. Comptes Rendus Société Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 404. In young pullets and in adult non-laying hens a total of 1 mg. per week of estradiol benzoate caused a small decrease in the size of the comb. In laying hens 2 to 5 mg. per week had no effect on the comb. Effect of Sex Hormones on the Cock Comb {Studies with folliculin^ progesterone and androsterone), J. Morato- Manaro, A. S. Albrieux and W. Buno. Klinische Wochenschrift, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 784. Oily solutions of the hormones were rubbed on the combs. In 7 days 43,750 international units of folliculin (progynon B) reduced the size of the comb an average of 23-5 per cent, and caused atrophy of the testicles. In 10 days 12-5 mg. of androsterone produced an increase of 99 per cent, in the size of the comb and a marked atrophy of the testicles with cessation of spermatogenesis. These effects are attributed to inhibition of the hypophysis. Pro- gesterone produced no effect on the comb, adrenal, thymus, thyroid or testicles. Effect of Human and Animal Urine and of Serums on the Ovaries of Animals. A. Strickler. American Journal of Cancer, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 249 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 7098. Serum from chickens injected with pregnancy urines containing high concentrations of estrin caused haemorrhagic changes in the ovaries when injected into virgin female rabbits ; serum from chickens injected with urines containing high concentrations of the gonadotropic hormone caused fewer reactions. No changes in the ovaries of chickens were produced by intra- peritoneal injection of urines containing the gonadotropic hormone ; haemor- rhages were produced in 43 per cent, of the series when cholesterol and lecithin were added to the urines injected. Relative Effectiveness of Testosterone Propionate and Dihydro- androsterone Benzoate in the Chick as Indicated by Comb Growth, W. R. Breneman. Endocrinology, Vol. 23, 1938, p. 44. The injection of dihydroandrosterone benzoate (I) and testosterone propionate (II) into the normal chick gave results with respect to comb growth which were contrary to those described in the literature for the capon. Generalisations concerning male-hormone action which have been based on treatment of capons are inadequate when applied to the response observed

118 in the normal chick. I was more effective in producing comb growth than II. II elicited a greater comb growth when given in a series of smaller doses than when the same amount was given in a single injection. I was effective when given in single doses. Comb growth was comparable to that produced by daily injections and was greater than that in most of the II series. Combs continued to grow after the cessation of injections, and the data indicate that this continued growth is not a result of the retention and slow utilisation of the injected hormone. Development of other secondary sex characters was observed and crowing occurred as early as the 11 th day of age. Gonadotropic Hormone and the Level of Blood Phosphorus in the Hen, M. Laskowski. Biochemical Journal, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 1176. Summary : (1) After a single suitable dose of gonadotropic hormone (pituitary or mare serum) the appearance of serum-vitellin in the blood stream of resting hens was observed. The other phosphorus fractions of the plasma rose simultaneously. In some cases a value for total phosphorus of 140 mg. per 100 ml. was found, being ten times higher than the normal value for resting hens and three times higher than for laying hens. (2) Gonadotropic hormones of urinary origin do not influence blood phosphorus. (3) The effect cannot be applied to assay of the hormones, but may serve for the differentiation of urinary and pituitary hormones.

119 DISEASES INFECTIOUS DISEASES PULLORUM Die Frage der Blutuntersuchungen im Rahmen des Geflügel- gesundheitsdienstes, W. Schmidt. Archiv für Geflügel- kunde, 1938, No. 8/9. Summary : By the use of the " Quick " Method the presence of Bacterium pullorum can with certainty be proved. This method gives very nearly as reliable results as the " Slow '* Method. It can, therefore, and also by reason of its simplicity and economy of time and money be given the preference. Whole Blood Pullorum Test Studies. A. R. Winter. State University, Columbus, Ohio. Poultry Science, Vol. 18, 1938, p. 6. Summary : There was 99 per cent, agreement between the whole blood and tube test (1 :50 dilution) on 5,867 birds where there was little pullorum infection. This is not statistically significant because of the small number of positive birds involved. There was 87 per cent, agreement between the two tests in a group of birds which included many positive and doubtful birds. The higher the percentage of infection in a flock, the greater the percentage of disagreement that may be expected between the tube and whole blood tests. The tube test detected a few birds with low agglutination titre not detected by the whole blood test. These birds are being subjected to further study. There was close agreement between the whole blood tests conducted at 40° F. and at 90° F. The higher temperature reduced the time required for agglutination to take place. Rotation of the test plate after mixing the blood and antigen gave more reliable readings than when the plate was not rotated. More reliable results were obtained with a loop of whole blood than with a loop of serum in testing for pullorum with a stained antigen. Red antigen compared favourably with violet antigen when used in the whole blood test. Agglutination took place slightly quicker with the red antigen. The red antigen agglutination could be read more easily than the violet antigen agglutination in dim light. Feeding a heavy feed of wet mash containing 20 per cent, soybean oil meal 2 hours before making the whole blood test did not interfere with the test. Blood Testing and B,W.D. Report of Authoritative Investiga- tion in Belgium. Dr. Leynen. Poultry, Australia. December 10th, 1938. Conclusions : Bacillus pullorum is responsible for the bacilliary white diarrhoea in our country. In practice, it should be distinguished in Belgium from Bacillus sanguinarium, this latter causing deadly epizootics among adult fowls, a thing

120 which is unknown here in flocks where the germ causes a deadly epizootic among chicks. The absence of fowls reacting positively to sero-agglutination, and the simultaneous absence of chick mortality due to Bacillus pullorum^ together with the presence of Bacillus pullorum in the dead bodies of chicks from flocks in which there are fowls which react positively to sero-agglutination, demonstrate in a practical manner the specificity of this reaction. The elimination of positive reacters from flocks, in which Bacillus pullorum kills the chicks, is followed by improvement and the disappearance of the disease. The testing of fowls for purposes of elimination should be continued for at least 3 years. A negative reaction from a single fowl in an infected flock has only a relative value, inasmuch that this reaction may be obtained from a non-infected fowl. The value of the negative reaction becomes absolute when it is produced in a fowl from a flock in which all the fowls show a negative reaction. Infected fowls can give non-infected progeny. This seems to be particularly true of males, which appear to have more resistance than females. The role of cocks which react positively seems to be less important than that of hens. No positive results have been obtained in experimental endeavours to cause contamination, however, because they may prove dangerous through cohabitation. The blood analysis should be continued in the contests, because of the possible danger to a flock through the introduction of a cock giving a positive reaction. This test also gives the breeders information regarding the disease, and the prophylactic measures which should be taken. The curative treatment with phenic acid and anti-Klein serum gave no results. Bacteriophage had neither curative nor preventive efifects on Bacillus pullorum. Vaccination of infected fowls with a culture of Bacillus pullorum had no influence on their progeny. Neither this vaccine nor lodaspeptine Cortial sterilised germ carriers. Yolk-Agglutination against Pullorum-disease, Die Dotter- agglutination bei der Kükenruhr. Dr. E. R. Stoilowa. Zeitschrift für Infektionskrankheiten, Vol. 53, 1938, p. 236. The yolks from the ovaries of hens, the remains of the yolks of chickens and the yolks of hatching eggs were subjected to the rapid agglutination test. Controls was carried out by means of cultivation tests and the rapid blood test. In the hens and chickens examined there was similarity between the yolk-agglutination and the cultures. There was no absolute similarity in the egg tests. The percentage in the similarity results increased from the 6th to the 21st day of hatching. The other diagnostical means cannot be completely replaced by yolk-aggluntination. Differentiation between B, pullorum and B. gallinarum. Saggi di differenzione fra Bacterium pullorum (Rettger) e Bacterium gallinarum {Klein) per mezzo delV agglutin- azione aspecifica alia tripaflavina, J. Kujumgieff. Sofia. Giornale Batter., Vol. 19, 1937, p. 364. Trypaflavine in physiologic salt solution 1 : 1,000 gives a positive agglutination with Bacteria pullorum and with Bacteria gallinarum a negative agglutination. This method is clear and practical if a salt solution is used and not aqua dest. The aspecific agglutination of Pullorum bacilli in Trypaflavine. A propos du comportement des Salmonella Pullorum-

121 gallinarum dans Vagglutination aspecifique à la trypaflavine, N. Scarapellini. Bollettino della Società inter- nazionale de Microbiologica, Vol. 10, 1938, p. 44. Although the reaction of Kuyumgieff does not apply to all cases, it was ascertained that all strains which agglutinise with trypaflavine are certainly not Salmonella gallinarum. Combating of Pullorum Disease in Belgium. Pullorum bes- trijding in Belgie, Table of the birds examined and the percentage which reacted.

Animals. Reaction. Per cent. 1932...... 8,261 13-2 1933...... 8,794 4-7 1934...... 11,552 2-7 1935...... 11,753 4-3 1936...... 13,064 4-9 1937...... 17,709 3-6 1938...... 18,226 1-7

Study of three types of Pullorum Bacilli from America, Etude de souches américaines .asiatiques et européennes de microbes du groupe pullorum-gallinarum. E. Delpy and R. Raste- gar. Annales de l'Institut Pasteur, Vol. 61, 1938, p. 536. (1) The bacilli of fowl typhoid and pullorum belong to the type Salmon- ella lignières (1900). (2) On the basis of this study the various types were classified as follows : S, gallinarum^ S. pullorum A, S. pullorum B, S. intermedia A, S. intermedia B. An outbreak of Pullorum Disease in young Guinea Fowl. H. Bunyea. U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 94, 1939, p. 233. Description of a case of infection by B, pullorum in young guinea fowl. The writer believes this to be the first recorded occurrence of pullorum disease in the guinea fowl. Susceptibility of Wild Birds to Salmonella pullorum Infection. Sulla recettività di alcune specie di volatili alVinfezione Sperimentale da B. pullorum. S. Villani. Profilassi, Vol. 10, 1937, p. 148. The author tested the susceptibility of various domestic and wild birds to artificial infection with S. pullorum. The virulence of the strain was first determined by subcutaneous inoculations into pigeons. Pheasants, finches, sparrows, turkeys, geese, ducks and doves were readily infected, death following within 24 hours. In every case it was possible to recover the organism from the heart blood. The lesions varied but there was always an intense enteritis

122 and diarrhœa and sometimes congestion of the lungs and pleura, fatty degeneration of the myocardium and enlargement of the liver, kidneys and spleen. Doves appeared to be the most susceptible. It is concluded that wild birds may suffer from a natural infection and can act as carriers of the disease. Body Temperatures of White Leghorn Hens infected with Salmonellapullorum, W. F. Lamoreux. Poultry Science, Vol. 14, 1935, No. 6. The difference between the mean temperatures of non-infected and four infected groups of White Leghorns is more than three times, and of the total infected more than seven times its standard error. The frequency distribu- tions of the temperatures show the definite trend towards higher temperatures in the infected birds. The mean temperature of normal hens was 107*4° F. Fowl Paratyphoid and Coccidiosis in Brazil, Pullorose e eimeridioses no Brasil, Verificaçoes feitas no Estado de Santa Catharina e na Estaçào Experimental de Deodor o, D. de Aquino. Bol. Soc. brasil Med. vet.. Vol. 7, 1937, p. 9. (Ref. Veterinary Bulletin, Vol. 9, 1939, p. 169.) A description of cases of pullorum disease and coccidiosis observed in Tubarao, State of Santa Catharina, with a review of the literature on Eimeriidae of animals found in Brazil up to 1935. No new material is given.

PARATYPHOID AND CHOLERA Fowl Cholera, F. R. Beaudette and J. J. Black. Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, N.Y. Hints to Poultrymen, Vol. 24, No. 3, 1937. Infection is most easily brought into a flock by apparently healthy carriers which acquired the infection in a poultry show, egg-laying contest or as survivors of an outbreak. If they introduce the fluorescent type of organism and if the population is highly susceptible the mortality is certain to be high. The outbreak stops when the susceptible material is exhausted. Cleaning and the removal of affected birds are not entirely effective because neither identifies the healthy carrier. Medicinal treatment is of no value and vaccines have thus far failed. The organism does not live long outside the body. Prevention is almost entirely a matter of no traffic in live birds except day-old chicks. In the annual outbreaks in infected flocks, the young stock is largely affected, but a few cases occur in old birds. The surest way to get rid of the disease is to dispose of all survivors, clean up the houses, and begin with day-old chicks. If a breeding programme prevents such a radical measure, strict isolation of survivors is necessary. Separate caretakers should be provided if possible and survivors should be housed at a sufficient distance from the young birds to make transmission by air-borne infection impossible. All measures must be rigidly adhered to until survivors are eliminated. The treatment of localised infections includes opening abscessed wattles or infected sinuses and the removal of exúdate from eye or nasal cavity, followed by the application of antiseptics. Recovered birds, however, are almost certain to be continuous carriers.

123 The practice of using cockerels in a population of survivors is merely inviting trouble. Abscess of the w^attle is so common in this case that dubbing the wattle beforehand is frequently practised. Curiously enough in experiments a carrier of the fluorescent type may be placed with healthy birds without their contracting the disease. The value of Chemically-Killed Cultures for the control of Cholera in Ducks, K. F. Hubert and H. Tax. Poultry Disease Laboratory, Farmingdale, New York. The Cornell Veterinarian, Vol. 28, 1938, p. 275. On four ranches on which duck cholera was causing losses, 45,411 ducks and ducklings were vaccinated with a whole culture ; phenol-killed bacterin and 5,761 birds raised and fed with the others, were kept untreated as controls. The mortality from duck cholera averaged 4 • 1 per cent, in the vaccinated birds and 29-4 per cent, in the unvaccinated. It is concluded, therefore, that the procedure is a means of controlling this disease even when the birds are kept under the insanitary conditions which prevail on the ordinary duck ranch.

The G lucido-lipidie Antigen of Pasteur ella. Sur U antigène glucide-lipidique des Pasteur ella, J. Pirosky. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 127, 1938, p. 98. Chemically and biologically the sugar lipoid complex of Pasteurella is similar to that of numerous other bacteria cultivated by Bovin and Mesro- beanu. The sugar lipoid forms the endotoxin and the H antigen. The characteristics of G lucido-lipidie Antigen of Pasteurella, Sur les propriétés immunicantes antitoxiques et anti- infectieuses de rantigène glucido-lipidique de Pasteurella aviseptica, J. Pirosky. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 127, 1938, p. 966. The gludico-lipidic matter contained in O antigen and endotoxin of Pasteurella acted in various ways on mice. If they are given injections of Pasteurella and mucin solution without mucin solution then Pasteurella is not pathogenic for mice. Bacilli Carriers in Cholera, Sobre o reconhecimento de porta- dores na cholera aviaria e a peristenacion da Pasteurella avicidi nesces animales, P. Nobrega and J. Reis. Archiv, do instituto biológico. Sao Paulo, Vol. 8, 1937, p. 183. (Ref. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Vol. 130, 1938, p. 184. The authors distinguish three kinds of cholera (1) the type which is fatal to very sensitive birds, (2) the type which is fatal to more resistant birds, (3) a type which occurs in bacilli carriers. The typus fluorescens can remain active in the body (nasal secretion) for 15 months.

Studies in connection with Infection and Immunity by Cholera- Experimentelle Studien über Infektion und Immunität bei

124 Geflûgelcholera. IL B. Kalikin. Jugoslav. Vet. Glas- nitz, Vol. 17, 1933, p. 428. Without v^ounding of the pituitary membrane of the digestive organs, no infection occurs in poultry but neither is there any immunity per os against cholera. Mortality in Ducklings by S. typhi-murium and S, enteritidis var, Essen, Eendenkuikensterfte door S. typhi-murium and S. enteritidis var, Essen, Dr. J. Jansen. Tijdschrift voor Diergeneeskunde, Vol. 63, 1936, p. 140. Summary : Besides a mortality among ducklings due to S. enteritidis var. essen and S. typhi-murium f the author relates a spontaneous case of chicken mortality due to S. enteritidis var. essen. In a fowl intramuscularly infected S, enteritidis var. essen was cultivated from the ovarium. Paratyphoid Infection of Pigeons. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Annual Report, 1937. Paratyphoid Infection of Pigeons.—^Additional agglutination tests have been made on field flocks, and, as a result of eliminating reactors, paratyphoid infection of pigeons appears to be held in check. The laboratory flock has been tested periodically, and all squabs reared have been tested. From some squabs a B. aertrycke Storrs variant has been isolated.

TUBERCULOSIS

Variation in the number of Leucocytes in Acute Tuberculosis, Variation de la formule leucocytaire et du rapport lympho- monocytaire dans la tuberculeuse aiguë de la poule. R. Grimai. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 655. In acute tuberculosis in fowl (Yersin type), which lasts 3 weeks, the following white blood image is : lymphocytosis in the 1st week, monunucleose in the 2nd week and finally neutrophily and disappearance of the eosinophils. The steady decrease of the lymphocytes is remarkable. Reaction of the Chorio-allantoic Membrane of the Chicken to Tubercle bacilli. Réaction de la Membrane chorio- allantoide de VEmbryon de Poulet aux Bacilles tuberculeux humaine et aviaires, L. Costil and F. Bloch. Comptes rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 40. By infection of the chorio-allantoic membrane with tubercle bacilli a diffuse leucocytic reaction with predominance of monocytes first occurs. This diffuse reaction is confined to the avian type of bacilli. In the human type nodules are formed which are already visible on the 7th day after the infection of the egg.

125 Reaction of the Chorio-allantoic Membrane of the Embryo of the Hen to B,C,G. Réaction de la membrane chorio- allantoide de Vembryon de Poulet au B.C.G. L. Costil and F. Bloch. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 129, 1938, p. 1094. The vaccine B.C.G. on the chorio-allantoic membrane gives a nodular reaction with an inclination to limit the lesions. Tuberc. Bact. of the Avian Type in a ganglion in lympho- granulomatosis. Présence d'un Bacille tuberculeux de type aviaire dans un ganglion de lymphogranulomatose maligne. H. Bonnet, S. Thieffry and Montefiore. Comptes rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 583. An avian tubercle bacillus was found in a mediastinal gland of a man who had died from Hodgkin's disease. Course of Tuberculin Reaction in Experimental Tuberculosis. Caractères et évolution des réactions tuberculiniques au cours de Vinfection expérimentale par le bacille tuberculeux aviaire. H. Bonnet, S. Thieffry and Montefiore. Comptes rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 585. Three to 5 weeks after intravenous infection the reactions in tuber- culination occur. From the 1st to the 2nd week after the infection the reactions become weaker and then disappear. For some weeks before death many birds are lethargic even before the occurrence of cachexia. Virulence of S and R Type of Tubercle Bacilli. Recherches sur la virulence smooth et rough du bacille tuberculeux aviaire. N. Stamatin and V. Tomescu. Comptes rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 127, 1938, p. 1348. There is no difference in the degree of virulence in the S and R types of tubercle bacilli. Morphology of Tubercle Bacilli. Contribution à l'étude de la Morphologie des bacilles tuberculeux du type aviaire. Cause d'erreur dans leur dosage expérimental. E. van Deinse and E. Hooghiemster. Comptes rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 243. The bacilli of different strains show noticeable differences in size. It is incorrect to measure the bacilli by weight when test birds are infected. The bacilli should be counted. The technique for this is explained. Weakening of Tubercle Bacilli. Atténuation de la virulence des souces de bacilles aviaires par passages successifs sur pomme de terre biliée et glycerinée. A. Saenz. Comptes rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 273. The writer distinguishes three strains of tubercle bacilli which, after 5 to 6 years cultivation on bile-potatoes, showed important deviation in virulence.

126 Studies of Avian Tuberculosis : (1) Avian tubercle bacilli in generalised disease in swine. (2) Comparative virulence of avian and bovine bacilli for rabbits and guinea pigs, (3) Sensitization method of differentiating avian from bovine infection in guinea pigs and rabbits. (4) The possible role of the avian tubercle bacillus in infection in human beings. American Review of Tuberculosis, Vol. 37, 1938, pp. 597, 588, 594. In 21 of 36 pigs suffering from tuberculosis the avian type of bacilli was found. Only 23 per cent, of the rabbits infected with these bacilli died of tuberculosis. By the tissue of 21 tuberculous pigs, guinea-pigs were sensitised against avian tuberculosis. The inhaling of the dust in infected poultry houses is especially dangerous for human beings. In general human beings are strongly resistant to avian tubercle bacilli. Eggs, too, are capable of transmitting the disease. The characteristics of Avian Tubercle Bacilli Cultures. Sur quelques caractères de culture du bacille tuberculeux aviaire. R. Laporte and R. Schwarz. Comptes rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 470. As a resuit of their experiments the writers decided that the division in R and S strains is not only a symptom of adaptation to the feeding bases. Immunisation with Avian Tubercle Bacilli by means of dead Bacilli in Paraffin. Immunisation et sensibilisation des lapins vis-à-vis de bacilles tuberculeux du type aviaire au moyen de bacilles aviaires morts^ englobés dans laparafinne. F. V. Deinse. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 202. The tests carried out with avian tubercle bacilli on rabbits gave negative results. Differentiation of Acid Resistant Bacilli by Agglutination. Versuche einer Differenzierung der säurefesten Bakterien mittels des Agglutinationsverfahrens. Die Unterscheidung der Tuberkelbazillen des Types gallinaceus von den Säugetiertuberkelbazillen. Dr. G. Chiti. Zentrallblatt für Bakteriologie, Originale, Vol. 142, 1938, p. 303. The bacilli of the Typus gallinaceus are antigenically distinguishable from those of mammal tubercle bacilli. The group of the avian tubercle bacilli is not regular in its antigenic formation. In antigen analysis attention must be paid to the division of the strains in S and R variants. The agglutination of the gallinaceus strains is usually flakey, except in the R form. Can Tubercle Bacilli of the Typus Gallinaceus be distinguished from Acid Résistants by growth in liquid media } Gelingt es y Tuberkelbazillen des Typus gallinaceus nach ihrem

127 Wachstum in flüssiger Kultur von anderen säurefester sicher zu unterscheiden ? Dr. G. Chiti. Zentrallblatt für Bakteriologie, Originale, Vol. 142, 1938, p. 913. An R type of the writer conducted itself as a mammalian type. Usually Typus gallinaceus occurs as an S type and often quite pure. The pituitary growth method according to Wolkers and Dehmel and the homogene growth are not certain characteristics of gallinaceus strains. B, pseudo-tuberculosis Rod, in Chicks. Das Vorkommen des B, pseudotuberculosis Rod, oder eines ihm änlichen Erregers bei Hühnerküken. Dr. W. Schäfer. Tierärztliche Rundschau, Vol. 45, 1939, p. 72. Description of a case of sickness in chicks caused by B. pseudotuberculosis Rod. The post-mortem showed only duodenitis catarrhalis. The Biologic characteristics of Avian Tubercle bacilli. Re- cherches sur les caractères biologiques du bacille tuberculeux aviaire. A. Saenz. Annales de l'Institut Pasteur, Vol. 61, 1938, p. 662. 1. The media with egg and glycerine are the most suitable for isolating avian tubercle bacilli. 2. After 6 years' storage at room temperature cultures on potatoes and eggs proved to be still virulent. 3. The morphologic polymorphism of avian bacilli is not found in mammalian bacilli. 4. The hen is infected through the digestive canal. The incubation period is very lengthy. 5. Freshly cultivated bacilli are extremely virulent for hens and rabbits» By cultivating them on different media the virulence can be weakened. 6. If the bacil is isolated while still fresh it shows type S. If cultivated on different media type R may occur. 7. Type R is not very constant and goes over into type S. 8. The virulence of stabilised types S and R is variable. There is no connection between the type of the culture and its virulence. Tubercle Bacilli in Eggs. Recherches du Bacille tuberculeux aviaire dans les oeufs provenant de poules tuberculeuses. Absence de Bacille dans les oeufs de poides infectées expéri- mentalement. H. Bonnet and Ch. Leblois. Comptes rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 130, 1929, p. 630. The writers administered intravenous injections of tubercle bacilli to hens. Tubercle bacilli were not found in the eggs. This is quite contrary to the results obtained by Maffuci and Liverani. In the opinion of the writers it is very improbable that human beings can be infected through the medium of eggs. The occurrence of Avian Tubercle Bacilli in dressed Poultry. W. H. Feldman. Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 63, 1939, p. 332. This article deals with the finding of avian tubercle in the spleens of dressed poultry in which no macroscopic evidence of tuberculosis was found

128 in any organ. In all, the spleens from 121 fowls of different ages and including 18 ducks and 4 turkeys were examined. Cultural methods were used in an attempt to demonstrate the presence of tubercle bacilli and from the emulsions of the spleens yielding colonies of acid fast bacilli, sub-cultures were made and tests were carried out for pathogenicity. The methods adopted are described and the result was that four spleens yielded tubercle bacilli of the avian type. The author, in his comment, states : "It seems reasonable to assume that had material from more adult chickens been examined, more positive results might have been secured. . . . However, the fact that tubercle bacilli were obtained from the tissues of fowls that were in good physical condition and without gross evidence of disease emphasises the difficulty of eliminating every tuberculous fowl even by competent methods of poultry inspection. Likewise these findings emphasise the importance of rearing poultry in a non-tuberculous environment if the ultimate consumer is to be assured that the dressed poultry he buys is not likely to be infected with tuberculosis. In the summary it is stated that the findings indicate that dressed poultry originating from districts where tuberculosis of fowls is prevalent may harbour avian tubercle bacilli of standard virulence, even though recognis- able morbid changes be absent, that tubercle bacilli may be present in apparently normal fowls reared in an infective environment and that " no practical method of post-mortem inspection will disclose the presence of tubercle bacilli in the absence of gross lesions." The author suggests that the correction of the situation consists in rearing fowls in a non-tuberculous environment. POX Do Starlings bring Fowl-Pox ? Feathered World, December 23rd, 1938. As a result of birds infected with fowl-pox constantly arriving at a market from the same farm, a visit was paid to the farm. It was found that the flock had access to a large horse yard with a partly thatched roof in which hundreds of starlings were nesting. The water from the roof drained down into the yard. The poultry was provided with clean drinking vessels full of water, but persisted in visiting the yard to drink the more tasty stagnant water. It was found that the water contained the germs of fowl-pox in large quantities. The flock was suffering badly, and 74 birds out of 171 were killed. The yard was cleaned and disinfected, and wire netting placed over a new thatch to keep out the starlings. No further trouble was experienced, although the poultry continued to run on the same meadow. Treatment of Fowl Pox with Trypaflavine. La trypaflavine dans le traitement des affections diphtero-varioliques des Poules. D. Aldo. Profilassi, 1937, p. 83. Favourable results with intravenous treatment with trypaflavine in cases of pox in hens. A Note on Fowl Pox Strains. T. G. Hungerford. The Australian Veterinary Journal, Vol. 14, 1938, p. 197. Several observations have been made which suggest that there are at least two strains of fowl-pox virus which may cause epizootics of considerable economic importance in fowls.

