Examples from Islamic History of Select Muslims and Islamist Groups Justifying the Use of Armed Force Fazal Mohammed Hassan

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Examples from Islamic History of Select Muslims and Islamist Groups Justifying the Use of Armed Force Fazal Mohammed Hassan Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2006 Ending Oppression and Establishing Justice: Examples from Islamic History of Select Muslims and Islamist Groups Justifying the Use of Armed Force Fazal Mohammed Hassan Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES ENDING OPPRESSION AND ESTABLISHING JUSTICE: EXAMPLES FROM ISLAMIC HISTORY OF SELECT MUSLIMS AND ISLAMIST GROUPS JUSTIFYING THE USE OF ARMED FORCE BY FAZAL MOHAMMED HASSAN A Dissertation submitted to the Interdisciplinary Program in the Humanities in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2006 Copyright © 2006 Fazal Mohammed Hassan All Rights Reserved The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Fazal Mohammed Hassan defended on September 15, 2006. ______________________________ Peter P. Garretson Professor Directing Dissertation ______________________________ Patrick O’Sullivan Outside Committee Member ______________________________ James P. Jones Committee Member ______________________________ Jonathan Grant Committee Member Approved: ______________________________ David Johnson, Chairperson, Interdisciplinary Program in the Humanities ______________________________ Joseph Travis, Dean, College of the Arts and Sciences The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members. ii Dedicated to my parents whose hard work and sacrifice made this possible. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS No man is an island- Told by John Dunn and sung by Bob Marley I was taught the above phrase by a woman who took me by the hand, enrolled me into Broward Community College North Campus, read my papers, and helped me with math. Without the help of Dotlyn Lowe, finishing an Associates of Arts degree, much less a Ph.D, would have been much more difficult. Throughout the years, I have been fortunate to have met many special people who helped me along this journey. They cannot all be mentioned by name, but they are in my heart, always. I am extremely grateful to Dr. Peter Garretson, who himself, took me by hand and helped me through the writing of this dissertation. Thank you for being my major professor when finding one was proving difficult. Without your help, writing a dissertation would have seemed daunting and insurmountable. I am also thankful to Drs. Grant, Jones, and O’Sullivan for being on my committee and helping me through this process. I wish to acknowledge those who work in libraries around the world, but in Strozier Library, Nova Southeast University, and Tamarac Library in particular for helping me with interlibrary loan. Special thanks go to my siblings whose patience and love made this endeavor a little easier. Concluding thanks go to Dr. Jim Colvert who pushed me to pursue a Ph.D in May of 1993. Do not forget that I will always love you at least 50.01 percent. I would also like thank Batool Bashir who helped ignite the thirst for knowledge that has lasted the past thirteen years. Finally, no dissertation could hold the amount of gratitude I owe to family and friends. I was taught the above quote fifteen years ago and it will never leave me. In conclusion, in my third and fourth report cards in the ninth grade back in 1988- 1989, my GPA for the third was .9 and fourth had a GPA of 1.1, respectively. That third report card held five F’s and two D’s, while the fourth one had four F’s and three D’s, or something like that. Over the past seventeen years, I can only say that by having the health, money, and time to dedicate the past eleven and a half years could I have attained a Ph.D. For that, I am grateful to “something” that cannot be mentioned aloud in a secular society. It is to that “something” that I ultimately owe this dissertation to. iv NOTE ON TRANSCRIPTIONS Since there is not one standard form on the transliteration of words from Arabic to English, the author used the spelling that was most often used by authors. One note must be made evident however. The author’s spelling of Mohammed was based upon the spelling of his middle name. Other transcriptions of Mohammed are Muhammad, Muhammed, or Muhammed. