The and Sub-Seafloor Frontier

The Deep Sea and Sub-Seafloor Frontier

A Coordination Action funded by the European Commission Editors Achim Kopf, Angelo Camerlenghi, Miquel Canals, Timothy Ferdelman, Catherine Mevel, Heiko Pälike, Walter Roest, and Maria Ask, Bo Barker-Jørgensen, Antje Boetius, Angelo De Santis, Gretchen Früh-Green, Vasilis Lykousis, Judith McKenzie, Jürgen Mienert, John Parkes, Ralph Schneider, Philipp Weaver

Contact Prof. Dr. Achim Kopf, MARUM, Univ. Bremen Leobener Strasse 28359 Bremen, Germany email: [email protected]

Layout Claudia Haagen, www.haagendesign.de

Acknowledgements We wish to thank the European Commission for its support of the Deep Sea & Sub-Seafloor Frontier CoordinationAction (Grant agreement 244099) and its main deliverable, this position paper. The DS3F Steering Committee gratefully acknowledges all scientists, policymakers and stakeholders contributing to workshops and conferences within the Coordination Action. The German Consortium for Marine Research, KDM, is thanked for hosting meetings in its Brussels representation and for its general support. Special thanks go to Susan Beddig for editing.

Legal notice Neither the European Commission nor any person of the DS3F Steering Committee is responsible for the use which might be made of the following position paper. The views expressed in this publication are the sole responsibility of the authors and not necessarily of the European Commission. Reproduction is not authorised.

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Content

4 Introduction

8 Climate Ocean floor sediment cores help to reconstruct past climate, understand Earth system processes, and mitigate future change.

16 Geohazards Large magnitude earthquakes and associated landslides and tsunamis require monitoring and disaster prevention.

22 Ecosystems A veritable explosion in the discovery and exploration of deep sea marine ecosystems leads to utilising their goods and services.

30 Resources The deep sea offers raw materials, fuels and biological resources, but a thorough understanding is crucial for their responsible use.

38 Implementation Investigating the deep sub-seafloor remains a technological challenge, and infrastructure needs coordination on the European level.

48 Grand Challenges Deep sea research requires a serious commitment to tackling societal challenges and strengthening European scientific and educational networks.

56 Notes, Credits 4 Introduction

Deep sea matters

The deep sea, which makes up the major part of the world ocean, is a remote, cryptic habitat whose functioning within the Earth system is imperative for human existence as we know it. About 90% of all known species live in the oceans and seas, and within this environment the seabed contains the highest biodiversity on the planet, with about 98% of all marine species. Many of these are highly specialised, some are very long-lived, and we understand almost none of the ecosystems in any detail.

The marine environment is particularly The remoteness of the deep sea leads variability in climate is mandatory to antici- important to the European Union because to a heavy reliance on technology to carry pating upcoming challenges and developing 50% of its territory lies offshore, 25 mem- out forefront research, and as equipment mitigation strategies. ber states have coastlines, nearly 50% of has improved over the years we have be- its citizens live within 50 km of the coast gun to see the deep sea environment with Forging a European maritime strategy and 4.8 million EU inhabitants are directly increasing clarity. A move towards the re- When the European Commission published employed in maritime activities1. The deep sponsible utilisation of the deep seafloor its strategic objectives at the onset of the sea is increasingly under pressure owing requires the expansion, modernisation Deep Sea & Sub-Seafloor Frontier (DS3F), to human activities such as bottom trawl- and integration of marine research across the “need for an all-embracing maritime ing, hydrocarbon extraction, deep sea min- Europe. Basic European research and sci- policy aimed at developing a thriving mar- ing and bio-prospecting. In the future, this ence-driven technological development itime economy, in an environmentally sus- pressure could lead to effects detrimental both play major roles, and continuous im- tainable manner“ was recognised. Such a to the well-being of Europe’s population. provement of research and infrastructure policy needs to be supported by excellence The discovery of potentially unique ge- integration in concert with industry and in marine scientific research, technol- netic resources has increased the com- policymaking is needed. ogy and innovation, as sketched in Europe mercial interest in deep sea research but In this position paper we present the 20202 and other key initiatives. As its flag- at the same time has raised questions emerging scientific questions and ap- ship programme, Innovation Union2 was about ownership of these resources. The proaches in the deep sea together with the adopted in October 2010 and is seen as legal framework for sustainable exploita- related societal challenges and demands a major step towards European economic tion of seabed resources is currently under in a complex and dynamic Earth system. recovery and renewed competitiveness. To discussion and is being addressed through Results from several thematic workshops attain these objectives, the Common Stra- initiatives such as the EU’s Green Paper covering all fields of deep sea research tegic Framework for Research and Innova- on the Future European Maritime Policy are juxtaposed with the most recent EU tion Horizon 20203, starting in 2014, is set and mechanisms outside national jurisdic- policies, and the Common Strategic Frame- to be the largest programme for research tions, such as the United Nations Conven- work of research and innovation in Europe. and innovation in Europe, as is currently tion on the Law of the Sea and the Interna- The deep sea, and the seafloor and sub- the Seventh Framework Programme for Re- tional Seabed Authority. These examples seafloor records in particular, represent a search and Technological Development. show that modern ocean science must take unique key to the past. Understanding the As land-based natural resources be- into account and interact with societal, le- evolution of our planet and deep ecosys- come exhausted, our focus turns increas- gal and policy aspects. tems, episodicity in earthquake records or ingly towards the sea. Indeed, the oppor- Introduction 5

Understanding the ocean at depth Schematic overview of some of the main physical processes and structures along a cross-sectional profile through the deep sea, many of which are incompletely understood.

Drilling vessel 0 km

Ocean Methane Coral Sedimentation mound Mid-oceanic 2 Hot ridge vent Cold seep Continental Sediment margin 4 Sea oor spreading

Magma Subduction rising Basaltic crust 6

tunities and potential benefits for people thus can system complexity and interac- research, including a better predictive and industry presented by the sea are tions be properly addressed and new forms capacity of the response of deep sea eco- enormous. However, the seas and oceans of governance in research through con- systems to environmental change. Such an are changing rapidly through a combina- sensus and continuous dialogue be intro- approach is becoming important as human tion of human and natural pressures. These duced. The way forward is described in the influence on these remote environments changes have major societal implications; communication on the “European Strat- is escalating through activities such as for our health, our well-being, for food and egy for Marine and Maritime Research”, fishing, hydrocarbon exploration and ex- energy supply, and for the very natural sup- released in September 2008. DS3F is con- ploitation, mineral extraction and marine port systems that make the Earth’s climate tributing the deep sea aspects emerging at biotechnology, and all this overprinted by and environment habitable. As stated in present such as marine resources and bio- climate change and pollution. the Ostend Declaration 20104, these often diversity, and – equally important – past The EU Green Paper “Towards a future called „grand challenges“ encompass the records, for example of climate change, maritime policy for the Union: a European seas and oceans as the largest ecosystem, ecosystem evolution and resource forma- vision of the oceans and seas” will even- covering 71% of the globe. Scientists, in tion at and beneath the seafloor. The major tually lead to an EU Maritime Policy. The concert with policymakers and stakehold- aim of DS3F is to promote the dialogue be- two mainstays of this policy are the Lisbon ers, have the responsibility to prepare for tween marine science and maritime policy. Strategy (related to economic growth) and changes inflicted upon the marine realm DS3F gathered scientists from Europe’s the improvement of the status of the ocean and to work towards their mitigation and major ocean research centres and univer- (related to maintaining a healthy marine global solutions for societal welfare. sities to identify the primary issues that environment). Most recently, a number It is often human activities that exert need to be addressed in sub-seafloor drill- of initiatives have followed up on these environmental pressures threatening the ing with relevance to deep sea ecosystem strategies, namely the ‘Integrated Mari- safety of coastal settlements, ecosystems research in the next 10-15 years, i.e. for time Policy’ green paper5 (June 2006), the and biodiversity and preventing sustain- Horizon 2020 and beyond. This group has Aberdeen (June 2007) and Venice Platform able maritime activities. Science and evolved from the Deep Sea Frontier (DSF) (November 2008) declarations, the ECORD technology provide one of the keys for international symposium (June 2006) and ERA-Net6 (2009), or most recently the reconciling sustainable economic growth subsequent collaborations. With the DS3F MARCOM+ initiative. Therefore, the DS3F in maritime activities with environmental submission, we proposed a coordinated research plan is strongly linked to the de- conservation, but the large number of on- action within Europe that is related to the velopment of the environmental pillar of going research activities needs coordina- use of seafloor imaging, drilling and sub- the EU maritime policy, which provides the tion and cross-sectoral integration. Only seafloor sampling in deep sea ecosystem legal impetus concerning the protection 6 INTRODUCTION

riety of levels and in many different fields, public engagement and outreach, with the including the ocean. DS3F involved scien- goal of making the science accessible and tists, stakeholders and socio-economists relevant on our changing planet. who explored research needs and built a bridge towards policymakers, in particular An introduction to the thematic chapters regarding strategies for future European All parts of the Earth system—the solid activities in sub-seafloor sampling in envi- Earth, hydrosphere, atmosphere, cryo- ronmentally sensitive areas. The proposed sphere, and biosphere—are intricately activities and research goals will enhance linked and their interplay determines the understanding of the functioning of the habitability of our planet. This inter- Visits to the deep sea deep sea ecosystems and improve strate- play between biological and geological The manned research submersible gies for a prediction of their future evolu- processes governing the complex envi- NAUTILE, operated by IFREMER France, represents part of the seagoing technol- tion. They will contribute to the develop- ronments has been broken into thematic ogy required to understand ocean ment of new techniques and methods to packages concerning the deep ocean. The processes. study the deep sea geo-biosphere sys- initial work package structure of DS3F had tem and its interaction with climate and three themes closer to life sciences and other forcing factors (geohazards, human another three concerned with geoscien- impact) in the past, present and future. tific themes that govern life in the (deep) and conservation of the marine environ- Products of this initiative developed from ocean. Those themes have been bracketed ment7. specific workshops as well as from multi- by overarching expert groups on marine The main focus of deep sea research is disciplinary conferences bringing together infrastructures and on sub-seafloor sam- the interface between the geosphere and Europe’s experts in seafloor observations, pling and measurements. The latter aspect the hydrosphere, comprised of the sea- deep sea ecosystem development and sub- of sampling records from the past as a key floor and the upper kilometres beneath the seafloor drilling with environmental agen- to the future is central to the entire DS3F seafloor. This part is easily drillable, where cies, policy makers and industry. approach. – depending on the geodynamic setting – Individual projects addressing various From the initial six themes in the field processes as variable as ocean crust for- aspects of deep sea and sub-seafloor de- of bio-geosciences, four major topics have mation including ore deposition, sediment velopments had already been underway been identified as most crucial: Climate, dewatering during compaction, gas hy- and one of the important objectives of the Ecosystems, Geohazards and Resources. drate processes, catastrophic landsliding, DS3F initiative was to connect to those8 These topics are the backbone of the DS3F mud volcanism, earthquake slip, or growth and also provide links to EU policies in White paper and will illuminate Earth in its of cold-water coral reefs may occur. It is order to formulate integrated and socially deepest portion, above as well as below also the depth window where processes relevant research activities for the future. the surface, and show prominent parallels fuelling ecosystems on the seafloor, but In essence, illuminating the Earth through to the ESF Marine Board position papers9, also in the sub-seafloor (deep biosphere), deep sea research and sub-seafloor sam- or the new IODP Science Plan10. are most active. Recently, exploration pling, observation and experimentation is Gaining an improved understanding of drilling for gas hydrates, extraction of min- the ultimate strategy for a sustainable use the deep sea has direct societal relevance eral resources and hydrocarbons and CO2 of the ocean and for a reliable mitigation because this system provides a vital part sequestration has entered water depths of of ocean processes affecting society in the of human welfare through its regulating 2000 m and beyond, but its impact on the future. The international execution of the effect on climate and the environment for marine ecosystems has not been examined DS3F White Paper will foster unique intel- marine ecosystems. Determining Earth or understood sufficiently. lectual capacity building in terms of the system sensitivity in a changing world is There is presently an emerging need advancement of science and technology crucial to preparing for and mitigating in Europe for cutting edge research and in Europe, and in global sharing of data the impacts of climate change, geohaz- innovation, which is essential to ensure and scientific expertise. The objectives ards, and decreasing biodiversity. Also, competitiveness, growth and jobs at a va- outlined include a strong commitment to the ocean represents the largest aquifer Introduction 7

(in the sub-seafloor) and reservoir (the surements in key locations, is the only reservoirs and significant biomass, long basins), and the largest carbon pool. Fur- means to decipher signals of regional and climatic records from the past as well as thermore, it hosts tremendous resources global change or hazardous events in the frequent geohazard heritage are found. such as deep sea minerals, gas hydrates, past. Neither the deep biosphere, likely Here, hundreds of metres below the sea- seafood and – last but not least – water. the largest biomass pool in the global car- floor, processes of societal importance As a consequence, assessing the impact bon cycle, nor other extremophiles at hy- can be studied with industry collabora- of ocean acidification, warming and sea drothermal vents (>400°C), beneath salt tion, in particular in fields where scientific level change at mid- to long-term is vital bodies or in areas of low energy supply exploration and commercial exploitation to understanding short-term variability in would have been discovered without drill- meet. The section “Implementation” lays rapid, episodic processes such as earth- ing. Tapping into the deep Earth beneath out what technology and infrastructure is quakes, slides and tsunamis. For many, the ocean further allows to couple instru- required, highlights Europe’s particular if not all of these processes, keys for the ments to the rock, this way recording sig- strengths, and discusses how systems may future can be found in the past, i.e. in the nals from depths otherwise inaccessible be implemented to address the emerging sub-seafloor. These buried records, mil- to direct study. This way, key questions scientific and societal challenges in Europe lions of years long, reveal the Earth’s cli- such as the following can be addressed: 20202. matic, biological, chemical, and geological What are the limits of life on our planet? In essence, DS3F tries to tie scientific history. In addition, observatories on or How does environmental change influence challenges to economic and societal needs beneath the seafloor may enable real-time the evolution of marine ecosystems? How and to incorporate training and education monitoring of fluid-related processes that do deep Earth processes affect the Earth’s on a broad level in order to truly link sci- are central to the workings of earthquakes exterior environment? What are the under- ence and policymaking. This aspect will be and resource formation. Many of the gov- lying mechanisms of geological hazards? revisited in ”Grand Challenges” once the erning processes are cyclic or episodic, Thus, DS3F unfolds a strategy for future main themes and emerging fields in deep and only long-term observations will un- research which encompasses the deep sea sea research have been introduced. ravel their nature and significance. as an entity of the water body, the sedi- Scientific drilling and sampling in the mentary interface as well as the under- sub-seafloor, followed by time series mea- ground down to depth where large Carbon

WP1 Lithosphere - biosphere interaction and resources WP8 Infrastructure and synergies sampling subseafloor WP7 Mission-specific WP2 Sedimentary seafloor and sub-seafloor ecosystems:

past, present and future links ecosystemsaffecting WP3 Deep biosphere

The Deep Sea & Sub-Seafloor Frontier affecting humans DS3F was divided into nine expert WP4 Sediment dynamics and geohazards groups, which held individual work- WP5 Geofluids and gas hydrates shops and interacted at overarching WP6 Climate change and response of deep-sea biota conferences. All relevant aspects of Life and Earth Sciences in the deep ocean and sub-seafloor (Work Packages 1-6) were bracketed by technological WP9 Management & Science-policy interfacing requirements (Work Packages 7-8) and their link to society and policymaking (Work Package 9). Revealing the history of Climate CLIMATE 9

Ocean floor sediment cores allow reconstruction of past environmental conditions, and this knowledge is needed to understand Earth system processes on a wide range of scales in space and time. The oceans are a major influence on the Earth’s climate and provide the unique temporally continuous sedimentary archive that records Earth processes. The information this contains is critical to our understanding of how the planet works.

