Moosonee, Ontario: A Model of Cold War Change By Susan Heffernan Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Human Studies Faculty of Graduate Studies Laurentian University Sudbury, Ontario © Susan Elizabeth Heffernan, 2016 THESIS DEFENCE COMMITTEE/COMITÉ DE SOUTENANCE DE THÈSE Laurentian Université/Université Laurentienne Faculty of Graduate Studies/Faculté des études supérieures Title of Thesis Titre de la thèse Moosonee, Ontario: A Model of Cold War Change Name of Candidate Nom du candidat Heffernan, Sue Degree Diplôme Doctor of Philosophy Department/Program Date of Defence Département/Programme Human Studies Date de la soutenance August 10, 2016 APPROVED/APPROUVÉ Thesis Examiners/Examinateurs de thèse: Dr. Linda Ambrose (Supervisor/Directrice) de thèse) Dr. Mark Kuhlberg (Committee member/Membre du comité) Dr. Anne-Marie Mawhiney (Committee member/Membre du comité) Approved for the Faculty of Graduate Studies Approuvé pour la Faculté des études supérieures Dr. Shelley Watson Madame Shelley Watson Dr. Steven High Acting Dean, Faculty of Graduate Studies (External Examiner/Examinateur externe) Doyenne intérimaire, Faculté des études supérieures Dr. Stephen Meyer (Internal Examiner/Examinateur interne) ACCESSIBILITY CLAUSE AND PERMISSION TO USE I, Sue Heffernan, hereby grant to Laurentian University and/or its agents the non-exclusive license to archive and make accessible my thesis, dissertation, or project report in whole or in part in all forms of media, now or for the duration of my copyright ownership. I retain all other ownership rights to the copyright of the thesis, dissertation or project report. I also reserve the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis, dissertation, or project report. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that this copy is being made available in this form by the authority of the copyright owner solely for the purpose of private study and research and may not be copied or reproduced except as permitted by the copyright laws without written authority from the copyright owner. ii Abstract Considerable research has been conducted on the Canadian north over the past few decades. This research has focused on resource development (mining and forestry), on small resource towns, and on mega-projects such as the James Bay Hydro Project. To date, little work has been produced on the relationship between military activity in the north and the landscapes, communities and people affected by such activity. This study examines the impact of the Cold War on the community of Moosonee, Ontario. By the mid-1950s Moosonee had become a shipping centre for northerly radar base developments. Further growth occurred as a result of the construction and operation of a Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) radar base adjacent to Moosonee from 1961 to 1975. Moosonee adapted to two types of development: population growth generated by military construction and activity, and redevelopment initiated by the closure of the RCAF base. Community adaptation to growth included major changes to local infrastructure and the evolution of local government. Once the radar base closed, the town’s residents seized the opportunity to use the housing and infrastructure on the RCAF base to fill local needs. Furthermore, local people worked with neighbouring communities to ensure that the RCAF base was transformed into a regional high school. The initial purpose of this study was twofold: to understand the impact of military development by examining how Moosonee changed from 1955 to 1975, and to report back to the residents of Moosonee on research results. Near the conclusion of the interviews and data collection stage it became clear that the broader purpose of this study was to join the conversation on community development models and to develop a model which fit the Moosonee experience. The thesis concludes with an explanation of the stages of development in iii Moosonee as compared to theoretical development stages, the impacts of the Cold War, and the way that impacts varied depending on the social status of individuals. It also demonstrates how Moosonee’s residents transformed community planning from provincially driven to local citizen- driven planning. Keywords: Cold War, interdisciplinary, Indigenous, community development, Northern Canada, Pinetree Line, radar bases. iv Acknowledgements The most important people that I need to acknowledge are the individuals who agreed to be part of the interview process. Their participation motivated and guided me throughout this study. To protect confidentiality, I do not name the interviewees; however, I dedicate this thesis to them.1 In that way I hope they will see how valuable they have been to this study and to me personally. The second group that I want to thank