ECOLOGY What is ?

 Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between ______

 term ecology comes from the Greek oikos, ______, and logos, to study

. biotic and abiotic factors

What are biotic factors? Give examples.

What are abiotic factors? Give examples.

.

What is climate?

What abiotic factors are the major components of climate?

. climate

What effects do bodies of water have on climate?

What effects do mountains have on climate? Include descriptions of how elevation affects temperature, and of shadows.

. Fig. 52-12 Fig. 52-13 climate

What effects do seasons have on climate?

Describe what causes seasons; include the terms solstice and equinox in your description.

. Fig. 52-10c

60ºN 30ºN March equinox 0º (equator) June solstice 30ºS

Constant tilt December solstice of 23.5º

September equinox

What are biomes?

. aquatic biomes

List the major aquatic biomes and their defining physical features. define the following: aphotic zone

. Fig. 52-16

• Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich • Eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen if ice covered in winter • Rooted and floating aquatic live in the shallow and well-lighted • Water is too deep in the limnetic zone to support rooted aquatic plants; small drifting animals called graze on the

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18a Fig. 52-18b Fig. 52-18c • A is a that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil • Wetlands can develop in shallow basins, along flooded river banks, or on the coasts of large lakes and seas • Wetlands are among the most productive biomes on and are home to diverse invertebrates and birds

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18d Fig. 52-18e Streams and Rivers • The most prominent physical characteristic of streams and rivers is current • A diversity of fishes and invertebrates inhabit unpolluted rivers and streams • Damming and flood control impair natural functioning of stream and river

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18f • An is a transition area between river and sea • Salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tides • Estuaries are nutrient rich and highly productive • An abundant supply of food attracts and fish

Video: Flapping Geese

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18g Intertidal Zones • An is periodically submerged and exposed by the tides • Intertidal are challenged by variations in temperature and salinity and by the mechanical forces of wave action • Many animals of rocky intertidal environments have structural that enable them to attach to the hard substrate

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18h Oceanic • The oceanic pelagic biome is a vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind- driven oceanic currents • This biome covers approximately 70% of Earth’s surface • Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms in this biome; also found are free-swimming animals Video: Shark Eating a Seal

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18i Reefs • Coral reefs are formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of (phylum Cnidaria) • Corals require a solid substrate for attachment • Unicellular algae live within the tissues of the corals and form a mutualistic relationship that provides the corals with organic molecules Video: Video: Clownfish and Anemone Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18j

A deep-sea Marine Benthic Zone • The marine benthic zone consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal, or neritic, zone and the offshore pelagic zone • Organisms in the very deep benthic, or abyssal, zone are adapted to continuous cold and extremely high water pressure

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Unique assemblages of organisms are associated with deep-sea hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic ridges; here the autotrophs are chemoautotrophic prokaryotes

Video: Hydrothermal Vent Video: Tubeworms

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings aquatic biomes

Describe the process of turnover in a , and why it is important.

What is , and what are some likely consequences of it?

. Fig. 52-17-1 Fig. 52-17-2 Fig. 52-17-3 Fig. 52-17-4 terrestrial biomes

List the major terrestrial biomes and their characteristic types and climate.

. terrestrial biomes define the following: climograph

Be sure that you can interpret a climograph.

. Fig. 52-19

Terrestrial Biomes • Terrestrial biomes can be characterized by distribution, , temperature, plants, and animals

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21a Tropical • In tropical rain , rainfall is relatively constant, while in tropical dry forests precipitation is highly seasonal • Tropical forests are vertically layered and competition for light is intense • Tropical forests are home to millions of animal species, including an estimated 5–30 million still undescribed species of insects, spiders, and other arthropods

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21b • Precipitation is low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm per year; may be hot or cold • Desert plants are adapted for heat and desiccation tolerance, water storage, and reduced leaf surface area • Common desert animals include many kinds of snakes and lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, migratory and resident birds, and seed-eating ; many are nocturnal

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21c

A in Kenya Savanna • Savanna precipitation and temperature are seasonal • Grasses and forbs make up most of the ground cover • Common inhabitants include insects and mammals such as wildebeests, zebras, lions, and hyenas

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21d • Chaparral climate is highly seasonal, with cool and rainy winters and hot dry summers • The chaparral is dominated by shrubs, small , grasses, and herbs; many plants are adapted to fire and drought • Animals include amphibians, birds and other reptiles, insects, small mammals and browsing mammals

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21e Temperate • Temperate are found on many • Winters are cold and dry, while summers are wet and hot • The dominant plants, grasses and forbs, are adapted to droughts and fire • Native mammals include large grazers and small burrowers Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21f Northern Coniferous Forest • The northern coniferous forest, or , extends across northern and Eurasia and is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth • Winters are cold and long while summers may be hot

