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5-2017 The aliT smanic Seal Stone of Crete: A Re- evaluation. Catherine Stram University of Nebraska-Lincoln, [email protected]

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Stram, Catherine, "The alT ismanic Seal Stone of Crete: A Re-evaluation." (2017). Theses, Dissertations, and Student Creative Activity, School of Art, Art History and Design. 120. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/artstudents/120

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Art, Art History and Design, School of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses, Dissertations, and Student Creative Activity, School of Art, Art History and Design by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. THE TALISMANIC SEAL STONE OF CRETE: A RE-EVALUATION

By Catherine Stram

A THESIS

Presented to the Faculty of The Graduate College of the University of Nebraska In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts

Major: Art History

Under the Supervision of Professor Philip Sapirstein

Lincoln, Nebraska

May, 2017

THE TALISMANIC SEAL STONE OF CRETE: A RE-EVALUATION.

Catherine Stram, MA

University of Nebraska, 2017

Advisor: Philip Sapirstein

This thesis presents a re-evaluation of the talismanic seal stones of

Crete. Its purpose is to present previous scholarship on these seal stones, introduce the reader to a new way of recording and viewing seal stones through Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI), and to offer the data from a study on 384 talismanic seal stones.

Seals were small stones or pieces of wood or ivory with intaglio, meaning designs were cut into their surface in order to create a relief when stamped in wet clay or a similar substance. They served several purposes: as identification, as a way of showing ownership, as a magical charm, and as portable art or jewelry. By around 2500 BCE, seal stones were in use on the island of Crete. Most of these seal stones were used for their sphragistic properties – that is, authenticating documents or otherwise securing property. The talismanic stones, categorized by Sir

Arthur Evans, were rarely used in this way. Evans believed these stones were worn as magical charms or talismans. His idea has been criticized, but today we are no closer to ascertaining how this type of seal stone was used. For this study, the data on 384 talismanic seal stones was collected and organized. RTI was performed on 12 seal stones, as a new way of making digital surrogates and learning more information about the stone surface. The results of this study are presented here to clear up some of the confusion surrounding the talismanic seal stone of Crete.

iv

Table of Contents

Abstract…………………………………. ii

List of Images………………………….. v

Introduction……………………………. 1

Chapter I………………………………… 8

Chapter II………………………………. 25

Chapter III……………………………… 43

Bibliography……………………………. 70

Appendix A……………………………… 74

Appendix B……………………………… 84

v

List of Images (Figure # --- Page #) Figure 1.1 --- 15 - A three-sided hieroglyphic seal stone with a chart showing signs from seal stones tablets (Image from Palace of Minos Vol I).

Figure 1.2 --- 16 - Seal stone with ‘Minoan Genius’ and ceiling of inner chamber of Senmut Tomb (Images from Palace of Minos Vol IV, Part II)

Figure 1.3 --- 18 - Vessel types identified by Evans (Images from Palace of Minos Vol IV, Part II)

Figure 1.4 --- 19 - Lions' Mask seal stones (Image from Palace of Minos Vol I).

Figure 1.5 --- 20 - Rustic shrine of the Snake Goddess (Image from Palace of Minos Vol I)

Figure 2.1 --- 27 - The basic set up when doing the highlight-based method and the direction the light should fall to create raking light (both images from Duffy et al 2013).

Figure 2.2 --- 28 - RTIBuilder

Figure 2.3 --- 28 - RTIViewer

Figure 2.4 --- 29 – An object rendered through surface normals and same object rendered through spectral enhancement.

Figure 2.5 --- 32 - Dome created for the RTISAD project (image from Earl et al, 2011).

Figure 2.6 --- 34 - Statue head of Amazon during recording and virtual reconstruction (image a from Earl et al, 2011 and image b from Happa et al, 2009).

Figure 2.7 --- 37 - The placement of the handheld light during RTI (image modified from Cultural Heritage Imaging).

Figure 2.8 --- 40 - Setup for capturing photograph

Figure 2.9 --- 42 - RTI images: CMS II, 2, 16; CMS II, 3, 80; CMS II, 4, 193; CMS II, 3, 361; CMS II, 3, 72.

Figure 3.1 --- 44 - Division of Crete vi

Figure 3.2 --- 46 - Talismanic seal stones found on Crete from CMS Vol I – IV

Table 3.3 --- 47 - Name of site and number of talismanic seal stones found

Figure 3.4 --- 48 - Talismanic seal stones with and without recorded excavated context

Figure 3.5 --- 49 - Percentages of stone shape.

Figure 3.6 --- 50 - Examples of amygdaloid shaped seal stones: CMS II, 3, 361 and CMS II, 3, 80

Figure 3.7 --- 51 - Examples of lentoid shaped stones: CMS II, 3, 73; CMS II, 4, 223 and CMS II, 3, 313

Figure 3.8 --- 52 - Seal stones made of carnelian: CMS II, 4, 153 and CMS II, 3, 367.

Figure 3.9 --- 53 - Percentages of stones.

Figure 3.10 --- 54 - Map of materials used to make talismanic seal stones, excluding carnelian and jasper.

Figure 3.11 --- 55 – Map with locations where amethyst talismanic stones have been found and the three stones from Gournia: CMS II, 3, 244; CMS II, 3, 245 and CMS II, 3, 247.

Figure 3.12 --- 57 - Talismanic stones with fish: CMS IV, 187; CMS II, 4, 95 and CMS II, 2, 16. (Drawings from CMS).

Figure 3.13 --- 59 - Distribution of the three most popular motifs.

Figure 3.14 --- 60 - Distribution of vessel motif.

Figure 3.15 --- 61 - Three very similar looking stones: CMS III, 337; CMS IV, 169 and CMS IV, 172 (Images from the CMS).

Figure 3.16 --- 64 - Part of the Cupbearer fresco and its location at Knossos (Image on left taken at the Archaeological Museum at Heraklion and image on right taken at Knossos).

Figure 3.17 --- 65 - String hole orientation in amygdaloid and lentoid shaped stones: CMS II, 3, 42 and CMS II, 3, 91 (Images taken at the Archaeological Museum in Heraklion). vii

Figure 3.18 --- 66 - The back of CMS II, 3, 92.

Figure 3.19 --- 67 - CMS II, 3, 313; CMS II, 3, 251 and CMS II, 3, 295 (Images taken at Archaeological Museum at Heraklion).

Table 4.1 --- 75 - Spreadsheet with location name, coordinates, and number of talismanic seal stones found.

Figure 4.2 --- 76 - Map with Minoan sites where talismanic seal stones have been found.

Figure 4.3 --- 77 - Locations for talismanic seal stones found in excavated context

Figure 4.4 --- 78 - Locations of talismanic seal stones without excavated context

Figure 4.5 --- 79 - Materials of talismanic seal stones.

Figure 4.6 --- 80 - Materials talismanic seal stones.

Figure 4.7 --- 81 - Shapes of talismanic seal stones.

Figure 4.8 --- 82 - Motifs on talismanic seal stones.

Table 4.9 --- 83 - Graph of talismanic seal stones

1

Introduction

Seals were small stones or pieces of wood or ivory with intaglio,

meaning designs were cut into the surface in a way that when stamped

in wet clay or a similar substance the impression left was in relief. They

have been in use since at least the 6th millennium BCE when they appear

at various Near Eastern centers.1 Seal stones served several purposes:

as identification, as a way of showing ownership, as a magical charm,

and as portable art. Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt began using seals

stones primarily for their sphragistic properties, meaning they were being

used as seals to authenticate documents or secure property.2 They would

be a necessity for any civilization that acknowledged property ownership.

By around 2500 BCE Crete was also making use of seal stones.3 It was

this date when the civilization there began to flourish and relationships

with the Near East and Egypt opened. Their use of seal stones expanded

beyond using them as identification and security to include personal

adornment and magic. The talismanic stones, identified by Sir Arthur

Evans, are a class of seal stones that were rarely used as seals.4 It was

his belief that they were worn as magical charms or talismans.

1 Collon1997, 9. 2 Ibid., 11-46. 3 Boardman 1970, 22. 4 Younger 1988, xii-xiii. There have been seven examples of talismanic stones used as seals found on Crete. These seven sealings were found at five locations: three from Chania, and one each from Gournia, Agia Triadha, Kato Zakros, and Knossos. 2

This thesis presents a re-evaluation of the talismanic seal stone

found on Crete. Few studies have been done on this material and the

ones that exist disagree on many points. A total of 384 talismanic stones

were collected, organized, and studied in preparation of the thesis. The

stones included in this study are from the Corpus der minoischen und

mykenischen Siegel (CMS), Volumes I; IS; II,I; II,2; II,3; II,4; II,5; II,6; II,7;

II,8; III; and IV. These volumes include 4,701 seal stones in the National

Archaeological Museum in Athens and the Archaeological Museum in

Heraklion.5 The 384 stones, included in this study were thought to be

sufficient to identify the characteristics of this type of seal stone. The

gathered material was compared to previous scholarship to identify any

inconsistencies. Any differences were investigated further. This thesis

also presents a new way of viewing the talismanic stones through

Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI). The information in this thesis

and RTI images of the talismanic seal stones will help further any future

larger projects on seal stones.

5 This study only includes talismanic seal stones found on Crete and published in Volumes I – IV of the CMS. Volumes V-XIII also include talismanic stones but these were not included in this study because it was thought that a sample size of 384 would be sufficient for the study. Any future research on talismanic stones, will include Volumes V – XIII as well. 3

Introduction to Seal Stones

The first seal stones used on Crete were of the stamp variety. They

were made of ivory or of soft stones that closely resembled ivory. The

three most common shapes at this time were the three-sided prism bead,

the broad ivory cylinder and figures of animals carved in the round.6

Other shapes were in use but these three were the most popular. Each

seal was pierced with one or two string-holes for attachment to the body.

The design on most of these would have been a geometric pattern,

sometimes including animals.7 Because of their rough carving, many of these early seal stones appear crude when compared to later examples.8

In the early 1900s, when Sir Arthur Evans discovered Knossos,

he divided up the Bronze Age, on Crete, into three phases. These phases

are based on changes in pottery. Seal stones also went through changes

often corresponding to the trends in pottery decoration and other art

forms. The first seal stones, mentioned above, are thought to be no

earlier than Early Minoan II (EM II). They continue in this way until the

MM phase when several changes occurred. It is during this time that the

great palace complexes on Crete were built. These became economic

6 In most cases these were made from pieces of tusk cut horizontally and left in their natural shape. 7 Boardman 1970, 24-26. When animals appeared in the intaglio of the ivory seals they were often dangerous or threatening animals such as lions, scorpions, or spiders. These types of animals would function apotropaically. 8 Boardman 1970, 26. 4

centers, not only for local products but also for foreign trade. There was a

great need for seals; to identify goods and property, to authorize, and to

keep records. A technological advancement also occurred, the cutting

wheel and the tubular drill were introduced to Crete around this time.9

This allowed harder stones, such as jasper, to be used for seals.10 With

the increase need of seals and the greater ease in making them, evidence

of seal stones use increases and does not decline until LM III. During

each phase a different motif or style of making that motif, a different

stone, or different shape becomes more popular than others.

The evidence of seals usually comes from two places:

tombs/burials and sites destroyed by fire. When a seal stone is found in

a tomb, even if the tomb is undisturbed, the age of the stone cannot be

ascertained by the context. Seal stones were sometimes collected and

buried with their owner and it was not uncommon for some of these

stones to be antiques or heirlooms handed down through the family,

making dating difficult.11 However, tombs and burials provide valuable evidence of how seal stones were worn.12 Fire destruction also records

9 Higgins 1981, 51. 10 The stones made before this time were cut by hand with a copper or bronze knife. Copper has a hardness 3 to 3.5 on the Mohs scale so any stone being cut in this way would need to be below this. This would include any stones in the calcite, gypsum, or talc families. Steatite or soapstone was probably the most common stone used; it has a hardness of 1 on the Mohs scale. After the introduction of the cutting wheel and the tubular drill harder stones like the above mentioned jasper, as well as amethyst, carnelian, agate, and rock crystal could be used. 11 Younger 1977, 144-145 and Galanakis 2005, 3. 12 Ibid., 146-158. 5

how seal stones were used to secure property. When an object with a seal

stamped into it burns in a fire, the object is destroyed but the clay

sealing is baked hard. In this way, a record is left of the impression.13

This can help in dating if the date of the destruction is known. These

sealings can also give us clues of seal use.14

Known seal stones have been categorized by their use, motif,

shape, and material. The two primary categories are sphragistic and non-

sphragistic. As mentioned earlier, the former means that the stones were

used to seal something and the latter were used as jewelry or as an

amulet or talisman. The talismanic seal stones are a class of seal stones

that are almost all non-sphragistic, only seven examples have been found

where a talismanic stone was used as a seal.15 Evans believed these

stones could protect a sailor at sea or make a hunter lucky or bring

rain.16 The magic of each stone was derived from the design cut in its

surface.