129 I An unusual Outbreak of Chicken-Pox. E. P. Johnson. Virginia Experiment Station. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 93, 1938, p. 115. Report is made of an outbreak of fowl-pox that occurred in a flock of 1,200 6-week-old White Plymouth Rock broilers, in which about 60 birds developed sores or scabs on the feet and legs. It is concluded that the absence of lesions on the combs and wattles was due to the lack of development of combs and wattles at this early age in this breed. No explanation is given for the absence of throat lesions in the outbreak other than that there is some difference in strains of chicken-pox virus in their affinity for certain tissues. An Outbreak of Pox in Turkeys with Notes on Diagnosis and Immunisation, C. A. Brandly and G. L. Dunlap. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 511. The clinical evidence of the occurrence of pox in this outbreak consisted in the occurrence of lesions on the feet apparently arising from infection with the virus of the injuries caused by toe-punching and in one case a lesion at the commissure of the mouth. The author describes four diagnostic methods. A tripathogenic Pox Virus of the Canary, J. Reis and P. Nobrega. Archivos do Instituto biológico, Sao Paulo, Vol. 8, 1937, p. 211. A description is given of a strain of avian pox virus which presents the peculiarity of being tripathogenic, as shown by its ability to infect chicks, pigeons, and passerine birds. It is pointed out that the virus is not a mixed one, since it does not dissociate into monopathogenic strains even after 15 serial passages through chicks, pigeons and canaries. It was isolated from canaries {Serinus canarius and Sicalis flaveola) suflFering from severe pox disease, which caused 98 per cent, mortality among them. Birds vaccinated with this pox virus showed a high degree of resistance against reinfection with the same virus and with those of fowl and pigeon-pox. Chicks and pigeons can be successfully immunised against the canary-pox virus by a previous infection with the viruses of fowl and pigeon-pox, respectively.

PEST

Fowl Pest in Birds, Geflügelpest und ähnliche Viruskrankheiten der Vögel Prof. Dr. K. Beller and Dr. E. Traub. Handbuch der Viruskrankheiten, Vol. 1, 1939. Edit. : Gustav Fischer, Jena. A review of the most recent literature dealing with fowl-pest and the methods of combating it. Further a description is given of diseases similar to fowl-pest under the heading : " Asiatic Fowl-Pest as Compared with European Fowl-Pest." The disease which occurs in Egypt, and which has been described by Langrange, seems to occupy a place between the two. A study of two Strains of Pest Virus, Etude comparée de deux souches de Peste Aviaire adaptée à la souris, P. Haber.

130 Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 129, 1938, p. 360. Important différences were discovered between a Dutch and an English strain. The Dutch virus is more viseerotropic than the English. The English is more neurotropic. As a result the symptoms of the sickness caused by these two kinds of virus also differ. Isolation and Cultivation of Fowl-Pest Virus, Prof. R. Kimura and N. Masunaga. Zentrallblatt für Bakterio- logie, I Abt., Originale, Vol. 143, 1939, p. 165. The virus allows of unlimited transfers from one embryo to another. This causes an increase of the virulence. The virus can also be cultivated in a medium with Tyrode solution and in a medium with pieces of hen embryo tissue or rabbit testicles. The Cultivation of Fowl-Pest Virus on the Chorio-allantóle Membrane of Chicken Embryos, Coltura del virus della peste aviaire sulla membrane chorion-allantoidea deW embrione di polio, P. Ambrosioni. La Clinica Veterin- aria, Vol. 61, 1938, p. 539. Historic summary of the cultivation of virus in eggs of chickens. As in former experiments Jouan and Staub failed to cultivate pest-virus in eggs in more than six passages ; the eggs were now inoculated on the 12th to 13th day of hatching. The writer has now obtained 15 passages in which the virus proved to be extremely virulent. Behaviour of Fowl Plague and Foot and Mouth Disease Viruses on Fowl Embryo Tissue Culture, Ueber das Verhalten des filtrierbaren Virus (Hühnerpest, Maul-und Klauenseuche) im Gewebe von Hühnembryonen, E. Weineck. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, 1. (Orig.), Vol. 141, 1938, p. 14. Cell-free filtrates of infected brain did not infect the egg embryos, but this was done by unfiltered brain. The virus was passaged through eggs up to 42 times and retained its virulence throughout. It had a damaging effect on the vessels of the allantois, resulting in the death of the embryos. On histological examination the ectoderm and mesoderm of the allantois were found to be thickened and invaded by erythroblasts, but the endoderm was unchanged. The vessels of the allantois were filled with normoblasts and surrounded by cell debris, and the endothelial cells were swollen and destroyed. Similar experiments with F. & M. disease virus were negative ; there was no infection of the embryo and no increase in the virus. The technique adopted was similar to that of Burnet, which was as follows :— ** The first stage in inoculating the egg is to cut through the shell (with) a dental engine fitted with a thin cutting disc. ... In cutting the shell, care must be taken to avoid damaging the underlying shell membrane. . . . After making the triangular cuts two small intersecting cuts just sufficiently deep to penetrate the hard surface of the shell are made in the centre of the area corresponding to the air space. . . . For the actual inoculation, a small hole is first drilled into the air space with the egg piercer, a short length of steel rod about 2-5 mm. in diameter with a four-sided point. The triangle of shell is removed with a straight cutting-edged needle mounted on a suitable

131 handle. A slit is now made in the shell membrane running in the direction of its fibres, ix,, obliquely transverse. This procedure is the only part of the technique which can be regarded as of some difficulty. The chorio-allantois lies immediately beneath the shell membrane, and is easily pierced by the needle point. . . . Properly done, this should result in the production of a little wedge of air between the lifted edge of the shell membrane and the chorio-allantois. If this is present, slight suction with a rubber teat on the opening into the air space will result in the egg contents being displaced into the air space with the development of an artificial air space between the shell membrane and the chorio-allantois. . . . Once the chorio-allantois has fallen away, the slit can be enlarged as desired. If a measured amount of inoculum is to be used, an opening large enough to allow free entry of a capillary pipette without touching the sides should be made. About 0-05 c.c. of the material to be inoculated is taken up in a sterile Pasteur pipette and blown gently on to the chorio-allantois. The egg is then labelled with pencil, and the openings sealed. A rim of paraffin- vaseline mixture is built up round the triangle from a Pasteur pipette filled with the heated material and a warm coverslip placed over the opening."

The Virus of Pseudofowlpest in the Netherlands India, H et Virus van de in Nederlandsch Indie voorkomende Pseudo- vogelpest, F. C. Kraneveld and A. Nasoetion. Neder- landsch Indische Bladen voor Diergeneeskunde, Vol. 50, 1938, p. 356. Summary : Working with 25 specimens of pseudofowlpest strains coming from various parts of the Netherlands Indian Archipelago (Java, Celebes, Sumatra), we were unable to infect mice by intracerebral injections, in spite of the fact that these animals were injected with maximal tolerable amounts of very virulent material (0-05 c.c. of a suspension of brains in sterile physiological salt solution 1 : 10, of which 1 c.c. of a suspension of 1 : 100,000 was always fatal for chickens). All 125 of the experimental mice remained completely healthy. On the other hand, the mice were regularly infected when injected in the same way with material of chicken plague strains obtained from the Netherlands and Switzerland.

On the Infection of Fowl-Pest Virus " Strain Chiba " in Mice. J. Nakamura and N. Imal. Institute for Veterinary Research, Eusan, Chosen. Journal of the Japanese Society of Veterinary Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 114. In the present work, the authors studied the pathogenicity of the strain Chiba of fowl-pest for virus in mice. The results were as follows :— The virus may probably multiply in brain, lungs and abdominal organs of the mouse. In this sense, it may be said to be " pan tropic." Under certain conditions, however, its propagation and persistence seem to be limited in brain and lungs, suggesting its '* specific affinity " to these organs.

Pseudo Fowl Pest, Ceylon Department of Agriculture Leaflet No. 101, 1937. A brief practical account of pseudo fowl-pest, also known as Newcastle disease, avian pest, and Ranikhet disease.

132 Fowl Pest in Cochin-china. Peste aviaire de Cochinchine. R. Vittoz. Receuil Médecine Vétérinaire exot., Vol. 11, 1938, p. 23. An extensive report on fowl-pest in Cochin-China. Special attention is drawn to the difference between the old-fashioned fowl-pest and pseudo- pest.

CORYZA INFECTIOSA The effect of the X Factor, of Sodium Chloride, and of the composition of the Nutrient Media upon the growth of the Fowl Coryza Bacillus Hemophilus gallinarum, J. P. Delaplane, L. E. Erwin and H. O. Stuart. Agricultural Experiment Station, Rhode Island. Journal of Agricul- tural Research, Vol. 56, 1938, p. 919. Summary and Conclusions : The need of the X factor for the growth of the Rhode Island strains of the fowl coryza bacillus is indicated by the failure of the organism to grow in yeast extract or yeast suspensions at the base of nutrient agar slants unless this factor is supplied in some manner, as by the addition of autoclaved blood extract, or when the medium used to inoculate the yeast extract is of blood and sufficient of the X factor is carried over in the inoculum. Growth on yeast extract prepared by boiling was poorer than that on yeast extract prepared without heat. Yeast-cell suspensions plus autoclaved blood extract supported growth. Yeast-cell suspensions alone did not. The clotted blood serum of the horse, cow% sheep, goat, pig and rabbit failed to support growth when employed in dilutions of 1 : 20 in broth, but the same serum broth supported growth when used at the base of nutrient agar slants. This indicates that the growth factors were not so concentrated in the serum of these animals as in those of the chicken and turkey, but that this was partly compensated for when nutrient agar was employed ; although as shown by the controls, neither the agar nor the broth was capable of supplying these requirements. The serum of the horse, cow, rabbit, and pig in a dilution of 1 : 20 at the base of agar slants failed to give continued growth when transfers were made to additional tubes of the same serum medium, whereas continued cultivation was possible in the case of the sheep, goat, turkey and chicken serums. A study of the role of agar in growth indicated that sodium chloride in the proportions used could partly but not completely replace agar in furnishing the requirements necessary for growth. That the factors in chicken serum in a dilution of 1 : 20 are adversely affected by boiling but are not completely destroyed is indicated by the fact that some growth occurred when the serum was used at the base of nutrient agar slants. The results of the tests with the serum of horse, sheep, goat, cow, and rabbit, when used in the dilution of 1 : 20 in broth, were similar to those reported by Kessens. That the same serum broths at the base of agar slants supported growth in some degree indicates that they were not entirely free from the growth factors. The results of the use of unheated yeast extract indicate that Hemophilus gallinarum will not grow when only the V and C factors are present. The need of the X factor is indicated by the results obtained when autoclaved blood extract was added to the yeast extract. Boiled yeast extract plus autoclaved

133 blood extract does not support good growth although it contains the X and V factors. Considerable differences in growth were noted in yeast extracts and serum broths when used alone and when used at the base of nutrient agar slants. Sodium chloride concentrations up to 2 per cent, was important in the growth of the organism and partly accounted for the results obtained in using the nutrient agar slants. No appreciable difference in growth was noted between the two strains of the organism that were used, although one had only recently been isolated and the other had been maintained in culture for more than 3 years. A growing Yeast Medium for the cultivation of Hémophilie bacilli and of an Organism causing a Bronchitis in Chickens, J. P. Delaplane and H. O. Stuart. Rhode Island Experiment Station. Science, Vol. 87, 1938, p. 585. The authors have obtained much better growth of Hemophilus gallinarum and H. influenzae when cultivated with growing yeast than could be obtained from the use of a chicken blood medium. It is pointed out that the growing yeast supplies all the growth requirements for both organisms and that they have been successfully cultivated for several months in such a blood-free medium through weekly transfers. A study was made of the value of this yeast in the cultivation of the filtrable virus of infectious bronchitis of chickens of a type clinically similar to that which studies had indicated was of a filtrable virus nature. Growth other than yeast was obtained from one chicken out of five in which cultures were obtained from the œdematous fluids of the lungs of infected birds and used along with pure cultures of yeast to inoculate the medium. Stained preparations revealed two different types of organisms in addition to the yeast. The first seven transfers of this culture induced symptoms of bronchitis in chickens when inoculated intratracheally. The organisms in question are comparatively large, very irregular in shape, appear singly, doubly, or in clumps, and are decolonised with Gram's stain after 24 hours' incubation. The shape may vary from irregular circular to pear or rod. The organisms have repeatedly failed to grow in or on chicken blood and other types of media, so that further studies will be required before any identification is possible. The use of such a medium has resulted in the isolation of an organism which may have otherwise escaped detection. Comparative Research about Haemophilus coryzae^ Haemophilus influenzae and other Haemophilic Bacilli. Vergelijkend onderzoek betreffende Haemophilus coryzae, Haemophilus influenzae en andere haemophile bacillen. Dr. B. H. Kessens. Veterinary Faculty, University, Utrecht, Thesis, 1936. Summary : A research was made into de Blieck's fowl-coryza bacillus, which was called Haemophilus coryzae {Hc)y into Haemophilus influenzae (Hi), and into other haemophilic bacilli. Various properties of the bacilli were examined and different methods of cultivation are described. He. needed special factors for growth. This bacillus wanted factor V and not factor X. There is also a very thermolabile factor, which the author called C(oryza) factor. This factor appeared to be present in blood-cells, fowl-serum and potato and was destroyed by heating at 100° C. for 10 minutes. Heated in broth, this factor appeared to be a little more thermostabile. Only in case of coryza infectiosa gallinarum,

134 with rapid onset, it was possible to isolate He. In coryza infectiosa gallinarum, exactly as Nelson has found, the types with rapid and slow onset seem to be quite separate diseases. An outbreak of Infectious Roup in young Chickens. H. S. Purchase. Kabete, Kenya Colony. The Veterinary Record, Vol. 51, 1939, p. 3. A disease of young chickens clinically known as " Roup " was investigated, and the following salient factors were determined :— (1) The period of incubation was 4 to 12 days. (2) There was no definite temperature reaction shown during the course of the disease. (3) The symptoms were severe catarrh of the respiratory tract, lachrymation, conjunctivitis, diarrhoea and emaciation. (4) The lesions were observed in the eyes, nostrils, mouth and small intestines. There was also often a " membranous " deposit in the mouth and pharynx. (5) There was a decided age immunity and the mortality in young chicks was high. (6) The aetiological factor was primarily a virus capable of passing through a Seitz bacterial filter and Chamberland L.2 candle. (7) There was often present a *' secondary organism " having morphological and staining properties resembling P. avicida^ but less virulent for fowls. (8) The disease could be set up by contact, feeding and inoculation. (9) *' Roup " could clinically be difiFerentiated from fowl-pox and " gapes.'' Treatment of Fowl Coryza of Chickens with ArgyroL E. M. Dickinson and J. R. Beach. University of California. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 93, 1938, p. 108. The injection of a fresh solution of 15 per cent, argyrol into the infra- orbital sinus of White Leghorn chickens sufiFering from fowl coryza by a method successfully employed by Dickinson and Hinshaw noted on page 111 for infectious sinusitis in turkeys failed to gÍY& any evidence of a curative value of this drug. These results are said to be contrary to the report of Gutierrez that the injection of a 1 per cent, solution of argyrol into the nasal passages of chickens with roup brought about complete recovery in from 3 to 5 days.

INFECTIOUS DISEASES-SUNDRIES

Sinusitis of Turkeys and its treatment. D. E. Madsen. Utah Station Bulletin No. 280, 1938. Work with sinusitis, which causes considerable losses yearly in the turkey industry in Utah, is reported. The symptoms of this affection consist of a watery discharge from the nostrils and eyes, followed by a swelling of the face as a result of inflammation and accumulation of mucus in the sinuses. The loss is occasioned through a pronounced reduction in weight gains of turkeys rather than a high mortality. Limited trials have shown that it can be transmitted by inoculation with sinus exudates. The use of vacines failed to control the disease. The administration of silver-nitrate solution was found

135 far superior to other medicaments as a treatment, a 4 per cent, solution having given slightly better results than a 2 per cent. The syringe method of draining and treating the sinus was found superior to the use of the knife. Treatment of Infectious Sinusitis of Turkeys with Argyrol and Silver Nitrate. E. M. Dickinson and W. R. Hinshaw. Univ. California. Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 93, 1938, p. 151. The treatment of infectious sinusitis (swellhead) of turkeys, which causes severe financial losses to growers each year, is reported upon. The authors have found that it can be successfully treated by injecting either 4 per cent, silver nitrate or 15 per cent, argyrol into the sinuses after the sinus exúdate has been aspirated. Silver nitrate was slightly more efficient than argyrol. An acute Infectious Disease of Pullets apparently caused by Escherichia colicommunis, N. M. Twisselmann. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 94, 1939, p. 235. One cannot conclude from the observations given above that Escherichia coli communis was the sole causative agent in this outbreak. Its presence in pure culture in the internal organs of all sick and dead pullets studied, however, strongly suggests that probability. It is more important, perhaps, to call attention to a disease which markedly resembles either fowl typhoid or fowl cholera on post-mortem examination and microscopic examination of blood- films but which does not yield the causative organism of these diseases in cultures from the diseased tissues. Streptococci in Canary Birds, Over de z,g, Streptokokken- infectie der kanarievogels. Prof. Dr. L. M. G. Geurden and Dr. A. E. R. Willems. Vlaamsch Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift, Vol. 8, 1939, p. 25. Summary : The authors observed a relatively great number of cases of the disease called *' Streptococcus infection of canary birds." They describe symptoms and lesions as well as the characters of the isolated germs (streptococcus and enterococcus). The administration of sulphanilamide in the drinkwater seemed to have a favourable result. By every way of infection it was impossible to reproduce experimentally the disease with the isolated germs. Brucella Infection in Pigeons. J. Ghinelli. La Nuova Veterinaria, Vol. 16, 1938, p. 156. Avitaminosis has no influence on the sensitiveness of the test birds or on the virulence of the bacteria injected. Bruceila in Fowl. La Brucellose chez les volailles. P. Pavlov. Receuil de Médecine Vétérinaire, Vol. 214, December, 1938. The results of experimental injections of Br. melitensis and Br. abortus y both strains of bovine origin, on pigeons and hens were controlled from a clinical, serological and allergical point of view ; further a short study is given on normal eggs artificially infected with cultural suspensions of brucellae and of eggs laid by infected pigsons and hens.

136 Healthy pigeons and guinea-pigs were brought into contact with infected pigeons, healthy rabbits, guinea-pigs and hens were brought into contact with infected hens. These experiments proved that it is more difficult to infect poultry than mammals. No clinical symptoms were noticed. Hens are easier infected than pigeons. Rabbits are more sensitive to contact-infection than cavies. Small quantities of brucella-germs injected into eggs retain their infectiousness for more than a month at a normal temperature. Infectious Laryngo-tracheitis Vaccination, L. M. Black and F. R. Beaudette. Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick. New Jersey Bulletin No. 185, 1936. Description of a method of immunising birds against natural infectious laryngotracheitis attack. This method makes use of an entirely new principle of vaccination. Preliminary Report on Infectious Avian Encephalomyelitis, H. van Roekel, K. L. Bullis and M. K. Clarke. Agricul- tural Experiment Station, Amherst, Massachusetts. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 93, 1938, p. 372. The greatest incidence of the disease also called epidemic tremor, has been reported among flocks in the New England States. The aetiological agent of the disease was described by Jones as an infectious, filtrable agent manifesting characteristics of a virus entity. The data obtained in experiments which include 857 chicks reveal that the infective agent increased in virulence upon repeated passage through chicks. Field and laboratory evidence suggests that the infective agent may be egg-borne and that the breeding stock serves as a reservoir of the infection. Atypical Botulism in Turkeys. D. R. Coburn and E. R. Quartrup. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 93, 1938, p. 385. Description of cases of botulism, caused by C. botiilinum type C. in turkeys. The causative organism has been isolated from the soil in almost every place where isolation has been attempted. A new Edematous Disease of Chicks. Ueber eine neue durch Staphylokokkus pyogenus citrius hervorgerufene ödematöse Krankheit der Hühnerkücken. H. Kawashima and N. Nakamura. Journal of the Japanese Society of Veterin- ary Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 118. In 1932, a report was published regarding a new chicken disease of which the typical symptom is an oedematous swelling of the wings. Under the skin is a bloody liquid. Staphylococcus pyogenes citrius were cultivated from the sick birds and these administered subcutaneously to chickens caused the disease. The bacillus is also pathogenic for mice, guinea-pigs, rabbits and pigeons. Para-maligne-oedema bacilli were also found in two cases. Trichomoniasis in Pigeons. Ueber den gelben Knopf und die sonstigen Trichomonaden erkrankungen der Tauben. H. Oehlkers. Thesis. Hanover, 1939. Description of the three forms of Trichomoniasis which occur in pigeons.

137 Fowl Tick Fever (Spirochaetosis), also transmitted by Common Red Mite, T. G. Hungerford and L. Hart. Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, Vol. 48, 1937, p. 591. Since the evidence incriminating the red mite of pouhry Dermanyssus avium as a vector of spirochaetosis of the fowl has not been conclusive hereto- fore, some of the details regarding an outbreak in w^hich it did act as a vector are presented. It is pointed out that spirochaetosis is a well-known disease in the inland districts of New South Wales and occurs on farms in the coastal areas to a lesser extent. Plasmodium lophurae, a new species of Malaria Parasite pathogenic for the domestic Fowl, L. T. Coggeshall. American Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 27, 1938, p. 615. Under the name P. lophiirae the author describes a new species of avian plasmodium pathogenic for the domestic fowl. This was isolated from a Borneo fireback pheasant (Lophura igniti igniti). A Progress Report of investigations in a Blood Protozoan Disease of Turkeys, E. P. Johnson, P. W. Underbill, J. A. Cox and W. L. Threlkeld. Virginia Experiment Station. Virginia Acad. Sei. Proc., 1937. This is a progress report of work with a leucocytozoon disease, earlier accounts of which have been noted. Asexual stages of the protozoon are said to have been induced in the tissues of turkeys which had been inoculated with simuliids or blackflies that had engorged themselves several hours previously on blood from infected turkeys. The gametocyte stage of the protozoon continues as a parasite of certain blood cells of the turkey for several months after infection if the bird survives. The asexual cycle of the protozoon in the turkey has been found to require from 9 to 13 days. Only young and mature gametocytes have been found in the turkey. Macrogametes, zygotes, ookinetes and sporozoites have been found in the tissues of the fly. Infection in the turkeys has been entirely prevented by keeping the birds screened away from these flies during the months when the flies are active. A Blood Protozoon of Turkeys transmitted by Simulium nigroparvum (Twinn), E. P. Johnson, G. W. Underhill, J. A. Cox and W. L. Threlkeld. Virginia Experiment Station. American Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 27, 1938, p. 649. Report is made of studies of the aetiology of the disease of turkeys noted above, which has caused considerable loss to growers in the south- western part of Virginia. Following a review of the literature, presented with a list of 13 references, the materials and methods employed, including attempts at direct transmission from sick to well birds, the experimental transmission by flies, life history of the parasite, and the distribution of S. nigroparvum in Virginia, are considered. A brief discussion of control measures follows. Although found to resemblie closely the white blood simuliid-transmitted parasite Leucocytozoon smithi, the causative parasite may prove to be a new form. Weekly examinations of blood from turkeys infected in July have revealed that many gametocytes may remain in the blood of the turkey for as long as

138 6 months, and that no appreciable morphologic change takes place in the organism until it is removed from the turkey and when taken into the body of the blackfly S. nigroparvum. From the evidence at hand the authors conclude that the sporozoite enters the blood of the turkey during the bite of infected simuliids and, in the blood plasma, first changes to an immature gametocyte and gradually grows to maturity, and in this stage may remain for several months. When taken into the stomach of the fly gametes are formed ; macrogametes may be clearly observed. Microgametes have not been noted with certainty, however. The zygote stage seems clear, as does also the gradual uncoiling to become a motile ookinete. Oocysts have not been observed in the material studied ; therefore, there is a gap from ookinete to sporozoite that is not made clear by the study. Attempts to transmit the disease from sick and from carrier birds to uninfected birds by direct contact failed. Disease-free birds kept in two unscreened range shelters near a blackfly-inhabited stream and about 10 feet from carrier birds became infected, although normal birds kept in a nearby house flyproofed by use of cheese cloth remained free from infection. In a further experiment in which one of the two houses was enclosed with ordinary window-screen wire, 16 mesh to the inch, eight birds therein became infected during the summer, while all birds in the cheese cloth house remained uninfected. *' Moreover, 200 turkeys kept in houses protected with cheese cloth in a section where the disease had occurred the previous year have also remained free throughout the season. That flies were present on this farm this year was evidenced by the fact that several turkeys kept in a nearby yard were found to have the protozoa in their blood later in the growing season or about the middle of August." Haemoproteus Sp. in Indian Peacocks, K. R. S. Aiyar and M. K. Garudachar. Bombay Veterinary College. The Indian Veterinary Journal, Vol. XV, 1939, p. 294. Description of a case where Haemoproteus sp. was found in the blood smear of a peacock. Changes in the Serums of Fowls resulting from Plasmodium gallinaceum Infection, Modifications seriques chez les poules au cours de Vinfection due au Plasmodium gallinaceum, V. Chorine. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 127, 1938, p. 1189. Changes observed in the serums of P. gallinaceum infected fowls are considered. The action of Antipaludic Remedies on Infection with Plasmo- dium gallinaceum. Action des médicaments antipaludiques sur r infection de la poule par le Plasmodium gallinaceum. E. Brumpt, D. Bovet and L. Brumpt. (Ref. Jahres- bericht, Veterinär-medizin, Vol. 63, 1938, p. 406.) The action of quinine, plasmochin, rhodoquin and atebrin on infected hens was controlled. These preparations proved to be very active remedies. They protect the hens against fatal infection. They do not work prophy- latically. Spirochetosis in Fowls, La Spirochétose des Poules. E. Kamberis. Thesis, Paris (Alfort), 1937. A description of spirochaetosis in Greece. The disease begins in summer and disappears in winter. Ar gas reflexm is indicated as the carrier.