Obtaining sub-seafloor samples by sedi- periods with larger amplitude perturba- ice sheet stability and sea level change, ment coring, and the pioneering palaeo- tions under different boundary conditions. ocean acidification and its ecological im- climate research it has spawned, have Marine sediment cores allow the spatial pacts, and changes in ocean circulation been central to our present understanding correlation of records with ice cores, lake and biogeochemistry in the context of cli- of fundamental Earth Science. In addi- records and terrestrial archives on time mate variability on different time scales. tion, this work has provided discoveries scales ranging from annual through geo- DS3F has identified a number of high prior- relevant for society such as the role of logical. Sediment cores and samples are ity themes for future research. atmospheric CO2 in moderating global cli- the only means by which we are able to mate, past changes in ocean acidification, extend the Earth’s environmental history Climate sensitivity and carbon cycles and the variability in polar processes and to times and resolutions not accessible Increasing atmospheric CO2 is the main rapid climatic and ocean change. Sub-sea- through other methods that more closely driving force for future projected climatic floor samples contain key information on resemble conditions predicted for the next change. The rate of this increase is depen- global and regional temperatures, ocean few centuries and beyond, and to those dent on the addition of carbon to the atmo- currents and overturning circulation, sea- that allow us to test and improve climate sphere, but also on a range of feedbacks water pH and alkalinity, the hydrological and Earth system models. within the carbon cycle. Such feedbacks cycle, sea level, ice volume, and the feed- The understanding obtained from ocean play a significant role in regional climate back mechanisms between elements of the drilling is essential if society is to succeed change through their influence on ecosys- climatic system. Palaeoclimatic research in meeting the challenges of recent and tems, albedo and water budgets, and they has illuminated the nature of climate vari- projected changes in the Earth’s surface operate on different time scales. Under- ability and confirmed the global nature environment. These arise from human standing these biogeochemical feedbacks of high amplitude yet short-lived oscilla- activity and complex natural feedbacks, in the carbon cycle is thus fundamental to tions such as Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles, and as a consequence of the fact that at- the prediction of future climate change. Heinrich events, monsoons, the El Niño mospheric greenhouse gas levels will soon Important aspects of this cycle operate on Southern Oscillation, and millennial scale exceed any experienced during at least the time scales that make palaeoclimatology variability. past 20 million years. Key responses that a powerful tool for better quantification. Records from climate archives are the are accessible through coring include cli- The major hypothesis to be addressed by only way to extend historical and instru- mate sensitivity and polar amplification in sub-seafloor sampling is: “Sediment re- mental records of climate and to obtain response to large scale perturbations or cords can provide otherwise inaccessible environmental reconstructions from time extreme events, latitudinal heat transport, high-resolution palaeoclimate records on 10 CLIMATE OCEANOCEANDRIDRILLILLINGNG&&ICICECECORORININGG OOBSERBSERVAVATITIONON Observation&M&MODELODEL &IN INGG Ocean Drilling and Ice Coring 6060 5050 4040 3030 2020 1010 0 0400400 30300 0 200200 10100 0 0 18000 1800Modelling2002000202200200

1000010000 3333.7.7 2.62.6

AtAtmomosphericspheric CO CO2 2 10001000AnAntarctatirccti glc acglaciatiiaontion th rethshresholdold COCO in 2010in 2010 40400 0 2 2 40400 0

(ppmv) Pre−Pre−induindustristalrial 2 10100 0 N NHe Hemimispsphehere regl acglaciatiiaontion th rethshreolshdold 10100 0 CO 3030 3030 GGloballobal Surface Surface Te Tempmperatureerature 2525 ? ? 2525

2020 GrGreeeenhounhousese Wor Worldld IceIcehouhousese Wo Worldrld 2020 2°C2° Cwa warmrmer er PrPre−e−induindustristalrial 1515

Temperature (°C) Temperature GGloballobal Deep Deep Oc Oceanean Te Tempmperatureerature 1010 1010

5 5 5 5 PrPresesentent da day y NoNo es tiesmatimateste avs aiavlaaibllaeble 0 0 0 0

InteInriteorri oric eic e ca capsps on on An Antarctatirccatica DyDynamnamic icEA EAISIS 10100 0 StStabable leEA EAISISStabStable Anle Antarctatircciticeciceshsheeeets ts 10100 0 nono ic eice DyDynamnamic WAic WAIS ISDyDynamnamic NHic NHememispheisphere icreesicesheeheets ts 0 0 0 0 Sea level (m) −1−10000 GlobalGlobal Sea Sea Level Level −1−10000 6060 5050 4040 3030 2020 1010 0 0400400 30300 0 200200 10100 0 0 0 18001800 2002000202200200

TiTimeme - m- millionsmilliillionsons of of yearsof year years s ththouthousandsousasandsnds of of years years yearsyearsyears (C (C(CE)E)E)

Climate reconstruction and modelling Global sea surface and deep sea temperature, and sea level change over the past 65 million years (left), the more recent

Earth history (centre), and from historical time towards the future (right). Note some model-derived CO2- glaciation thresholds for Antarctica and the Northern Hemisphere are shown for comparison with the geological record. Interestingly, future IPCC projections of rising CO2 over the next century fall within the range inferred for the earlier Cenozoic, illustrating the value of deep sea research for climate change mitigation.

a multitude of time scales that provide in- the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, fuel CO2 by the ocean is not instantaneous, formation on the coupling between global ocean acidity has increased by 30%, at a and we do not know how much CO2 can be temperatures and greenhouse gas con- rate 100 times faster than any change in absorbed by the oceans, where and how it centrations, and provide insights into the acidity experienced by marine organisms spreads, how fast it is neutralised, or how feedback processes that will allow a reduc- for at least the last 20 million years12. acidification will affect organic carbon pro- tion in uncertainty of climate sensitivity Model simulations of the ocean/atmo- duction and oceanic biota13. and climate feedbacks for future climate sphere response to the eventual complete Future research needs to establish the predictions”. Future research must answer utilisation of fossil fuels indicate that at- sensitivity of biological calcification to the how Earth system sensitivity has changed mospheric CO2 will rise to levels that Earth saturation state of seawater, the natural in the past, and how atmospheric CO2 likely has not experienced for at least 20 variability of seawater carbonate satura- levels and temperatures varied through million years. The surface ocean may un- tion, the long-term trend, and the recent time11. dergo acidification which will make large detectable response by marine biota. We parts of the water column undersaturated need to establish the feedbacks between Ocean acidification for CaCO3 and reduce or even inhibit shell marine biota and the ocean carbon cycle The ocean is the largest sink for anthro- formation of many organisms, including and the impacts of sequestration within pogenic CO2 and has absorbed nearly one mollusks, foraminifers, phytoplankton and the ocean or under the seafloor. third of the carbon released to the atmo- corals (including the deep sea dwelling sphere by fossil fuel combustion. Since cold-water corals). The absorption of fossil CLIMATE 11

Sea level change a time characterised by small to medium Future research needs to resolve how One of the most societally-relevant objec- sized and ephemeral Antarctic ice sheets fast sea level has changed in the past14, tives is to understand the history and im- (100 to 33 million years ago), through a how sea level change is related to the rela- pact of global (eustatic) sea level fluctua- time when large ice sheets existed only in tive stabilities of the northern hemisphere, tions at different time scales. Antarctica (34 to 2.5 million years ago), to and the west and east Antarctic ice sheets, In the last few decades most sea level a world with a large Antarctic ice sheet and and how sea level has varied spatially in rise has been from the thermal expansion variable Northern Hemisphere ice sheets response to the non-isostatic adjustment of the oceans but ice sheets provide the (2.5 million years to the present), when the of sea level in response to the gravitational greatest potential risk for future sea lev- Earth has been colder than at any time in attraction exerted by large ice sheets. el rise because of their volume, which is the last 65 million years. equivalent to a rise in sea level of 64 m. Over the past approximately 800 thou- Ecosystems and climate variability Satellite-based mass balance estimates sand years, the cyclic growth and decay of Marine sediment-forming plankton is im- show that ice sheets have recently begun ice sheets induced rapid sea-level change portant because it constitutes the base to loose ice, with projections to 2100 sug- approximately every 100 thousand years, of the food chain in the oceans, and it in- gesting an increase in the order of 20 times with maximum amplitudes of 120–140 m. fluences and responds to global climate. the 1993-2003 average. Uncertainties in However, the timing, rates, and contribu- Therefore, its fossil remains are the back- sea level projections are large because ice tions of various ice sheets to these chang- bone of reconstructions of past conditions sheet dynamics as climate warms are still es remain poorly known, making possible in the oceans and the history of global poorly understood. Because the instrumen- future scenarios difficult to predict. The climate. The co-evolution of our planet tal record of sea level extends back only to reconstruction of evolving global ice sheet and life is of fundamental interest. Yet, about 150 years, the refinement of the pre- volumes will primarily rely on the timing we currently have little knowledge about dictions of sea level rise and of its impact and magnitude of sea level change during how our environment, and the species we on shoreline stability and habitability for interglacial and glacial periods, typified depend upon, will respond to future global the coming decades and centuries requires by relative sea level maxima and minima. change. Gaining an improved understand- the acquisition of sea level records on a Variations in sea level can be estimated ing of marine ecosystems has direct soci- wide range of time scales. Over the past from shoreline markers, oxygen isotopes etal relevance because these systems pro- 100 million years, changes in sea level re- (∂18O), and the flooding history of conti- vide a vital part of human welfare, such as flect the evolution of global climate from nental margins and cratons. food availability. An improved understand-

Multiple Hypoxia Events—Mediterranean, 0–3 million years ago

50 25 125 100 75 Thickness (cm) 0

Global Ocean Acidi cation Event—South Atlantic, ~ 55.9 million years ago

125 100 75 50 25 0 Thickness (cm)

Coring the past as a key to the future Gravity and piston coring on standard research vessels still provide some of the most valuable sub-seafloor archives covering some thousands to hundreds of thousands of years before present. Climate reconstruction is feasible when using reliable proxies from such cores. Deep sea cores record dramatic global and regional ocean acidification and hypoxia. Hypoxia, or a pronounced decrease in water column oxygenation, preserves organic matter and creates sapropels (see top right: core from the Mediterranean Sea, ODP Site 964). The dramatic dissolution of seafloor carbonate that created the red, clay-rich horizon shown in South Atlantic ODP core 1262 (bottom right) was a global acidification event that occurred at the Palaeocene-Eocene boundary ~56 million years ago, most likely as a result of methane release to the atmosphere after gas hydrate dissociation following an ocean warming event. 12 CLIMATE

Isotopes reflect ocean warming Stable isotope analysis (right) is carried out on dissolved calcareous micro-organisms from sediment cores (left), which is used as a proxy for climate reconstruction in the past. Given that microrganisms precipitate their shells from seawater constituents, their minerals “record” the palaeo-temperature for present study.

ing of these systems is also key to the un- biostratigraphic information contained in regional climate predictability in the fu- derstanding of the dynamics of the global this evolution. The fact that marine micro- ture. For example, there has been signifi- biosphere. Ocean sediments are central to fossils contain within them diverse chemi- cant progress in theoretical understanding understanding the role of the biosphere cal clues to their life environment makes a of ENSO, which exhibits the largest inter- in Earth evolution because they contain powerful combination for reconstruction of annual variability in the global climate the continuous temporal records of how ocean palaeoecology and palaeoclimate. A system. The wide impacts of ENSO on re- marine communities both respond to and third key goal is to obtain highly resolved gional climate, ecosystems and societies force climate change. Productivity of ma- temporal records of palaeoecology and make it a key focus for both adaptation rine plankton and the long term storage of palaeoclimate from various geographical of society to short-term variability and its fossil remains in deep sea sediments is and environmental settings in order to re- as a dynamical component of longer-term a major component in the carbon cycle. Es- construct rates and amplitudes of climate change. Despite progress in the prediction tablishing the detailed workings between change through time. of short-term seasonal variations in ENSO, productivity, the carbon cycle and global Modern climate oscillates in a few pre- there is no consensus on how tropical Pa- climate is crucial for construction of global ferred patterns or modes (e.g. the North cific mean-climate and ENSO variability biogeochemical models. This information Atlantic/Arctic Oscillation, the El Niño might change as a function of increasing is needed in order to reduce uncertainties Southern Oscillation [ENSO]’, the Pacific greenhouse gases. We need to establish in models of global climate change. A key Decadal Oscillation, and the Southern An- whether the observational period cap- goal is to determine the link between pro- nular Mode). One way to narrow uncertain- tures the full extent of variability in lead- ductivity variations and climate through ty in future projections is to understand ing climate modes and the dependency of time (the past 100 million years). Exploit- how these climate modes have varied in climate modes on climate boundary con- ing the richness of the marine fossil record response to a range of external forcings ditions (will there be change as the Earth can address key issues in the evolution of and past climate states. Palaeo-environ- warms?). We need to decipher the imprints life and the rate of evolutionary change. ments offer critical case studies, spanning of climate mode shifts recorded in ocean Knowledge about the dynamics of specia- the full range of potential future climate archives and establish what these tell us tion and extinction is relevant not only to states, for evaluating climate modes under about how ecosystem and biota changes modern evolutionary theory, but also to increased anthropogenic greenhouse forc- affect, and are affected by, changes in cli- evaluating the sensitivity of life to global ing. Only recently have proxy techniques mate modes. change. Such information is of great value and deep sea archives allowed modes of Marine planktonic algae, including dia- to stratigraphers worldwide. A second key climate variability to be examined beyond toms, coccolithophores and dinoflagellates, goal is to further develop and refine the the instrumental period. Together with provide about 45% of the global annual net history of evolutionary change among ma- modelling, these reconstructions provide primary productivity. Future research will rine plankton communities, and hence the the basis for substantial improvements in need to explore how perturbations to plank- CLIMATE 13

ton succession impact food chain and biogeochemical cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphate, and other elements. We need to establish how shifts in deep-ocean circulation modes affect deep sea ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles, whether we can we quantify the feedback mechanisms between deep-ocean biosphere, biogeochemistry and climate, and the relationship with primary productivity and ocean Ice coverage in the Arctic An Arctic cod under the Arctic sea ice that is trying to hide behind ventilation, particularly in the context of a ctenophore (comb jellyfish Bolynopsis). Temporal variations in ice large scale oxygen minimum zones. coverage represent a challenge for both ecosystems and mankind.

Ocean ventilation Ocean ventilation and circulation play sig- last hundred years of direct instrumental can identify early warning signs from the nificant roles in regional and global envi- observations15. To fully understand how sedimentary record that herald changes in ronments via their influence on the physi- AMOC variability on ‘human time scales’ the deep sea environment associated with cal, chemical, and biological processes can impact on European climate and ocean tipping points and periods of accelerated determining carbon storage, ocean oxy- ecosystems, new ‘high resolution’ records climate change. genation, and regional temperatures. that extend the modern observational da- Particularly relevant is the role of At- tabase further are crucial. Evolution of the hydrological cycle lantic meridional overturning circula- We need to establish which processes Rapid or long-term changes in the hydro- tion (AMOC) in transporting heat into the exert direct control on natural deep ocean logical cycle can cause single or multiple North Atlantic region and anthropogenic variability in terms of temperature, water extreme flood and drought events, on the

CO2 into the deep ocean. Deep sea sedi- mass structure, chemical properties and one hand, and preset more arid or humid ment archives demonstrate that the AMOC nutrient inventories on time scales rang- climate conditions at a regional scale, on has varied considerably during the last 2 ing from sub-decadal to multi-millennial, the other. The latter determines the bal- million years (the Pleistocene) to cause how these ocean changes impact and con- ance in the amount of precipitation, pros- global climate changes of magnitude and trol the biodiversity and functioning of pering vegetation and river runoff com- rapidity far beyond that recorded over the deep ocean ecosystems and whether we pared to the extent of desertification and

Climate change between the poles Artic Tropics Antartic Melting Proposed IODP drilling strat- Perennial Melting egy from pole to pole to collect sea ice Greenland ice sheet West Antarctic records linking climate, ice ice sheet sheet, and sea level histories on geologic time scales. The climate history derived from these Warm records is used to test numerical circum- ice-atmosphere ocean and their Sediment Coral-capped polar Sediment coral-coral- seamount deep ability to project future sea level water rise. Red arrows represent warm sea4000 m a mountmount Bedrock Bedrock water flow accelerating ice loss from West Antarctica. 90°N 80°N 17°S 18°S 70°S 80°S 14 CLIMATE

eolian transport as well as between physi- logical archives of past climate change are except for the piston-cored superficial re- cal and chemical weathering. Thus, the focused on three large-scale climatic fea- cord, have been sampled only on the Lo- hydrological cycle controls the eolian and tures that influence continental patterns of monosov Ridge during the Arctic Coring fluvial supply of a huge detrital sediment precipitation. These relate to variations of Expedition (ACEX) in 2004 and in 1993 in load into the ocean and, more important the intertropical convergence zone, mon- the ice-free waters in the Fram Strait/Yer- for the marine biota, the supply of inorgan- soons and mid-latitude storm tracks. mak Plateau area (ODP Leg 151) 16. Antarc- ic dissolved and particulate biochemically tica has been drilled most recently around relevant elements. Cryosphere, Arctic and Antarctic research Wilkes Land in 2010, but a large number The responses of marine biota to chang- The high-latitude regions of the Arctic of proposals are targeting ice sheet stabil- es in the rates of nutrient and freshwater Ocean and Antarctica are undergoing some ity, history, and behaviour during extreme supply are not well known (diatoms vs. of the fastest temperature and ice volume warmth, which is crucial to provide bound- coccoliths, foraminifera vs. radiolaria), nor changes on the planet. To understand high ary conditions for past, present and future is the adaptation to the evolution of sedi- latitude climate and ice cover change, it is changes of sea level, and climate feed- mentary systems, slope failures and hydro- necessary to sample the history stored in back systems. We need to establish the carbon seeping in the deep sea fan systems the sediments of the Arctic Ocean, and to contribution of continental ice to the rate beyond the shelves. Pressing questions decipher the climate history and sensitiv- and magnitude of sea level changes both that can only be answered by studying geo- ity of Antarctica. Arctic Ocean sediments, in the past and projected into the future CLIMATE 15

How sediments help us understand the climate system in the past, the present and the future and whether sectors of marine-based ice * Reconstructing how Earth system sensitivity has changed in the past, sheets experience “runaway collapse” as and how atmospheric CO2 levels and temperatures have varied through climate warms. Can ocean drilling provide time reveals how global temperatures and greenhouse gas concentra- constraints on past rates of this process? It tions are coupled and reduces uncertainty about climate sensitivity and is unclear how palaeo-ice sheets respond- climate feedbacks for future climate predictions. ed when Earth‘s atmosphere had 400 or Assessing the biotic impact of ocean acidification is important to adapt- 600-1000 ppm CO2, what a ”Greenhouse * ing to the effects of future acidification changes on food sources and Earth” looked like in the polar regions, and whether Antarctica can sustain any ice biotic diversity and the sensitivity of biological calcification. sheets when the atmospheric CO2 concen- * Reconstructing evolving global ice sheet volumes to estimate variations tration is above 1000 ppm. in sea level and determining how sea level change is related to the relative stabilities of ice sheets is of prime importance to adapting to and mitigating sea level rise. * Identifying early warning signs from the sedimentary record that herald thresholds and periods of accelerated climate change will help in understanding Earth system and climate sensitivity. This is crucial to preparing for and mitigating the impacts of climate change. * Understanding the evolution of the hydrological cycle and ocean ventilation has important implications of the future evolution of flood events, freshwater supply, and greenhouse gas concentrations. Breaking the ice (left) The converted ice-breaker Vidar * Exploring how perturbations to plankton succession impact food chains Viking, the Oden and the nuclear and biogeochemical cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphate will powered Sovetskiy Soyuz, met for ACEX (Arctic Coring Expedition) IODP improve global biogeochemical models. This will reduce uncertainties Leg 302 at the Lomonossow Ridge, in models of global climate change and help determine the link between Central Arctic Ocean. The campaign productivity variations and climate through time. recovered the first long climate records from this area and provided Extracting information about the dynamics of speciation and extinction and crucial data for climate mitigation. * reconstructing the evolution of ocean palaeoecology and palaeoclimate gives insight into evolution and into the sensitivity of life to global change. * Deciphering the imprints of climate mode shifts recorded in ocean archives will help establish what these tell us about how ecosystem and biota changes affect, and are affected by, changes in climate modes.

CLIMATE CHANGE The key to climate mitigation Schematic how sediment archives storing information from ecosystems MARINE ECOSYSTEM UNCERTAIN FUTURE and climates can be utilised via nu- INTERACTION WITH CLIMATE PREDICTIONS IMPACTS merical climate, ocean, ice sheet, and Earth system modeling to improve the assessment of future impacts. Ultimately, advancing models beyond Marine sediments basic climate scenario projections PAST RECORDS OF PAST ECOSYSTEM IMPROVE UNDERSTANDING and toward prediction of our future CLIMATE CHANGE INTERACTION WITH CLIMATE AND PREDICTION climate change requires sufficient knowledge of Earth’s prior responses to natural fluctuations in greenhouse USE OF BEST POSSIBLE ARCHIVES gases and other climate forcings. 16 CLIMATE

Monitoring and alleviating Geohazards Geohazards 17

The apparent recent increase in the number of geohazards, and in large magnitude earthquakes and associated landslides and tsunamis in particular, is of major global concern. Disaster prevention and resilience are essential for human well-being. Research on submarine geohazards, accompanied by technological advancement in collaboration with industry, has to focus on monitoring, early detection and warning. At times of global change, gas hydrate dissociation in the Arctic may become another emerging threat.