There are thousands of motifs by which seal stones and

sealings can be divided. John K. Younger separated over 2600 motif

categories in the Late Bronze Age alone. These can be placed into broader

categories of plants, monsters, animals, people, geometric shapes, and

13 Boardman 1970, 20. 14 Some of the baked hard sealings give us clues on their backs of how and to what they were attached. 15 See supra n. 4. 16 Evans 1935, 541. 6

architectural structures.17 Younger discovered that over half of the seal

stones, sealings, and signet rings have at least one animal.18 The study

of the iconography of some stones and signet rings may help scholars

understand aspects of Minoan society such as religion. The scenes on

signet rings are thought to be religious in nature and might have been

reserved for the use of the clergy. Iconography may also tell us about the

personality of the owner.19

The main shape categories are lentoid, amygdaloid,

cushion/pillow, prism, and cylinder. Along with these are discoids and

signet rings. Younger found that the most common shape during the

Late Bronze Age was lentoid.20 The shape of a seal stone helps identify

how it was used and how it might have been worn.21 Lastly, seal stones

can be divided up by material. When Kenna catalogued the Minoan seal

stones and rings in the Ashmolean Museum, he found 22 different

materials being used.22 Many of the materials were imported to Crete. If

we could identify exactly where the material came from, we might be able

to get a better understanding of Crete’s economy and trade agreements.

17 Younger 1988, xii. 18 Ibid., xi. 19 Whatever an owner chose to have engraved on their stone became a symbol of them. This identified them and could represent them in transactions. It has not been proven, however, that owners were given the choice. 20 Younger 1973, 135. 21 Younger 1977, 153-158. 22 Kenna 1960, 159. Many of these he also subdivided by color. He also had a category of unknown. 7

As mentioned above, Evans believed that the Minoans wore these stones as talismans. But could there be another explanation?

These stones were only rarely used to secure property or authorize a transaction or tablet. The designs and images on many of them are almost identical so it is unlikely that they were used as personal identification. They could instead have been used to identify a group of people.

The goal of this study is to better understand the talismanic class of Minoan seal stones. All talismanic seal stones from the first four volumes on the CMS are included. This is a large enough sample to pick out patterns but not so large that the data becomes overwhelming. This thesis is divided into three chapters. First, the scholarship that has been done on Minoan seal stones is presented, starting with Sir Arthur Evans.

The next chapter is on Reflectance Transformation Imaging, which was chosen as a way of making digital representatives of some of the seal stones in the Archaeological Museum in Heraklion. In the third chapter, all of the information gathered on the talismanic seal stones is presented in comparison with some of the scholarship from the first chapter.

8

Chapter I

History of Talismanic Seal Stones

The story of the talismanic seal stone begins with one man, Sir

Arthur Evans. It was he who first noticed a difference between these seal

stones and the others he found on Crete and who categorized these

stones as ‘talismanic’. This chapter includes, a review of Evans and his

contributions to Cretan history, his interpretations of the talismanic

stone and the scholarship written on the subject since his time.

Many people throughout time have been fascinated by Greek seal

stones. Evidence has been found of Romans collecting and displaying

seal stones from the Classical period. During the Renaissance, they were

also collected and copied.1 This collecting has not stopped even today, though most collections now are owned by museums not individuals. The first known publication with a Minoan seal stone was a catalogue of the engraved stones owned by James Tassie published in 1791. At this time,

Minoan stones were being included in private and museum collections of

Greek, Roman, and Phoenician artifacts. They next appeared in 1843 in a book by Ludwig Ross. Recognizing that they were different than the

1 Boardman 1970, 19. 9

other stones, he called them ‘island gems’.2 In 1876, numerous seal

stones and signet rings were found during Heinrich Schliemann’s

excavations at Mycenae and Tiryns. In his book, Mycenae; A narrative of

researches and discoveries at Mycenae and Tiryns, he calls the stones

‘lentoid gems’, despite some of them being amygdaloid in shape.3 The

motifs on some of these stones looked Minoan but at the time this was

unrecognized because the discoveries on Crete had not yet occurred.4

They were attributed to the Mainland where they had been found.

Evans was not the first to discover Knossos, but he was the first to

make it and the Minoan civilization known to the world.5 His excavations

began in 1900, although he had begun formulating ideas about the

importance of Crete before. Around 12 years earlier he first noticed

markings resembling Egyptian hieroglyphs on some of the seal stones in

a collection of “Phoenician” seals donated to the Ashmolean, where he

was Keeper.6 Later in 1892, while in Athens, he purchased some seal

2 Ibid., 19, 118. He gave them this name because many them were found on Melos. In a later study, some of these stones proved to be Archaic and the Bronze Age stones were attributed to Crete and Mainland Greece. 3 Schliemann 1880, 202. 4 Ibid, 363-364. One of the stones described is made of agate and has a bull’s head and a double ax cut into its surface. This stone may have been made by a Cretan or made by a mainlander trying to mimic the Minoan style. The motif is Minoan. Knossos had not been discovered yet, and Schliemann interpreted this stone as representing a ‘Hera-idol.’ 5 MacGillivray 2000, 93. Years earlier Minos Kalokairinos, dragoman to the British vice-consul of Candia, excavated a small section of Knossos or as the hill was called then, the Kephala. 6 Ibid, 73-74. This collection was donated by the Reverend Greville Chester. The stones in this collection were purchased in Greece and the Middle East. The ones with 10

stones from Crete with similar markings.7 In the next year he noticed

these same markings on some vases excavated at Mycenae.8 Greek was

thought to be the first written European language but here was evidence

of writing on artifacts dating thousands of years before the first Greek

inscriptions. It was beginning to look like this Mycenaean script

originated on Crete but Evans wanted to find proof.

In 1894, Evans made his first trip to Crete in search of his proof.

On this trip, he purchased more seal stones and 1/3 of the property

under which Knossos was hidden. The location of the ancient city of

Knossos had been known for centuries, but, because it was buried, no

one knew how big it was or its age. Several individuals, including

Schliemann, had tried and failed to get permission to dig or buy the

required land. Evans had read the report from the short excavation that

had taken place in 1879, spoken to those who had already explored the

area, and looked at artifacts said to have come from the site.9 He was

convinced that here at Knossos he would find the evidence he wanted to

prove the existence of a written language older than Greek.

the hieroglyph like marks were from Crete. At this time seal stones from Greece were called, as mentioned above, ‘island stones’ or ‘Phoenician’. 7 Ibid, 102. 8 Evans 1943, 309. 9 Macgillivray 2000, 91-116. W.J. Stillman wrote a report for the Archaeological Institure of America on the findings of M. Kalokairinos. This report made it to other archaeological societies and was read by Evans. On this first trip to Crete, Evans spoke with Kalokairinos and with others who had been to the site. 11

Purchasing the land and getting permission to excavate took longer

than anticipated because of the political climate in Crete. Greece had

won its independence from the Ottoman empire in 1832, but this did not

include Crete. From this time until almost the close of the century Crete

was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Most Cretans wished to

join Greece, with which they shared a language and religion. The years

between 1821 and 1898 were years of unrest for the people of Crete, and

frequently occurring revolts eventually culminated in a civil war. Finally,

in 1913, after 15 years of relative independence, the Cretans officially

joined the mainland. While under Ottoman rule, artifacts found during

archaeological excavations were required to go to the Imperial Museum

in Istanbul. At the same time the local representatives of the Cretan

Assembly’s majority wished to keep all artifacts on Crete in their newly

formed museums.10 This caused problems for archaeologists wishing to dig on Crete, because if they did get permission from the Ottoman government, the local Cretan officials would not give permission for fear of losing artifacts to Istanbul. Further hindered by the unwillingness of the landowners to sell the remaining parts of Knossos, Evans waited for six years from the time of his first visit until he could start digging.

10 Macgillivray 2000, 89. Part of the Pact of Halepa allowed the Greek Cretans to legally form their own literary and scientific group. It was originally called the Association of Friends of Education but was better known as the Syllogos. Their first museum was in Candia. 12

Evans originally came to Crete to find evidence of early writing. He

accomplished this and in the process unearthed the largest of the

Minoan palaces. He discovered countless artifacts and divided the Bronze

Age on Crete into phases, based on pottery style.11 In his mind, he also

gave Europe a new chapter in their long history.12 For those who came after him, he was laying the groundwork in Minoan archaeology.

Evans and the Talismanic Stones

Evans was particularly influential in the study of Minoan seal

stones, including the stones he called ‘talismanic’. His collection of seal

stones was the largest in the world at the time, and even today it remains

one of the largest collections outside of Greece.13 He was the first to study the seal stones of Crete as Minoan and his interpretations of these stones were the only to exist for many years. He recorded his interpretations in his books on his excavation at Knossos and the

Minoan civilization. The first volume was published in 1921.14 In these

books, he described his findings in architecture, pottery, scripts, seals,

frescoes, and almost all aspects of life in Bronze Age Crete.

To Evans the talismanic stones were unique. He noticed that many

had the same or similar motifs and that they could not have been used

11 Boardman 1970, 20. 12 MacEnroe 1995, 3. 13 The Evans collection is at the Ashmolean Museum of the University of Oxford. 14 The Palace of Minos – A comparative account of the successive stages of the early Cretan civilization as illustrated by the discoveries at Knossos. 13

as stamps, as were other types of seals. He believed that the Minoan

people instead wore these stones “to secure magic protection or divine

aid.”15 The motif on the stone would have given power through sympathetic magic. Each motif could convey a different charm or protection on a person.

Evans cited ethnographic evidence when interpreting the use of

these stones. On his first trip to Crete he noticed many Cretan women

wearing ancient talismanic stones on cords around their necks as

lactation charms. He observed, “It is an interesting coincidence that

many of these stones, once made to secure magic protection or divine aid

to the old Minoan folk in their various vocations, were re-used ---

especially those of lighter hue --- by the Cretan mothers of our own times

for their own physical needs, and are hence known as ‘galopetras’ or

‘milk stones’.” He traded other stones for or purchased many of these for

his collection. Some women, however, would not sell or trade and would

point to their baby as proof of the stones’ power.16 Evans believed that if

the women on Crete during his time used these specific stones as

charms, then it was highly likely that their ancestors did the same.17

The talismanic stones began being used during MM III. Evans

believed that the talismanic stones replaced the three and four-sided

15 Evans 1935, 446. 16 MacGillivray 2000, 129. 17 Evans 1935, 446. 14

prism stones with hieroglyphic symbols, which were abandoned at the

end of MM II (Figure 1.1). He believed these prism stones were also used

as amulets.18 He saw many connections between the Minoan seals and art from other civilizations, he seemed to especially find parallels in

Egyptian art. Not only were the hieroglyphs on some of the seals similar or possibly the same, but also some of the figures. One example of this was in the figure he called the ‘Minoan genius’. She can be seen on a seal stone in figure 1.2 and in figure 1.3. The Hippopotamus Goddess Ta-urt was her parallel. She had the head and legs of a hippopotamus, the body and arms of a woman and dorsal appendages like the crocodile.19 This

figure related to the talismanic seal stones with the vessel motif that will

be discussed below.

18 Evans 1921, 671. 19 Evans 1935, 433. 15

Figure 1.1 - A three-sided hieroglyphic seal stone with a chart showing signs from seal stones and signs from tablets (Image from Palace of Minos Vol I).