139 During their cycle of development the spirochaetes pass through an invisible stage. The disease is usually acute in Greece. Treatment with atoxyl gives good results. Immunisation against the disease is also carried out. Spirochetosis in the surroundings of Ankara, Hühnerspiro- chätosis in der Umgebung von Ankara, II Mitt, Neuere Untersuchungen über die Virulenzdauer des Spirochäten- haltigen Blutes im Eisschrank und das vergleichende Stadium der verschiedenen Inpfmethoden sowie eigene Versuche darüber, E. Eren and E. Zeynelabidin. (Ref. Jahresb. Veterinär-Medizin, Vol. 63, 1938, p. 606.) At 3° spirochaetes containing blood can retain their virulence for 75 days. Hens become sick after intramuscular injections with this blood, but not after intravenous injections. Various immunity tests gave good results. Dried material in physiologic salt solution gives a very good vaccine.

NEUROLYMPHOMATOSIS

Treatment of Paralysis with Wheat Germ Oil. A. Foggie. The Veterinary Record, Vol. 50, 1938, p. 1594. In experiments with the treatment with wheat-germ-oil, the results were negative. In the group of sick hens treated the loss in 4 weeks due to neurolymphomatosis was double (16-3 per cent.) that of the non-treated group (8-1 per cent.) 93 birds were used for the experiments. Pullet Mortality. Some observations on the effect of adding wheat germ meal to the laying ration, J. A. Davidson and P. J. Schaible. Quarterly Bulletin of Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Vol. 20, 1938, p. 169. Three rations were tested over a period of 11 months on groups of 90 laying birds. The control ration contained ground barley, ground oats, wheat bran, flour middlings, alfalfa meal, sardine oil, and the usual protein and mineral supplements. Of the other two rations, in both of which maize meal was substituted for ground barley, one was supplemented by a vitamin A concentrate, the other by wheat germ oil. These vitamin supplements showed no appreciable eflfect on mortality in general, and there was no reduction in the incidence of leucosis, lymphomatosis and allied conditions. The ration supplemented by vitamin A produced a slightly higher c^gg yield while hatchability was lower on the control ration than on the other two. Experiments in the Transmission of Fowl Lymphomatosis by Inoculation, J. R. Beach. University of California, Berkeley. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, No. I. These data are presented for the purpose of placing on record failure to demonstrate the transmissibility of avian lymphomatosis in two concurrent series of transmission trials with two strains of the disease. They are not intended, however, to dispute those who feel that convincing evidence of the transmissibility and infectiveness of the disease has been produced nor those who hold to the opinion that there is a genetic basis for its occurrence. It is

140 entirely possible that both of these beliefs are correct in which case success in transmission of the disease would require the conjugation of the causative agent and a genetically susceptible host. On this basis, it would appear that the erratic results of these transmission trials were because the requirements for the development of the disease were fulfilled only in the case of those chickens which became affected, and that those not affected were resistant for genetic or some other unknown reason. All of the inoculated birds would presumably be exposed to the causative agent by the inoculum. The means by which the controls could acquire the infection are not so obvious, but they, and the inoculated as welL may have been subjected to natural exposure at hatching time or during the interval between them and the time the inoculations were made. If the preceding may be accepted as of possible soundness, the results of these experiments may be regarded as emphasising the necessity in lymphomatosis transmission trials of (1) the use of pedigree-bred chicks exclusively ; (2) predetermining the probable susceptibility or resistance to the disease of the chicks to be used by analysis of breeding records and preliminary inoculation of full sisters or brothers ; and (3) hatching and rearing the chicks to be used apart from all others and under conditions which will preclude natural exposure to the disease.

Changes in the Iris of the Hen in connection with Organic Diseases. Irisveränderungen beim Huhn im Zusammen- hang mit Organkrankheiten. K. Müller. Thesis, Univer- sity, München, 1937. Conclusions : 1. Organic diseases occur in hens, which are accompanied by changes in the iris. 2. These are chiefly due to inflammation of the iris. 3. No connection could be found between parasitic diseases and changes in the iris. 4. Iris dangers occur with gout caused by inflammation resulting from uric acid. 5. The change in the iris in Marek's paralysis is an inflammation and is caused by degeneration of the pigment. 6. In young hens a sympathicus-heterochromy occurs such as is known among human beings and mammals. 7. Abnormal pigment spots are not a symptom of organic diseases. This is an hereditary deviation and gives no indication of organic diseases. No diagnosis for organic diseases can be made from changes in the iris alone. The iris changes are the results of organic diseases and can only be explained by clinical diagnosis and post-mortem examination.

Biological Factors and Paralysis, A. H. Fraser. Rowett Research Institute. Eggs, August 17th, 1938. Suppose that fowl paralysis is an infectious disease, sometimes virulent and epidemic, sometimes less virulent and endemic, as are most infectious diseases of which we have knowledge. Suppose that many cases of infection are typical and that many infected birds are " carriers," harbouring the infection but showing no symptoms or signs of disease at all, as also is typical of many infectious diseases with which we are familiar. Suppose it is transmissible through the egg, as we know happens in other poultry diseases. Suppose moreover, that some strains of breeding are very much more resistant to the disease than others, which is to be expected—then I think we have a fairly reasonable explanation of fowl paralysis as we see it to-day.

141 Neurolymphomatosis in Fowls, Xlllth Veterinary Congress. Zürich, 1938. 1. T. Bailing, Cambridge. The causes of the disease are not known for certain. There are no experimental proofs of a virus. 2. E. C. Stabbs, Philadelphia. Lymphomatosis is not a sharply defined disease but includes a group of diseases with a collective peculiarity, the lymphoid cells. It has never been proved that the disease is casued by a filtrable virus, neither are there any proofs that the disease is hereditary. There is great uncertainty regarding the cause of the disease. The cause of the transmissable leucosis does not cause lymphomatosis. 3. Amerigo Braga, Rio de Janeiro. The disease occurs in Brazil and especially in those districts where there is intensive poultry farming. About 90 per cent, of the paralysis is caused by worm diseases and faulty feeding. Neurolymphomatosis appears to have been transmitted by hens from Europe and North America. Study of Fowl Paralysis. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1937. In 1936 the paralysis line had 61 females and 6 males from which 1,613 eggs were set. Of the chicks hatched, 726 were pedigreed. The percentage of fertility averaged 85-6, and the hatchability of total eggs set averaged 72-7 per cent. For 24 weeks the mortality was 10-7 per cent, and the incidence of paralysis 1-5 per cent. Only certain pullet families were housed, but no culling was done within the family. In the same season SS females and 6 males were in the paralysis-free line from which 2,110 eggs were set. Of the chicks produced, 877 were pedigreed. The percentage of fertility averaged 88-4, and the hatchability of fertile eggs averaged 75-2 per cent. Mortality for the first 24 weeks was 13-9 per cent, and the incidence of paralysis 0-2 per cent. For 6 months of their first laying year, the paralysis line showed a mortality of 15 per cent., 75-8 eggs per living bird, 68-6 eggs per bird housed, and an incidence of paralysis of 4-2 per cent. The paralysis-free line showed a mortality of 14-2 per cent., 79-3 eggs per living bird, 74-9 eggs per bird housed, and an incidence of paralysis of 3 per cent. Avian Leukaemia^ Leucosis and Fowl Paralysis, E. Gray. The Veterinary Journal, Vol. 95, 1939, p. 106. Description of these three diseases. The cause of leukaemia and leucosis (lymphomatosis) is unknown. Critical observations on the Etiology of March's Fowl Paralysis. Kritische Betrachtung zur Aetiologie der Marekschen Hühnerlähme, Dr. K. Fritzsche. Breslau. Deutsche Landwirtschaftliche Geflügelzeitung, Vol. 42, 1938, p. 9. Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift, Vol. 46, 1938, p. 791. In his observations the author includes the various opinions expressed in connection with Marek's paralysis at the last World Poultry Congress at Leipzig in 1936, and explains in a critical manner the various causes which are to-day indicated as the cause of Marek's fowl-paralysis. Follows a discussion of experiments in connection with artificial transmission of the disease,

142 which nobody will doubt is at present occupying the attention of the majority of investigators with a view to ascertaining the possibility of artificial transmission. Further, an explanation is given of the variability in percentages of positive transmissions stated, this variability being due, he states, to the difference in the virulency of the irritant and the difference in the age composition of the birds used. There is also a treatise on the experiments which have indicated the natural transmission of fowl-paralysis by the eating of the faeces of birds suffering from paralysis. The writer then discusses the other points which are of real aetiologic importance and especially in connection with feeding. He shows that up to the present no investigator has proved that any special method of feeding or any special kind of food can be indicated as having influence on or causing Marek's paralysis. The recent American reports in which it is stated that fowl paralysis eventually was or is E-avitaminosis, are criticised by the writer, who, on purely theoretical considerations, comes to the conclusion that E-avitaminosis can in no way cause Merck's paralysis, but on the contrary that other symptoms of paralysis, which have nothing in common with Marek's paralysis, might easily cause E-avitaminosis The writer thinks here especially of certain kinds of paralysis which he indicates as " maize-paralysis." Maize-paralysis is considered by Fritzsche as being that form found in hens and especially in older hens (1 and 2 years old) on farms, where the food contains a high percentage of maize and in which, in spite of extensive histologie investigations, no indication of Marek's paralysis has been found. As a further point the constitutional influence on the origin of Marek's fowl-paralysis is discussed and it is proved that this can theoretically be assumed, but that up to the present, no evidence has been produced. In the opinion of the writer, one should not, when dealing with Marek's paralysis, think directly of a constitutional influence, as only a certain percentage of the birds become ill, but it must be remembered that the agents of Marek's paralysis—just as with all agents of contagious diseases of the nervous system of domestic animals—does not possess the degree of infectiousness found in the agents of other infectious diseases. According to the author, nobody has the right to speak of a prominent constitutional influence in the origin of fowl- paralysis until indisputable proof has been furnished. Finally, the nature of the agent is discussed and it is pointed out that it must belong to the virus species as it is filterable and resistant to glycerine and can also withstand a long period of dryness. As an exponent of the infection theory, the writer comes to the conclusion that the degree of infectiousness must play the part of the conspicuous moment in the origin of Marek's fowl-paralysis, as the health measures, which are only taken with a view to the infectiousness will, under practical conditions, lead to results.

Is Paralysis a Poliomyelitis-like Disease ? 1st die Hühnerlähme eine der Poliomyelitis ähnliche Erkrankung ? E. Frauchi- ger and E. Bourgeois. Schweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift, 1938, p. 1057. After extensive study all connection between neurolymphomatosis gallinarum and poliomyelitis is rejected. The various differences in the two diseases are discussed.

Histologie Studies of Marek's Paralysis, Histiologische Unter- suchungen zum Wesen der sog, Marekschen Geflügel- lähme, Dr. K. Potel. Zeitschrift für Infections Krank- heiten der Haustiere, Vol. 54, 1938, p. 154.

143 Marek's paralysis is pathologically anatomic, not polyneuritis nor neuromyelitis, but a form of leucosis and the name neurolymphomatosis gallinarum is correct.

The Basal Metabolic Rate of Chickens affected with Fowl Paralysis^ Transmissible Fowl Leukosis and certain spontaneous Neoplasms, C. Olson and H. H. Dukes. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Folia Haemato- logica, Vol. 60, 1938, p. 57. Observations by the Haldane gravimetric method were made on the basal metabolic rate of normal chickens and those affected with fowl paralysis, transmissible fowl leucosis and certain spontaneous neoplasms. The basal metabolic rate of chickens from 75 to 130 days old was found to be somewhat higher than is reported in the literature. The basal metabolic rate of chickens affected with fowl paralysis was normal. Birds affected with transmissible fowl-leucosis had only a moderately elevated basal metabolic rate. The basal metabolic rate of a chicken diseased with fibrosarcoma was not greatly elevated. Two instances of lymphocytoma were associated with marked increase of the basal metabolic rate. In one instance the increase amounted to approximately 100 per cent. One case of myelocytoma and one of atypical lymphocytoma were found to be accompanied by a considerable increase in the basal metabolic rate.

Lymphomatosis {Fowl Paralysis) in the Pheasant. S. T. Harriss. The Veterinary Journal, Vol. 95, 1939, p. 104. A case of lymphomatosis following inoculation is recorded in a pheasant. It is not as yet claimed that the occurrence of the disease resulted from the inoculation.

Neurolymphomatosis phasianorum. E. Jungherr. Agricul- tural Experiment Station, Storrs, Connecticut. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 94, 1939, p. 49. The occurrence of a fowl paralysis-like condition in a flock of 1,000 4- months-old ring-necked pheasants is reported. Until the aetiologic identity of the chicken and the pheasant disease can be established, the term neurolymphomatosis phasianorum is proposed. The diagnosis was based upon ineffectiveness of treatment with chick-anti-paralytic factors (B4 and anti- encephalomalacic) and upon the demonstration of histologie lymphomatotic lesions in the parenchymatous organs and the peripheral and central nervous systems. Some cases were associated with myo-degeneration and perimysial proliferation in the striated muscles. The findings suggest absence of species- specificity of neurolymphomatosis and the possibility of using pheasants in experimental transmission of fowl paralysis.

Lymphomatosis of Turkeys, K. D. Downham. The Veterin- ary Journal, Vol. 95, 1939, p. 89. Description with photos of cases of lymphomatosis. The lesions have been found in the liver and caeca of birds which had suffered from blackhead or entero-hepatitis.

144 LEUCAEMIA Immunisation by Intracutaneous Injections with Leucaemia Virus, Recherches sur Vimmunisation par inoculation intra- cutanée du virus leucémique de la poule, Ch. Oberling and M. Guerin. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 129, 1938, p. 1061. No better immunity is obtained with intracutaneous injections than with any other method of inoculation. The production of Tumours by Intracutaneous Inoculation. Sur la production de Tumeurs par inoculation intracutanée de virus leucémique de la poule, Ch. Oberling and M. Guerin. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 129, 1938, p. 1059. As a resuit of intracutaneous inoculation on 36 hens the following were produced : seven sarcomas connected with leucaemia, that is 19 per cent. With the blood of a hen suffering from leucaemia only 40 per cent, of the hens which received injections in the breast muscle contracted leucaemia. The number of positive cases is also dependent on the size of the dose administered. Avian Leucoses, Les leucoses des oiseaux, G. Lesbouyries. Rec. Médecine Vétérinaire, Vol. 114, 1938, p. 257. This article, which consists of a useful review of the literature on avian leucoses, is not such as can be adequately abstracted and should be consulted in the original by all those interested in the subject. The literature is marshalled under the following headings : {a) The erythroid and myeloid leucaemias are very easily transmitted, {b) Lymphoid leucoses, which is usually aleucaemic, may be transmitted. {c) Neurolymphomatosis (fowl-paralysis) usually aleucaemic, may also be transmitted, {d) Lymphomatous leucaemia (lymphomatosis) and neurolymphomatosis are two aspects of the same disease. (e) All the types of avian leucosis are the same disease. (/) Certain types of tumour, particularly the avian sarcomata, are transmissible, {g) The avian leucoses may be accompanied by tumours of the same cellular character, {h) These leucoses may also be accompanied by tumours of a different cellular character, (j) There are similarities between mammalian and avian leucoses. Active Immunization of Chickens against Chicken Leucosis with agent adsorbed by Aluminium Hydroxide. E. Uhl. Acta path, microbiol. Scand., 1938, Suppl. No. 37, p. 544. (Ref. The Veterinary Bulletin, Vol. 9, 1939, p. 245.) Using material from the spleens of fowls with leucosis, adsorbed by aluminium hydroxide, Uhl attempted to immunise 10 hens and 15 chicks. One month after the last inoculation the surviving 10 hens and 11 chicks were tested for immunity to leucosis by the inoculations of leucotic material. Four hens and three chicks survived repeated inoculations of such material, four hens and four chicks acquired some degree of immunity as evident from a prolonged survival time when compared with similarly inoculated controls, and two hens and four chicks had no immunity. The plasma of the immune birds possessed bodies that neutralised the leucotic agent in vitro.

145 The Reticulohistiocytic System in the Histogenesis of Fowl- Leucaemia, Das Verhalten des reticulohistiocytaren Sys- tems bei der Histogenèse der übertragbaren Hühnerleukämie, E. Storti and P. de Filippi. Folia Haematologica, Vol. 58, 1937, p. 20. The extra medullar leucaemia centres are probably caused by premature loosening of leucaemic bone-marrow cells. The Influence of Anaemia on the course of Fowl Leucaemia, Der Einfluss der Anämisierung auf Angehen^ Inkubation und Verlauf der übertragbaren Hühnerleukämie, E. Storti and A. Zaietta. Pol. Haematalogica, Vol. 58, 1937, p. 54. A speeding up of the leucaemic process can be obtained by causing anaemia in the hens. The incubation period is shortened and the sickness was more intense. (Chronic leucaemia has an acute course as a result of anaemia.) The effect of the Protein Fractions of the Blood in Transmissible Fowl Leucemia, Ueber die Wirksamkeit der Eiweiss- fraktionen bei der übertragbaren Hühner leukose, K. Jarmai. Archiv wissenschaftliche und praktische Tier- heilkunde, Vol. 73, 1938, p. 295. A method is described whereby the globulin and albumin fractions of the blood of fowls suffering from erythro-leucaemia were isolated. Fourteen fowls were injected intravenously with the globulin fraction and 13 developed the typical symptoms of leucaemia. The albumin fraction was injected intravenously into 19 fowls and only ñve developed symptoms. It would appear likely, therefore, that the active agent in the production of an erythro-leucocytosis is to be found in the globulin fraction of the blood. Two other interesting results were obtained. The globulin fraction of the blood was still virulent although allowed to remain in a gel formation. This would suggest that the active agent is of a non-viable nature and may be chemical in origin. Immunity to erythro-leucaemia could not be produced by injections of dried globulin fractions.

The Resistance of the agent of Leucosis and Sarcomatosis against Röntgen Rays, Ueber die Röntgenresistenz des Agens der übertragbaren Hühnerleukose im Vergleiche zu einigen übertragbaren Tiergeschwülsten und zu den Agenzien der übertragbaren Hühnersarkome. Prof. Dr. K. Jarmai. Archiv für Tierheilkunde, Vol. 74. 1939, p. 75. The agent of Rous-sarcoma and of the fibrosarcoma of Jarmai can withstand doses of Röntgen up to 166 HED. Lacassagne, Levaditi and Galloway suffered no damage to their virulency at 600 HED. The agent of erythroleucosis of Jarmai withstood doses of 240 HED. The great difference in Röntgen resistance against that of cell-like tumours strengthens the opinion that the agent of hen sarcoma and hen leucosis is not a living cause of disease.

14G Fowl Leucemia induced by Adverse Atmosphere Conditions. M. W. Emmel. Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Florida. Journal of the American Veterin- ary Medical Association, Vol. 93, 1938, p. 387. Under indoor hen battery conditions, the occurrence of leucemia, fowl- paralysis and chronic haemocytoblastosis is the major mortality problem. In such environments it has been found that leucaemia is induced by adverse atmospheric conditions. These conditions result in the development of tissue autolysis and, if continued over a sufficient period of time, tissue autolysis becomes self-perpetuating, thereby resulting in leucaemia. Fowl Leucosis. C. D. Lee, H. L. Wilcke, Ch. Murray and E. W. Henderson. Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 61, 1938, p. 1. The term fowl leucosis is used to include in common the group of transmissible, leucaemic, aleucaemic and leucaemia, like diseases of fowls. The disease in all its expressions may be transmitted to healthy chicks by injections of tissue suspensions of affected organs or by injection of cell-free filtrates or may be transmitted by direct pen contact or by rearing chicks on contaminated litter. The injection of a suspension made from one type apparently produces all the various types considered as expressions of this disease. Different suspensions experimentally produced similar results. Neuro- lymphomatosis associated with eye lesions, haemocytoblastosis, lymphoid, erythroid and myeloid types of leucosis are different expressions of the same disease and are transmitted by a common aetiologic agent. The clinical course is variable, in some cases comparatively short and in others extending over a period of months. No complete recoveries occur. There seems to be a definite inherent difference of susceptibility and resistance by different birds and birds of different strains. The evidence seems to suggest that the disease may be transmitted through the egg to a limited extent. The most important methods of control are proper sanitation and use of breeding stock from resistant sources. The Migration of the Etiologic Agent of Fowl Leukosis when subjected to Electrophoresis. C. D. Lee and H. L. Wilcke. Veterinary Research Institute, Ames, Iowa. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 94, 1939, p. 178. 1. The term fowl leucosis is used to include in common the group of transmissible, leucaemic, aleucaemic and leucaemia-like diseases of fowls. The disease in all its expressions may be transmitted to healthy chicks by injections of cell-free filtrates. 2. The injection of a cell-free filtrate from one type apparently produces all of the various types considered as expressions of this disease, as neurolymphomatosis gallinarum, associated with eye lesions ; haemocytoblastosis, lymphoid, erythroid and myeloid leucosis were transmitted by a common aetiologic agent. 3. The behaviour of the aetiologic agent of fowl leucosis, when subjected to electrophoresis, is so like that of a virus that there seems little doubt that fowl leucosis is due to a filtrable virus. 4. The aetiologic agent of fowl leucosis migrates towards the negative pole atpH values of 4-01 to 6-01 and toward the positive pole at pH values of 7-01 and 9-01.

147 5. The aetiologic agent of fowl leucosis carries a positive charge between pH levels 4-01 to 6-01 and a negative charge from pH values 7-01 to 9-01. 6. Protein tests show the aetiologic agent was separated from its associated proteins by the electrophoretic method. 7. The iso-electric point of the aetiologic agent was found to be between pH values 6-01 and 7-01. Huge Annual Poultry Losses result from widespread Fowl Leucosis. Dr. C. D. Lee. Veterinary Research Institute. Ames, Iowa. International Baby Chick News, February, 1939. Summary and Conclusions : The disease known as range paralysis or fowl paralysis is more aptly named fowl leucosis and this term includes the various manifestations such as paralysis, tumours, iritis, erythro-leucosis and myeloid leucosis. The disease in all its manifestations may be produced by injecting infective material, by contact of healthy with diseased chicks and by contact of healthy birds with infected premises or litter. An injection of a suspension made from one type of this disease produced all the manifestations generally attributed to this disease. The disease has an extremely long incubation period in most instances as chicks injected at 1 week of age did not show symptoms or die of the disease until between 4 and 8 months of age. The disease rarely attacks birds over 12 months of age. There seems to be a definite inherent resistance and susceptibility to the disease, thus the most important control measures are careful culling, sanitation and breeding from resistant sources. The Reactivation of the Fowl-Leukosis Agent after inactivation by Oxydization, J. Engelbreth-Holm and O. Frederik- sen. Acta pathologica et Microbiologica Scandinavica, Supplement, Vol. 37, 1938, p. 138. It is shown in this contribution that the agent of fowl leucosis, like the agent of fowl sarcoma, can be totally inactivated by means of oxidation. If oxidation is interrupted at a time when inactivation is incomplete but where the potency of the agent is considerably reduced, it is possible by means of a reduction process to reactivate the agent to almost the same potency as prior to oxidation. These facts seem little compatible at first sight with the view that this virus is a living micro-organism, whereas they agree very well with the assumption that the leucosis virus is an inanimate, relatively simply com- pounded chemical substance. Haemocytoblastosis. W. P. Blount. The Veterinary Journal. Vol. 95, 1939, p. 91. So-called " haemocytoblastosis '' is an example of myeloid stimulation in poultry. It is characterised (in its advanced typical form) by the finding of immature or degenerate red and white cells in the peripheral blood circulation. It is non-specific, occurring in chicken of all ages, breeds and in both sexes, and, although commonly encountered in the domestic hen, it had also been observed in the turkey. Contrary to the experience of Emmel, harmocytoblastosis is not always associated with an increase in the total number of white cells, nor is it necessarily of pathogenic origin, for identical changes are seen in the blood of healthy,

148 day-old chicks. Apart from this physiological occurrence of haemocytoblastosis, it has beeen observed in chilled chicks, following injections of liver extracts and in diseases of virus, bacterial and parasitic origins, and although erythroblasts are nearly always seen in typical cases of haemocytoblastosis, the leucocyte response is far less intense, for neither myeloblasts nor lympho- blasts appear in the circulation, but premyelocytes are always found when the process is advanced. All stages between the typical haemocytoblastosis picture of Emmel and normal blood counts have been recorded, and, therefore, haemocytoblastosis is considered to represent a type of myeloid response in poultry and not a disease per se. It has not been proved in the present series of cases that haemocytoblastosis is an essential factor in the development of fowl-paralysis, for it does not appear as a constant finding in blood examinations of birds suffering from this disease, but it would rather appear to represent a post-coccidial manifestation. Since coccidiosis in some form or degree, precedes fowl-paralysis in large numbers of cases, the association between haemocytoblastosis and fowl- paralysis is probably more directly connected with the damage of the coccidial parasites than with any specific neurotropic virus sometimes postulated as the specific cause of neurolymphomatosis gallinarum. In view of the greater response of that portion of the bone marrow associated with erythrocytopoiesis, it is probably more correct to refer to the condition, in its typical form, as erythroblastosis. The percentage distribution of the main features characteristic of haemocytoblastosis in new-born chicks and in cases of coccidiosis and fowl-paralysis is shown on an accompanying table. TUMOURS Production of Tumours by Radio-Active Media, Essai de production de néoplasmes chez la poule par introduction de sources radio-actives, F. Daels and L. Biltris. Bull. Ass. Franc. Etude Cane, Vol. 26, 1937, p. 587. By means of administering radio-active (sulphate) collodium in the muscles and liver of a hen sarcomata were formed in distant parts of the body. Further cultivation of tumours failed. Adsorption and Elution of the Rous Sarcoma Agent. E. M. Fraenkel and C. A. Mawson. British Journal of Experi- mental Pathology, Vol. 16, 1935, p. 416. The authors succeeded in separating the infective agent from Rous sarcoma tissue by extraction for 30 minutes in a refrigerator with M/15 buffer phosphate followed by adsorption into Wilstatter alumina C or D. The most potent eluate was obtained when the adsorption was carried out at a pH of 7-5 to 8-4. Further Studies of the Agent of the Rous Fowl Sarcoma : A, Ultra-Centrifugation Experiments ; B. Experiments with the Lipoid Fraction. E. M. Fraenkel and C. A. Mawson. British Journal of Experimental Pathology, Vol. 18, 1937, p. 454. A. Describes experiments which show that there is no relationship between the number of elementary bodies present and the power of tumour

149 formation. Eluates containing few elementary bodies were rich in agent, leading the authors to conclude that these bodies do not wholly represent the agent. B. Describes experiments suggesting that the agent is of a chemical nature, and points out that after extracting with acetone and carbon tetra- chloride the agent is retained in the residue and some inhibitor appears to be present in the extract. Sarcomatous Neoplasia and the Subcutaneous Tuberculin Test, E. Gray. Veterinary Record, 1938, p. 644. The post-mortem examination of hens which had reacted positively to tuberculin showed that not tuberculosis but that leucosis was present. The same was the case with dogs.