Geohazards belong to the family of “natu- through over-pressured geological forma- Restinga submarine eruption in El Hierro, ral hazards”, which include “all atmo- tions, or the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico Canary Islands, which was active for al- spheric, hydrologic, geologic and wildfire in April 2010. most six months in 2011. phenomena that, because of their location, The geographical spread of offshore A clear trend has been observed in the severity, and frequency, have the potential geohazards is often several orders of mag- last 100 years of increasing number of to affect humans, their structures, or their nitude larger than that of geohazards on natural hazard events per year18, includ- activities adversely” 17. They are caused land. Prevention and resilience are crucial ing earthquakes, floods and cyclones. Cau- by geological conditions or processes – to preventing hazards from developing tion should be used in interpreting such such as an earthquake, landslide, tsunami into disasters or to reducing their conse- observations as due to an increased cli- or a volcanic eruption – which represent quences, so that mitigation, preparedness, matic forcing on natural hazards as space serious threats to human lives, property response and recovery often hardly recon- occupation by urban areas, industries and and the natural and built environment, re- cile with the different levels of vulnerabil- infrastructures has raised dramatically the gardless of a continental or marine origin. ity, social, economic and cultural charac- vulnerability of large sectors of our so- Offshore geohazards are widespread phe- teristics of the affected areas. Predictive ciety. The risk is given by the product of nomena that may involve both long-term capabilities are therefore extremely im- probability of occurrence of a geohazard and short-term geological processes. Geo- portant and require improved understand- and probability that that hazard produces hazards can attain huge dimensions (e.g. ing of the mechanisms involved in offshore damage (vulnerability). Research must the area impacted by a large tsunami or a geohazards, starting from pre-condition- concentrate on hazard assessment wheth- submarine landslide) and seriously affect ing factors, causes and triggers. er or not climatic forcing is suspected to be society and economic systems, from local Offshore geohazards can also have cata- involved, as the increased vulnerability is to regional scales, as demonstrated, for in- strophic effects on enormous areas of the undoubtedly increasing the risk for society stance, by the Great East Japan (Tohoku) natural submarine environment and its and environment. This is particularly vital earthquake and tsunami of March 2011 ecosystems, which may need decades to for the deep sea marine environment. Off- and the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and recover, as illustrated by the Tohoku and shore geohazards are often not accounted tsunami of December 2004 in the Indian Sumatra tsunamis and other recent events for in global statistics, although clear evi- Ocean. Geohazards can also be provoked such as storm-triggered abrasion of ben- dence of the impact of submarine geohaz- by human activity, as in the case of the thic communities on continental shelves ards on society is attested throughout the mud eruption in East Java on 29 May 2006, or volcanic eruptions acidifying the sur- history of mankind (most importantly in the triggered by drilling for hydrocarbons rounding waters and seafloor, as for the La Mediterranean region19, Japan and China). 18 Geohazards

Causes and effects of geohazards Offshore natural hazards: Earth- quakes, submarine slides and tsunamis and some of their potential trigger mechanisms shown schematically. Although often a consequence of the natural evolution of continental margins and rarely man-made, all of these processes represent a severe hazard to society and infrastructure.

Submarine landslides Research on submarine slope stability stressed that landslides are not restricted Submarine slope failure and subsequent is now approaching a new era. Recognition to the continental slopes as such, but may sediment mass-transport affect continen- of the magnitude and distribution of events affect the shelf or coast. Recent system- tal margins from the shelf to the abyssal in European waters has been achieved in atic geophysical mapping reveals a wealth plain. Sediment remobilisation may also the last decade, mostly through research of smaller-scale landslides occurring in affect coastal zones, either by local rock projects funded within EC Framework Pro- the immediate vicinity of human settle- falls or landsliding or by submarine ret- grammes. An outstanding and unique mile- ments so that neither onshore-offshore rogressive failure moving landward. How- stone for the understanding of submarine relationships nor human interference can ever, landslides occur mainly along ocean landslides was the Ormen Lange project be ignored. This is particularly important margins because here slope gradients are funded by a consortium of oil companies in near-coastal, formerly glaciated areas steepest, sediment accumulation rates offshore mid-Norway. Industry-academia where many historical landslides were at are highest, and several other geological cooperation was motivated there by the least partly induced by human interference processes concur to determine submarine fact that one of Europe’s largest gas res- facilitated by the presence of quick clays. slope instability. Submarine landslides ervoirs lies just below the headwall scar pose societal and environmental risks of the largest submarine landslide in Eu- Gas hydrates to offshore infrastructures (platforms, rope, the Storegga Slide. The Ormen Lange Gas hydrates are ice-like crystalline solids pipelines, cables, sub-sea installations) study acquired one of the most compre- formed from a mixture of water and natural and coastal areas, and may dramatically hensive multidisciplinary data sets on (often methane) gas, which form cements, change the marine environment. The oc- submarine slope failure and illuminated nodes or layers within the sediment. In ad- currence of submarine landslides, their processes along the glaciated North Atlan- dition to their potential role as a future en- magnitude and recurrence depend on the tic continental margin. ergy resource, gas hydrates are an impor- interaction among several pre-condition- In Europe, slope failures of different tant component in slope stability, as they ing mechanisms that include sedimentary magnitude have been documented every- modify the geotechnical properties of sedi- history, diagenesis, fluid flow regime, hy- where along its continental margins, and ments and rocks by cementing them. Both drology of the adjacent coastal zone, gas several compilations have been made in global warming and erosion might lead to hydrate dissociation, the seismic cycle, order to obtain background information to seafloor destabilisation events in conti- and evolution of volcanic island margins. systematically address current knowledge nental margins and induce a positive feed- Research on submarine landslides may and future challenges20. It has further back mechanism of methane release in the hence aid in understanding palaeo-seis- been shown that many large slope failures atmosphere, known as the controversially micity (i.e. through the determination of in the Atlantic and Mediterranean may debated “clathrate gun hypothesis”22. recurrence rates of deposits triggered by not have been caused by gas hydrate dis- Mining gas hydrates usually relies on dis- earthquakes), impacts of climate change, sociation (see next paragraph), but rather solving the ice-like crystals and recovering and building of sedimentary sequences in by the complex climatic control exerted by the released methane. Managing the large ocean margins and basins that are relevant the Quaternary climatic cycles involving volumes of freshwater being set free by to hydrocarbon reservoir exploration and glaciation and deglaciation in parallel with hydrate mining in a controlled fashion is a characterisation. sea level fall and rise21. It must also be tremendous technological challenge. Geohazards 19

Interstitial fluid overpressure, includ- in European waters is the catastrophic May commonly – impacts of large extraterres- ing that caused by natural gases, is often 2003 Boumerdes-Zemmouri earthquake trial bodies. The first three sources have identified as a relevant factor for the re- in northern Algeria. The tremor triggered been recorded since historical times in nu- duction of the effective stress of conti- extensive landsliding along 300 km of the merous locations worldwide, whereas the nental slope sediments. The consequent continental slope, leading to 29 communi- fourth is known from the geological record reduction of the shear strength of the sedi- cation cable breaks during the four hours (e.g. the Eltanin Impact in the southwest ments creates a situation where any even following the main shock, and a tsunami Pacific Ocean23). Highly catastrophic volca- small perturbation may lead the slope to that propagated over the Western Mediter- nogenic tsunamis, such as Santorini in the fail. Gas charging of shallow continental ranean Basin and sank about 200 boats in Mediterranean Sea or Krakatoa in the In- slope sediments may occur either by in situ the Balearic Archipelago. Seismic activity dian Ocean, have been experienced in the production of biogenic methane in areas in Europe mainly concentrates in the Medi- last few millennia and centuries. Destruc- of high organic matter accumulation, or terranean region, with the seismic hazard tive seismogenic tsunamis have occurred by upward migration of deep thermogen- being higher in the Eastern Basin. Seismic as recently as the last decade as a result ic gas along faults and permeable strata. activity is moderate in the Western Medi- of series of subduction megathrust earth- Gas-induced interstitial overpressure in terranean Basin and Southwestern Iberian quakes, such as the 2004 Mw 9.2 Sumatra- ocean margins can also result from gas hy- margin, although great earthquakes may Andaman, the 2010 Mw 8.8 Chile, and the drate dissociation or dissolution induced also occur with a recurrence interval of 2011 Mw 9.0 Great East Japan earthquakes. primarily by changes of in situ tempera- around 1800 years. As an example, one of The destruction they caused is also related ture and pressure conditions. On the other the largest earthquakes and tsunamis in to increased vulnerability due to dense hu- hand, the cause-effect relationship be- Europe took place in the year 1755 south- man settling along the shoreline (Sumatra tween gas emissions and submarine land- west of Portugal, resulting in the destruc- tsunami) and placement of critical infra- slides may be reversed. The instantaneous tion of Lisbon, at that time one of the main structures, such as nuclear power plants, removal of the overburden in the headwall capitals of the world. Some degree of seis- on the coast (Great East Japan tsunami). domain of the slide causes a decrease of micity also occurs in Scandinavia due to Catastrophic tsunamis have been also re- the total stress on the interstitial fluids of postglacial isostatic rebound, though hy- ported in Europe during historical times, the exhumed sediments when they are in pocentres are mostly situated inland. the most damaging being the Lisbon earth- compaction disequilibrium condition. Gas quake and tsunami in 1755, which was felt exsolution and/or gas hydrate dissociation Tsunamis in Scandinavia and caused lake level fluc- could therefore produce gas emissions Tsunamis are the most serious offshore tuations in Switzerland, the tsunami hit- in the water column overlying landslides geohazard because of their potential ting Portugal and Spain, the Azores, North which might reach the atmosphere. geographic spread and devastating po- Africa and the Cape Verde islands. Geo- tential. Tsunamis are generated either by logical evidence has also been provided on Earthquakes earthquakes, slope failures (coastal and catastrophic tsunamis in prehistoric times Earthquakes occur as a function of sudden submarine), volcanic eruptions or – less (for example the Storegga Slide or the stress release from plate tectonic movement. Approximately 90% of all stress accumulated along plate boundaries and major active faults drops in subduction 150 N settings. During large magnitude earth- 10 km Main headwall quakes the seafloor may show surface ruptures followed by subsequent subma- Depth (m) 1300 rine landslides and/or tsunamis. The most Ridge and trough recent example of such a cascading effect morphology

Submarine mass wasting Shaded relief bathymetry image of the central part of the upper Storegga Slide, a huge landslide Internal that unleashed a major tsunami headwall offshore Norway some 8000 to 6000 yrs ago. Potential triggers include gas hydrate dissociation and weak contouritic clays. 20 Geohazards

Canary Islands tsunamis). The area most for infrastructure destruction, ecosystem endeavors in offshore research. Currently, prone to tsunamis is the Mediterranean alteration and loss of human lives. With the best (i.e. most reliable) warning is an- Sea, especially its central and eastern re- the purpose of mitigating the damage, the ticipated tsunami travel time so that detec- gions, where active plate subduction takes EU and other governmental bodies have tion of precursory phenomena prior to an place. Although the Eastern Mediterranean reacted to recent disasters by calling for event may add valuable time to disaster is the seismically most active region in collaborative approaches integrating sci- response. Europe, the latest large earthquake and entists, policymakers, administrators, and Innovative options to detect precursory tsunami dates back to 365 AD, when Crete experts in public perception of geohazards. phenomena owing to stress changes in the was uplifted substantially and a tsunami Priority action, in order to be prepared for deeper Earth include long-term monitor- destroyed the Pharos lighthouse, one of major devastating events such as the Crete ing of pore pressure, temperature, or gas the Seven World Wonders19. One emerging 365 AD earthquake and tsunami, includes chemistry24. Such seafloor and sub-sea- question in geohazard research is the length the implementation of an early warning floor technology is particularly powerful of the seismic cycle and when another system, which in the Mediterranean could when installed in hydrologically active ar- rupture and associated tsunami may occur. be built on the cabled deep sea observato- eas (faults, mud volcanoes, seeps) linked Given the mature collisional setting in ries already in operation (see “Implemen- to real-time data transfer. More common southern Europe and the long recurrence tation”) plus autonomous buoys. systems such as tsunami warning systems interval, a rupture of the Hellenic Trench Furthermore, the forecasted dramatic are equally efficient means, as has been seems overdue. Similarly, experts specu- increase of industrial activity in the deep recently seen when alerts were sent af- late that a future mega-tsunami may result sea (deep conventional energy resources, ter large earthquakes off Sumatra by the from a new massive flank collapse in the non-hydrocarbon energy resources, min- system installed after the 2004 rupture. Canary Islands, resembling those whose eral resources, communication cable net- State-of-the-art research and development evidence is found repeatedly in the geolog- works, pipeline networks, offshore CO2 as well as its implementation involve polit- ical record. Scientists and policymakers in storage) implies that careful attention ical decisionmaking and monetary invest- Europe have to anticipate such events by must be given both to naturally triggered ment, with the added difficulty of the es- providing the appropriate infrastructure geohazards and to risks induced by human sentially unpredictable nature of offshore for their study as well as early warning ca- activities leading to seafloor destabilisa- geohazards. pability to alert society. tion or uncontrolled escape of overpres- Other crucial fields of hazard research sured fluids in the marine environment. In include the study of sediment mass trans- Prevention and mitigation of geohazards particular, the mining of shallow methane port and sediment-laden bottom water The economic and social implications of hydrate deposits in the near future would flows on continental slopes and within offshore geohazards are manifold. Com- require in situ hydrate phase change, which submarine canyons. Canyon dynamics pared to geohazards on land, offshore may hamper their sediment-hardening ca- build areas of hampered slope stability. events have longer recurrence cycles and pability, eventually leading to failure. The physical state of submarine continen- are capable of affecting larger areas, often Because of the potentially dramatic tal slopes must be monitored in areas of among the most vulnerable in the planet losses and associated socio-economic im- incipient failure, introducing integrated (rural and urban coastal communities). plications, novel approaches for geohaz- approaches of slope stability analysis, Offshore geohazards therefore involve el- ard prevention and mitigation are proba- enhanced borehole investigations and evated risk as they hold a terrific potential bly among the most challenging and urgent repeated high-resolution seafloor mapping in the deep sea realm. In European continental margins, the increasing number and intensity of extra-tropical storms are expected to increase sediment-laden flows within canyons and the return period

Earthquake slip causing beach uplift Photographs showing Ululaju Beach, Busung-Simeulue, Indonesia before (left) and after (right) the large 2004 Sumatra EQ and tsunami in the Indian Ocean. Note uplifted beach rocks owing to EQ slip. Geohazards 21

Early tsunami detection Surface buoy (left) and signs along a beach (right) as part of a Tsunami Early Warning System in Indonesia.

of high-energy hydrodynamic events25, which may lead to enhanced erosion, destabilisation and destruction of benthic communities in addition to likely significant implications for pollutants and litter dispersal, fisheries and safety of seabed infrastructures. Understanding submarine geohazards: The technological challenge in the un- research needs and societal challenges derstanding of offshore geohazards is to improve the capability of in situ sampling and measurement (in boreholes and at * Offshore geohazards are capable of affecting large areas, often among the the seafloor) and high-quality sampling most vulnerable in the planet and hold a terrific potential for infrastruc- for geotechnical laboratory testing. These ture destruction, ecosystem alteration and loss of human lives. were not part of typical research schemes Research that unravels the historical records of geohazards in the ocean in the past, and are now recognised by the * is pivotal for future risk assessment. Such mitigation efforts are best sup- international community as milestones for future investigations. However, state-of- ported by long term, real-time monitoring of precursor phenomena and the art platforms and tools that have been manifestations of sudden changes (e.g. along seismic areas or continental developed for seafloor and sub-surface slopes showing signs of recent and incipient failure). monitoring, mainly with the purpose of The forecasted dramatic increase of industrial activity in the deep sea supporting industrial activity, are expen- * means that careful attention must be given both to naturally triggered sive, especially because their use must be geohazards and to risks induced by human activities. planned and supported in the long term (multi-year and decades). If a European * The increasing number and intensity of extra-tropical storms may lead to Maritime Strategy as part of policies such enhanced erosion, destabilisation and destruction of benthic communities 2 as Europe 2020 or A resource-efficient in addition to implications for pollutants and litter dispersal, fisheries and 26 Europe envisages deep sea mining for safety of seabed infrastructures. minerals, hydrocarbons or gas hydrates, it would be mandatory for policymakers * Research on submarine landslides to understand palaeo-seismicity, the to fund the required infrastructure for influence of climate change, and building of sedimentary sequences in sustainable monitoring of areas at risk of ocean margins and basins is highly relevant to hydrocarbon reservoir natural (or man-made) hazards. exploration and characterisation. It seems obvious that an integrated, multi-disciplinary approach is essential in * Because of the potentially dramatic threat to human lives, property the offshore geohazards field, also involv- and the natural and built environment, novel approaches for geohazard ing stakeholders and the offshore industry prevention and mitigation are probably among the most challenging and wherever possible. Clearly, some of the fu- urgent endeavours in offshore and coastal research. This encompasses ture studies will have to go hand in hand improved detection of precursors such as increasing pore pressure, and with the industry since their focus on the temperature and changes in gas chemistry in hydrologically active areas. deep-water areas is rapidly growing; this Scientists and policymakers in Europe have to anticipate future cata- is the only way to reach the competitiveness * and growth envisioned in Europe 20202. strophic events by providing the appropriate infrastructure for their study as well as early warning capability to alert society. 22 CLIMATE

Exploring marine Ecosystems Ecosystems 23

The past two decades of marine research have seen a veritable explosion in the exploration and discovery of deep sea marine ecosystems. Recent developments in seafloor imaging, geophysics and understanding of deep sub-seafloor hydrology have altered our perception of the underlying physical and chemical nature of ecosystem habitats.