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT vii INTRODUCTION 1 1. HARB (WAR), JIHAD (STRIVING), AND QITAL (FIGHTING) IN THE LIFE OF MOHAMMED 13 2. ARMED FORCE IN THE QURAN AND AHADITH 38 3. KHARIJITES, ASSASSINS, AND IBN TAYMIYYA 60 4. THE BACKGROUND TO 20th CENTURY EGYPT 85 5. SAYYID QUTB: POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC IDEOLOGIES 112 6. ARMED FORCE IN THE WRITINGS OF SAYYID QUTB 134 7. AL-JIHAD 159 8. AL-QAEDA 185 CONCLUSION 209 GLOSSARY 217 BIBLIOGRAPHY 219 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 231 vi ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the justification for using armed force throughout Islam’s history. Special emphasis will be made to the following three terms, harb, jihad, and qital. These three words translate into war, struggle, and fight respectively. Not only are these terms the catalyst for the expansion of Islam in its first century, 632 to 732, but they have also contributed to many ideologies. The origins for such ideas begin in the seventh century and Islam’s most prominent religious figure, Mohammed. It is only fitting that the first chapter of this endeavor starts with his life and the reasons why he went to war with others. As his life showed, he never declared a “jihad” on others, a term that is used constantly in the media. It is important to remember that according to Muslims, Mohammed never did anything out of his own opinion; it was all done with the endorsement of God. The Qur’an and Ahadith will also be examined, as they are the major sources for justifying and conducting war. After the death of Mohammed in 632 however, armed force began to take on a different meaning. This work covers Mohammed, the Kharijites, the Assassins, Ibn Taymiyya, Sayyid Qutb, al-Jihad, and al-Qaeda, with emphasis placed on Mohammed and Qutb as key figures, and their respective justifications for using or writing about resorting to armed force as a means to an end. During this dissertation, comparisons will be made between all of the before-mentioned Muslims and their respective reasons for fighting or writing about the use of armed force. It is the main thesis of this work that violence committed in the name of God by Muslims throughout Islam’s history is based upon the need to end oppression and establish justice. This dissertation differs itself from other written works by solely examining the life and works of individual Muslims and Islamist groups and their justification for resorting to armed force. Though this topic has gained momentum since the events of 9/11, it is the intention of this work to show that using armed force is not new, but a political instrument used to establish Shari’ah or Islamic law. The term “political” is used because for most Muslims, including all those mentioned in this dissertation, believe that Islam is not just a personal belief system, like most in the West believe, but an ideology that is to be used for all times and for all facets of life. vii INTRODUCTION The focus of this dissertation examines the concepts of harb (war), jihad (struggling), and qital (fighting) through the ideologies of certain Muslims and Islamist groups throughout Islam’s history. The subject of religion and violence is pertinent today since religion has always played an important role in the lives of many. Needless to say, armed conflict has also played a major part of other religious traditions with such examples beginning in the Old Testament and Yahweh’s command for the Israelites to destroy the Canaanites. Other possible examples are the Crusades and the Thirty Years War. Islam has also had bouts of violence as three of its first four Caliphs were murdered; the last two by Muslims. The very first topic for a dissertation suggested to the author was, “Is violence endemic to religion?” The scope of this dissertation is not a total examination of religion and violence, since that would no doubt be an enormous task, but on what a few of Islam’s most noted followers have written and acted upon on the subjects of fighting and war. The subject of this work is important not only because of what has happened since September 11, 2001, but because it can help many today understand why certain Muslims in the past have justified the use of armed force. While there have been many studies on religion and violence, there is a gap on linking the ideologies, referring to armed struggle and a few of Islam’s most noted ideologues. Questions of why people resort to violence is abundant in literature, but other aspects explored in this endeavor examine specific verses from the Qur’an and Ahadith of Mohammed (c.570-632) to drive home the point that Muslims throughout the past thirteen centuries have been essentially using the same argument for armed confrontation; to end oppression and establish justice.1 This is where the dissertation contributes to the fields of history and religion. By looking at specific verses from the Qur’an and Ahadith that connect to certain Muslims throughout history, the reasons for justifying jihad al-qital (struggling through fighting) can be ascertained. The target audience of this work includes both scholars of history and religion, but also laymen. This study will especially appeal to those who are interested in Islam and the Middle 1 The Qur’an is Islam’s holy book and contains for Muslims the actual spoken words of God.