are my Committee members and in particular my thesis advisor Dr. Linda Ambrose. I was inspired to return to university after reading Linda’s article “Our Last Frontier” and I have continued to be motivated by Linda’s encouragement and assistance over the past six years.2 In my opinion, Linda Ambrose was more than a thesis advisor; she was my mentor and coach. I would suggest that every graduate student needs a ‘coach’ if they are to survive the crises of confidence that are inherent in graduate work. My other Committee members, Dr. Anne-Marie Mawhiney and Dr. Mark Kuhlberg, provided assistance, particularly to broaden my bibliography and my perspective, but they also challenged me to do more throughout this process. This study and paper have a broader reach than initially envisioned due to all three members of the committee. I was fortunate to have two diligent external readers. Dr. Steven High, from Concordia University, provided critical but fair comments, and Dr. Stephen Meyer, from the School of Northern and Community Studies at Laurentian University, gave thoughtful and enthusiastic feedback. A large number of individuals, both at Laurentian University and beyond, have provided critical assistance during the research on Moosonee. Léo Larivière, who is Laurentian’s 1 See Chapter Three on Methods and Ethics guidelines from Laurentian University. 2 Linda M. Ambrose, “Our Last Frontier: Imperialism and Northern Canadian Rural Women’s Organizations,” Canadian Historical Review 86, no. 2(2005): 257-284. v cartography specialist, prepared four of the maps in this paper and guided me through the process of inserting air photos needed for the final dissertation. Léo’s help was invaluable. Additionally, Ashley Thomson, one of Laurentian’s librarians, listened patiently to my many questions about Refworks and Zotero and ensured that these tools worked when I needed them. Marthe Brown, Laurentian’s Archivist, helped me find sources at the archives and in particular assisted my search for records on Moosonee and the disposition of the RCAF’s chapel. In addition, Laurentian professors in the Human Studies Program assisted me, particularly in the early stages of my research. Specifically, I would like to thank Dr. Simon Laflamme, the Chair of Human Studies; Dr. Michael Yeo, and Dr. Cynthia Whissell. Professors at other universities also offered guidance. Dr. Matthew Farish at University of Toronto attended one of my first graduate presentations and recommended that I check the military files at the Directorate of History and Heritage in Ottawa. That advice proved invaluable for this project. In addition, Dr. Mary Jane Logan McCallum at University of Winnipeg provided guidance on Indigenous labour in the early stages of my research. Laurentian University provided financial support in two areas. I received graduate teaching assistantships for three terms supplemented by graduate fellowships between September 2011 and December 2012. In addition, the Office of Graduate Studies and Research subsidized my travel costs for two conferences at which I presented my research results. Archivists at several Ontario locations ensured that my document searches were successful. In particular I would like to thank Bethany Aitchison at the Canadian Forces Museum of Aerospace Defence for starting me on the Pinetree ‘trail.’ Warren Sinclair and Valerie Casbourn from the Directorate of History and Heritage (DHH) also provided prompt and thorough assistance during my early archival research. In addition, Isabel Campbell, an historian vi at DHH, gave me positive feedback and suggestions several times over the past two years. I also wish to thank Naomi Rupke, the Director/Curator of Discovery North-North Bay Museum and Sarah Aubertin, the Program Coordinator at Discovery North, for their assistance in helping me locate Moosonee files housed at their centre. In addition, Rebecca McGlynn and Agnes Legault of Ontario Northland (ONR) provided me with access to the remaining ONR archival files which they have retained. Staff at the Archives of Ontario must be congratulated for their professional and timely assistance with over seventy files accessed during the summer months of 2014. In particular I would like to thank Zoe Cliff and Jeffrey Mokler, who not only provided the files that I requested, but who patiently answered any questions I had—by email and phone, and in person at the Ontario Archives. The customer service at the Ontario Archives was outstanding and it was a key factor in my ability to complete the research phase of this study. Kathy Perreault at the Ojibway and Cree Cultural Centre in Timmins searched early 1960s files for me and located an Ontario Cabinet report on Moosonee that Dr. John Long had recommended in 2014. For that I wish to thank Kathy and the late Dr.