We now have an enhanced ability to image methane, C2+ alkanes, and formate, has so far as well as the oceanic crust, with and directly sample deep sea ecosystems particularly stimulated interest in the geo- complex prokaryotic communities consist- using remotely operated vehicles and a physical, geochemical and biological con- ing of thousands of different species. The new generation of drilling equipment and sequences of serpentinisation (transfor- number of species is currently only de- other sampling devices. This has also ac- mation of rocks from the Earth’s mantle) fined from the genetic diversity detected celerated the effort to sample more dif- for the global marine system. This discov- in extracted DNA. Most of these species, ficult targets such as ecosystems located ery is paired with the reported presence in particular those among the archaea, are at hydrothermal vents near seamounts of microbial niches in seafloor serpenti- only distantly related to known cultivated and outcrops; on cold-water coral-bearing nites27. Thus, it is important to identify micro-organisms. These discoveries have ledges; near gas seeps and at mud volca- critical factors that control abiotic forma- resulted in new important research ques- noes, and in deep sub-surface sediments tion and uptake of alkanes, not only to tions regarding the extent and origin of – which host one of the largest biomass understand ecosystems where energy is diversity, how diversity is linked to space reservoirs on Earth. This has all occurred extremely limited, but also to gain insight and time, and which organisms carry out with significant European participation into physico-chemical conditions for the key ecosystem functions in the deep bio- and leadership. origin of life in primordial mid-ocean hy- sphere that harbours half of all bacteria drothermal systems at times long before and archaea on Earth. These micro-organ- Recent discoveries of deep seascape organisms could generate hydrocarbons isms subsist in million-year old sediments ecosystems for microbial metabolism by alternative by the slow degradation of deeply buried New discoveries, such as the stunning biosynthetic pathways28. organic matter and have metabolic rates serpentine-hosted ecosystems along the Another exciting revelation within that are orders of magnitude below rates Mid-Atlantic Ridge, continue unabated. the last two decades is the high diversity measured in laboratory cultures. Yet, they The serendipitous discovery of the Lost of microbial life at the deep sea seafloor are responsible for a nearly complete min- City hydrothermal field, characterised by and sub-seafloor. Micro-organisms are eralisation of organic carbon in the seabed metal-poor, <100°C, high pH fluids (9-11) ubiquitous in the marine deep biosphere, and are thereby gatekeepers for the oxygen with high concentrations of hydrogen, pervading the deepest sediments drilled balance in the atmosphere over geological 24 Ecosystems

Abundant life at depth The presence and size of the deep biosphere may affect the Earth system in ways we have yet to appreciate. Che- mosynthetic microbes play a major role in the global carbon cycle and produce huge amounts of biomass in extreme environments such as hydrothermal vents, mud volcanoes, and deep-sea hydrocarbon seeps.

time-scales. The slow pace of subsurface Other seafloor sedimentary features that matter across the seafloor-seawater in- microbial life remains a great challenge have only begun to be explored include the terface are ‘ecosystem services’, so if we to our understanding of the limits to life three dimensional structure of continental are to understand how humankind is per- on our planet. This hidden, vast biological margin canyon walls, and the “hadal ocean” turbing the benthic ecosystem, we need diversity of bacteria and archaea needs to or ultra-deep regions of the world’s oceans. to know how these vary on short (human) be investigated in much more detail, in or- The deep sea seascape is much more di- time scales. der to describe which species are present, verse and heterogeneous than previously The greatly confused response to the how they vary spatially and temporally, recognised, both at small and large scales. recent Deep Water Horizon disaster in the how they will respond to the changing The results from numerous oceanographic Gulf of Mexico has made it frighteningly environmental conditions, and to explore investigations and the scientific ocean clear how little we know about how sea- their enormous potential for bio-prospect- drilling programs (e.g. IODP8) over the past floor ecosystems are structured and how ing (biotechnological, pharmaceutical and three decades have changed the long-held they function. Humans will continue to industrial applications). view that the entire oceanic lithosphere is venture into the deep sea and use the deep Further recent discoveries include dra- uniform in architecture and thickness, and sea seafloor as a resource. Accidents will matic sedimentary seafloor features such have led to the recognition of fundamental happen. The economically viable precau- as deep water coral mounds and mud vol- differences in crustal accretion and alterations that we undertake, and our response canoes closely associated with distinct tion processes related to spreading rates. to unforeseen problems that arise, can only faunal and microbial communities. Deep Nevertheless, deep sea seafloor and sub- be mitigated by a thorough understanding water coral ecosystems produce coral seafloor ecosystems are still mostly unex- as to how the seafloor functions. build-ups or “deep-water coral mounds” plored and highly undersampled; we have that reach up to 350 meters. Their initia- very limited understanding of the diver- Life under extreme energy limitations tion and growth, followed by death and sity of habitats in the seafloor seascape. Extreme energy limitation is the major erosion, are closely linked to glacial and These unexplored habitats include but are feature of many deep sea seafloor and interglacial changes in ocean circulation not restricted to: trenches, areas around sub-seafloor environments30. This limita- and chemistry and eventual food supply29. seamounts, mid-ocean ridges (including tion has been shown by quantification of In contrast, mud volcano ecosystems are sediment cover), vertically structured eco- the microbial cells living deep within ma- fed with fluids and mud rich in methane systems on escarpments and canyon walls, rine sediments. By experimental measure- from below. The oxidation of this methane and emerging deep sea ecosystems under ment or by reaction-transport modelling of leads to the formation of distinct methane retreating ice in the Arctic. Moreover, and the rate of organic carbon mineralisation and hydrogen sulfide based ecosystems, perhaps most importantly, the ‘natural’ it is then possible to calculate the mean as well as authigenic carbonate structures variability of the sub-seafloor in time is cell-specific rate of carbon metabolism. on the seafloor and in the sub-seafloor. poorly understood. Fluxes of energy and Recently, a novel approach has been de- Ecosystems 25

Wealth of microbes in the sub-seafloor Clockwise from lower right: UV microscope image showing blue-green, autoflourescent, methanogens on iron sulphide precipitate; corresponding light microscope image; Methanobac- terium sp.; and Methanosarcina sp., the latter two from sediments offshore Japan. Innovative cultivation techniques will open a window to understanding of genetic, metabolic, and evolutionary characteristics of subseafloor life.

veloped by which the turnover of microbial of the biosphere. Viral infections release DNA in the overall deep sea functioning, biomass can be calculated from the slow extracellular DNA that might represent a are still largely unexplored. inter-conversion (racemisation) between source of nutrients for prokaryotic metab- D- and L-forms of specific amino acids in olism, due to its high lability and content Strong interactions between organisms bacteria. Compared to surface sediments of organic nitrogen and phosphorus. This and rocks the rates of microbial metabolic activity large sedimentary DNA pool can provide Studies of diverse hydrothermal systems in the deep biosphere are orders of mag- almost half of the prokaryotic demand for and natural rock samples have brought to nitude lower, impeding the detection of organic phosphorus. However, the genetic light key processes that sustain seafloor microbial activity in the deep biosphere. diversity of benthic viruses, as well the and sub-seafloor chemosynthetic commu- Thus, microbial processes in the deep biogeochemical role of the extracellular nities at mid-ocean ridge environments. biosphere are operating on a significantly lower level and on different time scales that require the development of more sen- Geofuels in dynamic deep-sea settings sitive analytical methods. Schematic representation of the major dark oceanic environments, ranging Food web operation in a food-limited from mid-ocean ridges to continental margins, and the fluxes that are observed. world and the population dynamics of The wealth of processes represents a substantial part of global element cycles. deep sea fauna are still poorly understood. ++ 0 Mn geofuels O For instance, the deep sea may be more 2 ++ Sealevel Fe NO3- = prone to boom-bust cycles. There is inter- CH4 SO4 H S est in how changing nutrient and oxygen 2 H 2 CO2 concentrations over time may have effects Arc and mud on benthic faunal activity. Furthermore, volcanoes elucidating faunal activity over geological Gene ow Gene ow time, e.g. after the Cambrian explosion, 4 km has implications for our understanding of SSprep ading axis Core complexes changing seawater chemistry. Sediments Seamounts Arc crust Magma Continental crust Recent studies have highlighted the im- Oceanic crust 10 km portant role of viruses in surface deep sea sediment ecosystems. Benthic viruses are major players in the global biogeochemical cycles, in deep sea metabolism and Earth mantle 100 km the functioning of the largest ecosystem Depth 26 Ecosystems

Corals make home for wolffish Two wolffish (Anarhichas lupus) found a home in the coral framework of one of the coral reefs in the Kosterfjord, Sweden destroyed by trawling.

primary mass transfer from the geosphere to the hydrosphere, regulating not only carbon and nutrients but also other species involved in mineral dissolution and reprecipitation such as magnesium, cal- cium and iron. At the global scale, the effect of deep ecosystems may have a heavy impact on the whole element load to the hydrosphere. We note that the entire volume of the ocean circulates through the seafloor- seawater interface every million years just through the action of animals ventilating their surface seafloor sediment habitats. Because the seafloor is host to up to two- thirds of the Earth’s microbial population, Examples are chemolithoautotrophy and recognise the primary control on hydro- understanding the controls on fluxes of dark CO2 fixation and primary production thermal cycles (from the onset to death of energy and matter, and the processes that as well as symbiosis. However, the knowl- a hydrothermal system) and thus on pio- regulate them, is crucial for answering edge of driving processes underlying these neer life colonisation of the deep crustal some of the big scientific questions, in- interactions as well as their temporal and rocks and its evolution from chemolitho cluding the evolution and distribution of spatial variability is still very limited. The autotrophy to heterotrophy. life and the operation of the carbon cycle. local fixation of carbon through biological- Along the mid-ocean ridges, deep eco- If we are to understand the role of sub- ly-driven or abiotic chemosynthesis and systems are nested in primary magmatic seafloor ecosystems in biogeochemical sequestration of carbon through alteration rocks contributing to mineral degradation cycles, we need to know about the con- processes may be much greater than previ- and forcing crystallisation of new phas- nectivity of the deep-surface reservoirs ously recognised. es27. Deep colonisation deeply affects the to surface sediments and the ocean. What

The plumbing of the deep sub-surface ocean Fluid, gas and solid transport are essential for life. For ecosystems to fully function, energy rich compounds must come in con- Creatures hidden in the dark Pink swimming sea cucumber, Enyp- tact with oxidizing capacity. In addition niastes, seen at appx. 2500 m water to photosynthesis, another fascinating depth in the Celebes Sea. The majority source of sustenance for deep life is pri- of all marine organisms live in the mary degassing of magmas injected into deep ocean, and a stunning variety has recently been catalogued in the the oceanic crust or ejected at the seafloor Census of Marine Life project. along the mid-ocean ridges. Magma degassing releases carbon along with other vola- tile species, such as the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus that are delivered to the hydrothermal systems. The primary budget strongly varies as a function of the deep mantle source composition, the degree of melting experienced and the fractionation of the products in the crustal intrusions. Defining the regional primary budget and its temporal variation will allow to Ecosystems 27

Ecosystem goods and services Table illustrating how the different ecosystem habitats provide valuable goods and services for mankind. The spread of such benefits ranges from scientific, cultural and spiritual to a wide spec- trum for society, e.g. food, fossil fuels or biotechnological products. So far, good knowledge does not exist in any of the settings.

controls fluid flow, fluid migration path- our coastal and shelf seas becomes more and climate states. That is, organisms at ways and residence times of fluids in the widespread, we look to the sedimentary the surface sediment injest, modify and sub-surface? How does fluid flow affect record and also to modern sub-oxic and produce minerals and compounds that microbial activity and food web function? anoxic environments to inform us about reach the seafloor. These compounds and how the level of seawater oxygenation af- minerals, or “proxies”, are diagnostic The ocean floor in a changing world: fects seafloor and sub-seafloor biota (and not only for ecosystems, but for the water An archive of past oceans and climates vice-versa), and how areas recover when column itself. The determination, evalua- Changes in nutrient cycling and carbon oxygenated conditions return. tion and calibration of “proxies” belongs fluxes have impacted and will continue to The seafloor acts as an active diage- to a large and rapidly evolving field that impact the deep seafloor and sub-seafloor netic filter for the deep archive of proxies depends on the thorough understanding ecosystem. Moreover, as eutrophication of used to deconvolute past ocean chemistry of seafloor ecosystems. The role of these proxies for reconstructions of past conditions in the oceans and the history of global climate has been elaborated in the “Climate” section.

Feedback between climate and the seafloor The seafloor is not only a record of inputs and fluxes, but provides the contact to the vast and enormous reservoirs of reduced carbon and carbonate buffer capacity of the sub-seafloor. A clear and measurable feedback with implications for climate is

Corals at depth Sclerectinian cold water coral, Loph- elia pertusa, observed at Porcupine Seabight, off Ireland, in water depth of ~700 m. Unlike shallow-water coral in tropical areas, cold water species live in the dark and feed by filtering seawater for suspended nutrients. 28 Ecosystems

gas hydrate and methane reserve desta- Understanding of the basic nutrient vices” for humans32. These values may bilisation. Another important issue is the cycles in the water column and in surface be economic, societal, or even spiritually role of sedimentary carbonates as a buffer sediments is rapidly evolving. Human al- based. Ecosystem services range from sup- against ocean acidification. Sedimentary teration of the nutrient cycles in the ocean porting services for habitat and nutrient

CaCO3 dissolution is key for global models will continue to increase over the coming cycling to provisioning services (food, addressing ocean acidification, but the ef- generations. Understanding how these freshwater, fuel, wood, etc.), regulating fects of respiratory activity (microbial and changes translate into enhanced fluxes of services (climate, diseases, food, water faunal) on carbonate dissolution are very food (i.e. energy) for ecosystems at the quality, etc.) and cultural services (i.e. poorly parameterised. Alterations in the seafloor and will require long-term ecosys- aesthetic, educational, recreational). Deep rates and extent of interaction between tem observation. sea ecosystems are an important resource an interface with: high seafloormicrobial abundance and potential climate-altering in that they provide a number of “ecosys- high geochemicalmicrobial diversity reservoirs such as sedimen- Ecosystems as a resource tem services”, all providing several kinds high tarymicrobial carbonates activity or methane hydrates are We close this discussion with the recogni- of benefits to humankind. modulated by the surface and sub-seafloor tion that marine ecosystems have value Estimates of the value of ecosystem faunal and microbial communities. and may provide certain “ecosystem ser- goods and services depend on a number

The Ocean-Seafloor-Subseafloor Ecosystem Interface

1000 = an interface with: Biodiversity in the deep sea

high microbial abundance Ecosystem diversity and activity as 100 high microbial diversity a function of depth above and below 10 high microbial activity diversity seafloor (asf, bsf). The maximum m asf 1 & activity number of organisms is found along high macrofaunal diversity & activity 0.1 the sediment-water interface. Al- though the sub-seafloor abundance is 0.01 Benthic-boundary layer decreasing exponentially with depth, 0.01 the biomass associated with the deep

Inﬂuence biosphere has a strong impact on 0.1 Bioturbation global C cycling. m bsf 1 Irrigation/Fluid Advection

Human Human 10 Glacial / Interglacial Perturbations

100 Deep Biosphere 1000 Ecosystems 29

Ecosystem diversity (left) Deep sea ecosystems: Subarctic sunflower stars, Pycnopodia helianthoides, at the seafloor in shal- research frontiers and societal benefits low waters off Knight Island in Prince William Sound, Alaska. * Marine ecosystems have value and provide economic, societal, or even Predator and prey spiritually based “ecosystem services” for humans. The vast biological The squat lobster Munida rugosa tries diversity of micro-organisms in the deep sea harbours enormous potential its' luck, getting this close to the small for biotechnological, pharmaceutical and industrial applications. cephalopode Rossia sp., which has small crustaceans as preferred food Fluxes of energy and matter across the seafloor-seawater interface are items. * ‘ecosystem services’, affecting, for example, how the deep sea environment reacts to human intervention. Here, long term seafloor observatories for prolonged time series measurements are needed. * Identifying natural seafloor laboratories will allow rock sampling of million- years time series along seafloor spreading flow lines to recognise the evolution of the primary engine for long term control over climate evolution. There, sub-seafloor efforts such as coring, sub-sampling, and scientific drilling help to elucidate processes and rates affecting sub-seafloor ecosystems. of issues, any of them more or less sub- * Micro to nano-scale analyses of carbon speciation and in situ biological jective. Nevertheless, our valuation of an molecule characterisation and distribution in rock-hosted micro-ecosystems ecosystem’s goods and services rests on are needed. This should include the development of tools for imaging and a solid quantitative scientific understand- analysing surface interaction and biofilms along microbial and mineral ing of that particular ecosystem and how it interfaces. functions in the ocean as a whole. Howev- er, with the exception of a few well-docu- * The sedimentary record gives us insight about how seawater oxygenation mented deep sea ecosystems, the scientific affects seafloor and sub-seafloor biota and how areas – for example coastal understanding of known deep sea ecosys- regions degraded by eutrophication – recover when oxygenated conditions tems is paltry at best (see above Table32). return. Further remarks on the potential of marine life as a resource and the possible im- * Better knowledge about the role of sub-seafloor ecosystems in biogeochemi- pacts of exploitation are made in the next cal cycles – and thus in the global carbon cycle – could lead to improvement sections. of climate change prediction models.

Biotechnology as future resource Many marine and deep sea organisms may provide crucial products for biotechnology and other emerging fields, and their study in situ will shed important insights concerning their sustainable exploitation and cultivation in vitro. Example shows a photobioreactor with Physcomitrella patens. 30 CLIMATE

Responsible use of deep sea Resources

Gaining an improved understanding of marine ecosystems has direct societal relevance because these systems provide a vital part of human welfare, for example through food availability. Obtaining estimates for Earth System and Climate sensitivity are crucial to prepare for and mitigate agains the impacts of climate change Assessing the biotic impact of ocean acidification is important to adapt to future changes in ocean acidification on food sources and biotic diversity An understanding of future rates of sea-level change based on past observations is of prime importance to adapt to and mitigate against sea-level rise Understanding the evolution of the hydrological cycle and ocean ventilation has important implications of the future evolution of flood events, fresh-water supply, and greenhouse gas concentrations RESOURCES 31

Smart, sustainable and inclusive growth is an overarching issue that occupies decision makers around the world. Increasing consumption rates, human population growth and the rapid industri- alisation of highly populated countries, such as, China, India and Brazil, most recently joined by South Africa, combined with an overall higher standard of living are resulting in the depletion of available resources at increasing rates. The deep sea and its sub-seafloor offer raw materials, fuels and biological resources, but a thorough system understanding is mandatory for their sustainable use.