Recommended publications
  • The Ablution "Wudhu"
    1 2 3 بسم اهلل الرحمن الرحیم 4 5 Contents TAQULEED "Imitation" Following a Qualified Jurist ....................................................... 16 At Taharat "Purity" ........................................................................................................ 21 Natural and mixed water ................................................................................................. 21 II. under-kurr water ......................................................................................................... 22 III. Running water ............................................................................................................ 23 IV. Rain water .................................................................................................................. 24 V. Well Water .................................................................................................................. 25 Rules Regarding Waters .................................................................................................. 26 Rules concerned to the use of lavatory ........................................................................... 27 Istbra ""confirmation of emptiness ................................................................................. 30 Recommended and Disapprove acts ............................................................................... 31 Impure Things .................................................................................................................. 32 SEMEN ............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Potential for Peacebuilding in Islam Toward an Islamic Concept of Peace Hisham Soliman
    The Potential for Peacebuilding in Islam Toward an Islamic Concept of Peace Hisham Soliman Hisham Soliman is a research assistant at the Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame, and a member of the faculty of Cairo University Faculty of Economics and Political Science. After some general thoughts about the relationship between religion, conflict, and peace, the focus of this papers narrows to the relationship between Islam and peacebuilding in particular. Foundations for this relationship are laid upon a discussion of the misinterpreted concept of jihad. Islamic values and mechanisms are highlighted to further support an argument for an Islamic concept of peace; of particular importance are the capacities in Islam for nonviolence, the concept of justice in Islam, motivations for humanitarian work in Islam and the duty to work for peace. Excerpts from the sacred texts in Islam as well as examples of practical experiences are used to illustrate and support the argument. The article concludes with thoughts about the absence of most of these practices from the lived reality of Muslim societies. In general, Islam has been at the center of socio-political debates following the tragic attacks of September 11, 2001. A flurry of research, mostly by non-Muslims, has been conducted since then to explore Islam and whether a call for violence is central to this faith. Some Muslim scholars have exerted parallel efforts as well. Most of the latter, however, were primarily apologetic in tone, adopting a defensive posture to counter the perceived attack on their religious identity in the wake of these events.
    [Show full text]
  • Jihad and Terrorism: a Comparative Study Zahid Shah∗
    Jihad and Terrorism: A Comparative Study Zahid Shah∗ Abstract Man has always longed for peace: war per se has never been his cherished ideal. Yet wars have always been an undeniable fact of life. Notwithstanding the human desire for peace, at times wars do become indispensable. However, opinions differ as to when wars could be justified on moral grounds and when they are just a matter of sheer transgression. In tune with its claim to universality, both in terms of time and space, Islam has propounded its own everlasting concept of war, based on Divine wisdom and consideration of human welfare. Unfortunately, however, over a period of time, Islam’s position on war has been shrouded in confusion and misguided misinterpretations. To make matters worse, more often than not, Jihad has come to be equated with terrorism something which runs counter to the spirit & substance of Islam. This has more to do with the actions of a few misguided religious zealots than the intellectual handiwork of even fewer iconoclastic elements. Nevertheless, decidedly an overwhelming majority of Muslims, not only the intelligentsia but also the common believers, are and have always been averse to waging wars beyond the strict limitations prescribed in Quran and Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH). Although a lot has been written on Jihad, scarcely anything of substance is available in terms of a comparative study of Jihad and terrorism in today’s context. Much of the literature available on the subject of jihad has limitations of one kind or another. Therefore this research article attempts to offer a comparative analysis of Jihad and terrorism based on authentic sources.
    [Show full text]
  • Poverty and Economics in the Qur'an Author(S): Michael Bonner Source: the Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol
    Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the editors of The Journal of Interdisciplinary History Poverty and Economics in the Qur'an Author(s): Michael Bonner Source: The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 35, No. 3, Poverty and Charity: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (Winter, 2005), pp. 391-406 Published by: The MIT Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3657031 Accessed: 27-09-2016 11:29 UTC JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://about.jstor.org/terms Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the editors of The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, The MIT Press are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of Interdisciplinary History This content downloaded from 217.112.157.113 on Tue, 27 Sep 2016 11:29:33 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Journal of Interdisciplinary History, xxxv:3 (Winter, 2oo5), 39I-4o6. Michael Bonner Poverty and Economics in the Qur'an The Qur'an provides a blueprint for a new order in society, in which the poor will be treated more fairly than before. The questions that usually arise regarding this new order of society concern its historical con- text. Who were the poor mentioned in the Book, and who were their benefactors? What became of them? However, the answers to these apparently simple questions have proved elusive.