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • The conical shape of prevents too much snow from accumulating and breaking their branches • Animals include migratory and resident birds, and large mammals

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21g Temperate Broadleaf Forest • Winters are cool, while summers are hot and humid; significant precipitation falls year round as rain and snow • A mature temperate broadleaf forest has vertical layers dominated by trees in the Northern Hemisphere and evergreen eucalyptus in

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Mammals, birds, and insects make use of all vertical layers in the forest • In the Northern Hemisphere, many mammals hibernate in the winter

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21h • Tundra covers expansive areas of the ; alpine tundra exists on high mountaintops at all latitudes • Winters are long and cold while summers are relatively cool; precipitation varies

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • , a permanently frozen layer of soil, prevents water infiltration • Vegetation is herbaceous (mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf shrubs and trees, and lichen) and supports birds, grazers, and their predators

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings ecology

Population ecology is the study of in relation to ______

A population is: define the following: density dispersion range

. population ecology

How does the mark-recapture method to estimate population size work?

Include the formula and definition of the terms in the formula.

.

population ecology

What is demography? define and be able to use/interpret:

tables

 survivorship curves

 reproductive tables

. Life Tables

• A life table is an age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population • It is best made by following the fate of a cohort, a group of individuals of the same age • The life table of Belding’s ground squirrels reveals many things about this population

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Table 53-1 Survivorship Curves

• A survivorship curve is a graphic way of representing the data in a life table • The survivorship curve for Belding’s ground squirrels shows a relatively constant death rate

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 53-5 • Survivorship curves can be classified into three general types: – Type I: low death rates during early and middle life, then an increase among older age groups – Type II: the death rate is constant over the ’s life span – Type III: high death rates for the young, then a slower death rate for survivors

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 53-6 Reproductive Rates

• For species with sexual reproduction, demographers often concentrate on females in a population • A reproductive table, or fertility schedule, is an age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population • It describes reproductive patterns of a population

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Table 53-2 population ecology

define and be able to use/interpret the exponential model

. Exponential Growth

 Exponential population growth is population increase under idealized conditions

 Under these conditions, the rate of reproduction is at its maximum, called the intrinsic rate of increase

.  Equation of exponential population growth:

dN  r N dt max

.

 The J-shaped curve of exponential growth characterizes some rebounding populations

. Fig. 53-11 population ecology

define and be able to use/interpret the logistic population growth model define and understand the terms K and r

.  Exponential growth cannot be sustained for long in any population

 A more realistic population model limits growth by incorporating carrying capacity

 Carrying capacity (K) is the maximum population size the environment can support

. The Logistic Growth Model

 In the logistic population growth model, the per capita rate of increase declines as carrying capacity is reached

 We construct the logistic model by starting with the exponential model and adding an expression that reduces per capita rate of increase as N approaches K

dN (K  N)  dt rmax N K . Table 53-3  The logistic model of population growth produces a sigmoid (S-shaped) curve

.

population ecology describe K-selection and r-selection

 What sort of life tables and survivorship curves would you expect for each type?

 Give examples of organisms of each type.

 If given a typical life history for an organism be able to categorize it as K- selected and r-selected. .  K-selection, or density-dependent selection, selects for life history traits that are sensitive to

 r-selection, or density-independent selection, selects for life history traits that maximize reproduction

. Fig. 53-13 Fig. 53-14 population ecology

List and describe six density-dependent factors known to affect population growth rates.

Describe how population cycles may be linked between predators and their prey.

. Competition for Resources

 In crowded populations, increasing population density intensifies competition for resources and results in a lower birth rate

.

Territoriality

 In many vertebrates and some invertebrates, competition for territory may limit density

 Cheetahs are highly territorial, using chemical communication to warn other cheetahs of their boundaries

. Fig. 53-17a

. Fig. 53-17b

(b) Gannets . Disease

 Population density can influence the health and survival of organisms

 In dense populations, pathogens can spread more rapidly

. Predation

 As a prey population builds up, predators may feed preferentially on that species

. Toxic Wastes

 Accumulation of toxic wastes can contribute to density-dependent regulation of population size

. Intrinsic Factors

 For some populations, intrinsic (physiological) factors appear to regulate population size

. Human population history and future

Be sure that you understand figures 53.22-26.

What was industrial revolution and how did it affect human population growth?

What is the demographic transition and how does it affect human population growth?

What is the global carrying capacity for humans?