At the beginning of MM III a new shape began to be used for seal stones called amygdaloid, ‘almond shaped.’ The talismanic seals, which first appear during this same time period, were predominately made in this shape. Evans traced the shape to Proto-Dynastic Egyptian bead forms.20 The lentoid shape was also a popular shape for talismanic stones. Hard stones such as jasper and carnelian were often used for the talismanic seals but also softer materials such as steatite. Evans identified the province of Sitia, or the eastern most end of the island, as

20 Evans 1921, 671-672. 16 being the area where the greatest number of the talismanic stones had come from.21

Figure 1.2 – left – seal stone with ‘Minoan Genius’ and right – Hippopotamus Goddess on ceiling of inner chamber of Senmut Tomb (Images from Palace of Minos Vol IV, Part II)

Some of the motifs appearing on the talismanic seals as identified by Evans were ritual vessels, lions’ masks, fishes or squids, double axes, pillared structures, birds, stricken animals, and heart shapes. Each of these motifs secured a benefit on its owner. Evans went into the greatest detail when explaining how the ritual vessel motif was used as a vegetation charm. He identified three varieties of vessels used on these stones (Figure 1.3). The first is a pedestalled chalice shape with S-shaped handles and sometimes a conical cover or cap. He calls this vessel the

‘kantharos’ type because of its resemblance to the later Greek vessel by

21 Evans 1935, 446. 17

that name. Many of the stones with this shape also have plant fronds or

branches and a sun shape. According to Evans, “A better pictographic

rendering of drought caused by the scorching summer sun of Crete could

hardly be imagined, and the chalice itself would be naturally associated

with rain-bringing rites.”22 The next vessel he called the coffee-pot shape, anachronistically. Evans believed that these one-handed ewers with a curving spout arising from the body were adaptations of Egyptian vessels.23 The third vessel shape is the single handled ewer with a lip.

This is the vessel he connects with the ‘Minoan genius’. He found several

seal stones with the ‘Minoan genius’ holding such a vessel. In some she

is pouring a liquid onto a tree or into another vessel, therefore should be

connected with vegetation rites, among other things.24 Evans also noted

that these shapes of vessels were used as vegetation charms because

these were the shapes used in rituals. The liquid that would be poured

out of the vessels represented the rain coming down from the sky to save

the vegetation from a drought.25

22 Ibid., 446. 23 Ibid., 447-448. 24 Ibid., 449. 25 Ibid., 450-453. 18

Figure 1.3 – Vessel types identified by Evans, top left – ‘kantharos’ type; top middle – coffee-pot type; top right – single handled ewer; bottom – ‘Minoan Genii’ with ewers (Images from Palace of Minos Vol IV, Part II)

The lions’ mask motif was very common. According to Evans many of them were roughly or hastily cut because of high demand. He believed this motif went through stages. It first appeared on lentoid shaped stones with squared edges, then rounded amygdaloids, and lastly elongated amygdaloids, some with a ridge on the back. He connects this motif with a sign resembling a cat face that appeared on some of the hieroglyphic seal stones (Figure 1.4). The lions’ mask seal stone would have given physical strength to its owner.26

26 Evans 1921, 673-674. 19

Figure 1.4 - Lions' Mask seal stones (Image from Palace of Minos Vol I).

Evans does not mention what power he thought the stones with the heart shape might possess, but he does connect them with the silphium seed. The silphium plant was highly prized and used for several purposes, one being medical. It was thought to have only grown in North

Africa, but Evans believed that it was also grown on Crete, possibly making this plant a very important part of the Cretan economy.27 The bird motif Evans believed was a swiftness charm.28 Fish, squids, and other sea creatures would be lucky charms suitable for fishermen. The double axe was taken as a sign of divine guardianship and so protected the wearer. The stricken animal motifs were believed by Evans to be good luck for hunters. On these, the animal did not matter. Some had goats, others lions, but what was important was the spear stuck into the

27 Ibid., 284-285. 28 Evans 1935 541-548. 20 animal. Lastly, Evans does not explain what power or charm the pillared structure motif possessed, but he does think these were examples of round, peak-roofed structures similar to the round huts thought to be the prototype of the Temple of Vesta. On one of the stones he adds that the curvy lines on each side of the shrine were snakes and that this stone is showing the rustic shrine of the Snake Goddess.29

Figure 1.5 - Rustic shrine of the Snake Goddess (Image from Palace of Minos Vol I)

V.E.G. Kenna

Many of Evans interpretations and ideas about seal stones were later expanded by V.E.G. Kenna. In 1960, Kenna published a description of Minoan seal stones along with a catalogue of those found in the

Ashmolean Museum. The book begins with a brief history of seal stones, then beginning with EM I gives a description and examples of each motif, material, and shape found during each phase. At the back of the book, a

29 Evans 1921, 674-675. 21 description and photograph is given for each of the seal stones and sealings at the Ashmolean.

Kenna also wrote a book on talismanic seal stones.30 In this book he defines the talismanic stone as a class of stones with recurring motifs used for their magical power.31 These six recurring motif categories are ritual vessels; religious symbols which includes double ax and sacral horns; plant symbols which includes rose motifs, seeds, vegetable fronds, and bundles; fish symbols which includes tunny, dolphin, flying fish, octopus, and squid; animal symbols which includes bucranium, lion’s mask, and wounded quarry; insect symbols which includes the beetle, fly, bee, and ant; and birds.32 Examples of stones from each category are described and drawn. He also lists the stones by location. Kenna agrees with Evans interpretations of the stones being used for magic. He also, as can be seen by his motif categories, interprets the designs cut on the stones, the same as Evans. They only disagree on one point, the date the talismanic stones were in use. Evans dates them MM III to LM I but

Kenna dates them MM III to LM III.33

Kenna also prepared, either partially or solely, five volumes of the

Corpus der minoischen und mykenischen Siegel (CMS). These are CMS

30 “The Cretan Talismanic Stone in the Late Minoan Age.” 1969. 31 Kenna 1969, 26. 32 Ibid., 27. 33 Ibid., 10, 12, 31. 22

Volumes IV, VII, VIII, XII, XIII. Substantial amounts of work were put into each book. Each of these volumes contains over 150 stones and volumes IV and XII have over 300 each. Drawings, photographs, and impressions were made of every stone. In addition, each stone has an entry containing information on where the stone was found, the shape, material, cutting technique, date, measurement, and description of the design.

Artemis Onassoglou

In 1985, Artemis Onassoglou, re-examined talismanic seal stones in a supplemental volume of the CMS.34 She divides the seal stones into nine motif categories: vessel, ships, vegetation, crustacean/sea creature, insect, bundle, other animal, miscellaneous, and isolated. After giving a description of each motif category and breaking them down into subcategories, Onassoglou writes about the manufacture of the talismanic stones. She then has a section on the Cut Style of seal stone which has some similar motifs as the talismanic stones. At the end of the book is a catalogue of all the talismanic stones previously published in the CMS.

Her motif categories are almost the same as the ones used by

Kenna and Evans but she interprets many of the designs, cut into the

34 Onassoglou 1985. 23

stones, differently. She does not include a lions mask category, instead

she has interpreted this design as papyrus and put them in the

vegetation category. She does not interpret the design on stones, like in

figure 1.5, as rustic shrines, but instead as types of vessel.

Conclusion

Between the writings of Kenna and Onassoglou very little was

written on the talismanic type, and not much has been written since.

Books such as Greek Gems and Finger Rings by John Boardman, Aegean

Seals: An Introduction by Olga Krzyszkowska, and Minoan Glyptic:

Typology, Deposits, and Iconography by Konstantinos Galanakis briefly summarize the type but do not go into much detail.35 Articles on seal

stones occasionally mention them as well.36

There is much confusion over the dates of these stones as well as

which stones should be included in which motif category. The current

study is an attempt to clear some of this uncertainty. A further review of

some of the things Evans believed, a comparison with other studies, and

the results of the current study, will be in Chapter 3. In the next

chapter, a method of enhancing the details on the seal stones is

presented. The current visualizations of seal stones make it very difficult

to study the motifs, the cutting technique, and the material. A more

35 See Boardman 1970, Krzyszkowska 2005, and Galanakis 2005. 36 See Younger 1977. 24 accurate digital recording would benefit the study of not only the talismanic stones but all seal stones. 25

Chapter II

Using Reflectance Transformation Imaging to Make

Digital Surrogates of Seal Stones.

Reflectance Transformation Imaging or RTI is an imaging technique that allows its users to create an accurate digital representation or surrogate of an object and also make a simulation of that object being illuminated from different angles. This technique is useful for looking at surface details, sometimes even highlighting scratches on the surface of an object not visible to the human eye. RTI has successfully been used in the analysis of coins, fossils, clay tablets, lithics, and pottery.1 Seal stones are of a similar size as coins thus the technique can be used on them as well. As part of this thesis, RTI was performed on twelve seal stones in the Archaeological Museum in Heraklion. This was done firstly, to create a digital surrogate that was as close as possible to what I saw in person, to test this method on a small object, and lastly to learn new information about the design or image cut on these seal stones.

Minoan seals were small stones or pieces of wood or ivory with a design cut intaglio in their surface. They have been found in a variety of colors, shapes, sizes, and materials. The design cut into each is unique, while many look very similar, no two are exactly the same. Many of the

1 See Artal-Isbrand 2013 for use on pottery, Kotoula 2013 for use on coins, and Hammer 2002 for use on fossils. 26 subtle differences that distinguish seals from one another are difficult to see in publications. Currently, the best method to get a clear understanding of what seal stones look like is to see them in person. This led me to investigate different methods of digital representations. I wanted to know which type of imaging would work best on seal stones.

This method also had to be easy to use, inexpensive, fast, and transportable. RTI meets these requirements.

“RTI is a computational photographic method that captures a subject’s surface shape and color and enables the interactive relighting of the subject from any direction.”2 The most common method is

Polynomial Texture Mapping or PTM, invented by Tom Malzbender of

Hewlett-Packard Labs in 2000.3 Hewlett-Packard defines PTMs as “a simple representation for images of functions instead of just color. In a conventional image, each pixel contains static red, green, blue values. In a PTM each pixel contains a simple function that specifies the red, green, blue values of that pixel as a function of two independent parameters.”4

The color values of pixels are different in each photograph taken due to the movement of the light source. When preparing RTI imagery, multiple photographs are taken of an object from a stationary camera. Each shot

2 Definition from the Cultural Heritage Imaging website at http://culturalheritageimaging.org/Technologies/RTI/ . 3 Malzbender 2001. 4 Definition of PTM from the Hewlett-Packard website at www.hpl.hp.com/research/ptm . 27 is taken with a light shining on the object from a different direction. The so-called “raking” light tends to emphasize surface relief. Figure 2.1 a shows the basic set up for the highlight-based method and b illustrates the angles from which the light should shine in order to create the raking light.

Figure 2.1 - a - the basic set up when doing the highlight-based method and b - the direction the light should fall to create raking light (both images from Duffy et al 2013).

Computer software subsequently lines up the photographs and finds the angle in which the light was shining.5 Figure 2.2 shows a screenshot taken from RTIBuilder. This is the stage in the process after the photographs are lined up and the light identified in each. It then takes this information and the color or function information and mathematically generates a model of the surface of the object. This model can then be viewed in another software that allows a simulation of the

5 When using the highlight-method 54 photographs are usually taken of the object. 28 relighting of the object, from all the angles of the handheld light from the original photographs. By doing this, the surface of the object can be examined in great detail (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.2 - RTIBuilder - photographs have been lined up and the light from each has been found.

Figure 2.3 RTIViewer - this software allows the relighting of the image.

29

The photographs can also be processed through other algorithms to produce images highlighting other information. For instance, the object can be visualized through spectral enhancement or by surface normal. The surface normal describes the 3D orientation of the face of the underlying surface, calculated for every pixel in the digital photograph. When viewing an object with spectral enhancement it becomes artificially shiny, this makes any scratch on the surface more noticeable (Figure 2.4 a,b).6

Figure 2.4 a - the object rendered through surface normals and b - the object rendered through spectral enhancement.

“Humanity’s legacy can be unlocked and shared between people through digital representations.”7 This quote emphasizes the most important reason for making digital representations. Surrogates or representations are stand-ins for real physical objects. When a surrogate is created, and placed online, anyone anywhere in the world with a

6 Earl et al 2010, 2042-2043. 7 Mudge et al 2008, 2. 30 computer and internet has access to that object. This access is beneficial to everyone, whether a researcher or a student or a regular person.8

Another benefit to making surrogates is that they are nondestructive.