The expansion of the world population from considered part of any worldwide solution be contemplated in the context of the use 6 to 9 billion will intensify global competi- and requires understanding the processes of the deep ocean and pressing climate tion for natural resources and put pressure that create resources and the identification change issues. on the environment. As known reserves of the boundary conditions necessary to of minerals are being exhausted, worries predict, limit and mitigate potentially nega- Mineral resources about access to raw materials, including tive consequences of their exploitation. In this section we explore in more detail base and strategic minerals, increase. The deep sea and its sub-seafloor con- the different resources of the deep ocean The rise in the price of several important tain a vast reservoir of renewable and non- and the potential consequences of their ex- metals, for example copper, has prompted renewable physical and biological resourc- ploitation. We have opted to exclude con- Germany and France, amongst others, to es that are rapidly gaining in scientific as ventional hydrocarbons from our analysis initiate concerted activities to ensure ac- well as economic interest. Amongst these because we consider that the industry is cess to strategic minerals, and Europe has resources, we count mineral resources of mature, despite the fact that it is evolving launched several initiatives over the last three types: hydrothermal sulfides, poly- towards deeper and deeper exploitation of years related to raw materials. In fact, metallic nodules and manganese crusts, this energy resource. In as far as environ- Europe depends on imports for many of but also gas hydrates that form under cer- mental issues relate to deep offshore oil these materials that it needs for construc- tain conditions along continental margins, and gas, we believe that these can be ad- tion and for its heavy and high-tech indus- and biological resources of the deep sea- dressed within a more general framework tries. Recycling, resource efficiency and floor with biotechnological and pharma- of resource exploitation, including the use the search for alternative materials are es- ceutical applications, amongst others. In of biological resources and minerals. sential, but most specialists agree that this some hydrothermal environments along Marine mining will become a reality in will not suffice and that there is a need to mid-ocean ridges, there is a potential for this century, if not this decade. The exploi- find new primary deposits. Horizon 20203 the formation of natural hydrogen, which tation of copper and gold-rich hydrother- clearly lays out these stakes for Europe can be used as an energy vector. Finally, mal sulfides in the waters of Papua New and stresses the need to seek global solu- the use of the sub-seafloor for CO2 storage Guinea, the Solwara 1 project, will likely tions. Without question, the ocean must be is an issue that is debated and needs to start soon at 1600 m water depth. A key 32 RESOURCES

Antimony Silver Beryllium Chromium Borate Precious deep-sea minerals Aluminium Cobalt Import dependence of Europe in 2006, for selected critical raw materials, as Copper Gallium published in a Report by the European Commission. Note that the value for Gallium is not reliable, due to signifi- Nickel Germanium 80 % cant changes for different years. 60 % Zinc 40 % Indium 20 % experiments34 with geomicrobiological ex- Tungsten Magnesium periments (see “Challenges” below). Gas hydrates are storing significant Lithium Molybdenum amounts of methane in marine sediments along the continental margins of Europe. Iron Niobium Composed of methane trapped in a cage of water molecules, these hydrates are only Manganese Platinum GM stable under certain high pressure and low Vanadium Rare Earth Elements temperature conditions. Climate change Titanium Rhenium may induce significant modifications to Tellurium Tantalum the regions where hydrate deposits may start to melt, with potentially significant consequences. Approaches such as gov- ernment-funded project SUGAR (Subma- issue is the development of legislation to environment during exploration for and rine Gas Hydrate Reservoirs) in Germany regulate prospecting, exploration and ex- extraction of mineral resources, it is not aim to address these issues and contem-

ploitation activities and their environmen- specifically charged with conservation or plate a potential for CO2 storage (e.g. as tal impacts. Within the Exclusive Economic management processes. Under the pres- CO2-hydrate) in these specific formations Zones (EEZ) of coastal states, more or less ent regulatory regime of the Area, envi- while recovering the methane. One main well-developed national mining codes ex- ronmental protection decisions are more criterion is environmental safety and sus- ist, but they are often devoid of constrain- driven by mining interests than by global tainability (see “Geohazards”). ing environmental considerations. For community interests in conservation. At With respect to biological resources, what is referred to as the Area, the inter- a time when the international community there is a vast potential of marine genetic national part of the seabed, the Interna- is raising awareness on the issues of deep resources, however, a lack of clear guide- tional Seabed Authority (ISA) developed sea mining and its impact on the environ- lines as to the use and abuse of these ma- the regulation for exploration of polyme- ment, Europe has to take the lead on some terials exists. What we need is a better tallic nodules in the late nineties. Subse- of the large outstanding scientific ques- understanding of the links between the quently, in 2010, ISA adopted the mining tions. diversity of deep sea communities and the code for the prospecting and exploration availability of chemical substrates and en- of hydrothermal sulfides. Not surprisingly, Other resources ergy underlying the functioning of these two states immediately deposited applica- In addition to minerals, hydrogen produc- ecosystems and their response to distur- tions for exploration contracts with the Au- tion is an important aspect of hydrothermal bance and stresses. Better constraints are thority: China and Russia for areas located systems hosted in ultramafic rocks. To date required on the diversity of carbon fixa- along the southwest Indian Ridge and the it is not known whether there is enough to tion pathways, metabolic pathways, and central Mid-Atlantic Ridge, respectively. be exploited as an alterative energy source feedbacks of the biological communities These applications were approved by the nor how exploitation would influence fluid on the export of material to the water col- ISA Council following positive recommen- flow paths and microbial activity. In ad- umn. Experimental strategies and tools to dations made by the Legal and Technical dition, there is much to be learned about address these questions on the seafloor Commission (LTC) during the 17th session the importance of serpentinisation pro- are also needed. These questions are not

in July 2011. Other states, such as France, cesses for natural CO2 sequestration from farfetched, as practical applications of ma- Germany, Brazil and Korea are in the start- seawater and the effect of CO2 injection in rine biological resources are envisaged in ing blocks to explore in the Area. stimulating microbial growth. Much can many different fields relevant to society. While the ISA has been proactive in be learned from natural hydrothermal sys- Over the last decades, scientific explo- developing rules, regulations, and proce- tems about how certain elements are cy- ration has led to the discovery of many dures that incorporate standards for the cled biologically. In the future, there will types of ecosystems, of which many pres-

protection and preservation of the marine be a need to combine CO2 sequestration ent a significant potential for future re- RESOURCES 33

sources, both physical and biological. • What is the global distribution of deep ing of the impact of seafloor exploitation However, modern mapping exists over only sea resources, and their potential for on the immediate environment and the a very small portion of the seafloor, and exploitation? subsequent consequences on the larger the sampling of the seafloor and subsur- ocean system. In fact, the response of the • How do we assess the potential face is very sparse, despite the enormous ecosystem to disturbances, whether they impacts of exploitation of deep sea efforts undertaken within the framework of be natural or anthropogenic, has been resources for the economy, for the international scientific drilling programs. observed at only very few sites. The dy- environment and for society? Hence, much about the composition and namics of vent communities and their eco- global distribution of these resources on • How can Europe contribute to re- geochemical drivers still need to be deter- the seafloor and within the subsurface, sponsible use of non-renewable deep mined for most habitats. We need to better their quantitative importance for global sea resources, in particular mineral understand the distribution, composition chemical cycles and biological activity, resources, and to responsible mining and connectivity of the deep seafloor com- and the potential impacts of exploitation in the international area? munities living under extreme conditions, on ocean chemistry and ecosystems is in- in order to comprehend their capacity to completely understood, to say the least. • How can biological resources of the recover after disturbances. The impact, deep sea and sub-seafloor be exploited for example, of element remobilisation Renewable and non-renewable resources in a sustainable fashion, while protect- (e.g. suphur, heavy metals) is completely Europe, with a combined EEZ of member ing the biodiversity of the extremo- unknown. Controls on chemosynthetic car- states larger than 24 million km², has an philic communities? bon fixation and growth rates are mostly important role to play in defining strate- unidentified. It is hence important to get gies for future resource utilisation, start- Beyond locating and assessing the poten- a better understanding of the interactions ing with fundamental and applied scientif- tial of the various resources, the most im- that take place at the seafloor and in the ic research to answer the many questions portant issue in terms of marine research sub-seafloor, between seawater, the litho- that surround the use of both renewable related to resources and priorities in this sphere and the biosphere. and non-renewable resources: time of rapid change, is the understand-

A variety of mineral resources Three types of mineral resources of the deep sea. From left to right: A polyme- tallic nodule, an example of manganese crust and a chimney with hydrothermal sulfides. 34 RESOURCES

The chemical and isotopic composition ridges. To these, we can add andesitic and exchange of chemicals between the ocean of seawater reflects a dynamic balance be- felsic rocks and magmas rich in volatiles and the basaltic basement. These exchang- tween the supply and removal of elements. characteristic of subduction zones. Contin- es affect the composition of seawater, the These fluxes are dominated by fluvial in- ual discoveries of hydrothermal systems oceanic lithosphere itself and, through puts, hydrothermal exchange, biological hosted in diverse substrates have high- subduction, the mantle and arc magmas. exchange, and sedimentary removal. Their lighted the importance of hydrothermal Material that eventually is recycled back magnitudes depend on global geologic energy and chemical element transfer from into the deeper mantle carries with it the processes, such as seafloor spreading and the lithosphere to the biosphere. Initially, imprints of Earth’s exterior environment. mountain building, climate conditions, and heat and mass transfer were considered to Thus, long-lived convection and fluid-rock biological activity. Since the discovery of primarily occur at discrete, isolated, hy- interactions in ridge flank environments hydrothermal vents on the seafloor, it has drothermally active hotspots around the and in off-axis, serpentinite-hosted hydro- been recognised that seawater-derived global ridge system and to have a minor thermal systems have the potential to sus- fluids circulate through the oceanic crust impact on the global ocean carbon cycles. tain a diverse deep biosphere and seques- and, thus, fluids sampled at mid-ocean However, recent results suggest that both ter carbon from seawater over extensive ridges and along the ridge flanks provide the local fixation of carbon through che- areas of the oceanic lithosphere and over records of past seawater-rock exchanges. mosynthesis and sequestration of carbon long geological time scales. Along continental margins cold-water fluid through alteration processes may be much vent systems have been discovered with greater than previously recognised. Fluid Fluid cycling associated unique animal and bacterial flow occurs – and has taken place for tens Hydrothermal input of iron affects phyto- communities31. Seamounts and arc volca- of millions of years – not only at mid-ocean plankton growth in the ocean and influenc- noes are other environments of interest. ridges where flow rates and temperatures es the global carbon pump. Investigations Geotectonic settings along the ridges are high, but also through the aging ridge of iron speciation in hydrothermal plumes are highly diverse and have extremely vari- flanks and in other settings far from the have revealed that a fraction of dissolved able substrates, with basalt dominating ridge system31. iron was stabilised by surface complex- at fast and intermediate-spreading ridge The fluids at ridge flanks transport ation with organic particles. Hydrothermal environments and ultramafic and gab- massive amounts of heat from the cool- iron and copper have recently been shown broic rocks dominating at slow-spreading ing oceanic lithosphere and facilitate the to be also complicated by dissolved organic matter, resulting in long residence times and greater dispersal distances in the oceans than previously thought possible. Likewise, nanoparticles of iron sulfide may be dispersed over long distances in the oceans. Another new insight is that atmospheric forcing may affect deep sea

Geosphere-biosphere interaction Schematic representation of the interactions between seawater, rocks and life in the deep sea and sub-seafloor. Many of the processes shown represent important elements in chemical nutrient cycles and bear potential for societal use. RESOURCES 35

Extreme lifeforms at hot springs Hydrothermal sulfide precipitates along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (5°S) show abundant and diverse ecosystems (left) despite temperature measurements exceeding 400°C (right). Apart from very local studies, not much is known about the resources and ecosystems along active vs. inactive ridge segments at spreading centres.

currents and provide a mechanism for Towards a European research strategy for Future advances in our knowledge of spreading these metals in the deep sea36. responsible use lithosphere-biosphere processes can only Although their implications on a global Strategies to address the open questions be made by sub-seafloor sampling, by scale remain poorly understood, these re- identified above involve monitoring and quantifying the nature and rates of in situ cent discoveries highlight the importance sampling both on and below the seafloor. microbiological activity, and by determin- of hydrothermal exchange between the Characterisation of fluids venting on ing permeability structure and chemical lithosphere and the oceans in global geo- the seabed and the associated biologi- transport properties. It will be necessary chemical and biogeochemical cycles. cal communities provides insights into to have opportunities for fluid sampling Deep sea mining is both a technological the processes occurring deep below the and active monitoring, including single challenge and an environmental concern. seafloor. Direct drilling projects in differ- and multiple borehole experiments. Cur- However, as far as technological develop- ent geodynamic settings will be required rent long-term observations of sub-sea- ment is concerned, deep offshore petro- and will need to be based on a thorough floor hydro-geologic systems, as part of leum exploitation has already taken up initial investigation of the systems using both monitoring and active experimenta- the challenge and demonstrated its feasi- more conventional approaches and multi- tion, are transforming our view of fluid- bility. Only a few years ago, the threshold disciplinary oceanographic investigations. sediment-rock-microbial interactions. Con- of 2000 m water depth seemed difficult Interdisciplinary integrated studies, mod- tinued development of drilling, sampling, to overcome, but today technological ad- elling and experimental approaches are and sensor technology will help with col- vances allow routine wells at 3000 m wa- still challenges that will need to be met lection of data and materials from increas- ter depth, or more. However, dealing with in the coming decade of mid-ocean ridge ingly challenging environments, including environmental consequences of an acci- research. those with high temperatures, extreme pH, dent at such depths is very problematic, An important aspect of future research and high strain rates. as demonstrated by the recent Deep Wa- should concentrate on alteration process- ter Horizon blowout in the Gulf of Mexico. es and their effects on microbial activity Impact assessment Europe can play a significant role in the on the seafloor and in the subsurface, in- Long-term in situ observation laborato- comprehension of the processes, the as- cluding long-term monitoring and sam- ries at the seafloor, coupled with quanti- sessment of risks, and the development of pling in different geodynamic settings. tative sampling strategies carried out by appropriate regulations. Another example Future ocean drilling and sampling of the Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV) will concerns the diamond mining offshore oceanic lithosphere of a variety of ages help to start understanding lithosphere- Namibia, where technological advances and with different architectures are essen- biosphere interactions and how fluid flow allow for deeper and deeper exploitation tial. This is needed to better quantify the influences the faunal communities. Know- and at significant distances from the coast. depth distribution and extent of alteration ing the temporal and spatial dynamics of It seems likely that many of the technolo- of the lithosphere with time and to help hydrothermal fluids is crucial to under- gies currently under development will be characterise the heat and mass exchange standing the distribution and also the di- adapted and/or modified to allow for deep from spreading centers where fluid flow is versity of fauna, since the fauna is directly sea mineral exploitation. If Europe is not vigorous, extending to older oceanic litho- exposed to stress at hydrothermal vents present, for example in the Area, others sphere where fluid flow and mass transfer due to the physical and chemical proper- will be there instead. become slow. ties of fluids but is also dependent on the 36 RESOURCES

Studying the „Early Earth“ Lost City segment oft he Mid-Atlantic spreading ridge, an area where white, massive carbonate precipitates form in conjunction with basaltic crust. Lost City is believed to represent an equivalent to early Earth processes at a spreading centre.

chemical energy that is fuelling microbial resources. Studies of hydrothermal pro- life, the basis of the food chain at deep sea cesses and microbial activity in the deep hydrothermal vents. subsurface of ridge environments also The length scale of lithospheric vari- have potential for advances in biotechni- ability at slow spreading ridges, the im- cal applications. plications for fluid flow paths and fluxes, In order to assess the impacts of deep and the life these systems sustain are sea resource exploitation, it is crucial to poorly constrained. Previous expeditions study the sites before perturbations have and drilling in the Atlantic and Indian occurred. It is entirely unknown whether Oceans37 have concentrated on a few, rela- the response of fauna may be different de- tively deep holes, thereby providing mini- pending on the geographic area and geo- mal information about the extent or scale logical constraints. It is also not known of lateral heterogeneity. These studies what impact resource exploration and ex- have nevertheless highlighted the com- ploitation will have on biodiversity or the plex vertical heterogeneity in oceanic local geochemical properties of the sys- Methane hydrate as hydrocarbon lithosphere composition, deformation, tems. Unique life has developed in one of resource? and hydrothermal alteration. European ef- the most extreme environments on Earth. Massive gas hydrate chips filling forts have made major contributions to un- Animals and microbes have to cope with fractures and voids in clay mineral-rich derstanding these variations at slow- and stressors such as high temperatures, low mud. Such methane hydrates cement the muds and hence stabilise continen- ultra-slow spreading ridges, and this wide pH, and toxic chemical compounds, and tal slopes. If dissociated, water and knowledge base will provide an invaluable their genes and proteins have to function methane gas is released and the slope basis for future studies of the Mid-Atlantic under these circumstances. Unraveling sediment may fail. Given their abun- Ridge and the Arctic Ridge system. these processes can have crucial impact on dance, gas hydrates may be viewed as major hydrocarbon resource. Better knowledge is needed to under- biotechnological or medical applications stand microbe-metal interactions and how in the future and the destruction of entire they influence or enhance metal uptake. species before they were even discovered In particular, we do not yet understand can be a great loss for society. the role of microbes on metal uptake or concentration, nor do we know how the Europe’s responsibility ecology or microbial communities are in- In conclusion, Europe should be able to fluenced by perturbations – whether natu- use the pressure that constitutes access ral or through exploitation of deep sea to natural resources of the deep sea as an RESOURCES 37

Exploring and working at depth Deep water ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle) VICTOR, operated by IFREMER France, and similar vehicles represent excellent tools to study deep sea resources and the impact of deep-sea mining.

advantage for the creation of knowledge about the functioning of deep sea ecosys- Resources of the deep sea and sub-seafloor: tems and extremophile communities. Ben- consequences for research, policymaking and society efits that can be expected from enhanced coordination of field and laboratory stud- Coordination of member state research in relation to deep sea resources ies within Europe include facilitating * access to ships and submersibles for ex- and assessment of environmental impacts of their potential exploitation ploration, observation (monitoring) and is to be realised at a European level. sampling, including drilling, encouraging * The development of a European deep sea exploration strategy for physi- synergies in the development of new mis- cal and biological resources in national and international waters is vital sion-specific technologies and coordinat- in order to diversify Europe’s access to raw materials and remain at the ing efforts for their design and implemen- forefront of biological prospecting. tation, developing experimental platforms to elucidate driving and active processes * Mid-ocean ridge systems are only now in the process of being studied in and rates, and promoting the develop- some detail, and given their diversity in activity, life forms and process- ment of (bio)geochemical models. Deep es, it is vital to foster research and optimise protection. sea research would also benefit greatly by Infrastructure (e.g. ships) and technology for exploration and evaluation expanding the EuroFleets concept and pro- * of deep sea and sub-seafloor resources (biological, chemical, geological, viding a mechanism to share ship time to geophysical, drilling, logging) is mandatory and can benefit from an minimise transit time. New developments overarching European approach (e.g. ESFRI39). will also require new sources of funding, such as taking part in the Deep Carbon Ob- * Active long-term experiments as well as observatories provide the only servatory38. means to reliably characterise the geological processes and ecosystem An aspect of European collaboration functioning and how mining affects them40. with respect to the responsible exploita- Europe is a world leader in seabed drilling tools (down to ~200 m sub- tion of deep sea resources is that we will * seafloor), and enhancement of this market and associated seagoing need to advance quickly to better understand the impact of exploitation on the technologies will ensure independent access to sub-seafloor research surrounding deep sea environment and the and resources as well as creating jobs and economic growth. effect that these direct impacts can potentially have on more global cycles. 38 CLIMATE Implementation of deep sea research technology IMPLEMENTATION 39

Although substantial progress has been made during the last decades, in particular due to industry’s growing interest in deep offshore activities, investigating the deep sea and sub-seafloor remains a technological challenge. Implementation of the DS3F White Paper will therefore require not only a coordinated access to existing infrastructure at the European level, but also the development of innovative technologies and new approaches.