. The Global Human Population

 The human population increased relatively slowly until about 1650 and then began to grow exponentially

. Fig. 53-23  To maintain population stability, a regional human population can exist in one of two configurations:

= High birth rate – High death rate

 Zero population growth = Low birth rate – Low death rate

 The demographic transition is the move from the first state toward the second state . Fig. 53-24

50

40

30

20

10 Sweden Mexico Birth rate Birth rate

Birth Birth or death rate 1,000 per people Death rate Death rate 0 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 Year  The demographic transition is associated with an increase in the quality of health care and improved access to education, especially for women

 Most of the current global population growth is concentrated in developing countries

. Age Structure

 One important demographic factor in present and future growth trends is a country’s age structure

 Age structure is the relative number of individuals at each age

. Fig. 53-25  Age structure diagrams can predict a population’s growth trends

 They can illuminate social conditions and help us plan for the future

. Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy

 Infant mortality and life expectancy at birth vary greatly among developed and developing countries but do not capture the wide range of the human condition

.

Global Carrying Capacity

 How many humans can the support?

. Estimates of Carrying Capacity

 The carrying capacity of Earth for humans is uncertain

 The average estimate is 10–15 billion

. Limits on Human Population Size

 The ecological footprint concept summarizes the aggregate land and water area needed to sustain the people of a nation

 It is one measure of how close we are to the carrying capacity of Earth

 Countries vary greatly in footprint size and available ecological capacity

. Fig. 53-27  Our carrying capacity could potentially be limited by food, space, nonrenewable resources, or buildup of wastes

. community ecology

Community ecology is the study of:

A biological community is:

. community ecology describe the following interspecific interactions in general terms of the +/-/0 system

 competition

 predation

 herbivory

 parasitism

 mutualism

 commensalism

. community ecology

define the terms (ecological) niche resource partitioning character displacement

. Ecological Niches

 The total of a species’ use of biotic and abiotic resources is called the species’ ecological niche

 An ecological niche can also be thought of as an organism’s ecological role

 Ecologically similar species can coexist in a community if there are one or more significant differences in their niches

. Resource partitioning

 Resource partitioning is differentiation of ecological niches, enabling similar species to coexist in a community

. Character Displacement

 Character displacement is a tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations of two species than in allopatric populations of the same two species

 An example is variation in beak size between populations of two species of Galápagos finches

. Fig. 54-4 predation

Describe how these defenses can help animals avoid predation:

 camouflage

 warning coloration

 Batesian mimicry

 Müllerian mimicry

.

mutualism What is the difference between obligate and facultative mutualism?

. community ecology

 What is symbiosis?

 Which interspecific interactions are types of symbiosis?

. community ecology

 What is keystone species and a pivotal niche?

. community ecology

 What is a food web?

 How do energetic limits affect food webs/chains?

. community ecology

Describe

 ecological succession

 primary succession

 secondary succession

.

ecosystems

Diagram the biogeochemical cycles of

 water

 carbon

 nitrogen

 phosphorus

. Fig. 55-14a Fig. 55-14b Fig. 55-14c Fig. 55-14d ecosystems

Describe how biomagnification (biological magnification) of a toxin works in an .

. Fig. 55-20 How we almost killed ourselves: the ozone hole story Describe the importance of the ozone layer.

. How we almost killed ourselves: the ozone hole story

Describe how human activities led to depletion of the ozone layer.

. Fig. 55-24 How we almost killed ourselves: the ozone hole story

Describe what humans have done about the depletion of the ozone layer.

.

How we still might kill ourselves: global warming

Describe the greenhouse effect and why

CO2 is called a greenhouse gas.

.

AP story realclimate.org Global cooling myth debunked How we still might kill ourselves: global warming

Describe how human activities

increase CO2 in the atmosphere, the logic behind how that leads to global warming, and the evidence that global warming is occurring.

. How we still might kill ourselves: global warming

Describe what effects global warming may have. What is the feed-forward effect of thawing tundra?

Describe what humans have done about global warming.

.

Define

 ecosystem biodiversity

 species biodiversity

 genetic biodiversity

. Fig. 56-3 biodiversity

Describe the value of biodiversity in

 maintaining the global ecosystem and biogeochemical cycles

 providing unique resources such as food, remediation, drugs

 intrinsic value of biodiversity

. Fig. 56-5 Fig. 56-6 Fig. 56-4 The sixth extinction ...or how we are killing lots of things (and perhaps ultimately ourselves as well)

 What is habitat loss and how is it affecting life on Earth today?

 What are and how are they affecting life on Earth today?

 What is overexploitation and how is it affecting life on Earth today?

. Fig. 56-2 Fig. 56-7 Fig. 56-8

(a) Brown snake (b) Kudzu The sixth extinction ...or how we are killing lots of things (and perhaps ultimately ourselves as well)

 What is overexploitation and how is it affecting life on Earth today?

. Fig. 56-9

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/fishwatch

What is the sixth extinction?

What can humans do about it?

.