PARASITES COCCIDIOSIS The ejfects of Rations containing gradient amounts of Cod Liver Oil on the subsequent performance of Laying Pullets following a natural infection ofCoccidiosis, R. R. Murphy, J. E. Hunter and H. C. Knandel. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 377. Groups of pullets reared on a standard ration adequate except for vitamin D received varying amounts of cod liver oil. After recovery from a heavy infection with coccidia, it was observed that the rate of recovery of bodyweight, the amount of egg production and the subsequent survival rate were roughly proportionate to the dosage of cod liver oil. Studies of the Viability of the Oöcysts of Eimeria tenella, with particular reference to conditions of Incubation. C. C. Ellis. Veterinary College, Ithaca. The Cornell Veterin- arian, Vol. 28, 1938, p. 267. Part IL Studies on the effect of Temperature on the Sporulation Time of Eimeria tenella. p. 272. 1. No difference was found in the viability of oöcysts of Eimeria tenella collected from the caecal contents or from the faeces respectively. No difference was found in the viability of oöcysts exposed on filter paper and the shells of chicken eggs. 2. Sporulated oöcysts were viable for 28 days at a temperature of 9-8° C. (49-6° F.) for 8 days at 19° C. (66-2° F.) and for 7 days at 24° C. (75-2° F.). 3. The viability of sporulated oocysts was influenced both by temperature and relative humidity. Temperatures from 18-3° C. (65° F.) to 40° C. (104° F.) and relative humidities from 20 per cent, to 93 per cent, were studied. When the relative humidity remained constant death of the oöcysts was hastened by increase in temperature. At constant temperature decrease in the relative humidity hastened the death of the oöcysts. 4. Sporulated oöcysts became non-viable after 1 day of exposure in a small cabinet type electric incubator at a temperature of 39° C. (102-2° F.) and a relative humidity of 47 per cent. The same results were obtained when the humidity level was held at 56 per cent.

150 Unsporulated oöcysts of E. tenella did not sporulate when placed on filter paper or eggs and exposed in a small cabinet type electric incubator at 39° C. (102-2° F.). 5. Fertile eggs contaminated with sporulated and unsporulated coccidial oöcysts, hatched normally and no evidence of infection could be found in the chicks. 6. The optimum temperature for sporelation of oöcysts of E. tenella was found to be from 28-6° to 32-2° C. (80° to 90° F.). Sporulation did not occur at 4 4° C. (40° F.), and at 37° C. (98-6° F.) and above within the time limits studied. Viability was retained, however, since sporulation promptly occurred when they were placed at 2M° C. (70° F.). Eimeria hagani n. sp. (Protozoa : Eimeridae) a new Coccidium of the Chicken. P. P. Levine. Veterinary College, Ithaca, New York. The Cornell Veterinarian, Vol. 28, 1938, p. 263. The presence of a new coccidium, Eimeria hagani n. sp., is reported from the duodenum and intestine of the chicken. The average size of the sporulated oöcysts is 19-1 x 17-6 microns. The time of appearance of the first oöcysts in the faeces is a little less than 7 days after the infective feeding. Sporulation of the oöcysts takes place in 24 to 48 hours at 30° C. Round haemorrhagic spots, pin head in size, are found in the wall of the duodenum and intestine of most infected chickens. Severe infections result in a catarrhal enteritis with the accompanying formation of mucous casts. E, hagani was demonstrated by immunity tests to be difiFerent from the other species of coccidia that undergo their entire development in the small intestine of the chicken. Coccidiosis in Chickens, E. L. Brünett. North American Veterinarian, Vol. 19, 1938, p. 34. Description of six species of Eimeria and the forms of coccidiosis caused by these. Measures for combating are given.

BLACKHEAD

Blackhead, Xlllth Veterinary Congress, Zürich, 1938. (1) Bardelli and C. Menzani, Padua. Detailed description of the disease : epidemiologic,\dinical, pathologic, anatomic and histologie. (2) R. Wetzel, Berlin. Infection experiments per os with Histomonas meliagridis were always negative. Mycotorula albicans often gave positive results, even in the absence of Heterakis. Mycotorula albicans is considered to be the cause of the disease. This mildew is a saprophyte in the intestines of hens and when they lose their resistance it becomes pathogenic. Blackhead and Moniliasis or Oidiomycosis are two different forms of the same disease.

151 Infectious Entero-hepatitis {Blackhead) of Chickens, L. Hart. Agricultural Gazette, New South Wales, Vol. 48, 1937, p. 705. This disease, which has been the cause of mortality in turkeys in New South Wales for many years, has been recognised in chickens in the State for the first time. ^Blackhead. H. M. de Volt. College Park, Maryland. New England Poultryman, September 15th, 1938. The practices recommended by the writer for the control of blackhead are listed numerically as follows :— 1. Turkey poults should be incubator hatched in order to avoid contact with infected hens. 2. Poults should be brooded on fresh, well-sodded ground not frequented by adult turkeys or chickens. 3. It is recommended that the brooding range be rotated in two- or three-yearcycles. 4. It is recommended that^poults be placed in groups of 1 to 200 in colony brooding houses. At the age of 6 to 8 weeks they may be transferred^to movable roosting sheds. 5. Colony houses, roosting sheds and sun shelters should be moved sufficiently often during the season to maintain the sod. 6. Brooder houses should be cleaned once a week. In commercial establishments where long houses and wire-bottom perches are employed, the wire should be cleaned daily with a stiff brush or at least several times a week. 7. Feed and water containers should be cleaned daily and moved sufficiently often on range to avoid bare spots. 8. The general resistance of the flock should be maintained at a high level by regular feeding with a properly balanced ration. 9. Any sick birds should be promj)tly isolated. The appearance of sulphur coloured droppings under the roost should constitute sufficient reason for culling the flock to remove birds out of condition. 10. When blackhead appears in the flock, the removal of the normal birds to fresh ground will invariably reduce losses. WORMS ^Echinostoma paraulum, a new Human Parasite, K. J. Skrja- bine. Med. Parasite and Parasite Diseases, Vol. 7, 1938, p. 129. Echinostoma paraulum^ a trematode which lives in the intestines of ducks and pigeons, has been found in human beings and is described. ^ Snails as Intermediary Hosts of Trematodes. Studies on the Trßmatodes^ invading Lymnaea Snails as the first Inter- mediate Hosts y found in the vicinity of Mukden, IL On the encystation and development of Echinostomidae, S. Ono. Journal of the Japanese Society of Veterinary Science, Vol. 14, 1935, p. 232. Of the 122 snails, belonging to the species Lymnaea, all were found to contain cercariae. In 81 snails, Ono proved that the cercariae belonged to the family of Echinostomidae y Plagiorchudae and Schistosomidae, In 120 snails

:I52 the cercaría cysts were found in the kidneys and in seven of these again in the liver. Examination of frog larvae (tadpoles) also showed cercaría cysts in the livers. Such cysts have also been found in the liver of silver pike. Chickens were infected by feeding them cercariae from the snails. After this infection the chickens were found to contain various numbers of Echinoparyphium recurvatum and Echinostoma revolutum. The cercariae found in the snails proved, therefore, to be an intermediate stage of these two intestinal parasites of the hen. As a peculiarity, Ono reports that he found trematodes, viz., Echinostoma go toi in the intestines of a duck. In one of these trematodes he found in the intestine, he found an active tapeworm of the species Hymenolepis, This tapeworm is a parasite of the intestines of human beings, rats, mice and birds. Insects as Intermediary Hosts for Tapeworms of Poultry. Insekten als Zwischenwirte von Bandwürmern der Hühner- vögel, Prof. R. Wetzel. Berlin. Zeitschrift für hygien- ische Zoologie und Schädlingsbekämpfung, 1938, p. 84. The intermediary hosts for tapeworms of poultry discovered up to the present are all invertebrate beings. They are eaten by poultry. Insects are well represented in this class. The writer gives a long list of the intermediary hosts of the cestode families, Davaineidae, Dilepididae, Hymenolepididae. Gizzardworm Disease in Ducks. Ueber eine durch Tropisurus fissipinus Diesing hervorgerufene Magenwurmseuche bei Enten mit besondere Berücksichtigung des Parasiten auf Grund der pathologisch-anatomische Befunden. H. Lange. Zeitschrift für Infektionskrankheiten der Haus- tiere, Vol. 53, 1938, p. 1. Description of the stomach worm Tetrameres fissipina (Tropisurus fissipina), Gammares pulex and Daphnia pulex act as intermediary hosts. In order to combat these parasites the ducks should be kept away from infected water in spring. Older birds may be parasite-carriers. It is advisable to prevent young ducks from having access to stagnant water. The Viability of the Ova of Ascaridia lineata when exposed to various Environmental Conditions. P. P. Levine. Veterinary College, Ithaca, New York. The Journal of Parasitology, Vol. 23, 1937, p. 368. 1. Embryonated ova of A. lineata in soil exposed to weathering in the shade were viable after 242 days' exposure (March to November, 1935), but were not viable when tested the following January after freezing weather had set in. Embryonated eggs in soil exposed to weathering in the sun were viable after 46 days* exposure (March to May, 1935) but not after 72 days. 2. Non-embryonated ova of A. lineata in soil exposed to weathering in the shade (November, 1935) survived the winter of 1935-36 and were embryonated when tested in August, 1936 (279 days). Non-embryonated eggs in soil exposed to weathering in the sun (November, 1935) also survived the winter of 1935-36, and were still viable in May, 1936 (186 days) but were not viable when tested in July (243 days). 3. Embryonated ova of A. lineata thoroughly dried in faeces survived for 21 days, but were not viable after 40 days. Non-embryonated eggs when dried in soil were viable after 44 days but not viable after 51 days.

153 4. Freshly embryonàted ova of A. ¡ineata in soil (0 to 40 per cent moisture) were destroyed after 13 hours' exposure at--l° C. Freshly embryonated eggs when cooled for 21 days at 10° C. survived subsequent exposure at -1° C. for 5 days. Freshly embryonated eggs cooled for 12 days at 10° C. were non-viable after subsequent exposure at -1° C. for 14 days. Non-embryonated ova in soil survived for 45 days but not for 52 days at-rc. 5. Non-embryonated eggs in putrefying faeces at room temperature were viable after SS days but not after 121 days. Embryonated eggs in putrefying faeces at 30° C. were viable after 7 days but not after 14 days. 6. Non-embryonated ova of A, lineata in moist soil exposed to natural temperature conditions on April 11th, 1936, were not embryonated when tested on June 27th, but were embryonated on July 17th. In another test started on April 29th, 1936, embryonation was not complete on June 6th, but was complete on July 7th. Observations on the Helminth Parasites of Poultry in Scotland. D.O. Morgan and J. E. Wilson. Journal of Helmintho- logy, Vol. 16, 1938, p. 165. Observations made in the course of a survey of helminth parasites of diseased poultry sent from various parts of Scotland for post-mortem examination are reported. Are there Host Strains within the Species of Syngamus trachea ? P. A. Clapham. Journal of Helminthology. Vol. 16, 1938, p. 49. It is pointed out that there is experimental evidence that the rook, crow, jackdaw, magpie, jay, starling, turkey, pheasant, and partridge strains of the gapeworm S. trachea are transmissible to other birds and are liable to set up disease therein when the indirect life cycle, using an intermediate host, is adopted. This is thought to be the normal method of transmission under natural conditions, since it has been shown by Taylor that the larvae can remain infective in the earthworm up to a period of 3-5 years and that the earthworms are important storage agents of the larvae. Since certain of these birds, notably the rook, crow and starling are extraordinarily abundant in England and often frequent feeding grounds in vast numbers, it is considered quite possible that they are the causes of some of the unexplained outbreaks among chicks of domestic and game birds that are reported from time to time. ' Studies on the Trematode Parasites of Ducks in Michigan^ with special reference to the Mallard, W. C. Gower. Michi- gan Station Mem. 3, 1938. Following a brief introduction. Part 1, of this contribution presents accounts of the flukes found to parasitise ducks in Michigan, 15 in number, of which three are described as new, and a genus is erected. Part 2 gives a key to the genera of these flukes, diagnosis of families, genera, and species, and a host list of the flukes reported from ducks. A list of 189 references to the literature is included. Studies on Helminths of Fowls, 1. On the second intermediate hosts of Metorchis orientalis and M, taiwanensis, liver flukes of ducks. 2. Some trematodes of fowls in Tsing- kiangpu, Kiangsu^ China. H. Fihsu and C. Y. Chow.

154 Chinese Medical Journal Supplement No. 2, 1938, p. 433. (Ref. The Veterinary Bulletin, Vol. 9, 1939, p. 165.) 1. The authors confirm Pseiidorashora parva as second intermediate host of M. orientalis and adds Ps. rivularis. They suggest there are final hosts of M. taiwanensis and M. orientalis other than fov^ls. Their experiments show- that the latter are chiefly parasites of the gall bladder, only a few being found in the bile ducts. 2. This article contains the authors' observations on specimens they examined of known species of trematodes, viz., Prosthogonimus japonicus, Metorchis orientalis y Metorchis taiwanensis, Opisthorchis tsingkiangpuensis, Hypoderaeum conoideum, Philophthalmus sinensis, Psilochasmus longicirratus and Harmostomum gallinum. Flukes in the Respiratory Tract of Ducks. F. R. Beaudette. Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, New York. Journal American of the Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 94, 1939, p. 44. Several cases where flukes were found in the trachea of ducks. They were diagnosed as Typhlocoelum cymbium (Diesing, 1850), Kossak, 1911. This species is cosmopolitan and enjoys a wide distribution because of the migratory host and the fact that larvae develop in common snails.

SUNDRIES Scaly'Leg and Infectiousness for Human Beings, Sullo carat- teristica rogna delle zampe dei polli e sulla sua trasmissi- bilità air uomo. G. Tarantino. Az. Vet., Vol. 6, 1937, p. 834. The writer attempted to transmit Sarcoptes mutans to himself, a boy and a woman. Scales from the sick hen were placed on the scarified fingers and forearm and kept in place for 20 days by means of a bandage. The results were absolutely negative. A peculiar form of Pediculosis. Une forme curieuze et peu connue de pédiculose aviaire. Marotel and Girard. Revue de Médecine vétérinaire, 1937, p. 576. Description of a case in which the eggs of Menopa pallidulum caused formations on the feathers in the vicinity of the cloaca, which resembled silk worm cocoons. Muscle-Trichinellosis in Poultry. Zur Frage der Muskeltrichi- nellose beim Geflügel. Dr. K. Matoff. Zeitschrift für Infektionskrankheiten der Haustiere, Vol. 54, 1938, p. 117. Chickens are less sensitive to trichinoses than young pigeons. Trichinellosis of hens has, however, no practical value as up to the present it has only been experimentally cultivated.

155 Ascorbic Acid as a means for cultivating Trichomonas columbae. Uacide ascorbique^ facteur de croissance pour la Flagellé Trichomonas columbae. R. Cailleavi. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, Vol. 130, 1939, p. 319. The three kinds of Trichomonas studied need cholesterol and ascorbic acid for their growth. The significance of Trichomonads in Fowl. Ueber die patho- gène Bedeutung der Trichomonaden der Hühner. J. Schaaf and H. Scherle. Zentralblatt Bakteriologie, Abt. I, Orig., Vol. 141, 1938, p. 313. 1. Diphtheria or inflammation of the bowels caused by Trichomonads was not found. 2. No results were obtained by artificial injections of cultures. Large numbers are found in cases of diphtheria but they may be considered as harmless guests. 3. No sickness results from the feeding with Trichomonads. 4. Flagellates of the Bodo species are found in diphtheria. Morphology of Trichomonads of the Fowl. Ueber die Morpho- logie der Trichomonaden der Hühner. J. Schaaf and H. Scherle. Zentralblatt Bakteriologie, Abt. I, Orig., Vol. 141, 1938, p. 310. 1. There is a morphologic great difference in the throat and intestine trichomonads of the fowl. An illustrated description of these differences is given. 2. Besides Trichomonads, Flagellates as of the Bodo species were found in the intestines. Trichomonads in the Fowl. Ueber das Vorkommen von Trichomonaden beim Huhn. J. Schaaf and H. Scherle. Zentralblatt Bakteriologie, Abt. I, Orig., Vol. 141, 1938, p. 305. 1. Trichomonads are often found on the healthy pituitary gland of the throat of pigeons but very seldom in the throats of healthy hens (0-2 per cent, of the hens examined). 2. Trichomonads were found in 3*2 per cent, in the beak cavity of hens suffering from roup which were examined. 3. In about 50 per cent, of the healthy hens examined Trichomonads were found in the intestines. 4. In inflammation of the bowels they are found in somewhat higher numbers. The Relationship of Hexamita sp. to an Enteritis of Turkey Poults. W. R. Hinshaw, E. McNeil and C. A. Kofoid. University at Davis, California. The Cornell Veterin- arian, Vol.28, 1938, p. 281. This is a report on the relationship of Hexamita sp. to a catarrhal enteritis of turkey poults. This enteritis is principally confined to the duodenum and upper jejunum and is characterised by marked lack of tone,watery contents

156 distended bulbous areas and a heavy infection of Hexamita. No other protozoa are present at the principal site of the pathology. The disease has been experimentally produced only when Hexamita has been present in the inoculum. Trichomonas, Chilomastix and Amoeba have been definitely eliminated as the causative agent. Examinations of blood smears have not revealed any parasites, nor has any bacterium thus far studied been incriminated as the aetiological agent. -^ External Parasites of Poultry. Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Eire, Vol. 35, 1938, p. 239. Description of : Fleas, lice, mites, scaley leg.

POISONS

Acute Arsenical Poisoning in Fowls. W. K. Tocuason and R. F. Gordon. Veterinary Record, 1938, p. 403. One hundred and twenty out of 150 hens died shortly after eating arsenic. Symptoms : swellingof the head, no appetite, intense thirst, paralysis. Typical changes were found in the gizzard. Effect of Arsenic on Chickens. Poultry Tribune, February, 1937. The widespread use of poisoned bait in grasshopper control has focused attention on the possibility of chickens being poisoned by eating the bait, and on the further possibility of humans being poisoned by eating affected chickens or eggs. The Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station recently undertook to study this question in some detail. Under cage conditions, chickens did not feed on poisoned grasshopper bait made of sawdust, whey and arsenic according to the Wisconsin formula, and in the process of picking corn out of poisoned sawdust did not pick up enough of the scattered bait to produce any serious cases of poisoning. Further trials with bran, sawdust and whey, and with straight bran and whey as the carrying agent for arsenic trioxide showed that chickens dislike the poisoned food, and will not eat much of it unless all other food is taken away. All the edible parts of 14 chickens fed large amounts of arsenic over a period of 3 months were analysed for the presence of arsenic, and six such chickens were cooked and eaten by a number of persons, without any noticeable effect. It is pointed out that one would have to eat about 60 such chickens at one meal in order to get enough arsenic for a minimum lethal dose. Eggs laid by arsenic-fed hens contained traces of arsenic, but the authors of the report do not attach any significance to that fact because of the very small amounts found. One person ate 24 eggs from arsenic-fed hens in 4 days without any signs of disturbance. Naphthalene Poisoning. Poultry Tribune, March, 1937. Naphthalene has been shown to be an effective insecticide, both for the control of lice and for the destruction of the northern fowl mite. When used as the active ingredient in a louse powder, care should be taken not to use it in more than 20 per cent, concentration. When used in 60 per cent, concentration and well rubbed in it has proved fatal to hens.

157 Some flock owners, in attempting to avoid the dangers of naphthalene powder when rubbed on the skin of the fowls, have undertaken to get the benefits from this material by placing small naphthalene moth balls in the nests. A recent report from the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, however, indicates that there is considerable risk involved in this practice. Forty hens were lost in one flock as a result of eating the moth balls. Carbide Poisoning in Hens. Karbidvergiftung bei Hühnern. Dr. A. Kuscher. Wiener Tierärztliche Monatsschrift, Vol. 25, 1938, p. 692. Serious cases of poisoning as a result of eating the waste from carbide lamps. A case is described in which a number of hens died after a sickness of a few weeks. In some places the feathers were broken off and the broken quills were full of blood. There were festered spots on the hide. There were dark stripes in the albumen of the eggs of the sick hens. Colchicin Poisoning in Ducks. Colchicinvergiftung bei Enten. E. Entenmann. Thesis, München, 1937. Colchicin causes extensive changes in the intestinal canal, coagulation- necrosis of the cuticula in the gizzard, hyalin degeneration of the muscles of the gizzard and the frame muscles and extensive hyperaemie of the organs.

SUNDRIES

Combating Diseases in Small Animals. Kampf den Kleintier- krankheiten. Eine gemeinverständliche Belehrung über Pflege und Gesunderhaltung" unserer Hühner^ Kaninchen, und Ziegen. Prof. Dr. K. Beller, Giessen. 88 pages. 32 illustrations. Publ. : Fritz Pfenningstorff, Berlin W.35. Pr. RM. 0.75. In this book, richly illustrated with instructive plates, a review is given of the principal diseases of poultry, rabbits, rodents and goats. It is not so much the treatment of the diseases that is discussed as the measures necessary for preventing and combating them. The writer shows that the smallest fault in rearing might later develop into very serious disturbances of the health and that this can often be indicated as the cause of disease in the full-grown animal. He also states that Marek*s fowl paralysis is a constitutional disease, which is due chiefly to an hereditary insufficient development of the nervous system, but on the other hand does not exclude the possibility that it may be partly due to a virus. At the end of the book there is, besides a list of the Veterinary Institutes registered with the Poultry Health Service of the State Food Department, an index in which the reader will be able to find answers to all questions of interest to him. Many new points of view in connection with the origin of diseases are given and in many instances the book gives food for thought over the nature of diseases, and can be warmly recommended to all breeders and keepers of small animals.

ir>8 Diseases of Fowl of Interest to Meat Inspectors. Eenige ziekten van vogels, van belang voor de keuring. Dr, J. Jansen. Tijdschrift voor Diergeneeskunde, 1936, p. 1099. Description of tuberculosis and salmonellosis both of which are a danger to human beings. Diseases of Poultry. Journal of the Department of Agricul- ture, Eire, Vol. 35, 1938, p. 245. Description of gapes. The Diagnosis of Poultry Diseases in the field of the Veterinary Practitioner. W. P. Blount. Veterinary Journal, Vol. 94, 1938, p. 55. A general guide. Tuberculosis, coccidiosis and rhachitis are more widely treated. Poultry Husbandry and its Influence on the Incidence and Spread of Disease. J. E. Wilson. The Veterinary Record, Vol. 50, 1938, p. 1493. The writer discusses the four systems of poultry farming, especially extensive, semi-intensive, intensive and battery, in connection with diseases. In the extensive system tuberculosis is a danger to the cattle and pigs on the farm. Klein's disease also occurs at such farms. The use of fresh ground is of great importance in the rearing of chickens. The death rate among chickens reared on fresh ground was 4-89 per cent, and among the same number reared on stale ground 36-7 per cent. Paralysis occurred among the hens on the new ground at the rate of 0-89 per cent, and on the stale ground 14 per cent., cocciodosis 1-1 per cent, and 15*4 per cent. Egg production on fresh ground was much higher. There is much less danger with the semi-intensive system provided the runs are properly looked after. The least danger of infection is in the intensive system but the food ration must be calculated accordingly. The death rate at a farm, 74 per cent., fell to 14 per cent., when the birds were confined to hen houses (neither coccidiosis nor worm infection occurred again). There is a minimum chance of infection with the battery system and moreover sick birds are noticed at once and can be removed. The writer considers the intradermal tuberculin test of great value for the combating of fowl tuberculosis. Controlling Poultry Diseases. F. C. Tucker. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 92, 1938, p. 653. This is mainly a consideration of pullorum disease and coccidiosis, with experiences of their control. Conventional methods are dealt with. Poultry Diseases. G. L. Brünett. New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Bulletin No. 337, 1937. The principles of hygiene, sanitation and disease prevention, should be understood by every one who tries to keep animals under domestication. This

150 bulletin has been prepared with the thought for prevention of disease is simpler and cheaper than control or cure of disease. The discussions necessarily are brief and are, as far as possible, in non-technical language. If the principles of hygiene described in this bulletin are followed, the losses from infectious diseases and parasitisms in the flocks will be diminished. Poultry Practice. C.D.Lee. Iowa State College. Veterin- ary Medicine, Vol. 33, 1938, p. 360. A practical summary of information on the more common diseases of poultry. Report of the Veterinary Service of the Department of Agricul- ture and Fisheries for the year ended 31st March, 1938, Jerusalem, Palestine. The general condition of health of poultry raised on modern poultry farms was quite satisfactory and no serious outbreaks of disease among poultry were reported from villages. Fowl pest was introduced from Syria. Pigeon-pox vaccine prepared by the Government Veterinary Laboratory and from various other sources and chicken-pox vaccine prepared by the Hebrew University were used by poultry farmers in protecting their flocks. Isolated outbreaks of wattle disease, caused by Pasteurella avicida were diagnosed. Salmonella was isolated from a severe outbreak among baby chicks and on five outbreaks among ducklings in various centres The number of cases of paralysis increased considerably and caused grave anxiety among poultry farmers. Numerous outbreaks of spirochaetosis were reported. Leucaemia which was found to be closely allied to cases of fowl paralysis was often met with on post-mortem examination. Caecal coccidiosis was not observed. However, other forms were noted on numerous farms. The experimental work at Acre Poultry Station embraces a wide field of projects, such as feeding, housing, rearing» management and equipment. There are in the country some 2|- million head of poultry, of which about one million are laying hens. In the Jewish colonies a modern poultry industry has developed. The main object is intensive egg-production and the breed kept is the White Leghorn. The average animal egg-production is 150 per bird. There is still room for a very considerable development in egg and poultry production, but the industry is largely dependent upon imported foodstuffs.