They can be made without causing any damage to the object being replicated. Also, after a model is made, it can be viewed repeatedly, leaving the original safe from repeat handling. This is very important when studying very fragile objects like ancient manuscripts. Another benefit to making simulations is that they do not take up any physical space, the files can be compressed and stored on a hard drive, flash drive, or on the cloud. Other types of digital surrogates include 3D models, digital texts, digital audio and video files, and digitized photographs. There are, however a few things to remember about digital surrogates. They are not clones of the original material; a digital image can never be a true substitute for a painting hanging in a gallery. Also, surrogates in a digital format can be altered, copied, and manipulated.9

When choosing a method for making representations it is important to consider the object and pick a method best suited for its size, shape, and surface. RTI is ideal for making images of an object with a relief or carving on its surface. It is a versatile method in that it can be used on objects of different sizes and shapes. It also allows the viewer to

8 Hughes 2003, 6. 9 Ibid., 8. 31

look at the object in the most advantageous light, which is important

when looking at something with very faint scratches or incisions.

Fixed-light method RTI.

RTI models can be made in two different ways, the highlight-based

method and the fixed-light method. The fixed-light method uses a dome

with LEDs and a camera or video recorder attached. Because this system

is controlled through a computer, the entire process is automated. This

cuts down on capturing and processing times and makes the results

consistent.10 The Electronics and Computer Science department at the

University of Southampton has built seven RTI domes to be used on their own projects, other universities, and by museums around the world including the domes used by the Louvre and the British Museum.11

The first dome created was for an Arts and Humanities Research

Council (AHRC) and Reflectance Transformation Imaging System for

Ancient Documentary Artifacts (RTISAD) project. The intent of this

collaborative project was to first of all build two RTI capture systems,

create research centers at the University of Southampton and Oxford,

then perform RTI on ancient texts and documents and archaeological

artifacts. They also wanted to integrate RTI into existing projects and

10 Earl et al 2010, 2043. 11 Information about their domes can be found at https://reflectanceimaging.org 32

spread their research, results, and information about RTI. All of this is

recorded by the British Computer Society in an article entitled,

“Reflectance Transformation Imaging Systems for Ancient Documentary

Artefacts.”12 This article recounts the afore mentioned objectives and

advantages of using RTI. The capture systems were originally created to make models of ancient texts, tablets, papyri, and other forms of early writing. The raking light created in RTI makes the text easier to read, but this is not the only reason the technique is useful. Many of the texts are very fragile and by creating a surrogate the original can be left undisturbed while the surrogate serves the needs of most researchers.

The dome was also successfully used on other objects such as coins, pottery, and brick stamps (Figure 2.5).13

Figure 2.5 Dome created for the RTISAD project (image from Earl et al, 2011).

12 Earl 2011. 13 Ibid., 147. 33

A similar method for making PTMs was used by the University of

Southampton on their collaborative Herculaneum Conservation Project.

In this project a dome-type rig was used instead of a dome (Figure 2.6a).

RTI was performed on a painted statue head of a young woman that had been excavated at Herculaneum in 2006. The goal was to make a digital reconstruction of the statue under lighting conditions as close as possible to what they were in the past.14 While at the museum they used a laser scanner, a RTI dome-type rig, and a digital camera to record the statue head. This information was then used to make a virtual reconstruction. RTI not only gave them access to the object after leaving the museum but it also helped them to see exactly how the statue would look under different lighting conditions. This model can help researchers investigate how this statue and others like it, may have been perceived under different lighting conditions. Also, because of its well preserved paint researchers can investigate the use of paint on statuary.15 Figure

2.6a shows the statue head being captured and b shows one of the reconstructions.

14 Happa et al 2009, 5. 15 Earl et al 2009, 6-7. 34

Figure 2.6 a - statue head of Amazon during recording and b - virtual reconstruction (image a from Earl et al, 2011 and image b from Happa et al, 2009).

An RTI dome was used by Hewlett-Packard Labs on the

Antikythera Mechanism. This device, thought to be an ancient

astrological computer, was found in 1900, in the remains of a shipwreck

off the coast of the Greek island Antikythera.16 In 2005, RTI models were

made of the 82 fragments of the mechanism. RTI was used because of its

ability to record subtle surface details on corroded metals as well as

other materials and researchers could use the images and models made

with the software to further investigate the mechanism after leaving the

museum.17 By using RTI researchers are now able to read over 1000 more characters than originally could be made out.18

16 Freeth et al 2006, 587-591. 17 Edmunds et al 2006, 917 and www.antikythera-mechanism.gr . The PTMs can be viewed on the Hewlett-Packard website at www.hpl.hp.com/research/ptm/antikythera_mechanism/index.html . 18 Earl et al 2010, 2045. 35

There are, however, a few disadvantages to using this system.

Objects must be able to fit under the dome, and the domes are not easily

portable. It cannot be used on objects outside or on architecture. Domes

are also very expensive. While PTMBuilder, RTIBuilder, and RTIViewer

are free downloads, the software needed to control the dome is not free.19

RTI using the Highlight-based method

The highlight-based method is much more versatile. The primary

equipment needed is a camera with a remote, a tripod or copy stand, a

shiny black or red ball of appropriate size, a black piece of cloth, a string,

and a flashlight or handheld lamp. The shiny black or red ball is used as

a reflective target. The size of the shiny ball is determined by the size of the object. For a large object, a reflective target about the size of a billiard ball would be appropriate, but on a small object target the size of a marble would be more suitable. The target size is better expressed in the resolution of the digital photographs. It is recommended that the diameter of the ball should take up 200 pixels in the image.20

In the highlight-based method the artifact or object is placed on a

black piece of cloth with the black or red shiny ball beside it, either on

the same surface or mounted and attached to the tripod or copy stand.

19 Earl et al 2010, 2043. 20 Duffy 2013, 5. 36

The camera is stabilized directly above the object. Then a light source is

moved at equal distance around the object. The light should be moved

around the object at oblique angles. This can be seen in figure 2.1 b and

in figure 2.7 where the red circles represent the placement of the

handheld light. The light should be pointed at the object at the same

distance away at each position. A string tied to the light source ensures

that equal distance is kept each time (Figure 2.1a). Photographs are

taken at each position of the light source. These are then processed

through software that recognizes the reflection of the light source on the

shiny ball, it then uses an algorithm to reconstruct the direction from

which light was cast on the object (Figure 2.2). After processing, the

finished product can be viewed in a software program that allows the

user to be move the light over the object from any direction (Figure 2.3).

This method can be used on large and small objects, vertical and

horizontal surfaces, both indoors and outdoors.21 The software is free

and the equipment is relatively inexpensive.22

21 It should be noted that when the highlight-based method is used outdoors, it should be used at night or at dawn or dusk. This is to ensure that the software detects your light source rather than the daylight on the shiny ball. Shooting during certain times of the day would also cause shadows of the camera and tripod legs to be in your shot. 22 Earl et al 2010, 2044. 37

Figure 2.7 The red circles represent the placement of the handheld light (image modified from Cultural Heritage Imaging).

As mentioned above, the University of Southampton has used RTI

on multiple projects. They have not only used the dome method but they have also successfully used the highlight-based method. Their Portus

Project began in 2007 and ended in 2011 but their work continued in the

Portus in the Roman Mediterranean Project until 2014. Portus was a large Imperial Roman harbor built by Claudius in AD 42. RTI was used along with photogrammetry, laser scanning, and dense surface modeling to record the site. RTI was used because it has the capability to record surfaces at great detail. They chose the highlight-based method for use on site because it is portable and can record a variety of materials. It was used to record in situ artifacts and building materials such as bricks.

Representations of the artifacts allowed the researchers not on site to study the material and were also used to supplement the soil texture and 38

Munsell color records of the site. The images of the building materials

assisted in the creation of a virtual reconstruction of the site.23

Highlight-based RTI has been used successfully on rock art as

well. Sarah M. Duffy used this method on rock art at Ughtasar, a site

located around 3200 MASL in the Syunik Mountains in Southern

Armenia. The rock art is thought to date to 5th to 2nd millennium BCE and includes geometric shapes, animals, and anthropomorphic figures.

Highlight-based RTI was chosen because the equipment could easily be transported up the mountains and because it is inexpensive. RTI had also been used in recording other rock art because it can record in detail the subtle surface relief. Despite the challenges of a rocky terrain, strong winds, low temperatures, and dangerous animals, over 20 usable PTMs were created. These images will be used to further study rock art in

Europe and elsewhere.24

Highlight-based Method on Seal Stones

As mentioned above, when this study of seal stones began, the

representations available were considered inadequate for research on

material, stone color, and in some cases the cut image. I wanted to find a

solution to this problem. Digital models of seal stones would be an ideal

approach. I originally considered using photogrammetry to make 3D

23 Earl et al 2010, 2047 and http://www.portusproject.org . 24 Duffy 2013, 18-19. 39 models, but because of complexity of carrying this out with small seal stones abandoned the idea. Photogrammetric software also has limitations when processing photographs of objects with shiny surfaces and/or objects made of translucent materials.25 The obvious alternative was RTI.

RTI can be used on small objects and it can be used on shiny, glassy, or translucent materials. But all previous RTI models on objects the size of seal stones were done using domes. I did not have a dome nor would a dome be ideal for a project where all equipment must fit in a backpack. Could the highlight-based method be used to make RTI models of seal stones? The first tests of the method were on half-dollar and quarter sized coins and jewelry. These were successfully made into

RTI models but seal stones are smaller. Would the same technique work?

I was given permission to examine and photograph twelve seal stones in the Archaeological Museum in Heraklion. A Nikon D5000 with a remote was used, with a tripod, a shiny black gear shifter knob as a reflective target, and an LED lighting panel. I also had a black piece of cloth and a string. The setup at the museum was similar to that shown in figure 2.8. The images were processed using the free and open-source software RTIBuilder and RTIViewer.26

25 Cignoni and Scopigno 2008, 14. 26 These can be downloaded from the Cultural Heritage Imaging website at http://culturalheritageimaging.org/Technologies/RTI/. 40

Figure 2.8 Setup for capturing photographs.

Twelve RTI models of 12 seal stones ranging in size from 10 mm in diameter to 21.5 mm wide were created.27 The biggest challenge encountered in this endeavor was the small size of the seal stones. One stone had a radius of 10 mm.28 The software did not have any problems with the size of the stones but my camera was not fitted with an appropriate lens for an object this small.29

27 I encountered several challenges when doing this project. One of these challenges was working in the conditions afforded in Heraklion. When I had tested the method, and practiced it before my trip I had used the floor or a small table that I could easily move around. At the museum, I was provided with a large table, which inadvertently made maneuvering with the light difficult. My tripod was a small, lightweight one that was not very sturdy. This and the large table create some motion blur in the photographs. I was concerned that the overhead lights in the room and the light coming from the window I was below would cause a problem but this was not the case. 28 CMS II,3,313 has a radius of 10 mm, which is smaller than a dime. The online CMS does not give the measurements of the seal stones and the drawings are all made about the same size. I did not know the size of the stones when I requested to examine them. 29 I used a 18-55 mm lens locked on 18. A “macro” lens would have been a better choice for this project. Many of the photographs were blurry, grainy, and dark. These are all things that can be fixed on any future projects. A sturdier tripod and being more careful will take care of any blurriness from movement. The camera I was using only had 12.3 megapixels, a camera with a higher number, at least 20 megapixels, should help with the graininess along with a different lens as mentioned above. The darkness of the photographs can be taken care of by changing my shutter speed and 41

Currently, I am experimenting with RTI on small objects such as coins and jewelry. The ring seen in figures 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, and 2.8 is from this experimentation. This will enable me to come up with a good setup and guidelines for working with very small objects. I would like to continue studying seal stones and hope to get a chance at making more

RTI models. However, RTI can be used on other objects besides seal stones. It is a very accurate, easy to use, and an inexpensive method of making digital representations. Making digital surrogates is very important in archaeology but also for other humanities fields because it offers access to information and objects that may be difficult to obtain in any way other than first-hand experience. In the next chapter, more information will be given about the seal stones photographed in the

Archaeological Museum in Heraklion.

aperture and also by running the raw photographs through a photo editing software before loading them into RTIBuilder. Figure 2.9 shows images of five of the RTI models.