    [Show full text]
  • The Network of the Ismaili Castles in the Alamut Region Introduction
    The Network of the Ismaili Castles in the Alamut Region Introduction Early Ismailis in Persia Ismailis are one of the several religious sects of Shiite Islam which originally formed after the death of Imam Jaʿfar al-Sadeq in 765. These sects owe their origin to the issue of his succession (Fig. 2). In 909 they officially established a Shiite caliphate in modern Tunisia which was named Fatimid dynasty (909 -1171).1 The Fatimids benefited from a systematic method of propaganda (daʿwa) to extend their power and rule over the Muslim communities in the other part of the Islamic world. The daʿwa organization was composed of network of missionaries who disseminated the religious and political beliefs of Ismailis within the Fatimid dominions as well as in other regions.2 By the late 11th century, the number of converts in different regions of Persia (e.g. Isfahan, Rey, Khorasan, and Transoxania) had grown as a result of the activities of several daʿi (missionaries) operating in the Persian territories. The Ismaili daʿwa was even more successful in the areas of Deylaman and Qohistan which were already the centres of socio-religious oppositions against the Saljuq government.3 The main reason for such an acceptance of the daʿwa in the Persian lands was the widespread perception of social injustices caused by the political-economic policies of the Saljuq Turks (1037 - 1194).4 All of these conditions provided a 1 Farhad Daftary, “Ismailism, Ismaili History”, in the Encyclopedia of Iranica, Vol. XIV, Fasc. 2, 2007, pp. 178- 195, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ismailism-iii-ismaili-history, accessed 11 February 2014.
    [Show full text]
  • Pre-Islamic Arabia
    Pre-Islamic Arabia The Nomadic Tribes of Arabia The nomadic pastoralist Bedouin tribes inhabited the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam around 700 CE. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the societal structure of tribes in Arabia KEY TAKEAWAYS Key Points Nomadic Bedouin tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam. Family groups called clans formed larger tribal units, which reinforced family cooperation in the difficult living conditions on the Arabian peninsula and protected its members against other tribes. The Bedouin tribes were nomadic pastoralists who relied on their herds of goats, sheep, and camels for meat, milk, cheese, blood, fur/wool, and other sustenance. The pre-Islamic Bedouins also hunted, served as bodyguards, escorted caravans, worked as mercenaries, and traded or raided to gain animals, women, gold, fabric, and other luxury items. Arab tribes begin to appear in the south Syrian deserts and southern Jordan around 200 CE, but spread from the central Arabian Peninsula after the rise of Islam in the 630s CE. Key Terms Nabatean: an ancient Semitic people who inhabited northern Arabia and Southern Levant, ca. 37–100 CE. Bedouin: a predominantly desert-dwelling Arabian ethnic group traditionally divided into tribes or clans. Pre-Islamic Arabia Pre-Islamic Arabia refers to the Arabian Peninsula prior to the rise of Islam in the 630s. Some of the settled communities in the Arabian Peninsula developed into distinctive civilizations. Sources for these civilizations are not extensive, and are limited to archaeological evidence, accounts written outside of Arabia, and Arab oral traditions later recorded by Islamic scholars. Among the most prominent civilizations were Thamud, which arose around 3000 BCE and lasted to about 300 CE, and Dilmun, which arose around the end of the fourth millennium and lasted to about 600 CE.
    [Show full text]
  • Muhammad and the Banu Qurayza
    Muhammad And The Banu Qurayza What really happened with the Banu Qurayza? Part 1: The siege, the surrender & the intercession of al-Aus After the Battle of the Ditch Muhammad attacks the last of the large Jewish tribes of Medina, the Banu Qurayza. After a 25 days siege, they surrender unconditionally. In the end, all 600-700 males of the tribe are killed and the women and children sold into slavery. Muslims have many versions trying explain away the cruelty of these events and are trying shift them blame away from Muhammad to the Jews themselves. We will not argue the Banu Qurayza are 100% innocent angels, or the Muslims are 100% evil devils. This is not and never was the claim. In every war, both sides commit injustices and do evil things. And in each war, the losing side has to pay some penalty. We do not expect otherwise. But the kind of penalty and its relationship to the crime is a valid question. This paper is an examination of the early Muslim sources to give a detailed account of the events. Instead of responding to various Muslim constructions one by one, since there are as many versions as there is creativity, we will rather look at the account as it is reported by Ibn Ishaq in his word Sirat Rasul Allah available in the abridged edition of Ibn Hisham, and translated by A. Guillaume under the title The Life of Muhammad. This is is by far the oldest (written) account of Muhammad's life in regard to the date of its first composition.