Adult Poultry Mortality of Non-Infectious Origin. R. E. Lubbehusen and J. R. Beach. University, Berkeley, California. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Vol. 94, 1939, p. 209. In this study of pathological conditions of non-infectious origin, associated with mortality and the development of culls in chickens of laying age, 3,001 chickens from 7 to 36 months of age have been autopsied. These comprise all grown chickens over 7 months old that were removed from the flock by death or by culling during the 4-year period, 1933-36. The hatch of each year is designated series H, J, K and L respectively. The data are grouped according to age periods of 6 months each, so as to determine the predominant pathological lesions of the different age periods and to compare like age periods of the different series of chickens. Lymphomatous infiltrations were predominant in 7 to 12 month old chickens, constituting 45-3 per cent, of lesions in those that died, and 65-3 per

160 cent, in the culls. Each succeeding series has shown an increase in visceral lymphomatosis and a corresponding decrease in neurolymphomatosis. The greatest mortality occurred during the age period of 13 to 18 months, that is, during the second half of the first year of lay. Lesions involving the reproductive organs predominated, both in the culls and in the birds that died, from this age group on through to the last one. The proportion of lesions affecting the alimentary system in chickens that died remained constant for all age groups, being 17 to 18 per cent, of the total primary lesions. In the culls, however, the incidence of such lesions increased from 11-7 per cent, in the youngest to 33-1 per cent, in the oldest. The changes seen most frequently were enteritis and degeneration of the liver. There was a relatively high incidence of death from rupture of the liver. Lesions involving the urinary system (kidneys) ranked next in frequency of occurrence. They were most numerous in chickens that died during the age period of 19 to 24 months, comprising 25-2 per cent, of the total lesions and were exceeded only by those involving the reproductive organs. The mortality of series H and J birds during the first 2 years of production, or until they were 30 months old, approximated 40 per cent, of the birds present at the age of 6 months. Loss by death would possibly have been doubled had culls showing primary pathological lesions been left in the flock. This clearly illustrates the enormity of the death toll in laying chickens from pathological conditions of non-infectious origin and the need of knowledge of the factors which contribute to their occurrence. The autopsy of apparently healthy chickens having unsatisfactory egg- production records revealed that approximately one-third had pathological changes involving the reproductive organs, which were responsible for their becoming poor producers. Thus, it is seen that the non-infectious, pathological conditions in adult chickens may cause them to become poor layers as well as contribute to mortality and to the development of culls.

The Relation of Production to Mortality. D. H. Horton. Cackle and Crow, January, 1939. 1. The majority of deaths occurred in the lower producing pens and within the individual pen the mortality among birds laying at a high rate was less than that occurring among the lower producing birds. It is apparent, therefore, that the factors such as feeding, breeding, housing, etc., which bring about high production are more apt to lower the mortality rate than otherwise. 2. Although there is a tendency for the rate of production to parallel the rate of mortality from season to season within the year, the two rates are, in reality, independent and, therefore, the high mortality which occurs during the season of high production is not caused by that production. 3. No evidence has been secured through this study to indicate that " the strain of heavy production shortens the life of the pullet," the contrary seeming to be the case and it, therefore, appears that the practices which contribute towards increased production in the aggregate at least, contribute also toward health and lowered mortality.

Total Death Rate at Laying Competitions in England, Bedrijfs- pluimveehouder, January 13th, 1939. The total number of birds entered for the laying competitions recognised by the Poultry Council was 18,187. The death rate was 16-84 per cent. There'were ten districts with a low percentage, viz.y 8 to 11 per cent, in 4 districts and 11 to 15 per cent. There were eight districts with a death rate of 18 to 20 per cent, or more.

1C.1 L Work with Poultry Diseases by the North Carolina Station. North Carolina State Report, 1936. The work of the year, 1936 relates to investigations of septicaemic diseases and of the year 1937 to investigations of septicaemic diseases among fowls in North Carolina, studies on normal agglutinins and a search for a virulence antigen in Salmonella pullorum^ S, gallinarum and S. atrtrycke and a paratyphoid infection in pigeons.

On the Inheritance of Pendulous Crop in Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo). V. S. Asmundson and W. R. Hinshaw. University of California, Davis, California. Poultry Science, Vol. 12, 1938, p. 276. Summary : Pendulous crop is an inherited abnormality observed in turkeys raised where the maximum air temperatures and hours of sunshine are relatively high and the relative humidity is comparatively low. There were no cases of pendulous crop among the progeny of pendulous crop birds when raised where the mean maximum air temperature was about 74° F. with correspondingly fewer hours of sunshine and high humidity (Tómales, California) whereas 67-2 per cent, of the full brothers and sisters of these birds developed pendulous crops when raised at Davis, California, where the mean maximum temperature was about 20° F. higher with more hours of sunshine and lower humidity during the summer growing periods. The data obtained at Davis show (a) that the proportion of cases varies in different families of Bronze turkeys and that these differences tend to persist from year to year even though only normal birds are used for breeding ; (b) comparatively few of the progeny from matings of individuals from families with a high and low incidence of pendulous crop develop pendulous crops ; (c) when normal birds out of pendulous crop birds are mated, a relatively large proportion (about 25 per cent, or more) develop pendulous crops ; (d) when pendulous crop birds are mated together from 50 to 100 per cent, of the progeny develop pendulous crop ; (e) the incidence of pendulous crop cases from normal birds mated to pendulous crop birds varied from none to 100 per cent ; (/) none of the Bourbon Reds developed pendulous crop ; (g) very few of the Fi birds from matings of Bourbon Reds and Bronze developed pendulous crop, but approximately one-fourth of the F2 generation developed the abnormality ; (h) the percentage of males and females was approximately equal among both normal and pendulous crop cases from the various matings. It is concluded that the tendency to develop a pendulous crop under certain climatic conditions is determined by a recessive autosomal gene or genes. It appears probable that only one pair of genes is involved, but the possibility that there are more than one pair of genes is not excluded.

Common Contagious and Parasitic Diseases of Poultry in India and their Control (Parts I and II). R. L. Kaura. Agri- culture and Livestock in India, Vol. 7, 1937, p. 745. (Ref. Veterinary Bulletin, Vol. 9, 1939, p. 168.) 1. The general measures applicable in disease control are enumerated, and a brief account is given of a number of specific diseases, vis,y tuberculosis, pullorum disease, fowl typhoid, fowl cholera, coccidiosis, fowl-pox and Newcastle disease. 2. This contains an account of spirochaetosis and also particulars of a number of parasitic worms and the diseases they cause.

162 Anaestkèda in Poultry. E. Gray. The Veterinary journal, Vol. 95, 1939, p. 102. Chloroform v^as found to be the most effective anaesthetic. Some workers have stated that birds are almost insensitive to this drug, but the writer found that concentrated chloroform vapour killed a bird of 6 lb. within 2 minutes.

Some Uses of the Chick Embryo for the Study of Infection and Immunity, E. W. Goodpasture. American Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 28, 1938, p. 111. The technical researches which have led up to the use of chick embryos for the study of infectious diseases are discussed, and the modern technique of inoculating eggs is outlined. In discussing the objects and uses of Qgg embryos, it is stressed that many of the viruses which infect man and animals have been cultivated in this way, the rickettsia of Rocky Mountain spotted fever has been successfully grown, and likewise a number of pathogenic bacteria including Haemophilus influenzae and H. pertussis (causal organism of whooping cough). Among the advantages which ç^gg embryos offer over other laboratory methods of study is the fact that a fertile egg is no more expensive than a test tube of medium. Moreover, the technique of inoculation is by no means difficult, and is one which is easily acquired by practice. The growth which occurs in the egg, having taken place in the presence of living tissue, approxi- mates closely to the type of growth occurring under natural conditions of infection. Furthermore, the cellular reaction of living tissue to this growth can also be studied, particularly if care is taken to inoculate the organisms into that layer which constitutes the optimum growth medium.

Response of the Chorio-Allantoic Membrane of the Developing Chick Embryo to Inoculation with various substances with special reference to Bacillus proteus X 19. C. G. R. Pandit, S. Rao and H. E. Shortt. Indian Journal of Medical Research, Vol. 25, 1938, p. 595 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 7512. Aluminium gel and bacteria produced lesions in eggs similar to those produced by known virus infections. From the bacterial lesions the organisms inoculated were, in each instance, isolated in pure culture. The lesions produced by B. proteus X 19 and E. typhosus were capable of being propagated in series after filtration of the ground lesions through " gradocol " membranes. The filtrate lesions in all serial passages remained sterile on routine laboratory media.

Pullet Mortality. Poultry Tribune, February, 1938. A detailed compilation of death losses in the Michigan Egg Laying Test during the 15-year period from 1922 to 1937 has just been released. During the first eight of these 15 years, the contest opened on November 1st, and during the last 7 years it has opened on October 1st, but this probably does not invalidate any of the comparisons. Yearly mortality averaged 19 per cent, during the first 8 years and 26*5 per cent, during the last 7. The average yearly loss for the entire period was

1(53 22 per cent., with a minimum of 17 per cent, in 1925-26, and 1926-27, and a maximum of 30 per cent, in 1934-35. Approximately 10 per cent, of the deaths occurred in each of the 5 months March, April, May, June and July. In only one month, November, did the deaths amount to less than 5 per cent, of the year's total. There were four varieties in which 200 or more birds were entered in competition during the 15 years. The total death losses among these were Rhode Island Reds, 19 per cent., Barred Plymouth Rocks, 22 per cent., White Plymouth Rocks, 30 per cent., and White Leghorns 32 per cent. Certain types of losses, such as fowl-pox, have dropped to negligible levels since the first contest ; some, such as the leukemoid diseases and fowl paralysis, have greatly increased ; while certain others, such as peritonitis and round worm infestation, have remained essentially unchanged.

164 EGGS AND TABLE POULTRY

EGGS Experimental Production of Floating Yolk " in Eggs, A. E. Platt and C. F. Anderson. Journal of Agriculture of the Department of Agriculture of South Australia, Vol. 42, 1939, p. 592. Spores of a bacillus, recovered from eggs with floating yolks were fed to a group of pullets in their food and drinking water on two successive days. Forty-eight hours from commencement of experiment the floating yolk condition appeared among the eggs produced by the infected group. Those produced by the control group remained normal. These findings indicate that the bacillus in question is a predominating cause of the " floating yolk '' condition in eggs. Calcium Content of the Yolk of Fresh and Storage Eggs. S. E. Erikson, R. E. Boyden, J. H. Martin and W. M. Insko. Kentucky State Bulletin No. 382, 1938. The calcium content was determined in the yolks of eggs (fresh and after 12 months' storage) produced under controlled conditions to test the efl^ect of feeding cod liver oil and allowing hens access to sunshine and bluegrass range, singly and in combination. Any one of the vitamin D supplements tended to increase the calcium content in the fresh yolks, although bluegrass range and sunshine was no more efiEective than sunshine alone either with or without cod liver oil. The calcium in the yolks of storage eggs was consistently higher than in fresh eggs produced under comparable conditions. Effect of various Feeds on Yolk Colour, Poultry Tribune, January, 1938. At the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station a careful study has been made of the efifect of some common ingredients of poultry rations on the colour of yolk in newly laid eggs. The tests were conducted with White Leghorn pullets kept in laying batteries. The substitution of Argentine yellow flint corn for an equal amount of domestic yellow dent corn resulted in increased yolk colour. Barley produced more yolk colour than did wheat, oats or rye. Dehydrated alfalfa leaf meal and green pea meal both gave deep yellow colour to the yolks. Soybean oil meal, linseed oil meal, cotton seed oil meal, and salmon fish meal gave no more colour to the yolks than did oats or rye. SuccuJent alfalfa, fresh lawn clippings, and green curly kale were about equal in their effect on yolk colour, while fresh carrots exerted but a slight effect. Length of time on alfalfa range, whether 2, 6 or 11 hours daily, did not materially affect the colour of yolk, although the slight differences observed were in proportion to the length of time on range.

105 Vitamin D Content of certain Egg and Egg Oil Products, R. Reder, Okla. A. and M. Col. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 521. Summary : Vitamin D assays were made of commercially dried whole eggy egg oil and the unsaponifiable matter of egg oil, prior to and after irradiation. By irradiation the potencies of the three substances were increased 15, 10 and 50 times respectively. A fortified egg oil, consisting of 93-5 per cent, irradiated egg oil and 6-3 per cent, irradiated unsaponifiable matter, had the same vitamin D content as a standard cod liver oil. Variations of Physico-Chemical Constants of Water after Hen Egg Yolk has been immersed in it, A. Orru. Arch. Sei. Biol., Italy, Vol. 24, 1938, p. 150. Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 9112^ The variations of conductivity and pH are not always similar. The conductivity of the fluid in which the egg is immersed increases constantly ; this shows a passage of electrolytes from the yolk to the water. The liquid during the first half-hour is less acid than the initial doubly-distilled water. Tests disclose Reason for Egg Whites' Variance, The (N.J.) Poultryman, January, 1939, p. 6. Light had been cast, by experiments at the Cornell poultry department, on why some tgg whites are thin and watery and others firm and upright around the yolk in eggs freshly broken. The difference is a structural one, according to a discovery by R. K. Cole, a member of the research staff. Individual birds are consistent in the type of eggs they produce. Firm egg whites of good consistency were found to have numerous closely-packed mucin-like fibres which are responsible for the " stand up ** quality. In egg whites of poor consistency the fibres were fewer and more widely spread from one another. As a result, they could offer no inner support to the thick white. It was found that these fibres are produced in the oviduct by one-cell glands which vary in size. After measuring more than 2,200 of the cells under the microscope, says Mr. Cole, it was evident that the birds produced firm egg whites of good consistency because they had larger mucin-secreting cells and were better able to produce more mucin. This increased the number of mucin-fibres and thus improved the firm albumen or egg white. In the experiment, eggs with whites that were known to vary were hard-boiled, the whites were cut in thin sections and stained with special dyes. Under the microscope the experimenter could see the differences in structure of the egg whites. Similarly, the one-cell glands were studied and the formation of a fibre was actually seen. Changes in Eggs after Feeding with Cotton Seed Meal, Une altération des oeufs due d Vingestion par les volailes de farine de coton, J. Lahaye and L. de Saint Moulin. Annales de Médecine Vétérinaire, 1937, p. 289. After feeding with cotton seed meal the whites of the eggs become thin and watery and dark spots appear on the yolks, which give the impression that the eggs are bad. Variation and Hereditariness of the Form of Hen Eggs, Varia- tion und Erblichkeit der Form der Hühnereier, ], Axelsson. Uppsala. Züchtungskunde, 1938, p. 414. Summary : Previous experiments have proved that the egg is shaped during its passage through the oviduct ; in the first place this is due to the albumins secreted, the diameter of the oviduct and the muscularity of the wall. More- over, it has been proved that the index of the egg shows comparatively great variation ; this is, of course, smaller in the individual bird than in the flock to which it belongs. The variation appears to be of unequal extent in different birds. As the object of the experiments is to reduce this variation by means of selective breeding individual differences must be taken into consideration. In the experiments under review the shape of the eggs was determined pardy according to the index and partly according to the degree of pointedness. For the latter a 10° scale was used. The desired shape was indicated by the index 70 to 79 and by the scale degree 3 to 5. Of White Leghorn eggs, only 72-3 per cent, came up to the index standard and 97*3 per cent, answered the requirements for pointedness. The figures for Rhode Islands were 83-1 per cent, and 84*3 per cent, and for Barnevelders 90-9 per cent, and 92*5 per cent. An increase of the ç^gg index of White Leghorns is, therefore, desirable. Perhaps the increase of this index might also lead to an increase of the diameter of the egg. Increase of the living weight of this breed might be of some value. The average value of the index of the eggs of White Leghorns was 71-8, Rhode Islanders 73*1, and Barnevelders 74-0. The degree of pointedness was respectively 3-91, 3-45 and 3-71. Nothing was observed which might lead to the assumption that the age of the birds or the time of the year had any influence on the index or the degree of pointedness. The differences in the index according to breed were of an hereditary nature and appear to be polymerically determined. The egg index of the F^ generation and their crossings was intermediary. In consequence of the very small difference in the breeds as regards pointedness of the eggs the result of the experiments were not so conclusive for this quality as for the index. The results, however, indicated that this quality is also intermediary in the F, generation. A positive connection was proved between the egg-index of the mother and that of the daughters in these three breeds and their crossings. Here- ditary differences were found in the individuals of one breed. Durability against Breakage of Eggs, Hönsäggens krossnings- motstand, E. Martimo, Doktor, Förestandare for Oy. Turun Munas undersöknings och instruktionsavdelning, Abo, Finland. Nordisk Fjäderfäüdskrift, February, 1939. The studies regarding the durability against breakage of eggs have shown that the same grows weaker during the period of production, but that the magnitude of weakening is very different depending on the hens. Thus can the difference of durability against breakage of eggs of two hens be even bigger than three times the average error of difference. The durability against breakage of the examined eggs was 3-157 kg. The durability of eggs of certain hens was under control during the whole period of production. The durability against the breakages does not depend on the shape of the egg. The thickness of the egg shells differs according to the hens and the difference is often bigger than three times the average error of difference. The thickness of the egg shell grows smaller during the period of production, but the CaCOs percentage of the egg shells remains unchanged.

V^7 The specific gravity of the egg shell as well as the specific gravity of the eggs grows smaller during the period of production. The weakening of the durability against breakage of eggs during the period of production is partly due to the fact that the CaCOs percentage to sm^ grows smaller. The construction of the CaCOs molecule has also changed and become more porous. Relationship between Egg Shell Thickness and Strength. W. A. Lund, V. Heiman and L. A. Wilhelm. Washing- ton State College. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 372. Summary : 1. An apparatus for measuring the resistance of egg shells to a crushing and a puncturing force was described. 2. A greater force was necessary to crush the small end of the egg than was required for the large end. This difference was presumably due in a large part to the difference in the degree of curvature at these points. 3. The coefficient of correlation between shell thickness and the crushing resistance of the eggs in this experiment was + 0-633 ± 0-021, and between egg shell thickness and the puncturing resistance + 0-835 i 0-011. Penetration of psychrophylic Germs into Eggs during Cold Storage, Zur Frage des Eindringens psychrophiler Keime in den Einhalt während der Kühlhauslagerung. W. Wede- mann. Zeitschrift für Fleisch- und Milchhygiene, Vol. 48, 1938, p. 462. After 65 days' storage at 0-2° and 85 per cent, moisture germs were found on eggs which had been infected from outside with psychrophylic germs. The contents of the majority of the eggs were free of bacteria but in a few bacilli were found in the albumen and yolk. The bacilli which grow in 0-2° do not develop further when the eggs are removed from cold storage. Penetration of psychrophylic Germs into Eggs during Cold Storage. Nochmals zur Frage den Eindringens psychrophiler Keime {Flúoreszenten) in das Ei-innere während der Kühlhauslagerung. F. Schönberg and R. Wüdik. Zeitschr. für Fleisch- und Milchhygiene, Vol. 49, 1938, p. 82. According to investigations carried out by Wüdik, Bact. fluorescens Hquefaciem is quite well able to penetrate the undamaged shell of an egg in low temperature and to spoil the contents. This causes the typical forms of white and green rot. Eggs. Les Oeufs-Salubrité-Inspection. P. Maitrot. Thesis, Alfort, 1937. Description of the various forms of filth and infections of eggs. Microflora of Trade Eggs. Richer che sulla micro flor a de lie uove del commercio. L. Trossarelli and A. Massano. Giornale Batteriol., Vol. 20, 1938, p. 1059. In 2 per cent, fresh eggs, 10 per cent, cold storage eggs and 9 per cent, preserved (calcium) eggs the writers found various kinds of micro-organism, i,e.^ streptococci, which are pathogenic for human beings.

168 Growth of Mould on Eggs in Storage, Poultry Tribune, February, 1937. An interesting study of the effect of relative humidity on the growth of mould on eggs in storage has been reported from the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station. The eggs were placed in glass jars and were held for varying periods of time ranging up to a maximum of 17 months. The relative humidity within the jars was maintained automatically at selected levels by means of a mixture of sulphuric acid and water placed inside the jars. After all materials were in the jars, the egg surfaces were dusted heavily with mould spores, and observations were made at intervals in order to ascertain the rate of growth of mould on the shells and inside the eggs. A dark mould growth developed on eggs held at 30° F. for 3 months or longer if the relative humidity was 96 per cent, or higher. A slight growth of white mould appeared in some instances at humidities as low as 90 percent, after several months of storage. When clean eggs were used, there was no growth of dark mould at humidities below 96 per cent, and no white mould appeared at humidities of SS or below. When dirty eggs were used, the dirt furnished food for the mould so that dark mould grew luxuriantly at 92 per cent, relative humidity. With eggs held for 17 months at 30° F., the loss in weight of the eggs was found to be directly dependent upon the relative humidity, the higher the humidity the less the loss in weight.

Observations on the Bacterial Flora of the Hen's Egg, with a description of new species of Proteins and Pseudomonas causing Rots in Eggs. R. B. Haines. The Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 38, 1938, p. 338. Summary : 1. Examination of several hundred eggs suggests that a high proportion (98 per cent.) of the whites of fresh eggs and a slightly smaller proportion of the yolks (93 per cent.) are sterile. 2. The shell of the egg is heavily infected with a heterogeneous flora, including proteins and pseudomonas bacteria capable of producing rotting. 3. The rots found in imported New Zealand and Australian eggs, and in English stored eggs, may be grouped into black rot, red rot, green rot and a miscellaneous group. 4. Black rot is brought about chiefly by strains of proteins, but some species of pseudomonas cause some blackening. Red and green rots are due to infection with particular strains of pseudomonas. 5. A *' fishy *' odour is developed during the multiplication of certain atypical coliform organisms in the white, and a strong " cabbage water " smell is often found after the growth of pseudomonas species. 6. Washing eggs under clean conditions has no eflFect on immediate bacterial penetration. Washing removes a protective coating so that if the eggs are subsequently soaked in a bacterial suspension, much more penetration of bacteria occurs than with untreated controls. 7. Detailed descriptions of the coliform and protein organisms isolated are given. It is shown that the strains of proteins from the eggs here investigated are antigenically not related to P. melanovogenes found by Miles and Hainan to be the cause of black rot in South African eggs. 8. It does not at present seem possible to assign specific names to the organisms isolated. The utilisation of carbon sources by the species of pseudomonas obtained from eggs and by certain stock strains, and the possibility of a grouping on that basis, is discussed.

169 Preventing Dirty Eggs. Poultry Tribune, December, 1937. An important study of factors influencing the production of clean eggs and involving a total of more than 66,000 eggs, has been reported by the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station. Of the eggs observed during a period of 14 months, 7-3 per cent, were classified as dirty and 6*9 per cent, as slightly dirty. In general, these percentages were increased during cold, wet weather and decreased during weather that was warm and dry. The proportion of dirty eggs was reduced 50 per cent, by gathering four times daily instead of once. It was also decreased somewhat by keeping the nests darkened. In a test of various nesting materials, shavings, oat hulls, sawdust and excelsior were found to be most effective in preventing dirty eggs. The percentage of dirty eggs was also reduced by keeping the flocks confined to the laying house instead of giving them range. More than 99 per cent, of all eggs were clean before they came in contact with the nest, only a few being stained with blood. Considerable variation was found to exist among individuals, and also among breeds and varieties, in the percentage of dirty eggs produced. Relation between specific Conductivity and Age of Hen Eggs, W. Rudolph. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Lebnes- mittel. Vol. 75, 1938, p. 428. The specific conductivity of the white of egg is influenced by its content in total P2O6, hence can be used for the determination of the age of eggs. The increase in organic phosphate in egg white has no decided influence on the specific conductivity. It is assumed that the increase in the P2O6 content in the egg white is due to the splitting of the lecithins of the yolk with formation of glycerolphosphoric acid and inorganic phosphate, the first compound being significant for its influence on the specific conductivity. Effect of PreStorage Factors on the Storage of Eggs and Poultry (Symposium of papers on egg and poultry storage), E. T. Hainan. Proc. British Assn. Refrig., Vol. 34, No. 2, 5-12, 37-41 ; Ice and Cold Storage, Vol. 41, 1938, No. 479, 29-30 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, 8027. Poultry meat in storage must be safeguarded against loss of moisture, taint due to bacterial and enzyme changes in the digestive tract, and rancidity due to changes in fatty tissues. Since rancidity may develop from changes in neutral fats and unsaturated oils may turn rancid more readily than saturated ones the diet of the fowls is important. During the fattening of fowls the proportion of fat increases. Two plucked fowls weighing 2-696 kg. and 3-026 kg. contained water, 69-8 and 64-6 per cent. ; protein 18-1, 18-2 and fat 6*4 and 13-5 per cent, respectively. Diets containing saturated fats such as mutton fat or palm kernel oil caused saturated body fats. Hemp seed oil caused unsaturated body fats. Taints may be caused by excessive diet of fish oils or fish meal. A very comprehensive review follows on properties desirable in eggs and the best methods of shipping and storing. Oil Treatment for Eggs, H. G. Knight. Ice and Cold Storage, Vol. 41, 1938, No. 482, 76; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 8027. Eggs are placed in a vacuum chamber and the air is drawn from them. The eggs are then dipped in an odourless, tasteless mineral oil and CO g is

110 admitted into the chamber to release the vacuum. The eggs absorb some of the CO2 saturated oil into the shell pores. The oil in the pores prevents moisture and gases from escaping from the eggs. While in the storage the eggs do not shrink and the CO2 saturated oil stabilises the alkalinity of the eggs and markedly retards quality changes. The treated eggs accordingly retain most of their original quality during storage.

Decline in Egg Quality during the Marketing Process. H. E. Erdman and G. B. Alcorn. Experiment Station Record, Vol. 79, 1938, p. 268. This study consisted of the candling and breaking out at intervals during a 2-week period of eggs from the same flock but kept under two sets of conditions. One set represented the conditions of summer in a San Fernando Valley feed room followed by shipment to Los Angeles where the eggs were kept on the warehouse floor during the period commonly taken for eggs to move to the consumer. In the second set the eggs were kept in a burlap cooler on the farm and in a merchandising cooler at about 48° F. in the warehouse. The tests were triplicated, with the second and third lots being started 2 and 9 days respectively after the first lot. The Van Wagenen breakout method was used in determining the scores. The cooler lots showed a better breakout score throughout the period, the average score of the three lots being 1 -83 on the first day, 2*66 on the third day, and 2-89 on the twelfth day, as compared with 2-04, 2«79 and 3«67 respectively for the non-cooler lots. The non-cooler eggs showed a rather steady increase in intensity of yolk shadow, the score being 1*82 the first day and 4-27 the twelfth day, as compared with 1 '56 on the first day and 3*28 on the twelfth day for the cooler eggs.