42

Figure 2.9 – RTI images of top left – CMS II, 2, 16; top middle CMS II, 3, 80; top right CMS II, 4, 193; bottom

left CMS II, 3, 361; bottom right CMS II, 3, 72. 43

Chapter III

Examination of the Talismanic Seal Stone

Some of the confusion surrounding talismanic seal stones is because very little scholarship has been written about them. Another problem is that scholars often disagree on how these stones were used and how they should be classified. For instance, the dates that the seal stones were used and manufactured has been disputed. Sir Arthur

Evans, when categorizing them, dated them MM III – LM I.1 V.E.G. Kenna also believed that these stones were first introduced during MM III but thought they continued to be manufactured, though of poor quality, until

LM III.2 Reynold Higgins, expert in Greek jewelry more than seal stones, wrote that the talismanic seals were still being used during LM II.3 Most scholars today agree with Evans and date them MM III – LM I but no one is certain.4 Besides chronology, many of the characteristics of the talismanic stone are also not consistent in all literature. Using previous scholarship, data I have created, and my own observations, I propose to re-examine these stones. I will first look at their find spots and then move to their shape, material, motifs, cutting technique, and use. I hope

1 Evans 1921, 672. 2 Kenna 1969, 25. 3 Higgins 1967, 184. 4 Krzyszkowska 2005, 133. 44 by doing this to clear some of the confusion surrounding the talismanic seal stones.

Most of my data came from the Corpus der minoischen und mykenischen Siegel (CMS). The CMS was began in 1958, by Friedrich

Matz. His goal was to publish a description, drawing, and photograph of all the known Aegean seal stones, signet rings, and clay sealings dating from the Bronze Age located in museums all over the world. The first volume included all the seal stones, rings, and sealings in the National

Archaeological Museum in Athens. Today there are over 20 catalogue volumes and nine supplementary volumes. They have also been digitized and place online through ARACHNE, the Central Object-Database of the

German Archaeological Institute and the Archaeological Institute of the

University of Cologne.5

Figure 3.1 - Division of Crete into East and West

5 www.uni-heidelberg.de/faku 45

Find Spots

All scholarship agrees that the talismanic seal stones were more

common in east Crete but this depends upon your definition of east. If a

dividing line were drawn down the center of the island somewhere near

Paralia Fodele, then most talismanic stones indeed come from east Crete

(Figure 3.1).6 It is also true that most Minoan sites are east of this line.

If, however, the definition of east Crete began with the prefecture of

Lassithi, the statement would be incorrect. Sir Arthur Evans thought

that the greatest number of talismanic seal stones came from the

province of Sitia, although my compilation of sites indicates otherwise.7 I

looked at all the talismanic stones in Volumes I - IV of the CMS and

found that most come from the prefecture of Heraklion (Figure 3.2).8

6 Paralia Fodele is on the northern coast of Crete about 26 km northwest of Heraklion. 7 Evans 1935, 446. Evans formed this idea from his ethnographic evidence. He purchased or traded more of the talismanic stones in this province. 8 This study includes a total of 384 stones. 323 stones were marked as talismanic in the CMS volumes I – IV. Also, included are 61 stones not marked as talismanic but that resemble talismanic stones. These have possibly been miss- identified. 46

Figure 3.2 - Talismanic seal stones found on Crete from CMS Vol I - IV. 47

When looking at a map of only the stones with a known provenience, meaning that they and the find spot where they were found was recorded during an archaeological excavation, there were slightly more stones recorded in the prefecture of Lassithi. However, this might be explained by the excavation records being more complete at some of these sites than in other areas.

Table 3.3 - Name of site and number of talismanic seal stones found at each.

48

Figure 3.4 - Seal stones with and without recorded excavated context.

Only 74 stones out of a total of 384 talismanic stones were found in an excavated context. Of these most were found in burials. The 310 others were either found at a site on the surface, or without a certain findspot or else have no provenience, with 119 in the latter category.

Most of the stones without context information were found in the prefecture of Heraklion. It should be remembered that most of the known

Minoan sites are also in this area, so it should not be a surprise that more stones have been found here. 49

It has been cited in some sources that the talismanic stones were not used by the highest class of Minoan Society living at Knossos because so few have been found in the palace archives.9 It is true that very few of the talismanic stones were used as stamps, but, in my research, I have found that the greatest number of talismanic stones were found at Knossos. Out of the 265 stones with known provenience,

39 come from Knossos, followed by Malia with 29 talismanic stones

(Table 3.5).

Figure 3.5 - Percentages of stone shape.

9 Galanakis 2005, 14. 50

Shape

The amygdaloid shape, as recorded in previous scholarship, is the most common shape of talismanic seal stones.10 This shape has been called almond-like because of its resemblance to an almond (Figure 3.6).

I observed, when performing RTI on some seal stones in the Heraklion museum, that some of the amygdaloid lions’ mask stones have a ridge down the back, which has also been noted by Evans (Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6 – Examples of amygdaloid shaped seal stones, left – front CMS II, 3, 361; middle – back CMS II, 3, 80; right –

front of same.

I found that over 50% of the talismanic stones were amygdaloid in shape (Figure 3.5). They can be found in an even distribution over all of the sites on Crete. The second most popular shape is the round lentoid form, totaling 99 out of the 384 stones in my study (Figure 3.7). The rest

10 Kenna 1960, 68. 51 of the stones were in various other shapes including pillow or cushion and prism.

Figure 3.7 – Examples of lentoid shaped stones, left – CMS II, 3, 73; middle – CMS II, 4, 223; right – CMS II, 3, 313.

Material

As has been recorded in previous studies on the talismanic stones, carnelian is the most common material, comprising close to 50% of the stones in my study (Figure 3.9).11 Carnelian is a variety of chalcedony. It is a translucent stone that can be brown, red, or orange (Figure 3.8). It is a 6-7 on the Mohs scale. Stones of this hardness could not be made into seal stones before MM II, when the cutting wheel was introduced to

11 Ibid. 52

Crete.12 Carnelian is not a local mineral. It had to be imported and probably came from the area of present day southeast Iran.13

Figure 3.8 – Seal stones made of carnelian, left - CMS II, 4, 153, right – CMS II, 3, 367.

It has sometimes been argued that the talismanic stones were made of cheap or common materials.14 While today carnelian is not an expensive gem stone, during the Bronze Age it was an import and so would have been costlier to use than a local mineral, such as serpentine.

Carnelian was significant in Egyptian religion. Stones made of carnelian were placed on the necks of the deceased as protection.15 The red/orange color or the stone might also have been significant to the Minoans.16 The second most popular stone was jasper, at 87 of the 384 stones. Most of these, according to the CMS, are of green jasper. With so many seals

12 Boardman 1970, 375. 13 Younger 1979, 40. 14 Boardman 1970, 43. 15 Morgan 2008, 40-41. 16 Krzyszkowska 2005, 136-137. 53

made from red and green stones, it does seem that color was important,

but there is no other evidence to support the specific meaning.

Figure 3.9 - Percentages of stones.

Carnelian and jasper were evenly distributed among all sites.

Figure 3.10 is a map of materials, excluding these two stones. Steatite,

serpentine, chlorite, and slate have been grouped together. These are all

soft stones that look similar to one another when carved into seal

stones.17 Fifty-nine talismanic seal stones belong to this group. As can be seen on the map, these stones were used more in the prefecture of

17 In many of the CMS entries, two materials were given. An example of this is steatite or serpentine, which was listed as the material for 12 entries. 54

Heraklion than elsewhere. Agate, rock crystal, chalcedony, and amethyst were also used for talismanic seals. Minerals only occurring in low amounts were grouped together under the heading ‘other’ on the map.

Figure 3.10 - Map of materials used to make talismanic seal stones, excluding carnelian and jasper.

Figure 3.10 reveals a potentially significant pattern in the distribution of amethyst, a purple stone in the quartz family regarded as important throughout history. This stone was once believed to guard against drunkenness.18 Later it was worn as a sign of piety and celibacy.

18 Morgan 2008, 24-26. 55

The color purple was also considered the color of royalty. There is no surviving evidence from which to restore the meaning of this stone to the

Minoans, but we do know it was uncommon imported. Only seven of the talismanic stones were made of amethyst, and none in Knossos. Of the four sites, three of the seven stones come from Gournia (Figure 3.11).

With such a small sample, it is unclear whether the elevated quantity of seals from this precious stone recovered at Gournia is significant to our understanding of the economic and palatial systems across Crete.

Figure 3.11 - Locations where amethyst talismanic stones have been found and the three stones from Gournia: II, 3, 244; II, 3, 245 and II, 3, 247.

56

Motifs

Dividing seal stones up into groups by what is cut on their surface is a challenge. For one thing two people may not see the same thing.

Where Evans saw a rustic shrine with snakes, others have seen a tankard shaped vessel.19 Also, no matter what we see it as, it is probably not the same as what the Minoans saw. Sir Arthur Evans thought that the image or design cut on the talismanic stones gave them their power as a talisman. He divided these stones up into groups based on what was carved on them. Others have done the same. As mentioned in the first chapter, the problem is that not everyone uses the same motif categories and classifies the stones consistently, like the seal stone shown in figure

3.12 (CMS II, 2,16). In the CMS this seal stone is listed as having a plant shoot on it. Onassoglou includes it in the vegetation motif.20 When I look at this stone I see a fish, the two circles are eyes and what others have seen as shoots, I see as fins. Fish were usually made in profile on talismanic stones but occasionally top views were made.

19 Krzyszkowska 2005, 134. 20 Onassoglou 1985. 57

Figure 3.12 - Left – Talismanic stones with fish, top left – CMS IV, 187; top right – CMS II, 4, 95; and bottom drawing and photograph of CMS II, 2, 16. (Drawings from CMS)

A future study on these motifs would include compiling all of a type, in each motif category. An example of this would be to put all the talismanic stones with fish, which is usually in a sea creature motif category, and see if they are similar. Any that are not may belong to a different category. Using figure 3.12 as an example, most fish on talismanic seal stones look like the figure on the top left. All the motifs should also be compared to other Minoan art, such as frescoes and pottery.

In the current study the stones have been divided into eleven categories of motifs. The categories are vessel, lion mask, double ax, plant, ship, sea creature, heart, insect, animal (other than sea creatures), 58

decorative, and architectural. Many of the motifs are the same as those

used by Onassoglou and the CMS.21 The categories vessel, plant, ship,

sea creature, insect, and animal are the same. Onassoglou has

additional categories: bundle, miscellaneous, and isolated. The remaining

categories in this study, apart from decorative were influenced by

Evans.22 The word ‘decorative’ was chosen because it best described the

stones in this group. As mentioned before some stones have been placed

in a different motif category than Onassoglou and the CMS placed them.

For a complete list of stones and my categorization, see Appendix B.

Some stones were excluded from this part of the study. The stones

that were not identified by the CMS as talismanic were left out (Footnote

8). The prism shaped stones were also left out because some stones

could go into three different categories. Many of the stones were difficult

to place into any motif category.

Over 25% of the talismanic stones, in this study, have sea

creatures on them. The next biggest group was the category called

decorative which includes rings, circles, cross hatching and anything else

that was considered decorative. Figure 3.13 is a map showing the

21 Onassoglou has nine categories. I include architectural and decorative and make separate categories for stones with the heart motif and those with a double ax. 22 The first study on talismanic seal stones that I read was by Kenna. He was influenced by the interpretations of Evans. I learned these interpretations first, when I see a lions’ mask stone I identify it as such, not because I see a lion but because that is how these stones were first introduced to me. 59 distribution of the three most popular motifs. Most motifs were evenly distributed among the sites except for the heart and vessel motifs. There are only eight stones with the heart motif and all except two were found in the prefecture of Lassithi. The stones with the vessel motif were found in the highest concentrations on the north coast. (Figure 3.14)

Figure 3.13 - Distribution of the three most popular motifs. 60

Figure 3.14 - Distribution of vessel motif.