    [Show full text]
  • University of Lo Ndo N Soas the Umayyad Caliphate 65-86
    UNIVERSITY OF LONDON SOAS THE UMAYYAD CALIPHATE 65-86/684-705 (A POLITICAL STUDY) by f Abd Al-Ameer 1 Abd Dixon Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philoso] August 1969 ProQuest Number: 10731674 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10731674 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 2. ABSTRACT This thesis is a political study of the Umayyad Caliphate during the reign of f Abd a I -M a lik ibn Marwan, 6 5 -8 6 /6 8 4 -7 0 5 . The first chapter deals with the po litical, social and religious background of ‘ Abd al-M alik, and relates this to his later policy on becoming caliph. Chapter II is devoted to the ‘ Alid opposition of the period, i.e . the revolt of al-Mukhtar ibn Abi ‘ Ubaid al-Thaqafi, and its nature, causes and consequences. The ‘ Asabiyya(tribal feuds), a dominant phenomenon of the Umayyad period, is examined in the third chapter. An attempt is made to throw light on its causes, and on the policies adopted by ‘ Abd al-M alik to contain it.
    [Show full text]
  • The Fatimid Caliphate General Editor: Farhad Daftary Diversity of Traditions
    'lltc Jnslitutc of lsmaili Studies Ismaili Heritage Series, 14 The Fatimid Caliphate General Editor: Farhad Daftary Diversity of Traditions Previously published titles: I. Paul E. Walker, Abu Ya'qub al-SijistiinI: Intellectual Missionary (1996) 2. Heinz Halm, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning ( 1997) 3. Paul E. Walker, Jjamfd al-Din al-Kirmani: Ismaili Thought in the Age ofal-l:iiikim (1999) 4. Alice C. Hunsberger, Nasir Khusraw, The Ruby of Badakhshan: A Portrait of the Persian Poet, Traveller and Philosopher (2000) 5. Farouk Mitha, Al-Ghazalf and the Ismailis: A Debate in Medieval Islam (2001) Edited by 6. Ali S. Asani, Ecstasy and Enlightenment: The Ismaili Devotional Literature of South Asia (2002) Farhad Daftary and Shainool Jiwa 7. Paul E. Walker, Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources (2002) 8. Nadia Eboo Jamal, Surviving the Mongols: Nizari Quhistani and the Continuity ofIsmaili Tradition in Persia (2002) 9. Verena Klemm, Memoirs of a Mission: The Ismaili Scholar; States­ man and Poet al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shfriizi (2003) 10. Peter Willey, Eagle's Nest: Ismaili Castles in Iran and Syria (2005) 11. Sumaiya A. Hamdani, Between Revolution and State: The Path to Fatimid Statehood (2006) 12. Farhad Daftary, Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies (2005) 13. Farhad Daftary, ed., A Modern History of the Ismailis (2011) I.B.Tauris Publishers LONDON • NEW YORK in association with The Institute oflsmaili Studies LONDON 1111 '1111' 1'itti111icl <: 11lifih111t· soun;cs and fanciful accounts of medieval times. 'lhus legends and misconceptions have continued to surround the Ismailis through the 20th century.