The Seasonal Variations in Interior Egg Quality of New Laid Eggs. L. A. Wilhelm and V. Heiman. Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Washington, Tech. Paper No. 350, 1938. Summary : A daily study of some of the various factors influencing interior egg quality was made covering thirteen 28-day periods. A partial review of the literature on methods of determining egg yolk colour and albumen quality was made. The yolk colour index and the albumen index were used as measurements in this detailed study of egg quality. Under the conditions of this experiment, the data reported indicate that :— 1. No significant correlation exists between yolk colour and total production. 2. There is no seasonal change in the yolk colour of hens' eggs. 3. There was a downward trend in albumen quality from October until July, after which the quality improved slightly. 4. Albumen quality was not directly affected by the temperature in the pen. 5. No significant correlations were obtained between albumen index and total production. 6. No significant correlations were found between albumen index and per cent, production at 10 weeks, 20 weeks and 40 weeks of production. 7. There was no significant correlation between albumen index and egg weight at 20 or 40 weeks. in Experiments in Evaporation of Moisture from Eggs in Storage E. Toop. Ice and Refrigeration, Vol. 95, 1938, p. 124. Summary : 1. Average atmospheric conditions in Room 41 from April 6th to November 26th, v^ere found to be :— Temperature 30-8 i 0-57° F. Relative humidity ...... 86*3 ± 1*39 per cent. Moisture content ...... 1 -730 grammes per cubic feet. Saturation deficit ... .. 0-274 grammes per cubic feet. 2. Average total loss from five cases of eggs from representative locations in the room was found to be 2-33 per cent, in 200 days, or 0-0116 per cent, per day over 200 days. 3. Average total loss from five cases of oil protected eggs was found to be 0-54 per cent, in 148 days, which is about one-third of the loss from ordinary eggs kept under similar conditions. 4. Overall rates of evaporation from eggs vary with the length of storage, due to high initial loss in weight. Monthly decrease in the overall rates will be 5 per cent, after 120 days of storage and 3*7 per cent, after 140 days of storage. 5. Highest rates of evaporation from eggs were observed in cases located near north wall with outside exposure. 6. Lowest rates of evaporation were observed in cases located near south wall with freezer room exposure. 7. Locations intermediate to the two extreme locations have shown intermediate rates of evaporation. 8. Highest observed rates were 50 per cent, higher than the low^est observed rates. 9. Oil-protected eggs have displayed a relative indifiference to the variable conditions in the room. 10. Of the 16 humidified egg rooms reported by Dr. Pennington, ten have shown higher rates of evaporation and six lower rates of evaporation than the average of five representative cases from Room 41.

Heat and Egg Quality, Poultry Tribune, December, 1938. The practice of pre-heating eggs to permit the selection of infertiles by modern high power candling devices prior to actual incubation prompted a study at the California Agricultural Experiment Station, to determine the loss in quality resulting from such treatment. Eggs were measured on the basis of candling score, albumen height, yolk height, and size of air cell. The results showed that 15 hours of pre- heating reduced the candling score by 65 per cent., the albumen height by 21 per cent., the yolk height by 22 per cent., and increased the air cell size by 14 per cent. Eggs which graded as U.S. Specials before pre-heating were no better than U.S. Standard after 15 hours of incubation. Examined before the candle, the pre-heated eggs showed a considerably darker yolk shadow and a somewhat larger air cell than specified in the grade of U.S. Standards.

Porosity of Egg Shells and Loss in Weight. Poultry Tribune, November, 1938. Commercial egg handlers are often of the opinion that white eggs do not keep as well in storage as do brown eggs. A partial explanation of such a result may be found in findings recently reported from Cambridge, England. Brown eggs were found to be significantly less porous than white eggs, and this would mean less evaporation.

172 Small eggs lost weight more rapidly than large eggs, when measured on a percentage basis, because of the relatively greater surface exposed to evaporation. Shell thickness was found to have a definite, though small influence on shell porosity, the thicker shells being less porous. Cuticular areas immediately surrounding the individual pores seem to function as additional evaporating surfaces. It is estimated by the English workers that if these areas were not present the air cell would get to but one- fortieth of its usual size during ordinary incubation. Embryos in any such eggs would, of course, drown before they could hatch. Factors Influencing Egg Composition, Poultry Tribune, April, 1938. From the Dominion Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, comes an interesting report of studies made on 180 individually pedigreed Barred Plymouth Rock pullets, in an attempt to determine the effect of environment and heredity on certain egg quality and Qgg composition characters. Characters which were found to be markedly determined by the individuality of the hen were percentage firm white, condition of firm white, yolk weight, yolk colour, breaking strength of the vitelline membrane, percentage ash in the dry shell and percentage ash in the entire egg. Environmental influences accounted for much of variability in percentage firm white, yolk weight, yolk colour and breaking strength of vitelline membrane. Yolk weight percentage ash of dry shell and percentage ash in the entire egg appeared definitely as family characteristics, and presumably, therefore, are inherited. The ash relationship is particularly interesting, and suggests that gene control over egg shell quality may be more important than commonly believed or recognised. The amount of oyster shell consumed had no efiFect on either the amount of calcium secreted or the percentage of calcium in the shell. Any existing gene control must, therefore, be concerned with the efficiency of calcium utilisation by the fowl. New Method of Cleaning Eggs. Poultry Tribune, May, 1938. With the best of flock management, some eggs become soiled, and under average farm conditions about one-fourth of all eggs produced are dirty or slightly dirty. This means a large loss to the industry, and it also presents a problem for producers, packers, wholesalers and retailers in the disposal of dirty eggs. Various methods of cleaning have been used by producers, ranging from simple washing with tap water to the use of elaborate and expensive machines utilising sand paper or blasts of fine sand to remove the dirt from G^gg shells. Tests just reported by the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station indicate that dirty eggs can be washed in suitable solutions of sodium hydroxide, without the loss in keeping quality which is a usual result of many other methods of cleaning. Soiled eggs cleaned with sodium hydroxide solutions (lye water) kept just as well in cold storage as did clean eggs which were not washed, and brought prices equivalent to those obtained for clean eggs stored at the same time. Cooking tests showed that the dirty eggs which had been properly cleaned were equally as good as the clean eggs. It was also found that the bacterial count of frozen eggs was significantly reduced by cleaning the eggs with a sodium hydroxide solution before the eggs were broken. The water used for cleaning should contain 0*35 per cent, of sodium hydroxide and should be changed often if it is to be effective. It is suggested that 2 quarts of solution will clean 10 dozen eggs before being discarded.

173 Ineffective solutions used for washing do more harm than good. The operatof should wear rubber gloves while working with these solutions. Determination of Egg Quality by a Sampling Method, S. R. Hoover. Journal of Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Vol. 21, 1938, 496; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, 8612. A logarithmic relationship between the area of thick white and the " broken-out quality " of eggs was observed. The significance of this area is pointed out and its merits as an index of interior quality of eggs are briefly brought out. The effect of various Storage Conditions upon the Ammonia Nitrogen Content of Eggs. P. J. Schaible, J. A. Davidson and S. L. Bandemer. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. The U.S. Egg and Poultry Magazine, Septem- ber, 1937. Data have been obtained showing the distribution of ammonia nitrogen in different parts of the Ggg. Yolks of fresh eggs were found to contain from ten to twenty times as much as the whites. Practical variations in the management and feeding of the hens had little effect on this distribution. Storage for different periods under various controlled conditions increased the ammonia nitrogen content of the yolk to a degree depending upon the time and temperature whereas the ammonia nitrogen content of the white was more stable under these conditions. No significant difference was obtained between two groups of eggs which had been held for either 1 or 5 days at 55° F. before placing in commercial cold storage for intervals up to 8i months. The effects of fertility, incubation, cold storage in a carbon dioxide atmosphere, shell treatment, water glass storage and marketing were investigated. It was concluded that the ammonia nitrogen content of the egg yolk provided a convenient means of distinguishing between fresh and storage eggs. The effect of Heredity and Environment on the Interior Quality of the Egg, L. A. Wilhelm and J. S. Carver. Agricul- tural Experiment Station, Pullman, Washington. Bulle- tin No. 368. December, 1938. Four hundred pullets of known ancestry as to the albumen index characteristic were housed in continuation of studies of the method of inheritance of albumen quality. A study of the seasonal variations in ç^gg shell thickness has been completed. A study of the effect of interior quality on hatchability revealed that albumen index and albumen height are closely correlated, but that neither seemed to be associated with hatchabiHty. Both ç^gg weight and shell thickness were correlated with percentage hatch. An apparatus for shaking eggs was devised and will be used in subsequent studies. The effect of Storage Conditions on Egg Quality, L. A. Wilhelm and J. S. Carver. Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Washington. Bulletin No. 368, December, 1938. The effects of packing fresh eggs in a 14 and 28-inch vacuum, vacuum released with CO2 and carbon dioxide, were studied by treating the eggs and sealing in a portable container. They were then subjected to temperatures of

174 30°, 50°, 70° and 90° F. The results obtained indicate that the 14-inch vacuum is not as severe as the 28-inch vacuum. Sealing fresh eggs in an air- tight container prevents much loss of quality. Any treatment in which carbon dioxide was not used resulted in growth of mould on the eggs when at higher than normal temperatures. The Semi-Quantitative Estimation of Mineral Oil in the Shells of Processed Eggs. S. R. Hoover. The U.S. Egg and Poultry Magazine, March, 1939, p. 162. A simple method is described for the rapid estimation of the oil content of the shells of processed eggs by measuring the turbidity produced when the shell is boiled with alcoholic NaOH and then diluted with water. Using this method, a wide variation in the oil content of individual processed eggs was observed, and the possibility of this variation causing inconsistent results of processing in commercial practice is pointed out. Preserving Egg Quality on the Farm, L. M. Black. New Jersey Station. Hints to Poultrymen, Vol. 25, 1938, No. 5. Common causes for deterioration in egg quality and methods for preserving quality are discussed. The Iron and Copper Content of the Eggs : variations with age of the fowl. The influence of the food on the content of iron and copper. Le taux du Fer et du Cuivre dans Voeuf ; les variations de ces deux métaux suivant Vâge de la poule. E. Lesne, P. TÀTÀn^ and S. Briskas. Comptes Rendus Société Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 935. The yolk contains copper and iron, the albumen copper but no iron. The content of copper and iron decreases as the hen gets older. This also occurs with the milk of mammals. The feeding of iron does not increase the content of iron in the yolk but causes a big decrease in the content of copper. The feeding of copper causes a considerable decrease in the content of iron and an increase in the content of copper. A simultaneous feeding of iron and copper increases the content of iron but does not influence the content of copper. The content of iron and copper in eggs is higher in spring and summer than in winter. Origin of Phosphorus Compounds in Hens' Eggs, G. Hevesy and L. Hahn, Biol. Medd. danske Vidensh. Selsk. 14. (Ref. Vlaamsch Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift, Vol. 8, 1939, p. 20.) The writer administered radio-active P to laying hens and observed its changes in the organism and eggs. The following are the principal observations. The greater part of the phosphates of the yolk are formed in the liver. From here they go to the plasma and with this to the ovary. The blood corpuscles play but a small part here. There is no further formation of phosphates in the ovary. Calcium in Fresh and Storage Eggs, Poultry Tribune, April, 1939. Since eggs are known to be a good source of calcium in the human dietary, it is of interest to determine whether the calcium content is affected

175 by ordinary management conditions to which the laying flock may be subjected. At the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station individual analyses were made of the yolks of 193 fresh and 149 storage eggs from hens which had been confined indoors with no direct sunshine, some with and some without cod liver oil in their ration. Some were given access to a wire-screened sun porch. Others were allowed out on bluegrass range, some with and some without cod liver oil. The results showed that any one of the vitamin D supplements tended to increase the calcium content of the egg yolk. Bluegrass range plus sunshine was no more effective than sunshine alone, whether with or without cod liver oil. The calcium content of the yolks of storage eggs was higher than that of fresh eggs. On the Nature of ''Meat Spots'' in Eggs. B. R. Burmester and L. E. Card. University of Illinois. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 235. The location and the gross and microscopic appearance of QS meat spots obtained from eggs are described. Of these, about 71 per cent, were located in the thick white, 14 per cent, in the chalazae, ^ per cent, in the inner thin white and 4 per cent, each in the outer thin white and on the yolk surface, and 81 per cent, showed signs of red or brown colour. It appeared that extravascular blood was directly involved in the formation of such meat spots, most of them consisting of a central mass of red blood corpuscles surrounded by a protein layer of varying thickness. There was great variation in the extent of red cell degeneration in the specimens observed. The probable cause of this phenomenon is discussed. The Albumen and Cystine Content of Eggs, F. Szörenyi. Thesis, Budapest, 1938. The albumen content of eggs is not equal. The ratio weight and albumen content of the yolk is the reverse. The content of cystine depends on the weight of the egg. The albumen part often contains less cystine than the globulin.

The use of Colour Filters in Egg Candling. R. L. Doan. U.S. Egg and Poultry Magazine, October, 1934, p. 19. Reviewing the foregoing results, candling tests with several différent filters have shown that the only filters of any appreciable value in egg candling are those that absorb the yellow and red portion of the spectrum to a considerably greater extent than the blue and green. Further work along this line may, therefore, be profitably applied to determining the best type of blue-green filter rather than attempting to explore further the possibilities of yellow and red filters. The writer's preference on the basis of observations in the laboratory has been indicated above but it may be that commercial candling tests will modify this choice to some extent. Keeping Quality of Eggs. Journal of the Ministry of Agricul- ture of Northern Ireland. 1. Differences in systems of feeding and management such as are found on good commercial poultry farms do not affect the quality of the eggs produced to any appreciable degree. A slight but ill-defined difference in quality in favour of the hens having the most exercise was noted, but it was certainly not large enough to affect the commercial value of the eggs.

176 2. The season of the year caused the most important variation in keeping qualities, but the reduction during summer was probably due to the higher storage temperatures and not to any intrinsic inferiority of the eggs as laid. 3. The hen's rate of production does not seem to have any effect on the quality of the eggs, but individual hens differ considerably among themselves in this respect. 4. There are no differences among the three chief breeds of hens, namely, White Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds and White Leghorns, as regards quality of eggs when laid or as regards keeping qualities. 5. The appearance of an egg when candled soon after being laid is very little guide as to its keeping qualities. The " normal " or best type of egg in this investigation kept very little better than the common types. The presence of running and of tremulous air cells was not found necessarily to denote eggs of poor keeping qualities. 6. The transportation of eggs causes serious deterioration in their appearance and keeping qualities, which is very much accentuated when the eggs are not packed with the broad-end uppermost. One-third of the eggs packed broad-end down were actually seconds after handling similar to what they would have received during export to England. The shaking and jolting of transporc tended to produce running and tremulous air cells, particularly among egg packed broad-end down. Egg Quality as related to the Individual Bird. F. P. Jeffrey. New Jersey Stas. Hints to Poultrymen, Vol. 25, 1938, No. 6. This is a brief discussion of the extent to which egg size and shape, the colour and physical condition of the egg shell, the colour and consistency of albumin and the occurrence of meat and blood spots are individual characters and are influenced by heredity. « The effect of Resecting a part of the Uterus on the Formation of the Hen's Egg. V. S. Asmundson and B. R. Bur- mester. Division of Poultry Husbandry, University of California, Davis. Poultry Science, Vol. 18,1938, p. 126. Summary : A part of the uterus varying from about 4 to 16 sq. cm in area was resected from the lateral or ventral walls of the uterus of hens. Data were obtained on the eggs of eleven of the hens, ten of which laid three or more more eggs after they were operated upon. Three eggs laid before and a a similar number obtained after the operation on the uterus were measured. The total weight and weight of the parts of the eggs were determined. The percentage solids in the three layers of albumen and the percentage ash in the albumen were also obtained, together with the ash and protein content of the shell. The eggs laid after the operation were more variable in shape and the shells weighed less. The weight of other parts of the egg remained the same as before or increased. The shell protein decreased by only about 9 per cent, while the weight of the shell decreased by 29 per cent. The percentage solids in the albumen decreased significantly, but the am.ount of solids did not change appreciably. The decrease in percentage solids was, therefore, due entirely to an increase in the amount of water added to the egg. The amount and percentage of ash also increased significantly. These results indicate that, as a result of the resection of a part of the uterus, the shell is either deposited more slowly on the eggs or there is a longer latent period before shell secretion starts thus permitting more water with its contained soluble salts to enter the egg through the shell membrane.

177 M Formation of Egg White. Poultry Tribune, May, 1937. It has long been known that of the total white in a hen's egg^ about half is acquired through the shell membranes after the ^gg has reached the shell gland or uterus. Some investigators have assumed and others have concluded from experimental observation and analysis, that the egg also acquires nitrogen while in the uterus, in spite of the fact that the shell membranes might be expected to prevent the passage of protein material. Workers at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, by making chemical analysis of eggs taken from the isthmian region of the oviduct and of eggs laid naturally by the same hens, have concluded that it is very unlikely that any protein is added to the egg after it reaches the uterus. Eggs from the isthmus contained 5 J per cent, of the total white of the laid eggs and 96 per cent, of the nitrogen. Since the laid eggs were all in the " first " position in the clutch, while the intercepted eggs were in the " second ** position, the latter would be somewhat smaller and would not be expected to contain as much total white or total nitrogen as " first-position *' eggs. Actually, the difference in nitrogen content of consecutively laid eggs is as great as that between isthmian and laid eggs upon which some investigators have based the contention that protein is added to the egg through the shell membranes. The value of Iodine Eggs in Child Therapy, La produzione di uove iodate e Vimpiego di queste nella terapia infantile. Prof. V. Vezzani and Dr. T. Devalle. Rivista di Avicultura, Vol. 6, 1936, p. 165. Iodine eggs have a favourable influence on the general health of children. The results are not proportional to the quantity of iodine so that optimal results may*be obtained with eggs having a low iodine content. Iodine Eggs. Ueber Jodeier. R. Viollier and E. Iselin. Mitteilungen Lebensmitteluntersuchungen und Hygiene Bd. 26, 1935, p. 62. For the purpose of obtaining eggs with a high iodine content, Viollier and Iselin experimented by feeding iodine to hens. Jodomin is iodine cod liver oil with organically bound iodine, 0-1 gramme jodomin per hen and per day, according to the prescription, caused an increase in the eggs of from 20 to 40 times the normal iodine content. The amount of biologically active iodine then amounted to 30 to 80 y and can, therefore, replace the quantity of iodised kitchen salt prescribed for crop prophylaxis. The writers consider it necessary to mark these eggs clearly and state that they should not be consumed for lengthy periods except under medical supervision. The Egg-Replacement value of several Proteins in Human Nutrition. E. E. Sumner, H. B. Pierce and J. R. Murlin. Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 16, 1938, p. 37. For the maintenance of N balance in adult human subjects whole egg protein was superior to whole milk proteins. Powdered milk, fresh milk or wheat endosperm with some cream, replaced egg protein N to about the same extent. Yeast, however, could not be used as a substitute for part of the milk or Qgg protein without causing a negative N balance, the N and total solids of the faeces increasing with this substitute. The replacement value of milk with egg as a standard, was the same for the rat as for man.

ITS The Biological Value of Milk and Egg Protein in Human Subjects. E. E. Sumner and J. R. Murlin. Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 16, 1938, p. 141. A comparison of the biological value of the proteins of whole cow's milk with that of dried whole egg flake showed the superiority of the latter for young or mature rats. The superiority was less pronounced with adult human subjects. The biological value of these proteins for maintenance in adult human subjects was lower than that observed in adult rats. Whether measured by the apparent or true coefficient of digestibility the proteins of milk and egg were equally well utilised by human subjects and by rats.

The Egg-Replacement Value of the Proteins of Cereal Breakfast Foods with a consideration of Heat Injury. J.. R. Murlin, E. S. Nässet and M. E. Marsh. Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 16, 1938, p. 249. The nutritive value of the protein of cereal breakfast foods was determined by N balances on ten adults. Egg or cereal protein provided 78 per cent, of the total N, the cereal alternating with the egg in successive 5-day periods. The G^gg replacement value of the protein of each cereal was calculated as the difference between the N balances on the two diets expressed as a percentage of the egg N fed. The N intake on both egg and cereal diets was 5-92 grammes per day. The replacement values varied from 87 for whole grain oats to 57 for " puffed " wheat, whole wheat having a value of QS. Cereal breakfast foods which were subjected during manufacture to intense heat were found to rank low in egg replacement value. The relative merits of egg replacement value and biological value are discussed.

A Nutritional Disease of Chicks caused by feeding Dried Eggs. W. C. Tully. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 355. Poor growth and pellagra-like symptoms resulted from diets apparently nutritionally adequate for chicks but containing egg white, either dried to constitute S-Q per cent, of the ration or liquid to constitute 62 per cent. The remainder of the diet consisted of yellow maize, wheat bran and middlings, whole oats, limestone, steamed bonemeal, salt, cod liver oil and, in some cases also, dried buttermilk or dried yeast. Symptoms were also sometimes seen when dried whole egg was used instead of the egg white. Dried egg white heated for 16 hours at 106° C. had the same effect as the unheated product, but coagulated egg white, dried or fresh, was harmless. The authors appear to be unaware of the work of Parsons and her co-workers on the subject. Estimations of haemoglobin were made on the blood of normal chicks and the values ranged from 4-9 to 8-9 grammes per 100 ml.

Inhibiting action of Crude Albumin on the Gelatin-liquefying Enzymes of some Anaerobic Bacteria. E. Pozerski and Mme. Guelin. Comptes Rendus Société de Biologie, Vol. 128, 1938, p. 504. Raw egg white prevents the liquefaction of gelatin by culture filtrates of B. sporogeneSy B. bifermentens and B. sordelli, but has no effect on the ¿^elatinase of B. histolyticus filtrate. Fresh horse serum acts in the same way as does egg white.

179 Ovoghbulin. E.C.Smith. (British) Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Report of Food Investigation Board, 1936, 50-1 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 4613. The presence of globulin may be shown by extracting the precipitate from the diluted egg white with 2 per cent. KCl, and either dialyzing or precipitating with half-saturated (NH4)2S04. It is probably a contamination in mucin prepared from stored eggs. A sample of mucin fraction from thin white had an isoelectric point at about pH 5-3 and that from the thick white at about 2-5. Since the isoelectric point of ovalbumin is about 4-7, there is no doubt that the insoluble protein from the inner thin was largely denatured globulin. Enzymic activity of the thick White of Eggs, J. Pace. (British) Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Report of Food Investigation Board, 1936, 50-1 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 4613. By use of the formol titra ti on technique, it was found that an extract of thick white showed no evidence of tryptic autolysis ; the extract itself is only very slowly attacked by added trypsin ; the extract inhibits the action of trypsin upon casein and gelatin, the inhibitory action being greater upon the former, and there is evidence that the ovomucoid fraction is partly responsible for this inhibitory action upon tryptic hydrolysis. Determination of Cholesterol in Egg Paste. IL J. Terrier. Mitteilungen aus dem Gebiete der Lebensmittelunter- suchung und Hygiene, Vol. 29, p. 15, 1938 ; Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, p. 5092. The digitonin which precipitates with the digitonide causes inconsistent results. It is overcome by decomposition of the total precipitation with boiling xylene ; this separates the cholesterol from the digitonin. Electrophoresis Experiments with Egg Albumins and Hemo- globins, K. Landsteiner, L. G. Longsworth and J. van der Scheer. Science, Vol. 88, 1938, p. 83. Ovalbumins from the chicken, guinea hen and turkey exhibit close resemblance in electrophoresis experiments. The albumins from duck and goose eggs form a second group with mobilities definitely different from the others. The electrophoretic mobilities of the haemoglobins of several birds and animals have been determined. Report on {the Determination of) Water-Soluble Nitrogen and Crude Albumin Nitrogen in Dried Eggs, F. J. McNall. Journal of Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Vol. 21, 1938, p. 182. A collaborative study of the tentative A.O.A.C. method for H2O soluble N and crude albumin gave fairly closely agreeing results on dried whole eggs and Ggg yolks, but rather disappointing results on egg white. This possibly is due to the fact that vigorous shaking of the water extract of whites causes a precipitate the amount of which increases with the time and vigor of agitation. If the sample is broken up with a stirring rod and the water added slowly, very gentle shaking is all that is necessary to get the material disintegrated.