Implementing state-of-the-art deep sea re- among the largest and most modern Euro- remain at the forefront of scientifically, po- search requires complex instrumentation pean research vessels, which meet techni- litically and economically important Arctic and will always remain expensive. Howev- cal standards in terms of Dynamic Posi- research. er, science and industry both benefit from tioning, A-frame size, strength and power, The success of any research project technological collaboration. Concentrating or deck space. involving sub-seafloor sampling at deca- such efforts in a few geographical areas of The European effort to facilitate access metric to kilometric scale, let alone the de- particular interest to Europe will enhance to research vessels of the European fleet ployment of seafloor and sub-seafloor ob- efficiency. Furthermore, there is a need for focuses on two initiatives. The Offshore servatories, depends largely on the quality technological advancement and innova- Facility Exchange Group41 fosters and su- of the seafloor and sub-seafloor imaging. tion in a number of areas. pervises exchange of ship time to optimise Facilities for acquisition and processing of the use of the vessels and associated fa- industry-standard deep penetration digital Research vessels and associated facilities cilities among the participating countries 2D long offset seismics or high-resolution Access to research vessels is absolutely (France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, single-channel 3D seismics are relatively crucial for investigating the deep sea and Spain and UK). The EC-funded programme simple and affordable, however, they are sub-seafloor. Nearly all European coun- EUROFLEETS42 provides ship-time and as- scarce in academia and should be made tries own and operate research vessels sociated tools to European researchers, in available at a European level. Multi-chan- capable of working in the deep sea envi- particular to those with restricted access nel 3D seismics is currently not available ronment. They are equipped with a wide to national research vessels. This scheme to European academic institutions, howev- range of tools and facilities varying from has proven to be efficient but limited in er, its use is essential to understanding the standard sampling and seafloor imaging terms of number of days offered to scien- sub-seafloor structure with unprecedented tools, such as swath bathymetry, side scan tists with respect to demand. EUROFLEETS 2 detail. Using seismic cubes previously col- sonar, 2D seismics, magnetics, gravity, for has been proposed to follow up with im- lected by exploration companies would be example, to sophisticated equipment, such provements to facilitate collaborative one solution out of the dilemma, and co- as long coring and drilling systems, exter- research in the deep sea. This could en- operation with industry and coordination nal vehicles, 3D seismics equipment, and compass the promotion and organisation of funding at the international level will be deployable seabed observatories. The use of a coordinated approach to offer access mandatory to achieve this objective. of facilities is mostly inter-exchangeable to ice-breaker facilities, if Europe wants to 40 IMPLEMENTATION

The variety and efficiency of deep sea velopment of two important devices. The Seafloor observatories vehicles operated from research vessels “Calypso Corer” developed and operated The processes that occur in the oceans over have expanded during the last twenty by the French Polar Institute (IPEV) and time have a direct impact on human soci- years, following in particular the industry capable of collecting long cores (up to 70 eties, so that it is crucial to improve our progress. Manned submersibles offer the m) in sediment formations, is the key tool understanding of their breadth. Sustained largest variety of scientific observation to address recent environmental changes. and integrated observations are required in the deep sea. France, the USA, Japan, Remotely operated seabed drills, deployed that appreciate the interconnectedness and now also China operate manned sub- on the seafloor from conventional research of atmospheric, surface ocean, biological mersibles in deep waters (beyond 2000 vessels have been used recently as a rela- pump, deep sea, and solid-Earth dynamics m). However, ROVs are now widely used tively cheap alternative to the employment and that address: for near bottom surveys, manipulation, i.e. of drilling vessels when drilling targets • Natural and anthropogenic change, rock and fluid sampling, as well as instal- are shallow (within 100 m at present). The lation of complex instrumentation on the British Geological Survey RockDrill and • Interactions between ecosystem ser- deep seafloor. France, the UK, Germany, the MARUM MeBo43 have pioneered in the vices, biodiversity, biogeochemistry, Belgium, Norway and, more recently, Italy development of seabed drills for scientific physics, and climate, operate deep sea ROVs that have proved purposes, whose use is rapidly expanding • Impacts of exploration and extrac- particularly efficient for studying hydro- in research projects worldwide. The tech- tion of energy, minerals, and living thermal fields or cold seeps. A fleet of nological development needs to aim at the resources, Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) extension of water depth range, penetra- is now operated from research vessels. tion, and payload. • Geohazard early warning capability for Cheaper and easier to operate, they have Innovation as well as growth of such earthquakes, tsunamis, gas-hydrate re- now become absolutely essential for high- emerging technological fields is vital, and lease, and slope instability and failure. resolution seabed surveys but seem other- science collaborating with industry on wise restricted in payload. improved deep sea drills, vehicles and as- In situ observations, ideally over time, are A large variety of sampling devices are sociated sensors should be promoted and essential to the creation and the revision commonly deployed from research vessels. facilitated (as sketched in Horizon 20203). of experimental and model frameworks. Europe has been at the forefront in the de- Marine time-series data constitute a minor

Monitoring subduction zone earthquakes continental shelf 3D view of the Nankai Trough sub- subduction zone including a large accretionary complex with instrumented boreholes and seafloor observatory mud volcanoes accretionary prism infrastructure. This comprehensive, forearc basin multidisciplinerary project is an example how complex phenomena such forearc high landslides deep sea as earthquake nucleation and hazard trench prism slope mitigation can be tackled by deep sea seismogenic science. Borehole fault observatory prism toe subducting plate Sea oor instrument for scientic measurement or tsunami warning oceanic crust IMPLEMENTATION 41

Linking the seafloor to satellites IFREMER surface buoy prior to deployment in the Ligurian Sea, western Mediterranean. The buoy is moored at the seafloor and communi- cates with seafloor instruments via acoustic modems. fraction of existing data sets available for studying the climatic influences with very little data available from the deep sea44. Measurements by research ships provide valuable information, but are limited to favourable weather conditions and are too infrequent to characterise most processes, often missing important extreme and/or less frequent environmental or ecological variation. The need for long-term time series of key measurements on or below the seafloor to monitor active processes has led the international community to promote the installation of long-term multidisciplinary seafloor observatories providing continuous data sets from a variety of fields necessary to build a comprehensive picture of the earth-ocean system (including geosciences, physical oceanography, biogeochemistry, and marine ecology). Depending on the application, seafloor observatories can either be attached to a cable, which provides power and enables data transfer, or they can operate as independent benthic and moored instruments. Data, however, can also be transmitted for Earthquake and Tsunamis) in Japan, vironmental processes related to the inter- through acoustic networks that are con- IMOS (Integrated Marine Observing Sys- action between the geosphere, biosphere, nected to a satellite-linked buoy. Mobile tem) in Australia, MACHO (Marine Cabled and hydrosphere, either via a cabled back- systems, such as benthic rovers and au- Hosted Observatory) in Taiwan, and, very bone providing internet connection to the tonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) can recently, ECSSOS (Seafloor Observation shore or acoustic stand-alone stations also be used to expand the spatial extent System in the East China Sea) in China. transmitting data to relay buoys which are of a node. Cabled infrastructures provide In Europe, this identified need led to able to provide a satellite link to the shore. important benefits, including real-time the setup of a European Multidisciplinary EMSO builds on ESONET (European data transfer and interaction with observa- Seafloor Observatory (EMSO)45. EMSO is a Seafloor Observatory Network), which was tory activity as well as a rapid geohazard geographically distributed research infra- funded as Coordination Action and later early warning system44. structure of ESFRI, constituted by a net- as Network of Excellence by the European work of fixed-point deep sea observatories Commission. The Preparatory Phase of Real-time deep sea access (nodes) around the European continental EMSO, funded under the umbrella of the Initiatives have been launched at the in- margin from the Arctic to the Mediterra- Framework Programme 7-Capacities, is ternational level, with the cabled obser- nean through the Atlantic. EMSO nodes are aiming at creating a European Research In- vatory Neptune (NorthEast Pacific Time- addressed to Marine Ecosystems, Climate frastructure Consortium (ERIC) as the legal Series Undersea Networked Experiments) Change and Geohazards long-term moni- organisation with full members from Italy, in Canada on the Juan de Fuca plate, OOI toring and to interdisciplinary studies. It France, Germany, Greece, Romania, Spain, (Ocean Observatories Initiative) in the US, will ensure the technological and scientific Norway and UK. EMSO infrastructure will DONET (Dense Oceanfloor Network System framework for the investigation of the en- be essential reference and support for any 42 IMPLEMENTATION

type of research and activity in the deep ploration and extraction of resources, (ii) tions. In addition, boreholes can be used sea and clearly attests that progress in ma- reliable monitoring of earthquake precur- to deploy long-term observatories for rine technology (sensor development, data sors, tsunamis, or gas emissions in gas hy- monitoring seismicity, fluid flow, thermal acquisition and transmission) requires a drate areas to provide efficient early warn- state, stress state, and strain. Since the wide collaboration with the industry in- ing for society, and (iii) the development late sixties, scientific ocean drilling has volved. of specific tools for marine observatories been traditionally accomplished within Examples of emerging needs for obser- based on niches European technology the frame of international programmes. In vatories include: (i) continuous high-stan- companies have occupied (both shallow- the current phase of IODP (2003-2013), in dard quality monitoring as a fundamental water test beds and deep sea sites). Such order to play a more significant role within tool of reference and control for scientific, an approach is in line with EU Research & the program, European partners have de- industrial and commercial activities of ex- Innovation policies for a pan-European ob- cided to form the consortium ECORD, an servation system for geosciences45 initiative supported by the European Com- mission with the ERA-Net ECORDnet6. By Ocean drilling pooling the funds from its member coun- Ocean drilling remains the only way of tries, ECORD has been able to become an Samples from kilometres the seafloor directly accessing the sub-seafloor to operator within IODP and implement ex- The derrick of DV Chikyu, which measures more than 100 m above sealevel substantial depths (greater than 100m). peditions in pack ice-covered areas (ACEX and hosts several kilometers of drill Besides the study of sediment and rock expedition in the Arctic16) or in extremely pipe for research in IODP. samples, downhole logging of boreholes shallow water (drowned coral reefs of Ta- The „doghouse“ of DV Chikyu from provides information on in situ condi- hiti and the Great Barrier Reef, shallow which ocean engineers control drilling operations on the rigfloor. IMPLEMENTATION 43

Core curation Archiving data for future genarations Some of the ~146 km of core material An informatics expert during mainte- stored at the Bremen Core Repository, nance work of the PANGAEA website, one of the three centres for sustainable an open access portal for marine sci- curation of IODP materials worldwide. entific data as part of WDC (World Data Centre) MARE.

shelves in the Atlantic and Baltic Seas). actor in developing a dialogue on projects Data management and analysis This was made possible by developing the of mutual interest with industry and other Massive amounts of high quality data ex- concept of “mission specific platforms”, entities, for example in the Arctic. It is also ist, but are often difficult to access. The platforms of opportunity contracted from envisioned that the European Commission successive drilling programmes have de- the commercial sector. MSPs complement will co-fund drilling operations for spe- veloped a remarkable policy for cores and the two other vessels operated within cific projects within Horizon 2020. ECORD data archiving. All cores from 50+ years of IODP. The JOIDES Resolution, a standard has also decided to expand the concept of drilling are stored in three core reposito- drilling vessel funded by the US, oper- mission-specific platforms (MSP) beyond ries, with one located in Europe at MARUM ates in all oceans and is particularly fit- drilling from a traditional drilling plat- (Bremen, Germany), and are accessible ted for palaeoclimate and deep biosphere form. Seabed drills and the Calypso Corer upon request. All data acquired are in on- research. With its riser system, a technol- are now being considered as cheaper al- line open-access. This unique example of ogy commonly used in the oil industry, the ternatives for projects that require sam- sustainability was made possible through Chikyu, funded by Japan, opens access to ples from relatively shallow depths, which a dedicated systematic funding scheme drilling deeper (down to 6-7 km) and in un- would make those devices – all European and preserves valuable core material with stable formations. engineering developments – better recog- records of climate variability, ecosystem Like Horizon 20203, the new phase of nised globally. change and geohazard events. It should be ocean drilling will start in 2014, and in To encompass most oceanic environ- considered as model. Although most inter- the new (anticipated) framework ECORD ments and address DS3F scientific chal- national and national funding agencies re- will be more independent in planning and lenges, a continued access to JOIDES quire databank deposition, the incentives more flexible in scheduling. To implement Resolution and Chikyu remains essential. to do so are poor and not very rewarding more expeditions, ECORD will also seek Moreover, the intellectual benefits of sci- (i.e. data upload is time-consuming and additional funding on a project basis from entists participating in an international data reports are usually not citable in a an assortment of funding sources, includ- programme of this scope and of interacting citation index). At the same time, deep ing governments, foundations and indus- with colleagues from all around the world sea data collection is expensive and every try. An ECORD expert panel will be a key is invaluable. effort has to be made to extract the most 44 IMPLEMENTATION

Governance Strategic Advisory Board Executive Committee

EC members from IODP/ECORD Representatives of the parti- representatives from industry cipating European Institutes national funding key research organisations and Universities, e.g. agencies national energy companies BGS Edinburgh - UK stakeholders key players outside Europe MARUM Bremen - Germany representatives from NGOs Univ. Montpellier - France

Infrastructures The need for a research infrastructure DEDI Pert diagram of the envisaged „Distrib- Distributed European OFEG uted European Drilling Infrastructure“, Drilling Infrastructure Ocean Facilities Exchange Group which is already partly realised and presents a versatile element in Euro- pean deep sea research. Users new CPs, IPs, projects with NoEs, etc. industry

information out of the existing data. To • Ability to drill in high temperature in drilling for geothermal energy, ISOR make data bases such as WDC MARE46 even conditions (>300°C) to mine geother- (Iceland) has a strong expertise in drilling more powerful, incentives for upload and mal energy, at high temperatures. GFZ Potsdam (Ger- quality control should be developed, and many) hosts the ICDP (International Conti- • Enhancement of seabed drill perfor- programmes for meta-analysis are needed. nental Scientific Drilling Program) and has mance (extend drilling depth, implement This will also enable better representation therefore strong experience in continental in situ measurements and logging and of seafloor and sub-seafloor ecosystem and lake drilling. fluid sampling, install observatories). processes in Earth System Models of Inter- To take advantage of the existing ex- mediate Complexity (EMICS). DS3F emphasises that Europe has a strong pertise all over Europe, it is recommended leadership in some of these necessary to set up a “Distributed European Drilling The concept of “Distributed European technologies both in the private enterprise Infrastructure” to better serve the techno- Drilling Infrastructure” for research and academic sectors. However, expertise logical needs of the science community. Sub-seafloor sampling and instrumenta- is disseminated in various universities This recommendation is also supported by tion will be crucial to addressing a wide and institutes as well as small and medi- ECORD6 and first contacts among the major range of the scientific targets of the deep um enterprises. To make significant prog- possible actors have already started to en- sea frontier. Although access to drilling ress, strong transnational collaboration sure that this initiative will be recognised should be maintained with a continued between research and operational groups by ESFRI39 and supported by the European membership in IODP (realised via comin- across Europe will be beneficial. This is un- Commission46. Indeed, such an infrastruc- gled funds from national funding agencies derway, given that ECORD science opera- ture will facilitate: in Europe), the community has identified tions are successfully managed by the Brit- • Stronger collaboration between re- a number of technological improvements ish Geological Survey (BGS) for platform search and operational groups across and developments necessary to address contracting and operation as well as by Europe, the scientific goals, such as: MARUM Bremen (Germany) to oversee the shore-based core analyses as well as cura- • Sharing of knowledge and experience • Improvement of coring techniques to tion and storage of 146 km of sub-seafloor in order to facilitate the necessary increase recovery rate and core quality records. EPC (European Petrophysics Con- improvement of existing technologies, in difficult formations and to collect sortium), a consortium composed of the clean, uncontaminated samples for • Development of joint projects and joint University of Leicester (UK), Geoscience deep biosphere studies, approaches to attract funding, Montpellier (France) and the University • Lighter and safer techniques to main- of Aachen (Germany), is responsible for • Provision of capabilities for sustain- tain in situ (pressure) conditions from downhole and petrophysics measurements able use of samples and data, following the sub-seafloor to the laboratory, and has developed logging tools. BGS and the excellent model of the successive essential for gas hydrates and deep MARUM Bremen are also leaders for sci- ocean drilling programs that is based biosphere studies, entific seabed drills. With its experience on open access, IMPLEMENTATION 45

• Training for younger generations (see structure that guarantees continuity of re- an extension of the Gulf Stream. The sedi- also ”Challenges”), sources. ments underlying the path of such currents Three regions have been identified as are therefore the best candidate as high • Access to European facilities and assis- highest priority by the DS3F consortium: resolution archive of palaeoceanographic tance in pre-site survey data acquisi- the Arctic and Norwegian margin, the Med- changes that have led to the present tion and processing, and iterranean Sea and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. oceanographic conditions. The Norwegian • Cooperation with other programmes as The Arctic Ocean is a region with high sen- continental margin and the Fram strait well as with international partners. sitivity to climate change. It is known that (between Svalbard and Greenland) can be the natural environment here is respond- viewed as oceanic gateways to the Arctic. This distributed infrastructure will be ing faster to anthropogenic forcing than The Fram Strait is an ideal location for the open to all scientists in Europe, either via low-latitude regions, for example with re- monitoring of the environmental changes organised programmes (such as ECORD/ spect to ocean acidification. Furthermore, in the deep sea, both in terms of influx of IODP and IMAGES8) or as a support to the anthropogenic impact in the area is warmer water masses to the Arctic Ocean projects developed by individual principal expected to increase rapidly as a conse- and outflow of cold waters towards the investigators. Sharing expertise with the quence of decreasing sea-ice coverage and western North Atlantic. In order to under- ICDP is crucial, because ocean and conti- the increase in industrial activity related stand the climatic history of the High Arctic nental drilling operate common tools and to exploitation of natural resources and Ocean, one of the least known regions of have the same data management and core maritime trade. the planet, it is mandatory to be able to curation issues. Changes in the Arctic Ocean environ- access top-class ice breaking research The distributed infrastructure approach ment are induced primarily by the varying infrastructures and sample the marine will make the interaction with other exist- thermal state of the deep and intermedi- sediments filling the basin and draping its ing infrastructures easier. This will be key ate oceanic water masses flowing from the ridges. for the relationship with EMSO45, which is temperate Atlantic Ocean to theThe north Deepas Methane Sea gas emissions have been ob- currently lacking direct access to the sub- seafloor. & Sub-Sea oor Frontier DS 3 F priority areas EMSO Permanent Sites