    [Show full text]
  • Five Pillars of Islam
    Five Pillars of Islam 1 Five Pillars of Islam pillars of the religion") are five" ﺃﺭﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ also arkān ad-dīn ;ﺃﺭﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻡ The Five Pillars of Islam (arkān-al-Islām basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory by Sunni Muslims. These are summarized in the famous Hadith of Gabriel.[1] [2] [3] [4] The Qur'an presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahada (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) fasting during Ramadan (sawm), (4) almsgiving (zakāt), and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime.[5] [6] The minority Shi'i and majority Sunni both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts,[7] [8] but the Shi'a do not refer to them by the same name (see Theology of Twelvers and Aspects of the Religion for Twelvers and Seven pillars of Ismailism). The Five Pillars Shahada Shahadah is a saying professing monotheism and accepting Muhammad as God's messenger.[9] The shahadah is a set statement normally recited in Arabic: (ašhadu an) lā ilāha illá l-Lāhu (wa ashhadu 'anna) Muḥammadan rasūlu l-Lāhi "(I profess that) there is no god except God and (I profess that) Muhammad is the Messenger of God." Also, it is said that when dying one should recite this declaration of faith. In Azaan (call to prayer) it is recited. When a person wishes to convert religions they should recite this affirmation and believe in it.[10] Salat Salat is the Islamic prayer.
    [Show full text]
  • Madrasah Education System and Terrorism: Reality and Misconception
    92 Madrasah Education System And Terrorism: Reality And Misconception Mohd Izzat Amsyar Mohd Arif ([email protected]) The National University of Malaysia, Bangi Nur Hartini Abdul Rahman ([email protected]) Ministry of Education, Malaysia Hisham Hanapi ([email protected]) Tunku Abdul Rahman University College, Kuala Lumpur Abstract Since the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, the Islamic schools known as madrasah have been of increasing interest to analysts and to officials involved in formulating U.S. foreign policy toward the Middle East, Central, and Southeast Asia. Madrasah drew added attention when it became known that several Taliban leaders and Al-Qaeda members had developed radical political views at madrasah in Pakistan, some of which allegedly were built and partially financed through Saudi Arabian sources. These revelations have led to accusations that madrasah promote Islamic extremism and militancy, and are a recruiting ground for terrorism. Others maintain that most of these religious schools have been blamed unfairly for fostering anti-U.S. sentiments and argue that madrasah play an important role in countries where millions of Muslims live in poverty and the educational infrastructure is in decay. This paper aims to study a misconception of the role and functions of Islamic traditional religious schools which have been linked with the activities of terrorism. The study will be specifically focus on practice of the traditional Islamic school, which is locally called as ‘madrasah system’. Keywords: madrasah, terrorism, Islamic schools INTRODUCTION The September 11 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Centre in New York changed the international politics, security and law. The attacks gave rise to the new catchword of war against terrorism, which has been universally accepted as a new millennium global threat.
    [Show full text]
  • HOW BLACK IS BLACK METAL [JOURNALISMUS] Nachrichten Von Heute
    HOW BLACK IS BLACK METAL [JOURNALISMUS] nachrichten von heute Kevin Coogan - Lords of Chaos (LOC), a recent book-length examination of the “Satanic” black metal music scene, is less concerned with sound than fury. Authors Michael Moynihan and Didrik Sederlind zero in on Norway, where a tiny clique of black metal musicians torched some churches in 1992. The church burners’ own place of worship was a small Oslo record store called Helvete (Hell). Helvete was run by the godfather of Norwegian black metal, 0ystein Aarseth (“Euronymous”, or “Prince of Death”), who first brought black metal to Norway with his group Mayhem and his Deathlike Silence record label. One early member of the movement, “Frost” from the band Satyricon, recalled his first visit to Helvete: I felt like this was the place I had always dreamed about being in. It was a kick in the back. The black painted walls, the bizarre fitted out with inverted crosses, weapons, candelabra etc. And then just the downright evil atmosphere...it was just perfect. Frost was also impressed at how talented Euronymous was in “bringing forth the evil in people – and bringing the right people together” and then dominating them. “With a scene ruled by the firm hand of Euronymous,” Frost reminisced, “one could not avoid a certain herd-mentality. There were strict codes for what was accept- ed.” Euronymous may have honed his dictatorial skills while a member of Red Ungdom (Red Youth), the youth wing of the Marxist/Leninist Communist Workers Party, a Stalinist/Maoist outfit that idolized Pol Pot. All who wanted to be part of black metal’s inner core “had to please the leader in one way or the other.” Yet to Frost, Euronymous’s control over the scene was precisely “what made it so special and obscure, creating a center of dark, evil energies and inspiration.” Lords of Chaos, however, is far less interested in Euronymous than in the man who killed him, Varg Vikemes from the one-man group Burzum.
    [Show full text]