180 Packing Materials and Egg Flavour. Poultry Tribune, March, 1939. Workers at the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station have been studying the effect of various packing materials on the flavour of cold storage eggs. In summarising the tests which were made in three different years, they concluded that no sweeping statement can be made covering the effect of any particular type of pulp used in filler manufacture. As a rule, however, the spruce fillers imparted the least flavour to the eggs and the strawboard fillers imparted the most. A close relation was found to exist between the odour and the taste of eggs, indicating that the flavour obtained by tasting was due largely to the sense of smell. The effect of increasing humidity on the absorption of flavours was determined by the nature of the packing material. With some samples, the amount of absorbed flavour increased with increasing humidity ; with others, variations in humidity had no effect. Eggs with relatively high pH, i.e., eggs which had lost considerable carbon dioxide, were shown to develop a more undesirable flavour during storage, irrespective of the type of packing material used, than eggs in which the pH was held low. The alkaline condition which occurs with the natural loss of carbon dioxide through the shell is favourable to the absorption of flavours. On the Reaction between Metaphosphoric Acid and Egg Albumin. G. Perlmann and H. Herrmann. Biochemical Journal, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 926. Summary : 1. Egg albumin is precipitated by metaphosphoric acid and the amount of the precipitate as well as the phosphorus content of the precipitate are estimated under various conditions. 2. The limiting, constant phosphorus content of the precipitates is equivalent to 27 positively charged groups per egg albumin molecule. 3. The precipitates are easily soluble in salt solutions and from these solutions the phosphorus-free, crystallised egg albumin can be regained. Hemoglobin Regeneration of Value of Egg Yolk, Kentucky St. Report, 1937. Experiment Station Record, Vol. 79, 1938, p. 562. This progress report summarises a study of the haemoglobin regeneration value of Ggg yolk tested on eight anaemic children. Dried Egg-White Mixture, S. Tranin. Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 8032. A product suitable for use in bakery products, etc., comprises a dehydrated mixture of egg white, an edible acid such as lactic or tartaric acid 0-5 to 1-0 per cent, (before dehydration) and glucose in sufficient quantity to prevent the acid from souring the ç^gg white. Egg Prices. O. J. Beilby. Oxford : University of Oxford Agricultural Economics Research Institute, 1937, 66 pp. This is a study of the factors affecting prices and production of eggs in Great Britain, 1913-35. Home production, imports and prices are discussed, and an analysis is made of the factors affecting prices and production. The average consumption^er capita increased from 111 eggs in 1913 to 158 in 1931,

181 then decreased to about 150 for the period 1932-34. The percentage imported decreased from 64 to 32 during the period. Home production, imports and demand were responsible for 66^ 5 and 19 per cent, respectively, of the fluctuations in egg prices, 1925-35. Changes of 1 per cent, in demand fthe index of purchasing power), home production and imports resulted in changes of 2-35, 1-16 and 0*31 per cent, respectively in the prices of eggs. Eggs at Auction. Poultry Tribune, May, 1938. Some interesting facts about selling fresh eggs at auction have just been pubHshed in a bulletin of the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station. The New Hampshire Egg Auction started in June, 1934, and increased its active membership from 42 at the beginning to 594 at the end of 2^ years. It is significant that about 60 per cent, of the commercial producer members gather their eggs three times daily or oftener. Candling records sent to producers brought about considerable improvement in quality in the shipments from farms with low records. About 60 per cent, of the buyers attending auction sales are pedlars and they buy about 40 per cent, of the eggs sold. It is of interest that about 84 per cent, of the eggs sold are bought by persons from Massachusetts. Auction prices were above Boston quotations on Near-by Specials in about 80 per cent, of the sales. Auction premiums are highest in August and September. Brown eggs bring about 1-5 cents, a dozen more than white eggs of the same grade. Although the price per lb. usually increases sharply between official sizes, it usually decreases as weights increase within the limits of a given grade. Antigenic action on Ducks, Chickens and Rabbits of Egg White of Ducks, H. Senges. Zeitschrift für Immünitatsfor- schung und Experimentelle Therapie, Vol. 92, 1938, p. 431. Immunisation of ducks with egg white of ducks produced no antibodies. Immunisation of chickens with duck egg white produced species specific anti-bodies that reacted with duck serum and egg white but not with hen egg white. Immunisation of rabbits with duck or chicken egg white produced precipitating and complement-fixing antibodies that reacted with the egg white of both animals and the serum of the homologous animal. Also immunisation of rabbits with duck or chicken serum produced antibodies that reacted with both species of serum but only with the homologous egg white. Reclaiming Egg White adhering to Egg Shells, S. Tranin. Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 5952. Egg white is separated from shell material by centrifuging and is subjected to the filtering action of a gelatin solution in conjunction with a Cl solution, to efifect purification and sterilisation and may then be acidified with citric or tartaric acid to efifect separation of foreign matter which may be skimmed off. Egg Manual, Handbuch der Eierkunde, J. Grossfeld. Ed. : Julius Springer, Berlin, 1938. The book provides a review of the history and the present theoretical and practical position of egg science which will be of great value to those directly concerned with eggs and also to many workers in branches of food chemistry dealing with such substances as proteins, fats, lecithins, vitamins, organic sulphur compounds, etc.

,182 Preserving Liquid Egg Materials. A. Bellamy. Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, p. 4685. Liquid egg material consisting of whites, yolks or whole eggs is preserved by mixing therewith glycerol and sufficient of an aqueous solution of a non-poisonous acid salt of an alkali metal or of NH4 to bring the mixture to a neutral or slightly alkaline condition and removing sufficient of the H2O to bring the mixture to a consistency varying from that of a creamy fluid to a pasty mass or, if desired, to substantial dryness. Apparatus is described. Equilibria between Carbon Dioxide and the Egg, J. Brooks and J. Pace. Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 32, 1938, 9226. The greater solubility of CO2 in yolk than in egg white can be attributed to the higher solubility of CO« in the various fatty compounds present. The concentration of bicarbonate in the white varies from 0-0512 to 0-0582 grammes moles per litre over a CO2 pressure range of 37 to 730 mm.

TABLE POULTRY The effect of Fattening Periods upon the Gains and Quality of the Carcasses of Cockerels. Prof. A. N. Aleinicoff. Transactions of the all-union Institute of Poultry Industries, Moscow, U.S.S.R., Vol. 3, No. 2, 1938. The data obtained from these tests and then carefully studied allow to make following conclusions and suggestions :— 1. Under conditions of proper selection birds before the start of the fattening and proper feeding it may be obtained over 60 per cent, of first graded birds, having only 30 per cent, of the second grade. 2. The higher the grade—the greater the gain. Therefore, the result of the fattening is determined by the gain rate and firstly, by the gain of one graded birds and their quantity. 3. The period of fattening low graded cockerels in autumn (third grade before fattening) shall not be over 22 days. Further lengthening of the fattening results in a decrease of gains and quality. 4. The killing of the fattened poultry may be made in the way of gradual selection. On the 18th day all birds of third grade determined shall be slaughtered. The first grade birds are to be slaughtered within the 22nd day. The second grade birds are to be killed after 22 days of fattening. In the way of selecting birds for killing may be decreased the average length of fattening and increased the effect of the same. 5. Methods for grading poultry alive may be developed. Effect of Fattening on Composition. Poultry Tribune, May, 1938. From the National Agricultural Research Centre at Beltsville, Maryland, comes a report of physical and chemical analyses made on representative cross- bred cockerels at ages of 8, 12, 16 and 20 weeks, half of which were specially fattened for 2 weeks before slaughter. All were range reared until the time of fattening or slaughter. The absolute gain in live weight during fattening increased with age, but the percentage gain decreased. The feed consumed per unit of gain during the fattening period increased with age. The percentage of breast muscle and leg muscle decreased with fattening, while the percentage of the remaining edible portion increased.

183 The increase in fat plus water, during fattening was from 85 to 92 per cent, of the gain in the total edible portion. In the younger birds, the increase in water was greater than that in fat, but with the oldest birds the reverse was true. The increase in protein was relatively small at all ages, and its ratio to the total edible gain tended to decrease with age.

Broiler Production, A. E. Tomhave. Annual Report, University of Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark, Delaware. Bulletin No. 214. November, 1938 Summary of Bulletin No. 210., June, 1938. 1. Brolier chicks were fed rations with protein levels of 16-3, 18-3, 20-4 and 22-3 per cent. The final average weight of the broilers at 11 weeks was in direct relationship to the level of protein in the ration. The differences, however, in the average weight of broilers on the 18-3, 20-4 and 22-3 per cent, protein levels were small at 11 weeks. 2. The broiler mash with the 16-3 per cent, protein level produced a slower growth during the early part of the feeding period than did the higher protein levels. 3. At 11 weeks the percentage of broilers weighing 2-75 lb. and over was 12-8 on the 16-3 per cent, level, 26-1 on the 18-3 per cent, level, 27-1 on the 20-4 per cent, level and 26-8 per cent, on the 22-3 per cent, level. 4. As the broilers increased in age and weight, the efficiency of the feed in producing a lb. of gain decreased. 5. The feed required to produce a lb. of gain for the 11-week period was 3-60 lb. for the 20-4 per cent, level, 3-63 lb. for the 18-3 per cent, level, 3-69 lb. for the 22-3 per cent, level, and 3-78 lb for the 16-3 per cent, level. This project is to be continued.

Quality in Poultry Meat. F. P. Jeffrey. New Jersey State College of Agriculture. The U.S. Egg and Poultry Magazine, May, 1937. The purpose of the experiment was to demonstrate whether it is possible to improve the quality of poultry meat by a system of pen fattening requiring a minimum of labour. Material selected was 20-week Barred Plymouth Rock, Barred Plymouth Rock X Rhode Island Red and White Plymouth Rock X White Wyandotte cockerels and pullets. The corn-fed groups received unlimited cracked yellow corn and a daily wet mash feeding of yellow corn meal and semi-sol id buttermilk. The oat-fed groups has access to whole oats and and received a feeding of pulverised oats and semi-solid buttermilk every day. The check group received a mixture of standard New Jersey mash and grain in proportion of three mash to one grain. Finishing period was 28 days. The Home Economics Department at the New Jersey College for Women co-operated in making laboratory tests on quality. Birds were roasted in open pans at 300° F. and no seasoning was added. Eight unbiased judges having no taste prejudice against the absence of salt participated by tasting one bird from each group for three consecutive days. The recording chart used was developed for meat testing by the Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S.D.A., and includes aroma intensity and desirability, texture intensity, flavour of fat intensity and desirability, flavour of lean intensity and desirability, tenderness intensity, quality of juice, quantity of juice, colour of fat and colour of lean. Results from day to day were consistent in respect to the diflFerent groups and were uniformly in favour of the corn-fed birds. The birds from the check groups were always rated lowest.

184 Ejfect of Pre-cooling and Rate of Freezing on the Quality of Dressed Poultry. L. Sair and W. H. Cook. Canadian Journal of Research, Vol. 16, 1938, p. 139. Abstract : The rate at which poultry is frozen has been shown to have no effect on the number of bacteria present, and little, if any, effect on the extent of surface desiccation or development of visceral taint. The development of taint appears to depend primarily on the period during which the product is held at temperatures above the freezing point, and little advantage is gained by freezing promptly after slaughter, since taint development occurs during thawing. A quantitative study of the amount of fluid exuded (drip) after freezing and thawing whole birds shows that, regardless of the rate of freezing, the whole bird does not drip. Freezing does change the condition of the water in the muscle, however, since drip can be obtained from minced meat after freezing. If minced meat is frozen within 3 hours of slaughter, the amount of drip is somewhat variable but apparently independent of the rate of freezing. If the birds are stored for 24 hours or more at 0° C, prior to freezing, the typical curved relation between the amount of drip and the freezing rate is obtained, the drip decreasing as the freezing rate increases. Using a constant rate of freezing (2-5 hours to pass fromO" to —5° C), the amount of drip decreases as the storage time prior to freezing is increased. During storage at 0° C, the greatest decrease occurs during the first day, but continues for periods up to 2 weeks. At 10° C, little decrease occurs during the first 5 days, after which it decreases slowly until the product spoils. The amount of drip obtained at a given rate of freezing appears to be proportional to the amount of fluid obtained from the unfrozen material, showing that the drip is determined by the condition of the water in the original minced muscle. There were some indications that the state of the water in the tissue was partly determined by the pH, but the results were not conclusive. Criteria of Conformation in Market Poultry. R. G. Jaap and R. Penquite. Poultry Science, Vol. 17, 1938, p. 425. Summary : 1. Different visual conformation groups of dressed poultry (chickens and turkeys) differ significantly in the relation between the cube root of their body weight and four linear measurements ; namely, shank length, keel length, anterior body depth and width of breast. 2. Growth in length of shank ceases by the end of the 6th month after hatching in male chickens and turkeys and by 5 months of age in females. Body growth when measured by increase in body weight or keel length continues to the end of the 10th month or sometime thereafter. 3. A satisfactory point for measuring breast width is about H inches from the anterior end of the keel on a line toward the insertion of the femurs. 4. Correlations between the same measurements on live and dressed birds demonstrate that shank length, keel length and minimum anterior body depth may be accurately measured on live birds. 5. It is concluded that differences in conformation of live birds may be accurately expressed by comparing body weight, shank length, keel length and minimum anterior body length. Table Poultry Experimental Work at Wye. Eggs, July 6th, 1938. Adhering to tradition the reports of the work being carried out under the National Poultry Institute Scheme were issued by the Ministry of Agricul- ture for presentation to the annual assembly of the National Poultry Parliament which opened its Sessions last Wednesday.

185 Many of the reports were interesting, and among these was an account from the Wye Station on work associated with table birds. It was stated that during the year 1936-37, work was continued on an investigation into intensive methods as compared with extensive methods, for the production of table poultry. The experiment was designed to compare :— (a) Brooding in an intensive house, with brooding in small outdoor brooders. (b) Rearing in the intensive house with rearing on range in Sussex night arks, for chicks brooded intensively and chicks brooded in small outdoor brooders. (c) Fattening in cages in the intensive house with fattening in crates in a darkened shed, as methods of finishing birds brooded and reared under the different conditions described above. These particular experiments covered a period of 2 years. A detailed examination of the data has been carried out, and a report on the results has been prepared and is now being considered by the Sub-Committee responsible for this work. Some of the conclusions reached in this report are described below. Brooding.—During the first year birds brooded in the battery (or intensive house) were heavier at 8 weeks of age than those brooded in the outdoor brooders. During the second year, however, the difference was not so marked, and, in fact, the cockerels in the outdoor brooders were, on the average, heavier than those in the battery. There was a marked difference between food consumption of birds in in the battery and of those in outdoor brooders, the latter consuming more food. The mortality was greater in outdoor brooders than in the battery, being heaviest amongst the cockerels. Rearing.—^Where birds were brooded intensively, those reared indoors were heavier at the end of rearing than those reared in arks. Among the birds brooded in outdoor brooders, those reared in arks were heavier than those reared in the intensive house in 1935-36, but in the second year of the experiment the position was reversed, and over the 2 years there was little difference between the average weights. Food consumption in the arks was much higher than in the intensive house. Mortality during rearing varied considerably. The birds brooded in the intensive house and reared in arks experienced the highest mortality. The mortality among cockerels was much higher than that among pullets. Fattening.—In the first year of the experiment a comparison was made between fattening in the cages in the intensive house and fattening in coops in an ordinary fattening shed. The birds in the latter made greater gains than the birds in the cages. Fattening in the cages in the intensive house was abandoned in the second year of the experiments, as the results were not considered satisfactory. It was not possible to darken the house effectively between meals, and the birds developed a restlessness which often resulted in feather picking and cannibalism. Further information on the efficiency of the battery as a means of producing table chickens will be available when the report has been fully considered. Experimental Work.—During the current year, 1937-38, the main points being investigated are :— 1. A comparison between the effect of the ration which has been previously used on the plant, and of a cheaper ration, during the period from 8 to 12 weeks of age. 2. A comparison of the effect of feeding the ration to be used during the finishing period from 12 weeks onwards as a wet mash and as a dry mash, with the addition in either case of a daily feed of grain after the age of 14 weeks. For the second part of this work the chicks are taken from the battery at 12

186 weeks and accommodated in small rearing houses with wooden floors Cand fitted with sun balconies), 20 birds being accommodated in each house. They are kept intensively in these houses. Here the birds remain, fed on dry mash and wet mash respectively, until they are ready for the market, pullets at 16 weeks and cockerels at 17 weeks of age. This experiment is still in progress. The Grading and Marking of Dressed Poultry, Regulations made under the Provisions of the Live Stock and Live Stock Products Act, Chapter 120 of the Revised Statutes of Canada, 1927. As published in The Canada Gazette, September 24th, 1938 and October 1st, 1938. Published by direction of the Hon. James G. Gardiner, Minister of Agriculture, Ottawa. Contents : Standards ; Definitions of kinds and sub-kinds ; Definitions of grades ; Grades for dressed poultry ; Milk-fed poultry ; Packing weights ; Packing ; Dressing ; Style of packing ; Stencilling and branding ; Certificate of Inspection. Quick Freezing of Poultry. V. R. H. Greene. U.S. Egg and Poultry Magazine, 1938, p. 604. Description of three different methods used which are intended to produce the quick, freezing effect. Table Poultry Experiment. Eggs, April 5th, 1939. Yorkshire Farm Institute, Askham Bryan, have concluded an experiment to prove the worth of the Indian Game Light Sussex cross for table. The average weight of 730 birds hatched was 4-42 lb. and the average price obtained was 4s. 7d. Consumption of Poultry in Nezv York City. Poultry Tribune, December, 1937. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has reported the results of a survey of over 8,000 families in New York City, made for the purpose of finding out what factors influence the consumption of poultry meat. Race or nationality had a very definite influence on poultry consumption. Among Jewish families, 77 per cent, were using poultry meat, but the corresponding figure for the Mediterranean group was only 46 per cent. Size of family did not seem to be of very much importance in determining the frequency with which poultry meat was used, but the average weekly family income was very important. The percentage of families using poultry increased rapidly from 30 per cent, for those families with a $10 income to 67 per cent, for families with a S40 income. Above that, the increase was very slow, though still evident. A very definite relation was observed between price and consumption, based on an analysis of data for the years 1923 to 1935. An increase of 1 cent, per lb. in price, when corrected for correlation with income, was associated wâth a decrease of about 7*5 million lb. in the annual consumption of poultry meat.

187 GENERAL

EGG LAYING TESTS First Egg-Laying Competition of Show-Birds in Germany, 1937-38. A. Becker. Geflügel-Börse, April 21st, 1939. Only hens from exposition-breeders were tested. 12 flocks were in the test. Average production 187*8 eggs, average weight 56*4 grammes, mortality 8*3 per cent. This first competition was a great success for the breeders who during years already bred their fowls only for expositions.

Annual Report of Laying Tests in Germany, 1937-1938, Dr. K. Taut. Archiv für Geflügelkunde, Vol. 13, No. 3. 1. From October 16th, 1937, to September 30th, 1938 (350 days) four Laying Trials were held in Germany at Erding, Hamm, Krefeld, Metgethen and five flock tests at Einach, Elbisbach, Giessen, Langenhagen, Proskau. 2. There was an entry of altogether 1,739 hens in 231 pens, one pen comprising seven birds (in Einach one pen =10 birds, in Giessen one pen —20 birds). 3. The following breeds took part in the competition: White Leghorns 78*8 per cent.; Brown Leghorns 13*2 per cent.; Rhode Islands Red 5*2 per cent.; Rhineländers Black 1*6 per cent.; Wyandottes White 04 per cent.; Reichshen White 0*4 per cent.; Plymouth Rocks barred 0*4 per cent. 4. Feeding was uniform for all tests, consisting of a laying mash containing 25 per cent, of proteins in winter, 20 per cent, of proteins in summer, 50 gramme grains a day and an additional food of milk, cod liver oil, minerals and green foods. 5. Each hen had a housing area of 0*37 to 0*80 qm., a free range of 10 to 30 qm., Elbisbach had a free range ad libitum. With exception of Hamm, Elbisbach and Proskau all houses were illuminated. 6. The average of laying record of all hens was at the laying trials 216*8 eggs; 57*9 grammes; at the flock tests 198*4 eggs; 56*6 grammes. 7. The average of laying record in winter (October 16th to February 28th) was at the laying trials 78*8 eggs; 55*8 grammes; at the flock tests 59*9 eggs; 55*1 grammes. 8. The following records were obtained by the different breeds : laying trials: Leghorns White 221*8 eggs; 58* 1 grammes; Leghorn Brown 192*8 eggs; 56*8 grammes; Rhodes Islands Red 214*4 eggs; 59*0 grammes; flock tests: Leghorns White 200*1 eggs; 565 grammes; Leghorns Brown 190*5 eggs; 57*5 grammes; Rhode Islands Red 205*9 eggs; 542 grammes. 9. On October 16th, 1937, the body weights of the hens averaged as follows: Leghorns White 1,561 grammes. Leghorns Brown 1,607 grammes, Rhode Islands Red 2,135 grammes, Wyandottes 1,659 grammes, Rhineländers 1,531 grammes; Plymouth Rocks 2,019 grammes; Reichshen 1,754 grammes. 10. The mortality was 13*4 per cent, for all birds; i.e., 13*0 per cent, for Leghorns White; 15*0 per cent, for Leghorns Brown; 11*0 per cent, for Rhode Islands Red; 14*3 per cent, for Rhineländers. Death was caused mainly by leucosis, by diseases of the reproductory organs and by estomiacal parasits. 11. The best pen of the laying trials obtained 275*8 eggs; 61*1 grammes egg weight; 104*6 winter eggs. Owner and breeder of this pen is Dr. Sieloff-Berschienen, Ostpreussen. 12. The best pen of the flock tests, from the breeder Vogeler-Adiek, Nieder- sachsen, obtained 234*7 eggs; 59*1 grammes egg weight; 82*9 winter eggs.

188 Northern Ireland, 17th Egg-Laying Test, 1937-38, Ministry of Agriculture. Stormont, Belfast. The following table gives particulars of production and mortality in respect of each breed presented in the test under review. No. of Average Eggs Mortalit y per cent. Breed. Birds. per Pullet. This test. Last test. White Wyandottes ... 204 176-2 14-2 11-8 White Leghorn 96 169-8 25-0 17-3 Rhode Island Reds ... 318 173-7 16-0 7-9 Light Sussex 78 153-4 15-3 3-8 Buff Rocks 12 206-6 — 8-3

Total ... 708 16-4 104 The New Jersey Egg Laying and Breeding Tests, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1937. The egg laying tests that completed their year on September 21st, 1936, established many new production records in New Jersey, particularly at the Passaic County project. The egg production and point production per bird for the plant that year broke all previous records in the State, as did also pen records in the White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red, and Barred Plymouth Rock breeds. A pen of Rhode Island Reds had the highest pen score for any contest birds in the United States, with more than 800 pens competing. Ten birds in this pen laid 290 eggs each, with a point score of 304*6 points per bird. The hen contest at Vineland completed its second year on September 21st, 1936, breaking some of the records made in previous years, and establishing some new official contest records for this and all other countries. The oldest pen at the contest consisted of ten 3-year-old birds belonging to Kauder's Leghorn Farm. These birds produced 651 eggs each under official supervision for three consecutive years. The highest producing bird at the plant for 3 years production at the close of the contest last year was a White Leghorn belonging to Kerr Chickeries, which had produced 728 eggs that scored 773*6 points. Official production records for 3-year-old birds were also established for the first time in the hen project of 1935-36 with 137 White Leghorn hens, 35 Rhqde Island Red hens, and ten Barred Plymouth Rock hens. In addition to these birds, there were 15 4-year-old White Leghorns from which it was possible to establish a monthly standard of production for 4-year-old birds. On October 1st, 1936, all of the various projects started a new year, with three in the State having a total entry of 176 pens involving 2,615 birds.

Random Samples of Poultry Flocks for Egg-Laying Trials, F. J. Dudley. Harper Adams Utility Poultry Journal, Vol. 21, 1935, p. 55. Conclusions. It has been shown that in order to test the laying qualities of a flock by means of a sample it is necessary for the sample to be taken at random from the entire flock and not from the best part of the flock. Evidence has been given to show that the average egg production of a random sample of 25 birds will fall within a range of about 20 eggs on either side of the average of the group from which the sample is taken. This conclusion is confirmed by records obtained at the Harper Adams Egg Laying Trials over a period of nearly 20 years. In order to discriminate between the flocks of two breeders with respect to egg production and mortality, from the results obtained by taking a random sample of 25 birds from each of the flocks, it is necessary that the difference in average

189 egg production of the two samples shall be greater than 25 eggs per bird and that the number of birds which die shall be at least four more in one sample than in the other.

ANNUAL REPORTS Summary of the Results for Poultry Farming in Switzerland during 1938. Die Ertrags- und Einkommenverhältnisse der Geflügelhaltung im Jahre 1938, Der Geflügelhof, April 13th, 1939. An examination of the books shows that the figures for production and returns of poultry farming for 1938 have improved somewhat as compared with previous years. The principal cause of the increase was the considerable rise in the egg production per hen and per year. It is also due less to economic measures than to the special efforts of the poultry breeders themselves. The average production per hen on 301 controlled farms was 138 eggs. Good results were also reported from the mountain districts. Number of Poultry in Germany. The following provisional figures regarding the number of poultry in Germany, according to the census taken on December 3rd, 1938, have been taken from the Archiv für Geflügelkunde, 1939, p. 88. Total number. 1938. 1937. 1936. 1935. Hens 85,529,399 85,392,650 88,422,748 86,084,291 Laying hens 52,551,473 53,311,891 52,780,988 55,366,485 Young hens 30,458,530 26,768,761 29,947,756 24,913,666 (under 1 year) Cocks and fat poultry... 5,519,596 5,311,998 5,693,804 5,804,140 Geese 5,944,507 5,464,997 5,898,471 5,473,059 Ducks ...... 2,655,680 2,402,956 2,724,080 2,587,513 Turkeys and guinea fowl 674,917 672,946 732,525 733,048 From these figures it will be seen that, compared with the previous year, the total number of hens has increased by several thousands. Naturally this increase is not found among the laying hens but is on account of the young hens, whose number rose by about four million head. The number for fat hens and others underwent but little change. The figure for young hens is the highest reached for the last four years; 1935 showed a much higher figure for laying hens. The Poultry Industry in 1938. J. Macdougall. Harper Adams Utility Poultry Journal, Vol. 24, 1939, p. 151. The number of fowls decreased by 0*05 per cent, and ducks, geese and turkeys increased by 5*97 per cent. The following analysis indicated the increases and decreases, in percentages, in the various types of poultry (A over 6 months, B under 6 months). No figures are available as to holdings of one acre and under. Fowls. Turkeys. A B A B England -6-00 +4-33 \ Wales -6-16 +670 J ""^ ^^ +18 63 Scotland ... -2-48 +7-64 +9-32 +28-30 N. Ireland ... -4-71 +439 -291 +9-87

190 Mortality still continues to have a substantial effect on the economic position of producers. In the 49 laying trials (open, county and Government controlled) officially recognised by the National Poultry Council in 1937-38, the average pullet mortality decreased by 0'78 per cent. The average mortality at these trials was 16'84 per cent., and this is the only source where definite figures can be obtained of a general average. Figures at the present 1938-39 trials do not indicate, at present, that there is likely to be any decrease in the average. The Poultry Technical Committee of Great Britain issued their report in February, 1938. The Government were impressed by the Committee's views as to the very serious and urgent nature of the disease problem in the poultry industry, and they agree substantially with the recommendations of the Committee as to the manner in which the problem should be tackled. It is proposed that a Poultry Commission for Great Britain shall be set up with, amongst other things, power to control the distribution of breeding stock, hatching eggs and day-old chicks.