Placing these stones into categories based on motif is only a way to sort them, they do not help us figure out how these stones were used.

Because there is so much subjectivity in placing the stones in these different categories, this may not even be the best way to organize them.

The motif of the stone is not always a way to separate it from other seal stones either. As mentioned above, this study includes any stone that appears to be talismanic. Some were marked in the CMS as possibly talismanic, but others were categorized as figurative, ornamental or some other group of seal stones (Figure 3.15). If the material, the cutting 61

technique, and shape were similar to the talismanic stones, the stone

was included in this study.

Figure 3.15 - Three very similar looking stones, the middle seal stone, CMS III 337, is not marked as talismanic in the CMS, the other two, left - CMS IV 169 and right CMS IV 172, are. (Images from the CMS)

Cutting Technique

What distinguishes the talismanic stones from other seal stones is

not necessarily the motif, but rather the way they were cut.23 The

designs or figures are made from broad straight cuts with rounded

outlines, alternated or edged by sharp narrow cuts and occasional arcs,

circles, and dots.24 There was no attempt to disguise the tool marks or to make the images appear naturalistic. It has been said that a stone cut in this way could be made quickly and from a single tubular-drill.25 Often

lines do not connect when they should be expected to do so, such as

when the tentacles on an octopus are not connected to the body. The

23 Krzyszkowska 2005, 136-137. 24 Boardman 1970, 42-44. 25 Krzyszkowska 2005, 133-134. 62 motifs of the talismanic class were those that could easily be made by this technique.26 I cannot verify what technique was used in making them because I have only examined a few stones in person and am not yet expert in the manufacturing of seal stones. I can, however, report that according to the CMS, almost every stone which I classified as talismanic for my study was reported to be wheel cut. In addition, many of these were also tubular-drilled. Cutting wheels and the tubular-drill were attached to a lathe operated with a bow.27 The cutting wheels produced lines, thin lines if the wheel was thin and thick lines if the wheel was thick. The tubular-drill produced circles and arches. Stones contemporary to the talismanic used similar tools but in a different way.

Their designs were naturalistic and detailed.

How Were the Talismanic Stones Used?

Sir Arthur Evans thought that the talismanic stones were used to give protection or power to their wearer. Excluding Kenna, none of the scholars cited in this study have thought the same as Evans on this point. Even Boardman, one year after Kenna, wrote that if these stones were so important to the Minoans, they should have made them more carefully.28 Currently, there is no way to prove Evans right or wrong

26 Boardman 1970, 44. 27 Krzyszkowska 2005, 83-85. 28 Boardman 1970, 43. 63

definitively, although we may at least raise questions of how they were

used. It is at least certain that they were not used as stamps except in a

few cases.29

They also had string holes drilled in them and so were likely worn

around the neck or wrist like other seal stones. Evidence from frescoes

and burials confirm how seal stones were worn. The Cupbearer fresco

(Figure 3.16) from Knossos shows a man with a lentoid shaped seal stone

on a bracelet around his left wrist. There have also been seal stones

found in graves. Some have been found around the neck on a necklace

with beads, while others have been found near the wrist of the

deceased.30

29 See supra n. 4, Chapter I. 30 Younger 1977, 146-149. At one of the tombs of Armenoi near Rethymnon a necklace of beads with a lentoid shaped stone was found around the neck of one of the dead. There are also some examples from the Mainland. At the tombs, at Agios Ioannis and Zafer Papoura seal stones have been found near the wrists of some of the skeletons. These stones were possibly attached to the wrists of the deceased but the chords have rotted away leaving only the stone. 64

Figure 3.16 – Part of the Cupbearer fresco and its location at Knossos (Image on left taken at the Archaeological Museum at Heraklion and image on right taken at Knossos).

The amygdaloid shaped stones have the string holes drilled

through them long ways or horizontal to the image (Figure 3.17). Lentoid

stones have been found with string holes in the vertical position, as it is

in figure 3.17, and in the horizontal position. Lentoid shaped stones are

not actually completely round and the string hole is always drilled

through the shorter of the two diameters.31 These string holes appear to have been drilled by the maker of the stone so that the amygdaloid could be made worn around the neck and the lentoid worn on the wrist. The drill holes are at an orientation best suited to displaying an image cut on these shapes of stones. However, this was not how all owners wore their

31 Ibid., 155. 65

stones. Some wore them in a way that made the image difficult to read.

Some of the stones found in tombs, near the wrists of deceased

individuals have been amygdaloid shaped stones, which would indicate

they were not being worn in the way intended by the maker.32 This leads

me to believe that the stones were not commissioned by an owner but

premade. Otherwise, the manufacturer should be expected to have

drilled the string hole in the appropriate orientation for how the stone

was intended to be worn.33

Figure 3.17 - String hole orientation in amygdaloid and lentoid shaped stones (left – CMS II, 3, 42; right CMS II, 3, 91 Images taken at the Archaeological Museum in Heraklion)

32 Ibid., 154. 33 We know the string hole was drilled last. Many broken stones have been found in workshops at Malia and other sites, with images already cut on the surface, but with cracks and breaks from the of the string hole. 66

Also, relating to how the stones were worn, evidence exists that many seal stones were worn face down. In the fresco, above, the seal stone on the man’s wrist does not show any image or design. There could be two reasons for this, either that the artist did not feel the need to add the detail, knowing her or his audience could recognize a seal stone, or it was common practice to wear them with the carving against the skin.

This may have been done to protect the cutting, or, if Evans was correct and these were magical, it could be a form of contagious magic. Evans called it sympathetic magic in his book but if the magic comes from the image and if the image needs to touch the wearers skin to transfer the power, then it would be a form of contagious magic. There is other evidence besides the fresco that seal stones were worn with the carving towards the skin. Some lentoids have a conical shaped back. An example of one like this can be seen in figure 3.18, a stone which would be impossible to wear except face down.34

Figure 3.18 - The back of CMS II, 3, 92.

34 This was also noted in by John Younger (Younger 1977, 156, n.76.) 67

Also, the image or design on many of the talismanic stones is almost impossible to see either from size of the stone or from the material. This makes me think that the image was not the important part of the stone. Examples of these can be seen in 3.19. CMS II, 3, 313, left photograph, has a radius of 10mm, the carving would have been difficult for anyone, including the owner to see unless very close up. The other examples are made of materials that obscure the image.

Figure 3.19 – (from left to right) CMS II, 3, 313; CMS II, 3, 251; and CMS II, 3, 295 (Images taken at Archaeological Museum at Heraklion)

The talismanic seal stones were rarely used as stamps. They could not have been used as individual identification because of their uniformity. They could have been used as magical charms as Evans thought, with the power originating from the incised image. However, it seems that if they were used in this way, as Boardman argued, we would expect the images to have been more carefully carved and worn with the design facing the correct direction. Furthermore, if seeing the image clearly were important, materials that obscure the image would be excluded. Possibly the talismanic stones were used as amulets, meaning 68 the charm or magic was associated with the material, the shape, or more likely the color of the stone. They were certainly worn around the neck and on the wrist, like jewelry. This may not have been their primary function, but it is the only function for which we have definite evidence.

Conclusion

The talismanic seal stone of Crete was categorized by Sir Arthur

Evans in the late 1890s. Evans believed these seal stones were worn by the ancient Cretans to impart magic on the wearer arising from the image, not the mineral, color, or shape of the stone. He cited ethnographic evidence as the reason for this interpretation.35 Few studies have examined this type of stone since Evans’.

The talismanic seal stones cannot be defined by their use because we do not know how they were used. They cannot be defined by their shape or material either, though predominately amygdaloid shaped and made of carnelian, these two characteristics are not unique to talismanic seals alone. The carvings on their surfaces can be divided into between

9-11 motif categories but the categories themselves are common to all seal stones. As mentioned above what sets the talismanic seal stone apart is the style in which they were cut.

35 See supra n. 17, Chapter I. 69

All seal stones were made with similar tools but it was the way the lapidary used these tools that made a stone ‘talismanic’ or figurative or any other style. The figures and designs on the talismanic stones were made up of lines, arches, circles, and rings. Animals and plants were made in an abstract way on purpose, not because the lapidary was in a hurry or bad at his/her job. This style, which works well when cutting cross-hatching or fish, is what makes the talismanic seal stone unique.

This thesis was written on the talismanic seal stones found on

Crete. It presents a re-evaluation of a type of seal stone that has been overlooked in other studies on Minoan seal stones. Three hundred and eighty-four stones were collected, organized, and studied in preparation of this thesis. They were organized in spreadsheets and spatially on maps. Appendix A gives a brief description of how the maps were created.

It also presents three maps not included in this chapter. Appendix B is the spreadsheet created with information on all 384 stones from the

CMS. These maps and spreadsheets were made in an attempt to characterize the talismanic stone. In this process it was discovered that the shape or material or provenience do not set this type of seal stone apart. The defining characteristic of the talismanic seal stone is its style. 70

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Appendix A

Mapping

All of the maps in this thesis were created through ArcMap and

QGIS software. Close to 75% of the coordinates needed to create the site

shapefiles could be found online.1 The remaining sites were found in

either The Archaeology of Crete – An Introduction by J.D.S. Pendlebury or

Η Πρоϊστоρικη Κατοικησις της Ελλαδος και η Γενεσις του Ελληνικου Εθνους

by Konstantinos Syriopoulos.2 The book by Pendlebury is a general guide to the archaeology of Crete, included are maps with prominent sites from each time period. The book by Syriopoulos is a catalog of prehistoric locations in Greece. The book is divided by time period and then by region. Each section includes a map.

Table 4.1 is a section of the spreadsheet created with all the sites, their coordinates, and number of seal stones found. This was imported to

QGIS to create a shapefile.3 Figures 4.2 – 4.8 are maps created in

ArcMap.4 Figure 4.9 is a graph created in the same software.

1 Almost all locations with a Wikipedia entry include coordinates. These coordinates are linked to GeoHack. These are pages that list the coordinates of the site or location and mapping options, such as Google Maps. Another source for coordinates is the Ancient-Greece.org web site. 2 The site of Sinda, where one seal stone was found, could not be found on any map. This site was consequently removed from the spatial analysis part of this project. 3 ArcMap encountered problems with some of the spreadsheets, QGIS was used as an alternative. 4 The shapefile of Crete was created by Dr. Sarah Murray and the topographic shapefile was downloaded from http://GEODATA.gov.gr .

75

Table 4.1 – A section of the spreadsheet with location name, coordinates, and number of talismanic seal stones found.

76

Figure 4.2 - Map with Minoan sites where talismanic seal stones have been found.

77

Figure 4.3 - Locations for talismanic seal stones found in excavated context. 78

Figure 4.4 - Locations of talismanic seal stones without excavated context. 79

Figure 4.5 - Materials of talismanic seal stones 80

Figure 4.6 - Map of materials used to make talismanic seal stones. 81

Figure 4.7 - Shapes of talismanic seal stones. 82

Figure 4.8 - Motifs on talismanic seal stones. 83

Table 4.9 - Graph of talismanic seal stones.

84

Appendix B

Appendix B is a spreadsheet with all the data collected on 384 talismanic seal stones. The first column lists the CMS number, then the provenience (if known), the context (if known), the shape of the stone, the material, how it was cut, the date, whether the CMS classifies the stone as talismanic or not, and motif. All of the information in this spreadsheet, comes from the CMS volumes I; IS; II,1; II,2; II,3; II,4; II,5;

II,6; II,7; II,8; III, and IV. These volumes include seal stones in the

National Archaeological Museum in Athens and the Archaeological

Museum in Heraklion. For easier viewing, the spreadsheet has been oriented in landscape.