Regional challenges Highest Middle Low Climate Change - Ecosystems 1. Arctic Certain regions of the deep sea are excep- 180ºW 2. Norwegian Margin Geohazards tionally relevant for their global connec- 3. East Greenland gateways 150ºW 150ºE tion, or because their complexity allows 4. Baltic Sea A. Arctic B. Ligurian Sea their study as a laboratory for testing 5. Mid-Atlantic Ridge 6. North Sea 120ºW 120ºE C. Western Ionian Sea hypotheses of global implications. The 7. Porcupine Basin D. Azores E. Hellenic regionally-driven approach to the study 8. Gulf of Biscay 9. Black Sea 90ºW 90ºE of the deep sea therefore must be intro- 10. Ligurian Sea 11. Marmara Sea 75ºN duced for long-term, complex research 1 12. Marsili Seamount initiatives that require the shared use of 13. Near Azores hydrothermal sites A 60ºN research infrastructure, a robust logistical 14. Gulf of Cadiz 3 2 15. Eastern Mediterranean 45ºN 4 support, and a planning and management 16. Antarctica 5 30ºN 6 7 Quo vadis, DS3F? 9 8 15ºN Regional foci of the DS3F community, as 60ºW 13 10 11 60ºE established during 8 ad-hoc workshops 12 16 15 D B and two overarching conferences in 14 C E 2010-2012. Note good agreement with sites of cabled observatories to ensure time series measurements in addition to one-time campaigns. 30ºW 0ºW 30ºE 46 IMPLEMENTATION

Sharing research vessels in Europe Research vessels represent valuable mobile infrastructure for marine researchers, and the European Com- mission and national agencies support the EUROFleets programme and OFEG to efficiently share the platforms between countries.

served in this region, and they are consid- and geological perspectives. The Mediter- seeps as well as hot vents and will help ered to be the result of gas hydrate phase ranean region is extremely vulnerable to unravel deep-seated process at depths in- changes induced by global warming. How- submarine geohazards as a consequence accessible to direct sampling. The under- ever, the knowledge of both the source of of its dense coastal population (approxi- standing of the impact of the deep basin methane in the sub-seafloor and the de- mately 160 mio.), with extreme peaks dur- salt deposition during the Late Miocene tails of the ocean warming trend is not yet ing holiday seasons (an extra 140 mio.), (Messinian Salinity Crisis) on the genera- sufficient to extrapolate the observations and a dense network of seabed structures tion of deep-seated fluids as well as their to near-future predictions. The potential (cables, pipelines). migration and extrusion at the seafloor is deep sea contribution of methane to the There is an outstanding historical re- an open field with potential impact on the water column and eventually to the atmo- cord of climate change and natural hazards assessment of submarine geohazards with sphere is therefore an open issue of high- with extraordinary implications for human respect to society and environment and est scientific and societal importance. evolution. The oceanic circulation in the also in the area of deep biosphere in ex- Some of the most catastrophic failures Mediterranean Sea is driven by the inter- treme environments. of continental margins, which have also action of several climatic regimes which The Mediterranean Sea is also a promis- generated important tsunami waves, are include the Atlantic as well as desert and ing region with respect to the exploitation known from the Norwegian margin and the continental climates. Marine sediments of geothermal energy resources and non- Arctic Ocean. A debated hypothesis is that are therefore a precious archive for the hydrocarbon mineral resources related to such events are climatically modulated study of atmosphere-oceanic interactions the extensive active volcanic provinces and occurred preferentially during periods which have influenced the entire Northern of the Tyrrhenian Sea (e.g. Marsili sea- of natural global warming. Understand- Atlantic Ocean and even the entire globe in mount), Sicily channel, and Aegean Sea. ing past catastrophic events is therefore the recent geological past. Mediterranean It also hosts all three deep sea cabled ob- essential for assessing hazards and miti- Sea deep sea ecosystems are severely servatories in Europe: NESTOR (Greece), gating the impact of future anthropogenic impacted by those natural variations and NEMO (Sicily) and ANTARES (France). warming, in view of the predicted increase more recently also by anthropogenic activ- The Mid-Atlantic spreading ridge from of human impact and the long-distance im- ity such as exploitation of fish stocks and the equator to the Arctic region is identi- pact of induced tsunamis (see also ”Geo- other natural resources. fied as a laboratory for future investiga- hazards”). It was with the discovery of the huge tions regarding the basic processes of Despite its relatively small size and its provinces of mud volcanoes and cold seeps lithosphere-biosphere interactions, the land-locked nature, the Mediterranean Ba- in the Mediterranean Sea that some of the understanding of diversity of extremophil- sin includes deep sea regions in a complex most innovative findings were made con- ic communities at hydrothermal vents, and tectonic and sedimentary setting. It has cerning extreme deep sea habitats and especially for assessing global distribu- been defined as a ‘natural laboratory’ for microbial activity at the seafloor. These tions and potential environmental impact understanding oceanographic processes regions provide unique opportunities for of seafloor exploitation of deep sea min- from the physical, chemical, biological the long-term study and monitoring of cold eral resources. The region has been stud- IMPLEMENTATION 47

ied using different approaches, including Implementing DS3F: Benefits for Europe several deep holes with ODP and IODP drilling expeditions (most recently North A better understanding of geohazards and appropriate warning Pond48), HERMES/HERMIONE ecosystem * systems will make the Mediterranean coast, the most vulner- studies49, and monitoring during ESONET able ocean margin in Europe, “a better place”. and EMSO45. For several hydrothermal fields the nec- * New smart and affordable technologies for sub-seafloor essary background information exists to sampling are required, and Europe has already occupied the plan high-resolution seafloor mapping and niche of seafloor drills and associated technologies – with a observational activity, intensive sampling potential for growth and jobs. with densely spaced shallow boreholes employing the seabed drilling techniques * Places such as the French Riviera have maximum amounts of with the implementation of high-tempera- insured capital, maximum risk from geohazards (earthquakes, ture tools, and installation of seafloor and landslides, tsunamis, flashfloods, storms), but minimum miti- sub-seafloor monitoring tools. Key sites gation/prevention measures. include the Azores vicinity, the Atlantis A Distributed European Drilling research infrastructure would Massif and the Lost City hydrothermal * fields as well as Jan Mayan and Loki’s logically follow up other ESFRI initiatives such as EMSO or Castle along the Mohns-Knipovich Ridge EUROFLEETS and will add considerable value to deep sea re- system close to Svalbard. The study of search at moderate cost given most of it has been established these fields will provide information of in the ECORD/ECORD-Net framework. global relevance for slow and ultra-slow spreading centre systems, active and inactive ridge segments, and pioneer studies on the potential sites for exploitation of deep sea mineral resources closest to the main European territory. Despite the regional focus, the DS3F science community underlines that besides the above areas there are many regions in European and global seas and oceans which also bear strong scientific targets. They were just not identified by the majority but fewer of the work packages. Future funding by the European Commission and other funding agencies has hence to mediate between emerging research areas of overarching significance versus others of specific interest (see DS3F map).

Listening to Mt. Etna’s activity A marine engineer working on the maintenance of the GEOSTAR seafloor observatory node before its deployment to the sea bottom offshore Sicily. Here, a seafloor cable has been laid for real-time monitoring of deep sea processes in the Mediterranean Sea. 48 CLIMATE

Grand Challenges for science and society CHALLENGES 49

Deep sea research is a central element in addressing a number of the emerging fundamental issues in a rapidly growing world, so-called “Grand Challenges”. These include climate change, environmental quality, food and energy security, as well as health and well-being. The challenges can represent not only problems, but also economic and societal opportunities.

What has already been set out in the Lis- As a crucial link between research and tise and experience. Young students are bon agenda concerning the European development and economic interest, the trained by more experienced researchers. Union’s strategy for competitiveness and European Commission has established Education and outreach are natural com- growth has more recently been formulated Horizon 2020 as a Common Strategic Frame- ponents of the seagoing experience. in documents such as Europe 20202 and work with three main pillars: Excellent Traditionally, scientific excellence cru- some of its central elements such as Inno- Science, Industrial Leadership, and Soci- cially relies on engineering advancements vation Union, with Horizon 20203 as a com- etal Challenges. These priorities are inter- with the potential for providing new and mon strategic framework for EU Research twined. improved ways to achieve scientific objec- and Innovation funding. Within the next tives. Therefore, research and innovation decade, Europe aims at a 20% increase in Priorities and Challenges of within the field of seagoing technology is energy efficiency, 20% energy from renew- Horizon 2020 within Europe 2020 needed to achieve scientific objectives and ables and 20% reduction in greenhouse DS3F has the potential to achieve scien- improve cost and time efficiencies. 3DS F gases, coupled with an increased research tific excellence, assuming that state of the has identified fields in which Europe has and development budget (target: 3% of the art research infrastructure is available to the potential for producing world-class EU’s GDP). This “smart growth” further en- investigate the deep sea and its sub-sea- technology leading to industrial leader- compasses higher employment rates ow- floor. Such infrastructure usually cannot ship, for example in exploration drills ing to better educational attainment, as be run by individual research groups or and monitoring technology in the field of outlined in ET 2020 or Youth on the move51. even countries because of the high cost renewable energies such as geothermal, Given the role of the ocean in the Earth involved, the number of researchers re- offshore wind and seafloor resources. system and the vast opportunities the quired, and the huge amount of data gen- Companies, and small and medium ocean, and the deep sea in particular, erated. As a result, the research is highly sized enterprises (SME), in particular links between the Deep Sea & Sub-Seafloor collaborative in nature and an ideal en- from areas such as petroleum or mining Frontier initiative and European society vironment to form networks between re- industries, are desirable collaborators in must be established. searchers of different nationalities, exper- research endeavors in the marine realm. 50 CHALLENGES

Many DS3F research themes are of interest the oceans and seas leads to an Integrat- Demographic change and well-being for industry and there is plenty of mutual ed Maritime Policy for Europe. Submarine geohazards have important interest and complementary expertise. Many of the roles deep sea research- consequences for society in terms of lives Examples include science accompanying ers can take are intimately linked to soci- lost, environmental damage, and economic commercial projects to carry out impact etal challenges and the various demands impact on society. Improved understand- assessments for ecosystems during and for public well-being. The highly relevant ing and constraint on the controlling fac- after exploitation, scientists providing and even critical role of DS3F research tors, governing processes and recurrence the bridge to policymaking by defining the for challenges within the third pillar of intervals of earthquakes, landslides and framework how protective measures could HORIZON20202 is briefly discussed in tsunamis can greatly benefit society and be realised, and how responsible use of the following. the health and well-being of individuals.

Replacing luck: The need for early warning Photographs of damage associated with the large tsunami triggered by the 2011 Tohoku EQ, Japan. The tsunami destroyed an area of appx. 560 km2 (Geospatial Information Authority Japan) and had an estimated economic cost of 235 billion US Dollars (World Bank).

Secure, clean and efficient energy of infrastructure, both in the offshore and nisms of continental break-up, ocean basin The deep sea and sub-seafloor hold huge near-shore environment. formation (when hydrocarbon reservoirs potential for clean renewable energy, rang- Despite current initiatives to develop develop), and slope stability and seis- ing from hydrothermal energy production alternative, cost-effective, reliable energy micity related threat to modern hydrocar- from mid-ocean ridges to wind and wave sources, hydrocarbons will continue to bon technology (rigs, pipelines, etc.). An energy. DS3F science is indirectly related be a major component of the energy mix even more significant issue in this time of to secure, clean and efficient energy, for in Europe for much of the 21st century. change may be the understanding of the example through scientific investigations Hence, the impact of such exploration and impact of seafloor exploitation on the im- of hydrothermal systems and site inves- exploitation, which is progressing towards mediate environment and the subsequent tigations for safe seafloor installations in deeper and deeper water, is to be reliably consequences on the ocean as a whole. The terms of risks for offshore geohazards. Epi- assessed. Both the petroleum and tectonic response of the ecosystem to disturbances sodic geohazards often imply destruction communities are interested in the mecha- has been observed at a limited number of CHALLENGES 51

Marine resources for clean energy Conventional coal power plant (left) vs. biochemical reactor (right), the latter being free of emissions and using photosynthesis or microbial reactions to produce energy.

sites, and the exact nature of the eco-geo- an energy resource or geohazard requires bons, as well as potentially providing en- chemical drivers as well as growth rates improved understanding of their formation vironments for CO2 storage. Ongoing and and other processes still need to be deter- mechanisms, extent, and stability (cur- ancient reactions between the ocean and mined for most habitats. We need to better rently underway at a national level, for ex- sub-seafloor basalt and peridotite may understand the distribution, composition ample in Japan, but preferably carried out lead to alternative approaches for storing and connectivity of the deep seafloor comin a European or international framework). CO2. In situ monitoring and perturbation munities in order to comprehend their ca- Similarly, sub-seafloor environments experiments enabled by scientific ocean pacity to recover, which is naturally ham- of shale-hosted gas or coal-bed methane drilling offer an opportunity for funda- pered in such specialised communities. provide opportunities to understand the mental research on geological capture and

Gas hydrates are one of the largest hy- nature and role of microbial communities storage of CO2 in both sedimentary forma- drocarbon reservoirs but their potential as in generating and biodegrading hydrocar- tions and the igneous crust. Borehole ex-

Active CO2 Sequestration and Experimentation Natural CO2 Sequestration

Research vessel Drillship Research vessel CO sequestration and future Drillship 2 CO tanker reservoirs 2 In situ monitoring and perturba- Methane Seawater Sediments tion experiments enabled by Observatory hydrate Observatories scientific ocean drilling offer an opportunity for fundamental Geobiological CO reactions Oceanic research on geological capture 2 crust CO2 and storage of CO2 in both sedi- Methanogenesis CO mentary formations (left) and the 2 igneous crust (right). Continuous Mantle access for sampling and monitor- Porous Carbonation CH4 CH4 layers CaSiO + CO ing will assess the extent, distri- 3 2 CO CaCO + SiO bution, and rates of microbial pro- 2 Subsea oor 3 2 biosphere cesses and fluid-rock interactions CH4 that may contribute to successful Magma carbon sequestration through a natural CO2/organics-bioreactor system. Subsea oor biosphere 52 CHALLENGES

periments are needed to measure key sub- through time, and to investigate the po- particular in regions of moderate water seafloor physical properties that control tential for enhancing natural carbonation depths or proximity to islands (Azores, fluid migration, particularly permeability, processes. Once scientific evaluation gives Iceland, but also the Arctic) represents op- porosity, fracture density and orientation, way to full-scale CO2 sequestration, moni- portunities of an a priori affordable clean and storage properties. Continuous ac- toring will assist in managing Earth’s envi- energy source. cess for sampling and monitoring will as- ronment and sustaining natural resources sess the extent, distribution, and rates of (e.g. by having sequestration actively sup- Climate action, resource efficiency microbial processes and fluid-rock inter- port methane reservoir formation for fu- and raw materials actions that may contribute to successful ture generations). Obtaining estimates for Earth system and carbon sequestration through a natural Last, but not least, ocean ridges have climate sensitivity is crucial to preparing

CO2/organics-bioreactor system. Ocean huge, albeit challenging to harness, geo- for and mitigating the impacts of global drilling provides a means to evaluate car- thermal reserves. Seawater reacts with change. An understanding of future rates bon capture and sequestration schemes mantle rocks, leading to the formation of of sea level change based on past observa- based on carbonate-producing fluid-basalt H2, and these abiotic hydrocarbons are tions is of prime importance to adapting to or peridotite reactions, to monitor plume potential avenues for alternative energy and militating sea level rise. Understand- migration and fluid geochemical evolution research. Simple geothermal mining, in ing the evolution of the hydrological cycle and ocean ventilation has important implications regarding the future evolution of flood events, freshwater supply, and greenhouse gas concentrations. The deep sea and its sub-seafloor contain a vast reservoir of renewable and non- renewable physical and biological resources that are rapidly gaining in scientific and economic interest. There are mineral re-

Food as ecosystem service for society Overfishing and resilience of ecosystems to deep sea fisheries are of crucial concern for society given the growing demand for food globally. Deep-water trawling is particularly problematic as it leaves a large environmental foot- print, especially where fishing occurs in areas of vulnerable habitat such as cold-water coral reefs. CHALLENGES 53

Innovative scientific and economical niches Marine biotechnology is an emerging discipline based on the use of marine natural resources. The oceans encompass over 99% of the biosphere, repre- senting the greatest extremes of temperature, light, and pressure encountered by life. Adaptation to these environments has led to a rich marine bio- and genetic-diversity with potential biotechnological applications related to drug discovery, environmental remediation, increasing sea food supply and safety, and developing new resources and industrial processes.

sources (hydrothermal sulfides, polymetal- chemistry and ecosystems is incompletely metal (Au, Ag) and metalloid deposits. The lic nodules and manganese crusts), huge understood. At the same time, popula- extreme environment (for example high quantities of gas-hydrates buried along tion growth and the ever-rising standard temperatures, extreme pH, high salinity) continental margins, and biological re- of living in our global society have led to in these and other seafloor regions such sources of the deep seafloor with biotech- exponential increase in the need for food, as deep sedimentary basins or mud vol- nological and pharmaceutical application. water, energy, metals, novel biochemical canoes has led to the evolution of highly

Marine mining is becoming a reality this compounds, and waste storage (e.g. CO2, adapted microbial communities with the century. Related to hydrothermal systems, nuclear waste), among other resources. potential to reveal through bio-prospect- there is a potential for natural hydrogen The secured supply of hydrocarbons and ing novel chemical compounds of medical from serpentinisation reactions, which strategic minerals are major concerns of and industrial value. At the same time, may be used as an energy vector. governments and industry worldwide. these vents are a window to life and stages When assessing resources for the 21st With over 70% of our planet covered by of „early Earth“ evolution, and utmost care century, scientific exploration has led to ocean and more than 90% of it in the deep has to be applied when exploring or even the discovery of various types of depos- sea realm, the seafloor is potentially a exploiting them40. its, but modern mapping exists over only a significant source of new frontier and non- Much of the above is in accordance with very small portion of the seafloor, and the traditional resources. DS3F has thus identi- A resource-efficient Europe26, a strategy of sampling of the subsurface is very sparse, fied both the emerging scientific questions the EU which addresses energy, climate, despite the enormous efforts undertaken and appropriate technological means to food, innovation/industry and environ- within the framework of the EU, the scien- explore and eventually responsibly exploit mental policy. DS3F has made its initial tific ocean drilling program, or national ef- the seafloor and underground for deep sea contribution to such strategies in this forts. Hence, much about the composition minerals. In this, scientific ocean drilling foresight paper (see also boxes concluding and global distribution of these resources will continue to play a valuable role in or- the individual chapters). In a next step, on and within the subsurface, their quan- der to establish a reliable 3D-assessment science and policy have to work jointly on titative importance for global chemical of resource opportunities. Seawater-rock detailing the strategy in the various policy cycles and biological activity, and the po- interactions can lead to the formation areas. tential impacts of exploitation on ocean of major base (Cu, Zn, Pb) and precious 54 CHALLENGES