Register and Accredited Poultry Breeding Stations and Accre- dited Hatcheries, 1939, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 10, Whitehall Place, London, S.W.I, 1938. This register is issued with the object of furnishing poultry keepers who require eggs for hatching, day-old chicks or breeding stock, with particulars of some reliable breeders in England and Wales who have been accredited by county authorities for agricultural education in accordance with certain regulations em- bodied in a scheme drawn up by this department. Contents : Details of Accredited Poultry Breeding Scheme, Notes and Abbreviations, 1939; List of Accredited Breeders; List of Breeds with Breeders' Names; County Lists of Accredited Breeders with Particulars of Stock; List of Accredited Hatcheries. The British Duck Keepers' Association Year Book, 1939, Secretary : Capt. J. K. Lipscomb, St. Anthony's, Swanley, Kent. Contents : Rules, Paid-up Members; Editorial; Secretary's Notes; Show Notes; How to Produce First Grade Duck Eggs; Indian Runner Ducks; Copper Ring Qualifi- cations; The Calorific Memorial, A.D. 1950; Cat Fish Meal; A Duck-keeper's A.B.C.; Indian Runners; Geese ; Cat Fish Meal. It was not until the amount of a Cat Fish Meal fed was 30 per cent, of the total mash ration that any taint could be observed in the eggs. The taint was then only very slight. A far more noticeable taint was observed by feeding large quantities of snails and slugs, by feeding about equal quantities by measure of snails and slugs with the mash. The eggs when cooked had a distinctly fishy smell; there was no taste, however. This latter test was carried out not in conjunction with the Cat Fish experiment, but in conjunction with complaints received in the Romney Marsh area where very large quantities of snails are sometimes found jn the pastures. The Bujf Orpington Duck Club Year Book, 1938-39, Secre- tary : L. Evans, Pamington Farm, Ashchurch, Tewkes- bury. Contents : List of Members; Rules; Secretary's Notes; Standard of the Buff Orpington Duck.

191 Year Book Lancashire Utility Poultry Society^ 1939. The Lancashire UtiHty Pouhry Society. Secretary : J. Bell, 22, Chapel Walks, Preston. Contents : New Ideas in Battery Housing; Prospect and Retrospect; the International Trials of 1938; Constitution and Rules; List of Members. The National Utility Poultry Society Year Book and Register, 1939. F. H. GofFe, West Moors, Dorset. Contents : Law Points for Poultry Farmers; Small Man's Guide to Poultry; Runs and Fencing; Runs: sowing grass; Runs: dressings; Choosing the Stock; Breeding; Incubation; Rearing; Feeding Chicks; the Growing Period; Management of Laying Hens; Preserving Eggs for Eating; Culling Guide; Winter Lighting; Management of Layers in Battery Cages; New Auto-sexing Breed, the Legbar, by Prof. R. C. Piennett; Producing 200 Table Chickens a week at a profit, by G. Guttridge; Three Table-Chicken Systems. Northern Ireland Pedigree Poultry Breeding Station Annual Report and Stud Book, Vol. VI, 1938. Agricultural Research Institute, Hillsborough, County Down, North- ern Ireland. Contents : Report on the 1938 Breeding Season; 1938 Stud Book. Investigations with Livestock in Idaho. Idaho Station Bulletin No. 225, 1938. Poultry tests reported deal with the vitamin A requirements of laying hens; the manganese content of orchard grass and its value in preventing perosis; the effect of varying humidity on artificial incubation; and the importance of protein and minerals in turkey rations. The carotene content of numerous hay and pasture plants and the effect of various storage conditions on carotene preservation are noted. Livestock Investigations in North Carolina. North Carolina Station Reports, 1936. Contents : The value of yeast in poultry feeding and a comparison of yeast-fermented mash with wet mash supplemented with killed yeast and with live yea^t, the relation to egg production of feeding a portion of mash fermented by yeast, the effect of lighting Leghorn pullets on egg production, and the influence of line breeding and controlled mating on the livability of poultry. Animal Husbandry Research in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Station. Bulletin No. 360, 1938. Progress of research is briefly noted on the protein requirements of pigs, poultry rations, and nutritional studies with ring-necked pheasant chicks. New Jersey State Agricultural Experiment Station. 58th Report for the year ending June 30th, 1937. New Bruns- wick. Contents : Changing Trends in Egg Production Performance and Mortality at the New Jersey Egg Laying Contests; Significance of Egg Production Performance Records

192 as a basis of Poultry Breeder Selections; Efficacy of a 26 ounce-to-the-dozen minimum weight for hatching Eggs as a means of flock improvement with regard to egg size; Correlation between weight of Egg and weight of Chick; A study of the sex-linked inheritance mating of S. C. Rhode Island Red Males on Barred Plymouth Rock Females; Variation in Eggshell Colour in a given strain of Rhode Island Reds; Breeding for increased squab production; Development of strains of Heavy Breeds especially adapted for research work; Development of a strain of White Leghorns especially suited to individual cage management; Determination of a method of measuring egg-size quality for use in genetic experimentation; Management of Laying and Breeding stock in individual cages; Effect of hatching date on growth and egg production performance of White Leghorns; Study of the efficiency and economy of Table Egg Production by the Khaki-Campbell type of Egg-laying Duck; Effect of promoting slow, medium and fast growth rates of White Leghorn Pullets.

Livestock and Poultry Investigations in Wisconsin. Wisconsin State Bulletin No. 440, 1938. Brief results are presented on nutritional diseases of chicks; suitable rations for sustained yield of fertile eggs by old heavy hens; the cod-liver oil requirements of laying pullets; the use of soybean oil meal in the ration of chicks and laying hens, the comparative gains of caponised and normal males, and economical rations ipr turkeys and pheasants. Livestock Investigations in Ohio. Ohio State Bulletin No. 392, 1938. Reports of nutrition experiments by R. M. Bethke, P. R. Record, O. H. M. Wilder, V. D. Chamberlin, C. H. Hunt, and H. F. Winter include the riboflavine (vitamin G) requirement of the chicken and the effects of various levels of this substance in poultry rations, the stability of carotene and vitamin A in a mixed ration, the vitamin A requirements of laying hens, feeding the various fractions in the vitamin B group and the loss of carotene in dehydrated alfalfa leaf metal under storage conditions. Other poultry studies include the ration as affected by free- choice feeding of w^hole grain and mash, laying batteries v. floor pens for layers, and livability and egg production of pullets as affected by previous management, all by D. C. Kennard and Chamberlin. Livestock Investigations in Indiana. Indiana State Report, 1937. Poultry studies include the heritability of growth rate in chickens, by E, E. Schnetzler; reducing protein in chick rations, oats as a substitute for corn in broiler rations, and the importance of salt in broiler rations, all by R. E. Roberts and C. W. Carrick; whole wheat v. corn as scratch grains for layers, roasted soybeans in laying rations, and range v. confinement for layers, all by Carrick; a comparison of the various types of laying houses, by Carrick and I. D. Mayer; starting and growing rations for turkeys by Roberts; and poultry management studies at the Moses Fell Annex Farm. America's Little Bit. More than 37,500,000,000 eggs were produced on farm in the United States in 1937, according to the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Approximately 584 million chickens were produced. The estimated production of 37,647,000,000 eggs in 1937 compared with a total of 33,996,000,000 in 1936 and with the ten- year (1926-1935) average of 36,960,000,000 eggs. The largest production for the series of years was in 1930, when 39,067,000,000 eggs were produced.

198 N Calendar for Poultry Breeders, 1939, Kalender für Geflügel- züchter, 1939. 41st Annual, 640 p. Fritz Pfenningstorff. Berlin W.35. This calendar has now been published for 41 years and each year it does its utmost to bring its readers something new and interesting. This year, as a complement to the well-known section dealing with the compilation of the results of German experiments, Dr. Kupsch has contributed a treatise on the result of the most important experiments carried out abroad. For the breeders of Italians and Brown Leghorns, the article on these two breeds will be of special interest as a comparison of industrial and sport tips is given, illustrated by two coloured plates and numerous photographs. Mr. Salzwedel has contributed an article on the establishing of a new poultry breeding business, a very acute problem in these. days, as the interest in poultry keeping is again very much on the increase. Mr. Munichsdorfer explains the various forms of State assistance and discusses in particular when, in doubtful cases, this help can be counted upon and when not, while Mr. K. Vetter has published interesting and enlivening figures concerning the results of the measures taken up to the present for the promotion of poultry breeding. From Dr. Taut comes a review of the German Laying Competitions from which it will be seen that there is a decrease in the production at the competitions but that, as regards flock capacity, there has been an increase. Losses remained at about the same figure. Of especial interest in this edition are the three articles dealing with questions on breeding.

SUNDRIES

Poultry Husbandry. M. A. JuU. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1938, 2nd ed. This second edition of this book deals with the background of the poultry industry, the fundamental principles involved in various poultry practices, and up-to-date information concerning methods of poultry production and marketing. Selected lists of references to the literature follow each chapter. Poultry Breeds in the Italian Provinces, Condizioni della Pollicultura nelle singóle provincie Italiane. Prof. A. Ghigi. Rivista di Avicultura, November, 1938. Description of the poultr}^ breeds in Italy. They are mostly of the Italian breed strongly crossed with heavy foreign breeds. Chief among the foreign breeds used for crossing are Cochinchinas, Brahmas, Maline hens, a few crested French breeds, and of more recent date, FaveroUes, Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes. The only clearly defined breed is that in the province of Rome (romagnole). It is small and wild, matures very quickly and lays big eggs. Methods recommended for Poultry Keeping, De quelques méthodes à recommender dans Véconomie aviaire, L. Guillaume. Thesis, Alfort, 1938. The following are discussed : Breeding, distinguishing the sexes after hatching and caponising.

194 Poultry Keeping in Roumania. E. Tatulea. Thesis, Bucarest. 1939. Report on the production of various breeds in Roumania. Both the number and the weight of the eggs is smaller than in England and the United States. The Roumanian peasant hen offers good prospects for improvement. In the improvement of Roumanian poultry keeping attention must be paid to higher production, better winter production and higher average weight per egg. Poultry Keeping in Estonia, According to a census held on June 15th, 1938, there are 1,991,030 head of poultry under six months of age in Estonia, of which 1,699,450 are hens. During recent years the number of poultry in Estonia has continually increased. In 1930 there were only 1,059,870 hens over six months old and in 1935 1,213,370. Poultry Problems, R. E. Louch and W. B. Mercer. Cheshire School of Agriculture, Reaseheath. Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture, London, 1939, p. 6. Description with photos of the poultry farm at Reaseheath, and the investigations made during the last years. Contents : Hygiene; Rearing Methods; Breeding. Air Temperatures for Battery Chicks. I.A. Patrik. Transac- tions of the all-union Institute of Poultry Industries, Moscow, U.S.S.R., Vol. 3, No. 2, 1938. Some experiments to establish proper temperature for battery chicks were conducted from June to October, 1935. ^ For these experiments were used six battery cages of ordinary size, with front side of glass and electrical heating of the incoming air, this arranged in such a way that the hot air entering in the lower zone of the cages from their back sides was directed to the front sides and raised up to an outlet in the ceiling. Thus was provided at the same time the heating (automatically controlled) and the ventilation of cages. The air was only allowed to enter the cages in this way, and the chicks only took the air of regulated temperature. The thermometers in cages were placed near the watering can and feeding trough, so that the temperature was measured in the zone where the chicks were present for the most part of the day. In these experimental cages the chicks (White Leghorn) were kept up to 23 days of age, at temperatures from 24 to 36° C. (various in different groups) and then to 90 days of age—in usual batteries at an equal temperature for all groups. In the course of the experiments the following problems were studied: {a) The growth of chicks, {h) the development of the comb and genital glands, (c) the condition and development of feathering, {d) the consumption of digestible foodstuffs per 1 kilo of gain, {e) daily consumption of water per 1 kilo of gain, (/) chick mortality, {g) grading the carcases of birds dressed on the 90th day. As a result of the experiments conducted the following conclusions are to be made: 1. The growth of chicks from 1 to 23 days is inversely proportional to the temperature level. The higher the temperature, the lower the rate of growth. The temperature during the first 23 days influenced the growth of chicks as well as in following periods (from 23 to 90 days). 2. The development of the comb of cockerels and pullets and that of genital glands (of cockerels) at the age of 23 days is in direct relation to the temperatures. The higher the temperature, the longer is the comb, and vice versa.

195 N* 3. The development of feathering of chicks and pullets is in direct relation to the temperatures suffered: the higher the temperature, the longer the feathers, and vice versa. 4. Consumption of digestible foodstuffs per 1 kilo of gain is in inverse relation to temperatures. The difference in digestible foodstuffs consumption is practically insignificant. 5. Water consumption is in direct relation to the temperature level. 6. No relation of the mortality and illness of the chicks to the temperatures suffered w^as observed. 7. The grades of chick carcases are inverselj'^ related to the temperatures. The lower the temperature, the higher the grade of carcases. 8. The appearance of battery chicks in poultry plants and their specific difference from chicks grown on range (excessive growth of the comb, long tousled feathering, poor fleshing) greatly depends on high temperatures in battery rooms. 9. By decreasing the temperature standard at battery, chick growth and appearance may be improved, and their body weight increased 10 to 20 per cent. Also the fleshing and the grades of chick carcases. 10. From constant temperatures used in our experiments (36, 32, 28, 24° C.) better result was generally shown at a temperature of 28° C. from the first day of growing chicks. 11. The group of chicks under varying temperature (low during the day and 32° at night) has not shown any preference to other groups. 12. Temperature standards for battery poultry plants may be altered in the direction of decreasing these standards. 13. The experiments conducted allow the following recommendations for temperature for chicken cages on poultry plants. (a) The day-old chicks are to be placed in batteries at a temperature of 30° C. (b) Chicks fronw 1 to 5 days of age 30—28° C. (c) „ „ 6 to 10 „ „ 28—26° C. (d) „ „ 11 to 20 „ „ 26—24°C. (e) „ „ 21 to 40 „ „ 22—18°C. (/) » „ 40 to 60 „ „ 18—15°C. (g) „ „ 61 and more „ 15—12° C. The temperatures recommended in rooms with chicks ought to be applied in absence of strong air currents.

Single Hen-Laying Batteries. Palestine Gazette of Agricul- ture, Supplement No. 32, August, 1938, p. 156. (Ref. Nutrition Abstracts, Vol. 8, 1939, p. 8221,) An experiment on 46 White Leghorn Pullets was carried out to determine the advantages or disadvantages of the battery system for egg production on a standard ration, a similar number of pullets having an ordinary poultry house with run. The pullets in the battery system were allowed no exercise. Food consumption was lower, egg production 7*5 per cent, higher, egg weight 3*0 per cent, higher and income from eggs IS'O per cent, higher, while mortality was 6*2 per cent, lower under the battery system.

Laying Battery Management. H. E. Swepstone. Published by : The Feathered World, Talbot House, 9, Arundel Street, London, W.C.2. Price Is. Contents : Housing; Cages; Stocking the Cages; Breeds and Egg Records; Routine; Feeding; Culling; Spring Cleaning; Chick Rearing; Backyarder Laying Batteries; How to Estimate Profits.

196 Poultry House Construction. F. C. Elford and H. S. Gutte- ridge. Department of Agriculture, Canada. Publica- tion No. 506, 1936. Contents : Introduction; Laying Houses; General Specifications; Breeding Houses; Laying Batteries; Interior Arrangement; Essentials of a Good House; Location of Poultry Houses; Colony Houses; Incubator Houses; Brooder Houses; Batter>' Brooders; Range Roosting Coop; Yards; A Good Trap-nest; many illustrations. The Oklahoma Straw Loft Chicken Home, R. B. Thompson. Agricultural Experiment Station, Stillwater. Circular No. 17, January, 1939. Heavy demand for plans of the A. and M. 20 by 20 straw loft chicken home has made it impossible to supply full-size blue prints. Most requests are urgent ones and time will not permit the printing of a description. This circular contains front, rear and side elevations, an isometric plan and a floor plan. The bill of material is complete for a 20 by 20 foot unit, for 40 or 60 foot units it will not be difficult to subtract the material for sides which will not be needed. The New Jersey Two-Story Poultry House and Bill of Materials. R. R. Gross. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Bulletin No. 631, 1937. Contents : The New Jersey Two-Storey Poultry House; Special Features of the House; Ventilation; Structural Strength; Other Structural Types; Additional Features; Another Two-Storey House; The Bill of Materials. Observations on the Influence of five different kinds of Litters on Brooding Chicks. F. M. Fronda and P. B. Agcanas. Department of Animal Husbandry, Manila. Philippine Agriculturist, Vol. 27, 1938, p. 112. The litter which gave the greatest weight increase and the lowest mortality was rice hulls. Almost equally good results were obtained on wire flooring and on rice straw. Chicks reared on sand, however, were only 78 per cent, of the weight of the best group at 12 weeks. Bare concrete and concrete covered with newspaper were unsatisfactory. Poultry Litters. W. C. Thompson. New Jersey Station. Hints to Poultrymen, Vol. 25, 1938, No. 2. A 10-point test is described which may be applied to determine the desirability of various poultry litters.

Artificial Drying of Fowl Faeces. Ueber die künstliche Trock- nung von Hühnerkot. H. Ebbell. Archiv für Geflügel- kunde, 1939, Vol. 1/2. In those cases where heat is available at a very low cost, the artificial drying of poultry manure becomes of economic interest. The dried and ground manure is a fertiliser of great value, that can be kept indefinitely. It is worth considerably more money than fresh untreated manure. Technical data of two drying plants are given in the paper.

197 Turkey Production. T. T. Milby, R. G. Jaap and R. B. Thompson. Agricultural Experiment Station, Still- water, Oklahoma. Bulletin No. 236, February, 1939. Contents : Introduction; Selection of Breeders; Care of the Breeders; Turkey Trap Nests; Incubating Turkey Eggs; Brooding Poults; Feeding Problems; Feeding Young Poults; Feeding Growing Turkeys on the Range; Management of Growing Turkeys; Finishing Turkeys; Disease Prevention and Treatment; Marketing Turkeys. Turkeys, E. Y. Smith and L. E. Weaver. New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, New York. Bulletin No. 359, 1936. Contents : A Programme for Success with Turkeys; Choosing the Breed; Selecting the Breeders; Breeding; Breeding House and Equipment; Feeding the Breeders; Managing the Breeders; Selection and Care of the Hatching Eggs; Artificial Incu- bation; Taking off the Hatch; Brooding and Brooder Equipment; Feeding the Poults; Range or Confinement Rearing; Parasite and Disease Control; Marketing; References. Duck Growing. L. M. Hard. New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Bulletin No. 345, 1937. Contents : The Duck Industry in New York State; Types of Duck Farming; Opportu- nities in Duck Farming; Location for Duck Farms; Houses for Breeding or Laying Ducks; Yards; Selection and Management of the Breeding and Laying Stock; Incubation of Duck Eggs; Care of Ducklings; Marketing; Duck Diseases and other Troubles; Breeds of Ducks; the Cooking Quality of Duck Eggs as compared with that of Hens' Eggs; References. Sexing Baby Chicks and work of the Japan Chick Sexing Association. Published by the Japan Chick Sexing Association, Nagoya, Japan, 1936. Contents : Origin of the Broiler Problem; Necessity of Some Practical and Accurate Method to Separate Female from Male Chicks; the Practice of Distinguishing Sexes by the Genital Eminence; Organisation of the Japan Chick Sexing Associa- tion; the Activities of the Japan Chick Sexing Association; Introduction and Propagation of the Chick Sexing Method to the Poultry World of Foreign Countries; Benefits from Chick Sexing. Preventing Crooked Keels. Poultry Tribune, April, 1938. Since crooked keels detract from the appearance of dressed poultry, and since many buyers of live poultry now accept birds with crooked keels only at a discount in price, many flock owners will be interested in recent findings at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station which help to explain the causes of this condition and suggest the remedies. Most keel deformities appear when the chickens are between 6 and 12 weeks of age, and slightly more cases occur in males than in females. Chemical analyses of breast and leg bones showed that the breast bones of 8-weeks-old crooked-keeled birds have a lower percentage of dry ash than do those

198 of straight-keeled birds. No differences were found in ash content of the leg bones. The tendency to develop crooked keels was not influenced by season of hatching. Inheritance is definitely a factor because, under normal roosting conditions, the crooked-keel strain showed as high as 80 per cent, of crooked-keeled birds, while the straight-keeled strain showed less than 10 per cent. Many chickens in the crooked-keeled strain developed crooked keels, even when raised to 24 weeks of age without access to roosts. Selection of straight-keeled breeders is therefore important. The percentage of crooked keels was increased by very early roosting, by sharp-edged perches, and by conditions which caused the chicks to spend a large amount of time on the roosts. Missouri Poultry Records Analyzed. The U.S. Egg and Poultry Magazine, April, 1937. Some interesting facts about poultry raising were brought out in a recent study conducted by the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station. Farm records in Missouri were analysed to get accurate data on poultry. The data indicated that flock costs were lower in the larger flocks while the incomes were higher. Breaking down flock costs, it was found that feed expense amounted to 55 per cent, of the total, man labour 20 per cent., and all other items 25 per cent. About 90 per cent, of the operating costs was for feed for which the outlays were heaviest in April and May and were lightest in the period from September to December. The average production per hen, of all the flocks, was about 11 dozen eggs a year. The heaviest production was from March to May with the low point being the months of October and November. Eggs accounted for about two-thirds of the poultry income and approximately 80 per cent, of the eggs produced were sold. The average household consumed about 115 dozen eggs a year, which is about the same as the figure for the United States, this figure being 213 eggs a year per person. The study showed that the larger flocks exceeded all others in returns for management when properly cared for, but showed the greatest losses when improperly managed. The flocks averaged 250 hens on farms and 375 or more for specialised plants. Relation of Housing to Respiratory Problems, D. Carpenter. Poultry Division, Lederle Laboratories. The U.S. Egg and Poultry Magazine, May, 1937. Early European text books on animal diseases speak of coryza as an infectious disease of poultry. This name has not been adopted universally on the North American conti- nent. American investigators have catalogued this respiratory infection as ** common colds,** " infectious colds," " roup," and " sinusitis." For many years it was thought that common colds were caused by draughty houses, damp litter, parasites, and faulty ventilation. Few colds were thought to be infectious. Most poultry houses from the Atlantic Coast to the Rocky Mountains are built with four solid walls and roof, the only openings being windows, doors, and ventilators. In the far western, and more particularly the Pacific coast states, because of temperatures averaging higher than freezing, poultry houses are at least partly '* open " year around, the size of the openings depending upon the expected low point of winter mercury and the amount of wind and rain. When evidently normal pullets, properly fed and free from parasites, developed colds during summer and fall months, leading poultrymen began experimenting

1P9 with poultry house construction in an attempt to prevent colds and other respiratory diseases. The results produced have been as varied as the types of construction. The commercial poultryman says he is " hardening his pullets " when he exposes them to wind and rain during the growing stages and even after laying begans. That resistance against colds has been increased by these methods seems evident from the decreased incidence of colds and lower mortality. With the discovery of a specific etiological agent causing colds, coryza becomes an important item in poultry nomenclature and housing assumes a new role in poultry management.

Poultry Management in Subtropical Semiarid Climates. B.W. Heywang. U.S.D.A. Circular No. 446, 1937. The discussion of poultry management problems set forth in this circular is based primarily on experimental studies and observations made in the Salt River Valley of Arizona and includes breed adaptation, the selection of breeding stock, the production and care of hatching eggs, incubation and brooding, housing and feeding the young flock and the mature stock, care of market eggs, and disease and parasite control.

Aseptic Rearing of Animals, Apparatus and methods. Aseptic rearing of hens maintained on complete and on deficient diets. N. Balzam. Annales de physiologie et de physicochimie biologique, Vol. 13, 1937, p. 370. An apparatus is described which permits the introduction of sterilised eggs .... aseptically removed from the uterus, the introduction of food and collection of faeces, and the addition of sterile vitamin extracts. Five aseptic chickens at 2 months of age weighed 395, 450, 550, 590 and 615 grammes; the controls weighed 385, 420, 485 and 505 grammes. The pH was 6*1 for the aseptic faeces and 6*36 for the faeces of the controls. The intestinal flora of hens exerts no marked influence on the digestibility of the food nor on the vitamin requirements. The hypothesis that vitamin C is synthesised by the intestinal flora is not confirmed in the case of hens.

Harper Adams Poultry Survey. Notes on Factors affecting the average financial results^ 1937-38. The Harper Adams Utility Pouhry Journal, Vol. 24, 1939, p. 181. The following data have been obtained from 20 poultry farmers who co- operated in the financial survey for 1937-38. The survey year, which ended on September 30th, 1938, showed distinct signs of financial improvement, as some of the following points demonstrate : — 1. There was a tendency to increase rather than reduce flocks, and on seven farms quite substantial flock increases were noted. 2. The profit per bird was 5s. OJd., an increase of Is. OJd. on the previous year's figure. 3. The mortality rate at 11*96 per cent, was the lowest recorded since 1931-32. It is important in this connection for co-operators to record all deaths and if possible to determine the cause of death. 4. Production was slightly lower than in 1936-37: 147*70 as against 149*22 eggs per bird, and unfortunately the figures for October to January suffer most in comparison with the previous year. There were indications that not enough attention was paid to the laying flock during July, August and September, though winter production was on the whole fairly satisfactory.

200 5. Egg receipts were better by SJcl. at 16s. 3-4-d. compared with 15s. 7d. in 1936-37, and the price of market eggs at Is. 6d. per dozen was l^d. better than in the year previous. 6. There is, as usual, a big discrepancy between eggs produced and those accounted for by sales and home use. Only 133,465 dozen were accounted for out of a total production of 136,071 dozen. The discrepancy, 2,606 dozen, at the average price of Is. 6d. per dozen, means a loss of £195 9s. Od. to those co-operators whose handling or marketing machinery is in need of overhaul. 7. Capital investment per bird remained approximately the same at 12s. 3|d., but there seems far too large a proportion of capital invested in dead stock. Many of the farmers in the survey appear hesitant about stocking to capacity. (The difference in the valuations at the end of the previous year and the beginning of the next arises from the fact that a different number of farms were included in the two years.) 8. Fewer pullets were present in the flock, the percentage being 57*58 as compared with 66*58. 9. Some producers would be well advised to discontinue rearing cockerels for table and to concentrate on egg production. It is doubtful whether it pays to rear cockerels for table which have been hatched later than February or early March unless individual marketing conditions are very favourable. These birds only fill up appliances which could be put to more profitable use in rearing pullets. 10. The price of food per bird rose by 3|d. to 12s. 3|d., but some of the food costs indicated underfeeding of the laying stock. Pullets especially should be fed liberally. A saving might be effected by using up to 25 per cent, ground wheat in the laying ration when wheat is cheap, but it must be coarsely ground. Finely ground wheat is too sticky. 11. Most of the farmers in the surve}^ do not seem to have attempted to make anything out of by-products such as poultry manure, which can be quite a valuable asset if properly collected, stored and marketed.

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