CMS # SITE NAME CONTEXT SHAPE MATERIAL CUT DATE TALIS MOTIF

IS 086-1 Agios Hallway at Amygdaloid Agate? Wheel Cut SM I Y Insect Kyrillos Kephali III 245-1 Agios Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel Nikolaos Cut IV 153-1 Aimonas Discoid Carnelian Wheel Cut MM II - N NT - Figurative MM III IV 236-1 Aimonas Amygdaloid Flecked Wheel Cut SM I Y Animal Jasper IV 205-1 Aimonas Lentoid Steatite or Wheel? SM I Y Animal Serpentine II 4-170- Anoja Amygdaloid Serpentine Scraped, SM I ? N NT - Ornamental 1 Wheel Cut II 3-205- Aphrati Pillow Agate Wheel Cut MM II - N NT - Architectural 1 MM III II 3-206- Aphrati Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel 1 Cut IV 251-1 Aphrati Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube? SM I Y Animal Cut IV 247-1 Aphrati, Amygdaloid Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative Viannos II 4-192- Arkalochori Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Ornamental 1 IV 177-1 Axos Amygdaloid Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y Insect

IV D050- Axos Lentoid Serpentine or Scraped SM I N NT - Figurative and 1 Slate Ornamental II 3-215- Cherssoniso Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y 3-Sided Prism 1 A,B s Cut IV 202-1 Choumeri Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Double Ax

IV 234-1 Choumeri Amygdaloid Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Heart

IV 206-1 Choumeri Amygdaloid Steatite or Wheel? SM I N NT - Figurative and Serpentine Ornamental IV 183-1 Elounda Lentoid Agate Tube, Wheel SM I Y Plant Cut

II 3-297- Elounda Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 II 3-296- Elounda Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 II 3-295- Elounda Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut II 3,140- Episkopi Christou Lentoid Carnelion Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Ornamental 1 Corridor, grave ? II 3,138- Episkopi Kephala Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 Corridor Grave ? II 3,137- Episkopi Kephala Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel 1 Corridor Grave ? II 3,139- Episkopi Kephala Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Animal 1 Corridor Grave ? Cut IV 181-1 Garipa Amygdaloid Green Jasper Tube, Wheel SM I Y Vessel Cut II 3-220- Gonies Amygdaloid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 II 3-163- Gortyn Pillow Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative 1 Cut II 3-234- Gournia Settlement, Lentoid Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y Heart 1 House Hb II 3-247- Gournia Necropolis of Pillow Amethyst Wheel Cut SM I Y Heart 1 Sphoungaras, Pithosbestattun g, MM III - LM I II 3-244- Gournia Necropolis of Amygdaloid Amethyst Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Sphoungaras, Pithosbestattun g, MM III - LM I II 3-245- Gournia Necropolis of Lentoid Amethyst Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Sphoungaras, Cut Pithosbestattun g, MM III - LM I II 3-241- Gournia Necropolis of Lentoid Carnelian Tube, Wheel SM I Y Vessel 1 Sphoungaras, Cut Pithosbestattun g, MM III - LM I II 3-242- Gournia Necropolis of Amygdaloid Carnelian Tube, Wheel SM I Y Vessel 1 Sphoungaras, Cut

Pithosbestattun g, MM III - LM I II 3-231- Gournia Palace? Room 3-Sided Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y 3-Sided Prism 1 A,B,C G3 House? Prism II 3-243- Gournia Necropolis of Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Architectural 1 Sphoungaras, Pithosbestattun g, MM III - LM I II 3-233- Gournia Settlement Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel 1 II 3-232- Gournia Augos Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Settlement Cut II 3-248- Gournia Necropolis of Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Sphoungaras, Cut Pithosbestattun g, MM III - LM I II 3-249- Gournia Necropolis of Lentoid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 Sphoungaras, Pithosbestattun g, MM III - LM I II 3-235- Gournia Settlement, Amygdaloid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut SM I Y Double Ax 1 house MM III - LM I II 3-246- Gournia Necropolis of Lentoid Steatite or Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 Sphoungaras, Serpentine Pithosbestattun g, MM III - LM I IV 162-1 Ierapetra Amygdaloid Agate Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel Cut II 2,273- Ierapetra 4-Sided Green Jasper Tube MM II N NT - 4-Sided Prism, 1 A,B,C Prism Ornamental IV 187-1 Ierapetra Lentoid Rock Crystal Tube, Wheel SM I Y Sea Creature Cut II 3-203- Jeraki 3-Sided Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y 3-Sided Prism 1A,B,C Amygdaloid Cut IV 231-1 Kalo Choio Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut II 2,016- Kamilari Room ? Amygdaloid Serpentine or Wheel, MM II - N NT - Figurative or 1 Tholostomb Slate Compass Cut MM III Ornamental possibly from MM II B - Talismanic

MM III A, SM III A context IV 242-1 Kanli Kasteli Amygdaloid Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel

IV 204-1 Kapetaniana Amygdaloid Amethyst Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature Cut II 3- Kassani Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 204-1 IV 249-1 Kastel Liana Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IV 200-1 Kato Zakros Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Animal

II 3-286- Kato Zakros Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship 1 II 2,283- Kato Zakros Discoid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut MM II N NT - Figurative 1 II 3,130- Katsambas House ar Quarry Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel 1 II 3-207- Keravado Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Ship 1 Cut II 3,012- Knossos 3-Sided Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y 3-Sided Prism 1 A,B Prism III 309-1 Knossos Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

III 345-1 Knossos Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

II 3,047- Knossos Necropolis Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Insect 1 Epano Jypsades Grave II II 3,030- Knossos Necropolis Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 Mavro Spiläs Grave IV III 278-1 Knossos Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 299-1 Knossos Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

II 3-182- Knossos Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship 1 II 3,049- Knossos Necropolis Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Epano Jypsades

Grave VII *Under Skull II 3,082- Knossos Sanctuary of 3-Sided Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y 3-Sided Prism 1 A,B Demeter Deposit Prism Cut H House ? III 289-1 Knossos Lentoid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Insect Cut II 3,042- Knossos Necropolis Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Sapher Papoura Cut Grave 36? II 3,081- Knossos Sanctuary of Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Demeter Deposit Cut H House ? III 294-1 Knossos Lentoid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature Cut II 3,026- Knossos House of the Amygdaloid Carnelian? Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 High Priest ? Cut II 3-180- Knossos Amygdaloid Chalcedony Wheel, Tube SM I N NT - Figurative 1 Cut II 3-178- Knossos Lentoid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 II 4-124- Knossos Necropolis Lentoid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Mavro Spiläo, Grave VI, rock chamber grave,MM III - LMIA III 304-1 Knossos Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut II 3,097- Knossos Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel 1 Cut II 3,080- Knossos Sanctuary of Amygdaloid Hematite Wheel, Round SM I Y Lion Mask 1 Demeter Deposit Bead Cut H House SM I - SM II ? Context II 3-177- Knossos Amygdaloid Pseudojasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel 1 Cut II 4-110- Knossos Palace Amygdaloid Red Jasper Scraped SM I ? N NT - Ornamental 1

IV 208-1 Knossos Amygdaloid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship

III 305-1 Knossos Amygdaloid Rock Crystal Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut II 4-186- Knossos Ellinika Corridor Lentoid Serpentine Circle, Scraped SM I N NT - Ornamental 1 ? II 4-147- Knossos Pillow Serpentine Circle, Wheel MM III - N NT - Ornamental 1 Cut LM I II 4-128- Knossos Necropolis Amygdaloid Serpentine Scraped, MM III - N NT - Architectural 1 Mavro Spiläo, Wheel ? Cut LM I Grave XVII, Chamber B, rock chamber grave SM II II 3-186- Knossos Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut MM III - N NT - Ornamental 1 LM I III 270-1 Knossos Amygdaloid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Ornamental

II 4-014- Knossos Amygdaloid Serpentine Wheel, Circle SM I ? N NT - Ornamental 1 Cut II 3-185- Knossos Lentoid Serpentine Wheel? MM III - N NT - Architectural 1 SM I II 3,071- Knossos Temple Tomb Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 III 287-1 Knossos Lentoid Slate Wheel?, SM I Y Decorative Circle? Cut II 3,093- Knossos Lentoid Steatite or Cut, Scraped SM I - N NT - Cretan Popular 1 Serpentine SM II Group II 3,072- Knossos Hogarth's Tomb, Lentoid Steatite or Cut, Scraped SM I N NT - Popular Cretan 1 rock chamber Serpentine Group grave, Geometric context II 3,092- Knossos Lentoid Steatite or Cut, Scraped SM I - N NT - Popular Cretan 1 Serpentine SM II Group II 3,037- Knossos Necropolis Lentoid Steatite or Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 Mavro Spiläs Serpentine Grave IX Chamber D

II 3,045- Knossos Necropolis Amygdaloid Steatite or Wheel, Tube MM III - N NT - Architectural 1 Sapher Papoura Serpentine Cut LM I ? Grave ? II 3-325- Kochlakias Pillow Chalcedony Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 II 2,026- Koumassa Tholos B Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut MM II - Y Decorative 1 MM III IV 260-1 Krassi Lentoid Hematite Wheel Cut SB I - N NT - Cut Style SB II II 3 208- Lagoutas Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship 1 III 334-1 Lasithiou Amygdaloid Amethyst Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 263-1 Lasithiou Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Figurative

III 271-1 Lasithiou Lentoid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Heart Cut III 275-1 Lasithiou Amygdaloid Chlorite? Wheel Cut SM I Y Lion Mask

III 311-1 Lasithiou Amygdaloid Limestone Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IV 189-1 Lastros Amygdaloid Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant

IV 191-1 Lastros Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Double Ax

LASTRO Lastros Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Heart S IV 192-1 Lastros Pillow Chalcedony Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel

IV 193-1 Lastros Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

IV 195-1 Lastros Lentoid Obsidian Wheel, Tube SM I N NT - Figurative and Cut Ornamental II 3,006- Livada Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut II 3-294- Loumas Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 IV D047- Loutraki Amygdaloid Flecked Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Jasper

II 3-211- Lyttos SM I context Amygdaloid Carnelian? Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 III 308-1 Malia Lentoid Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y Double Ax

III 276-1 Malia Gable Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature Prism III 338-1 Malia Button Carnelian Wheel Cut MM II - Y Animal MM III III 290-1 Malia Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Insect

III 268-1 Malia Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant

III 283-1 Malia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 284-1 Malia Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 288-1 Malia Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 321-1 Malia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 328-1 Malia Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 336-1 Malia Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

IV 209-1 Malia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 264-1 Malia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship

III 272-1 Malia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Barrel SM I Y Heart (Prism with Cut ? ladder rub IV 210-1 Malia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut III 253-1 Malia Pillow Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Insect Cut III 274-1 Malia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Lion Mask Cut III 244-1 Malia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature Cut

III 324-1 Malia Lentoid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature Cut III 249-1 Malia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel Cut III 258-1 Malia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel Cut IV 178-1 Malia Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IV 220-1 Malia Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship

IV 235-1 Malia Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut III 257-1 Malia Lentoid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel Cut III 280-1 Malia Pillow Limestone Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant

III 241-1 Malia 4-Sided Rock Crystal Wheel Cut MM II - N 4-Sided Prism A,B,C Prism MM III II 3,151- Malia Atelier de Amygdaloid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I ? N NT - Script 1A,B Sceaux, stray find II 3,144- Malia Central Court of Lentoid Steatite or Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 Palace Serpentine IV 165-1 Mallaes Lentoid Agate Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel Cut II 3-159- Matala Lentoid Pseudojasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut IV D041- Melambes Lentoid Hard Stone Wheel Cut SM I Y Animal 1 II 3-291- Messa Pillow Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative 1 Lasithi Cut IV D049- Messara Lentoid Agate Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Ornamental 1 IV 224-1 Messara Amygdaloid Agate Wheel, Tube SM I N NT - Figurative Cut IV 169-1 Messara Lentoid Agate Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature Cut IV 172-1 Messara Lentoid Agate Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature Cut

IV 179-1 Messara Lentoid Agate Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel Cut IV D046- Messara Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 IV 225-1 Messara Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Animal Cut IV D042- Messara Lentoid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Animal 1 Cut IV 237-1 Messara Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut IV 190-1 Messara Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IV 194-1 Messara Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IV 238-1 Messara Amygdaloid Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut IV 186-1 Messara Lentoid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

IV 254-1 Messara 3-Sided Slate Scraped, SM I N 3-Sided Prism Prism Drilled II 3-301- Mirabela Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 II 3-298- Mirabela Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship 1 II 3-299- Mirabela Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 II 3-300- Mirabela Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 II 3-265- Mochlos Seager Lentoid Amethyst Wheel Cut SM I Y Heart 1 Excavation II 3-261- Mochlos Seager Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube ? SM I Y Vessel 1 Excavation Cut II 3-264- Mochlos Seager Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 Excavation II 3-258- Mochlos Seager Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Animal 1 Excavation Cut II 3-260- Mochlos Seager Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel 1 Excavation Cut