Education and training at European oceanographic centres, uni- Scientific higher education institu- Training the next generation of marine sci- versities, or in industry, and similar pro- tions need well-prepared and motivated entists has to be one of the foremost objec- grammes are vital to reach the objectives students approaching university. Educa- tives in DS3F, in particular since the fields of Europe 20202 and Youth on the move51. tion and training should therefore focus covered, for example, in this foresight pa- Also, large efforts are being undertaken on future students, that is high-school per all encompass future societal demands with respect to legacy, and, in particular, pupils and their teachers. Following Euro- and challenges. Education and training material cored in the deep sea has to be pean Geosciences Union (EGU) policy on are particularly critical in Europe since maintained and curated for future analy- education, long-lasting initiatives must many Europeans leave education or train- sis using new techniques. – One example: be started to spread “first-hand scientific ing without qualification and hence fail to nobody thought about deep sea mass spec- information to science teachers of pri- match labour market demands. Less than a trometers or AUVs several decades ago. mary and secondary schools, significantly third aged 25-34 hold a university degree, Cataloging of results and large data ar- shortening the time between discovery compared to approximately 40% in the USA chives for both scientific and public domain and textbook, and to provide the teach- and 50% in Japan, and only two European use is mandatory, but handling the tremen- ers with material that can be directly universities rank among the Top 2050. dous amounts of long-term data or ensuring transported to the classroom”. Activities DS3F acknowledges the importance of compatibility of formats and standards for should range from focused “Workshops”, ocean sciences and the challenges this instrument use are a true challenge (see “Teachers at Sea” programmes, permanent complex system bears for future genera- ”Implementation”, observatories). “School-Researchers Interaction” via the

Invest in Europe’s brilliant minds Left: Poster presentations during workshops of PhD students from Europe provide an excellent opportunity for exchange of knowledge and learning soft skills for scientific publication of research results. Right: European high-school teachers gathered at the EGU General Assembly for the annual Geoscience Information for Teachers (GIFT) workshops organised by the EGU Committee on Education.

tions. Many recent ocean research initia- Publishing data has an overall positive internet, “School Participation” in deep tives already address the future long-term impact on the quality and availability of sea research programs to “Internet-Based societal demands by involving teachers scientific data and provides the necessary Educational Programmes”. Given the rel- as well as young students and fascinating incentives for data producers as well as evance of the deep sea for future energy, them with the unknowns in the deep sea. data users. Existing procedures are vary- resources, safety, and climate change, This has successfully been done for over ing and cannot be seen as final. It is crucial educational activity focusing on the Deep a decade by UNESCO-IOC (Intergovern- that data sets are consistently structured Sea should be inspired by the principles of mental Oceanographic Commission) in the and that they are citable and fully docu- “Education for Sustainable Development” 52. field of deep sea research, when 12 annual mented so the quality can be assessed and Similarly to the outer space, the deep sea international “Training-Through-Research” usage of data is reliable and efficient. Data and the ocean in general can be seen by (TTR) cruises were carried out in the Atlan- publication services need to be integrated pupils and teachers as an appealing envi- tic Ocean, Mediterranean and Black Seas into the traditional science publication ronment, the Earth's inner space, in which on board Russian research vessels. Eleven process (e.g. via Digital Object Identifiers most of the future scientific discoveries international conferences were held within – DOI) and require a coherent system con- will concentrate at the frontier of knowl- the programme. At the TTR conferences, sisting of libraries, science publishers and edge. The deep sea will be seen as an op- students (as well as scientists) present- certified data repositories, for example portunity for stimulating curiosity towards ed their research results. Many of these as supplied by the new ICSU World Data scientific research and development of students now hold high-level positions System (WDS). professional careers. CHALLENGES 55

Public Outreach In practice, small-scale initiatives have Informing and inspiring the public about started, but there is room for expansion. the fascinating deep sea realm is at the Apart from the obvious things such as heart of DS3F recommendations. Here, a “open ship” during port calls, there are op- lot is to be learned from the ECORD-Net, portunities for teachers to sail on research and EU ERA-Net project6 that turned into cruises and report to shore to their pupils. an international research effort in its own Both in IODP and national cruises, there right, now part of IODP8 where all data and are also efforts by industry to enhance col- publications are available to everybody for laboration between academia and indus- over 50 years. The international scientific try. For graduate students and early career drilling community has a well-developed scientists, there are opportunities such as e-infrastructure with open access to high summer schools (both within ECORD and Pass on knowledge to the next generation quality data and core samples after the IODP8, but also organised by university Exhibition of deep sea science and initial data moratorium period. The data federations). Many initiatives also have technology in a German shopping is excellent for education and outreach ac- fellowship programmes and opportunities mall. Children are fascinated by ocean discovery and, in this case, drive a tivities, and no restrictions exist concern- for mini-proposals to get travel support, miniature ROV through a fish tank ing accessibility of data and publications etc. – a mechanism which is to be exploit- for more than 50 years. ed in the future. In addition to a predominantly scien- When regarding the opportunities of tific use of results, the key findings of deep modern – and in particular social – media, by a recently shifted skew towards older sea research together with their societal there is an ocean of opportunities ahead of age groups within the „online population“. implications have to reach a wider, non- us. Even small research vessels offer inter- Science has now to appreciate what the expert audience. Such dissemination of net access nowadays, so that results (and world’s leading marketers have realised a information is important since life-long photos and videos) from remote places on while ago: at the heart of the social media learning has to be a mandatory priority in Earth may be published in blogs in quasi- movement lies a method to transform the a rapidly changing world. Presentation of real time. At times after the first internet manner in which brands communicate with scientific findings in an exciting way may boom, but with longer-term prospects for their consumers. With the appropriate lan- stimulate learning, enhance creativity and the global online medium continuing to be guage and mechanisms, this path may be innovation, and will result in employment, bright, science has to seek avenues led by used to disseminate science results so that economic success, and full participation in social media, search and video side-by- they sink in. European society. side with industry. This view is supported

Grand Challenges: opportunities for science and society

* The deep sea and its sub-seafloor contain a vast reservoir of physical, mineral and biological resources that are rapidly coming into the window of exploitation. Assessing the opportunities and the risks involved requires a serious commitment to excellent deep sea research. * There are numerous areas in this field in which Europe has cutting-edge technological potential. These include drilling and monitoring technology in the field of renewable energies such as geothermal, offshore wind and seafloor resources. Scientific ocean drilling will continue to play a valuable role, for example in the exploration of resource opportunities, in obtaining estimates for ecosystem and Earth climate sensitivity, or in improving our understanding about the controlling factors, governing processes and recurrence intervals of submarine geohazards. * In Europe, there is also the scientific expertise needed to define a framework for policymakers for environmental protection measures and to carry out ecological impact assessments before, during and after commercial exploitation. Taking up these societal challenges will strengthen European scientific and educational networks and promote the development of world-class technology and industrial leadership. 56

Notes

1 http://www.european-network-of-maritime-clusters.eu/down- 13 Hönisch, B., N.G. Hemming, D. Archer, M. Siddall & J.F. McManus. loads/4_56.pdf 2009. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration across the Mid- European maritime sectors are clustered in about 10 countries: NW Pleistocene transition. Science, 324: 1551–1554 Europe for traditional sectors and SW Europe for coastal tourism as 14 Rohling, E.J., et al., 2008. New constraints on the timing and ampli- well as fisheries; 186 bill € of added value tude of sea level fluctuations during early to middle Marine Isotope 2 http://ec.europa.eu/eu2020 Stage 3. Paleoceanography, 23: PA3219 (doi:10.1029/2008PA001617) http://ec.europa.eu/research/innovation-union/index_en.cfm 15 McManus, J.F., R. Francois, J.-M. Gherardi, L.D. Keigwin & S. Brown- 3 http://ec.europa.eu/research/horizon2020/ Leger, 2004. Collapse and rapid resumption of Atlantic meridional 4 The Ostend Declaration, formulated during the Euroceans2010 circulation linked to deglacial climate changes. Nature, 428: 834-83 meeting in October 2010, states: The European marine and maritime 16 Thiede, J., A.M. Myhre, J.V. Firth & the Shipboard Scientific Party, research community stands ready to provide knowledge, services 1995. Cenozoic Northern Hemisphere Polar and Subpolar Ocean Pa- and support to the European Union and its Member and Associated leoenvironments (Summary of ODP Leg 151 Drilling Results). Proceed- States, recognising that “The Seas and Oceans are one of the Grand ings IODP, 151: doi:10.2973/odp.proc.ir.151.113.1995 Challenges for the 21st Century”. For full text, refer to http://eur- Moran, K., et al., 2006. The Cenozoic palaeoenvironment of the Arctic ocean2010.eu/declaration Ocean. Nature, 441: 601-605 5 Integrated Maritime Policy; see summary of activities: http://www. Escutia, C., Brinkhuis, H., Klaus, A., and the Expedition 318 Sci- europarl.europa.eu/ftu/pdf/en/FTU_4.4.9.pdf entists, 2011. Wilkes Land glacial history. Proceedings IODP, 318: 6 ECORD = European Consortium for Ocean Research Drilling, initially doi:10.2204/iodp.proc.318.101.2011 started as an EC-funded ERA-Net, then turned into the European 17 Burton, I., Kates, R.W. & White, G.F., 1978. The Environment as Haz- branch of the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP8); see also ard; Oxford University Press, New York, USA. new ECORD business plan for 2013-2023 at http:// www.ecord.org/ 18 See UNEP GRID Arendal; http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/trends-in pub/Future_of_ECORD-2013-2023.pdf natural-disasters ERA-Net, European Research Area Network: The objective of the 19 Nur, A., 1998. The End of the Bronze Age by Large Earthquakes? In: ERA-NET scheme is to step up the cooperation and coordination of Peiser, B.J., Palmer, T., Bailey, M.E. (Eds.). Natural Catastrophes Dur- research activities carried out at national or regional level in the ing Bronze Age Civilisations: Archaeological, Geological, Astronom cal Member States and Associated States through the networking of and Cultural Perspectives. BAR Int. Series, 728: 140-149 research activities conducted at national or regional level, and the mu- Pirazzoli, P.A., Laborel, J. & Stiros, S.C., 1996. Earthquake clustering tual opening of national and regional research programmes. See http:// in the Eastern Mediterranean during historical times. J. Geophysical cordis.europa.eu/coordination/era-net.htm Research, 101: 6083-6097 (DOI: 10.1029/95JB00914) 7 Weaver, P.P.E. & D. Johnson, 2012. Think big for marine conservation. 20 Hühnerbach, V. & D.G. Masson, 2004, Landslides in the North Atlantic Nature, 483: 399 and its adjacent seas: an analysis of their morphology, setting and 8 For details refer to the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (http:// behaviour. Marine Geology, 231: 343-362 www.iodp.org) and IMAGES – The International Marine Global Camerlenghi, A., Urgeles, R. & Fantoni, L., 2009. A database on Change Study (http://www.images-pages.org/) websites submarine landslides of the Mediterranean Sea. In: Mosher, D.C. 9 See Publications and Foresight sections at http://www.marineboard.eu/ et al. (Eds.): Submarine Mass Movements and Their Consequences. 10 http://www.iodp.org/science-plan-for-2013-2023; illustrations that Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards Research (Springer) originate from work done by editors and contributors to the IODP 28: 491-501 New Science Plan were provided by Jamus Collier, namely: p.11, p.13 21 Maslin M., Owen, M., Day, S. & Long, D., 2004. Linking continental- (bottom), p.24, part of p.25 (top), and p.51 (bottom). slope failures and climate change: testing the clathrate gun hypoth-

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UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies, No. 284, 88p, 48 IODP Expedition 336: Initiation of long-term coupled microbiological, available at http://www.unep-wcmc.org/biodiversity-series-28_97. geochemical, and hydrological experimentation within the seafloor at html North Pond, western flank of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 33 Critical raw materials for the EU, Report of the Ad-hoc Working Group see http://publications.iodp.org/preliminary_report/336/index.html on defining critical raw materials, 30 July 2010, http://ec.europa.eu/ 49 See HERMES = Hotspot Ecosystems Research on the Margins of enterprise/policies/rawmaterials/documents/index_en.htm European Seas, at http://www.eu-hermes.net/; and HERMIONE = 34 The ECO2 project will establish a framework of best environmental Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas, practices to guide the management of offshore CO2 injection and http://www.eu-hermione.net/; as well as Weaver, P.P.E., et al., 2009. storage and as addendum to the EU directive on "Geological Storage The future of integrated deep-sea research in Europe: The HERMIONE of CO2" for the marine realm. See also http://www.eco2-project.eu/ Project. Oceanography, 22: 170-179. home.html 50 http://www.arwu.org 35 Arrieta, J.M., Arnaud-Haond, S. & Duarte C.M., 2010. What lies 51 Education Training 2020 (ET 2020), A strategic framework for Euro- underneath: Conserving the oceans’ genetic resources. PNAS, 107: pean cooperation in education and training, available at http://eur- 18318–18324, doi/10.1073/pnas.0911897107 lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2009:119:0002:001 36 Adams, D.K., et al., 2011. Surface-Generated Mesoscale Eddies 0:EN:PDF Transport Deep-Sea Products from Hydrothermal Vents. Science, 332: Youth on the Move is a comprehensive package of policy initiatives on 580-583 education and employment for young people in Europe; 37 These efforts include ODP (Ocean Drilling Program) Legs 118, 153, see http://europa.eu/youthonthemove/ 176, 179, and 209; full publications available at http://www-odp. 52 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-inter- tamu.edu/publications national-agenda/education-for-sustainable-development/ 38 For details on the DCO initiative, refer to http://dco.gl.ciw.edu/ 39 ESFRI = European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures; see also http://ec.europa.eu/research/esfri/ Credits Cover MARUM Bremen/A. Boetius (White thiotrophic bacterial mats at the Amon mud volcano, Eastern Mediterranean Sea), p.5 Aktuel Naturvidenskab, p.6 Ifremer/O. Dugornay, p.7 MARUM Bremen/A. Kopf, p.8 Alfred-Wegener-Institute/F. Roedel, p.10 Springer/P.J. Barrett, p.11 IODP-MI, p.12 MARUM Bremen/ A. Kopf, V. Diekamp, p.13 top Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks/K. Iken, p.13 bottom IODP-MI/ C. Schoof, p.14 ECORD, p.15 MARUM Bremen/H. Pälike, p.16 ddpimages/AP/Kyodo News, p.18 Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, p.19 IODP-MI/Springer Science and Business Media, p.20 Leibniz Univ. Hannover/W. Kongko, p.21 GFZ Potsdam (left), iStockphoto/T. McCaig (right), p.22 Nautical Science Faculty Woods Hole/P.A. Sacks, p.24 IODP-MI/C. Devey, M. Montresor, B. Orcutt, S.W. Ross, A. Vanreusel, and Coral Disease Working Group, p.25 top IODP-MI/H. Imachi (left row), Univ. Cardiff/J. Parkes (right row), p.25 bottom Univ. Bremen/W. Bach, p.26 top HERMIONE/Univ. Gothenburg/T. Lundalv, p.26 bottom WHOI/L.P. Madin, p.27 top UNEP/S. van den Hove, V. Moreau, p.27 bottom MARUM Bremen/D. Hebbeln, p.28 top Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks/ K. Iken (left), HERMIONE/Univ. Gothenburg/T. Lundalv (right), p.28 bottom MPI Bremen/T. Ferdelman, p.29 Univ. Freiburg/F. Reski, p.30 MARUM Bremen/A. Koschinsky, p.32 European Commission/ Ifremer/W. Roest, p.33 Ifremer/ Y. Fouquet, p.34 MARUM Bremen/Y.-S. Lin, K.-U. Hinrichs, p.35 MARUM Bremen/A. Koschinsky, p.36 top School of Oceanography, University of Washington and NOAA Ocean Explorer/D.S. Kelley p.36 bottom MARUM Bremen/A. Kopf, p.37 Ifremer/O. Dugornay, p.38 MARUM Bremen/T. Klein, p.40 IODP-MI/A. Kopf, p.41 MARUM Bremen/A. Kopf, p.42 MARUM Bremen/A. Kopf, p.43 MARUM Bremen/V. Diekamp, p.44 IPGP/C. Mevel, p.45 OGS Trieste/ A. Camerlenghi, p.46 MARUM Bremen/A. Kopf, p.47 INGV/L. Innocenzi, p.48 ddpimages/AP/Color China Photo, p.50 S. Vaughan (www.stephenvaughan.co.uk), p.51 top iStockphoto/T.W. van Urk, ddpimages /dapd/R. Magunia p.51 bottom IODP-MI/F. Inagaki, p.52 Johann Heinrich von Thünen Institut - OSF/C. Zimmermann, p.53 iStockphoto/J. Moraes (left), MARUM Bremen/V. Diekamp (right), p.54 MARUM Bremen/V. Diekamp (left), EGU Committee on Education/L. Mariani (right), p.55 MARUM Bremen/V. Diekamp

The deep sea and its sub-seafloor contain a vast reservoir of physical, mineral and biological resources that are rapidly coming into the window of exploitation. Assessing the opportunities and the risks involved requires a serious commitment to excellent deep sea research. There are numerous areas in this field in which Europe has cutting-edge technological potential. These include drilling and monitoring technology in the field of renewable energies such as geothermal, offshore wind and seafloor resources. Scientific ocean drilling will continue to play a valuable role, for example in the exploration of resource opportunities, in obtaining estimates for ecosystem and Earth climate sensitivity, or in improving understanding about the controlling factors governing processes and recurrence intervals of submarine geohazards. In Europe, there is also the scientific expertise needed to define a framework for policy makers for environmental protection measures and to carry out ecological impact assessments before, during and after commercial exploitation. Taking up these societal challenges will strengthen European scientific and educational networks and promote the development of world-class technology and industrial leadership.