II 3-267- Mochlos Seager Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 Excavation II 3-263- Mochlos Necropolis, Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative 1 Grave XXII, built Cut chamber grave II 3-253- Mochlos Necropolis, Amygdaloid Hematite Wheel Cut SM I Y Lion Mask 1 grave, SM I II 3-266- Mochlos Seager Amygdaloid Rock Crystal Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative 1 Excavation Cut II 3-251- Mochlos Necropolis, Discoid Rock Crystal Wheel, Tube MM III - Y Sea Creature 1 Grave I, MM III? Cut LM I II 3-262- Mochlos Seager Lentoid Serpentine Wheel, Tube SM I Y Insect 1 Excavation Cut II 3-255- Mochlos Necropolis, Pillow Soft Stone Scraped SM I Y Decorative 1 Grave XVIII, built chamber grave II 3-268- Mochlos Seager Lentoid Steatite or Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 Excavation Serpentine II 3,313- Myrtidia Lentoid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 II 3-313- Myrtidia Lentoid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 II 3-312- Myrtidia Pillow Serpentine Wheel Cut MM II - N NT - Architectural 1 MM III II 4-069- Myrtidia Amygdaloid unknown Wheel Cut MM III - N NT - Figurative 1 LM I II 3-318- Palikastro in the city? Amygdaloid Agate Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut II 2,285- Palikastro 3-Sided Carnelian Tube, Wheel MM II Y 3-Sided Prism 1 A,B,C Prism Cut II 3-320- Palikastro Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 II 3-315- Palikastro Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 II 3-317- Palikastro Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 II 3-278- Palikastro Block d, Room Pillow Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Animal 1 11, house Cut

II 3-319- Palikastro Pillow Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative 1 Cut II 3-280- Palikastro House s, house Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut II 3-281- Palikastro House s ?, Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 house? Cut II 3-284- Palikastro British School Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Excavation Cut II 3-316- Palikastro Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut II 3-314- Palikastro Sta Ellinika Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Architectural 1 Corridor II 3-321- Palikastro Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative 1 Cut III 301-1 Phaistos Pillow Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

II 3,155- Phaistos Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 III 247-1 Phaistos Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

II 3,156- Phaistos Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel,Tube SM I Y Decoration 1 Cut III 326-1 Phaistos Amygdaloid Chalcedony? Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 281-1 Phaistos Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IV 214-1 Phaistos Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 260-1 Phaistos Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel

II 3-157- Phaistos Pillow Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decoration 1 Cut II 3,154- Phaistos Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut III 344-1 Phaistos Lentoid Red Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut III 273-1 Phaistos Amygdaloid Serpentine? Wheel Cut ? SM I Y Lion Mask

II 3,121- Platanos Mycenaean Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Architectural 1 Grave Cut II 2,025- Platanos Tholos B Amygdaloid Leg Scraped, Circle MM II - N NT - Ornamental 1 corridor Stavros ? Cut MM III II 4-177- Poros Amemomylos Pillow Serpentine Wheel Cut MM II - N NT - Architectural 1 Corridor? MM III II 3-308- Prassos 3-Sided Agate Wheel, Tube SM I Y 3-Sided Prism 1 A,B,C Prism Cut II 3-275- Prassos Bosanquet Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 Excavation II 3-272- Prassos Bosanquet Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Double Ax 1 Excavation Cut II 3-273- Prassos Bosanquet Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Excavation Cut II 3-274- Prassos Bosanquet Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Excavation Cut II 3-164- Prinias Ring Stone Rock Crystal Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 II 3-289- Psychro Amygdaloid Slate Wheel, Tube SM I Y Animal 1 Cut II 3,002- Rethymnon Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut IV 241-1 Rodopou Amygdaloid Medium-Hard Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Stone? Cut IV 218-1 Roussochori Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature a II 4,193- Roussochori Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 a II 4-193- Roussochori Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 a II 3-201- Sambas Pillow Serpentine Wheel Cut MM II- N NT - Architectural 1 MM III IV 182-1 Sisses Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

IV 219-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IV 226-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Agate Wheel, Tube SM I Y Animal Cut

III 293-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Agate Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature Cut IV 223-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Agate Wheel, Tube? SM I Y Heart Cut IV 180-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Agate ? Wheel Cut SM I Y Lion Mask

IV D045- Sitia Amygdaloid Agate? Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel 1 Cut IV 196-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Black Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

IV 188-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Carnelian Tube, Wheel SM I Y Sea Creature Cut IV 197-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IV 164-1 Sitia Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut MM II - N NT - Architectural MM III IV 175-1 Sitia Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant

IV 252-1 Sitia Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant

IV 163-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel

IV 244-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Animal Cut IV 243-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel Cut IS 073-1 Sitia 4-Sided Green Jasper Wheel Cut MM II N 4-Sided Prism A,B,C,D Prism III 329-1 Sitia Lentoid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

III 342-1 Sitia Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

II 3-311- Sitia Amygdaloid Jasper? Wheel, Tube? SM I Y Vessel 1 Cut IV 203-1 Sklavi Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant

IV 201-1 Sklavi Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut

IV D043- Sklavi Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel 1 Cut IV 207-1 Sklavi Lentoid Obsidian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut IV 255-1 Sklavi Amygdaloid Slate Scraped SM I Y Double Ax

IV 227-1 Smari Amygdaloid Agate? Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship

IV D044- Sykia Amygdaloid Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel 1 II 3-270- Sykia Kandemi Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel 1 Kephali Corridor, Sink Larnax Grave, SM III IV D031- Sykia Lentoid Chalcedony Wheel, Tube MM II N NT - Ornamental 1 Cut II 3-161- Trypiti Amygdaloid Carnelian? Wheel, Tube SM I N NT - Ornamental 1 Cut II 3-162- Trypiti Amygdaloid Slate? Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Ornamental 1 ? IV 239-1 Tsoutsouros Amygdaloid Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IV D048- Tsoutsouros Amygdaloid Agate Wheel?, Tube SM I Y Vessel 1 Cut II 4-108- Tylissos Housing, Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 Settlement SM IB - SM IIIAI II 4-189- Vajonia Perivola 8 - Shield Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Insect 1 Corridor? Cut II 3,143- Vathepetron mansion, stray Amygdaloid Steatite or Wheel Cut SM I Y Decoration 1 find Serpentine II 3-209- Viannos Lentoid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 II 3-230- Vrokastro Karakovillia, Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 Bone Enclosure II Ossuary II 3-228- Vrokastro Amygdali Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Plant 1 Corridor, Grave Cut IV, chamber

grave subminoan- protogeometric II 3-229- Vrokastro House? Pillow Green Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 Jasper? IV 215-1 Vrysses Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

IS 074-1 Amygdaloid Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship

III 346-1 Lentoid Agate Wheel Cut SM I Y 2-Sided A,B I 455-1 Pilllow Agate? Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IS 088-1 Lentoid Amethyst Wheel, Tube SM I Y Animal

II 3-365- Amygdaloid Black Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut I 451-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant

I 462-1 Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

I 464-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

I 465-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel

II 3,361- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship 1 III 296- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y 3-Sided Prism 1A,B III 339-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Animal

III 262-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Architectural

II 3-372- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 II 3-373- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 III 306-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Double Ax

III 307-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Double Ax

III 291-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Insect

II 4-231- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Figurative 1 II 3-223- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 III 312-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant

III 314-1 Lentoid Carnelian Wheel cut SM I Y Plant

II 3-371- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 II 3-376- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 III 248-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 279-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 282-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 292-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 297-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 300-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 327-1 Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 332-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 335-1 Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

II 3-361- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship 1 III 265-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Ship

II 3-359- Lentoid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel 1 III 246-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel

III 251-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel

III 255-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel

I 436-1 3-Sided Carnelian Wheel, Round SM I Y 3-Sided Prism A,B,C Amygdaloid Bead I 452-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature

I 460-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature

I 466-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature

IS 090-1 Lentoid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature

IS 089-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel

III 347-1 3 - Sided Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y 3-Sided Prism A,B,C Cut III 316-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Animal Cut III 252-1 Lentoid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I N NT - Figurative Cut III 343-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I or N NT - Ornamental Cut Modern ? II 3-367- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut II 3-375- Lentoid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut III 295-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature Cut III 325-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature Cut II 3-358- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel 1 Cut

II 3-360- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel 1 Cut III 259-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube SM I Y Vessel Cut I 441-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube, SM I Y Sea Creature Lunette Tube II 3,367- Amygdaloid Carnelian Wheel, Tube, SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Round Bead Cut IS 085-1 Amygdaloid Carnelian? Wheel Cut SM I Y Insect

III 322-1 Lentoid Chlorite Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Figurative

I 442-1 Lentoid Chlorite? Wheel, Circle SM I N NT - Ornamental Cut I 434-1 Discoid Fluorite Wheel Cut MM II - N NT - Ornamental MM III I 450-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

I 454-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 250-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Animal

II 3-368- Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 III 302-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

III 310-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

III 277-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Figurative

II 3-362- Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 II 3-366- Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 III 298-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 331-1 Lentoid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 333-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel Cut SMI Y Sea Creature

I 439-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Round SM I Y Decoratitve Bead, Bezel Tube II 3-374- Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative 1 Cut III 313-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut III 340-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut III 261-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I N NT - Figurative Cut III 315-1 Lentoid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Plant Cut II 3-364- Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut II 3-369- Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature 1 Cut IV 250-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Tube SM I Y Sea Creature Cut I 438-1 Pillow Green Jasper Wheel, Tube, SM I Y Double Ax Lunette Tube I 437-1 3-Sided Green Jasper Wheel, Round SM I Y 3-Sided Prism A,B,C Amygdaloid ? Bead, Lunette Tube I 440-1 Amygdaloid Green Jasper Wheel, Round SM I Y Vessel ? Bead, Lunette Tube II 3-370- Amygdaloid Green Wheel Cut SM I Y Plant 1 Jasper? I 461-1 Lentoid hard stone Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

III 267-1 Lentoid hard stone Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

III 341-1 Amygdaloid hard stone Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

II 3-357- Amygdaloid Hematite Wheel Cut SB I - N NT - Cut Style 1 SB II

III 303-1 Amygdaloid Hematite Wheel, Tube SM I Y Decorative Cut I 457-1 Lentoid Pseudojasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

I 453-1 Lentoid Pseudojasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

IV 137-1 3 - Sided Pseudojasper Wheel Cut MM II N NT - 3-Sided Prism A,B,C IS 087-1 Lentoid Red Jasper Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

I 432-1 Discoid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut MM II - N NT - Architectural MM III I 456-1 Amygdaloid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

II 3-363- Amygdaloid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 IV 176-1 Amygdaloid Rock Crystal Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature

II 4-099- Amygdaloid Serpentine Circle, Scraped SM I N NT - Ornamental 1 II 4-095- Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I Y Animal 1 II 4-098- Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative 1 II 4-234- Amygdaloid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I ? Y Decorative 1 III 266-1 Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I Y Decorative

II 3-377- Pillow Serpentine Wheel Cut MM II - N NT - Architectural 1 MM III II 4-232- Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Ornamental 1 II 4-094- Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I Y Sea Creature 1 III 254-1 Lentoid Serpentine Wheel Cut SM I Y Vessel

II 4,236- Pillow Serpentine Circular SM III N NT - Decorative 1 A1 - SM III A2 ?

I 443-1 Amygdaloid Serpentine or Scraped, Circle SM I ? N NT - Ornamental Slate Cut III 286-1 Pillow Slate Scraped, SM I Y Insect Compass III 491-1 Lentoid Slate Scraped, SM I - N NT - Figurative Compass SM II III 330-1 Lentoid Slate Wheel, Circle SM I N NT - Figurative and Cut Ornamental III 323-1 Lentoid Slate Wheel, Circle SM I Y Sea Creature Cut III 337-1 Lentoid Slate Wheel, Tube SM I N NT - Figurative Cut I 458-1 Lentoid Slate or Scraped, SM I Y Decorative Chlorite Drilled I 459-1 Lentoid Slate or Scraped, SM I Y Decorative Chlorite Drilled II 3-383- Lentoid Steatite or Wheel Cut SM I N NT - Cretan Popular 1 Serpentine Group