ECOLOGY What is ecology?
Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between ______
term ecology comes from the Greek oikos, ______, and logos, to study
. biotic and abiotic factors
What are biotic factors? Give examples.
What are abiotic factors? Give examples.
. climate
What is climate?
What abiotic factors are the major components of climate?
. climate
What effects do bodies of water have on climate?
What effects do mountains have on climate? Include descriptions of how elevation affects temperature, and of rain shadows.
. Fig. 52-12 Fig. 52-13 climate
What effects do seasons have on climate?
Describe what causes seasons; include the terms solstice and equinox in your description.
. Fig. 52-10c
60ºN 30ºN March equinox 0º (equator) June solstice 30ºS
Constant tilt December solstice of 23.5º
September equinox
What are biomes?
. aquatic biomes
List the major aquatic biomes and their defining physical features. define the following: photic zone aphotic zone benthic zone
. Fig. 52-16 Lakes
• Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich • Eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen if ice covered in winter • Rooted and floating aquatic plants live in the shallow and well-lighted littoral zone • Water is too deep in the limnetic zone to support rooted aquatic plants; small drifting animals called zooplankton graze on the phytoplankton
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18a Fig. 52-18b Fig. 52-18c Wetlands • A wetland is a habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil • Wetlands can develop in shallow basins, along flooded river banks, or on the coasts of large lakes and seas • Wetlands are among the most productive biomes on earth and are home to diverse invertebrates and birds
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18d Fig. 52-18e Streams and Rivers • The most prominent physical characteristic of streams and rivers is current • A diversity of fishes and invertebrates inhabit unpolluted rivers and streams • Damming and flood control impair natural functioning of stream and river ecosystems
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18f Estuaries • An estuary is a transition area between river and sea • Salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tides • Estuaries are nutrient rich and highly productive • An abundant supply of food attracts marine invertebrates and fish
Video: Flapping Geese
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18g Intertidal Zones • An intertidal zone is periodically submerged and exposed by the tides • Intertidal organisms are challenged by variations in temperature and salinity and by the mechanical forces of wave action • Many animals of rocky intertidal environments have structural adaptations that enable them to attach to the hard substrate
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18h Oceanic Pelagic Zone • The oceanic pelagic biome is a vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind- driven oceanic currents • This biome covers approximately 70% of Earth’s surface • Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms in this biome; also found are free-swimming animals Video: Shark Eating a Seal
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18i Coral Reefs • Coral reefs are formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals (phylum Cnidaria) • Corals require a solid substrate for attachment • Unicellular algae live within the tissues of the corals and form a mutualistic relationship that provides the corals with organic molecules Video: Coral Reef Video: Clownfish and Anemone Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-18j
A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community Marine Benthic Zone • The marine benthic zone consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal, or neritic, zone and the offshore pelagic zone • Organisms in the very deep benthic, or abyssal, zone are adapted to continuous cold and extremely high water pressure
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Unique assemblages of organisms are associated with deep-sea hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic ridges; here the autotrophs are chemoautotrophic prokaryotes
Video: Hydrothermal Vent Video: Tubeworms
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings aquatic biomes
Describe the process of turnover in a lake, and why it is important.
What is eutrophication, and what are some likely consequences of it?
. Fig. 52-17-1 Fig. 52-17-2 Fig. 52-17-3 Fig. 52-17-4 terrestrial biomes
List the major terrestrial biomes and their characteristic vegetation types and climate.
. terrestrial biomes define the following: climograph ecotone
Be sure that you can interpret a climograph.
. Fig. 52-19
Terrestrial Biomes • Terrestrial biomes can be characterized by distribution, precipitation, temperature, plants, and animals
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21a Tropical Forest • In tropical rain forests, rainfall is relatively constant, while in tropical dry forests precipitation is highly seasonal • Tropical forests are vertically layered and competition for light is intense • Tropical forests are home to millions of animal species, including an estimated 5–30 million still undescribed species of insects, spiders, and other arthropods
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21b Desert • Precipitation is low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm per year; deserts may be hot or cold • Desert plants are adapted for heat and desiccation tolerance, water storage, and reduced leaf surface area • Common desert animals include many kinds of snakes and lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, migratory and resident birds, and seed-eating rodents; many are nocturnal
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21c
A savanna in Kenya Savanna • Savanna precipitation and temperature are seasonal • Grasses and forbs make up most of the ground cover • Common inhabitants include insects and mammals such as wildebeests, zebras, lions, and hyenas
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21d Chaparral • Chaparral climate is highly seasonal, with cool and rainy winters and hot dry summers • The chaparral is dominated by shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs; many plants are adapted to fire and drought • Animals include amphibians, birds and other reptiles, insects, small mammals and browsing mammals
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21e Temperate Grassland • Temperate grasslands are found on many continents • Winters are cold and dry, while summers are wet and hot • The dominant plants, grasses and forbs, are adapted to droughts and fire • Native mammals include large grazers and small burrowers Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21f Northern Coniferous Forest • The northern coniferous forest, or taiga, extends across northern North America and Eurasia and is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth • Winters are cold and long while summers may be hot
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • The conical shape of conifers prevents too much snow from accumulating and breaking their branches • Animals include migratory and resident birds, and large mammals
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21g Temperate Broadleaf Forest • Winters are cool, while summers are hot and humid; significant precipitation falls year round as rain and snow • A mature temperate broadleaf forest has vertical layers dominated by deciduous trees in the Northern Hemisphere and evergreen eucalyptus in Australia
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Mammals, birds, and insects make use of all vertical layers in the forest • In the Northern Hemisphere, many mammals hibernate in the winter
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 52-21h Tundra • Tundra covers expansive areas of the Arctic; alpine tundra exists on high mountaintops at all latitudes • Winters are long and cold while summers are relatively cool; precipitation varies
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings • Permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of soil, prevents water infiltration • Vegetation is herbaceous (mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf shrubs and trees, and lichen) and supports birds, grazers, and their predators
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings population ecology
Population ecology is the study of populations in relation to ______
A population is: define the following: density dispersion range
. population ecology
How does the mark-recapture method to estimate population size work?
Include the formula and definition of the terms in the formula.
.
population ecology
What is demography? define and be able to use/interpret:
life tables
survivorship curves
reproductive tables
. Life Tables
• A life table is an age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population • It is best made by following the fate of a cohort, a group of individuals of the same age • The life table of Belding’s ground squirrels reveals many things about this population
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Table 53-1 Survivorship Curves
• A survivorship curve is a graphic way of representing the data in a life table • The survivorship curve for Belding’s ground squirrels shows a relatively constant death rate
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 53-5 • Survivorship curves can be classified into three general types: – Type I: low death rates during early and middle life, then an increase among older age groups – Type II: the death rate is constant over the organism’s life span – Type III: high death rates for the young, then a slower death rate for survivors
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fig. 53-6 Reproductive Rates
• For species with sexual reproduction, demographers often concentrate on females in a population • A reproductive table, or fertility schedule, is an age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population • It describes reproductive patterns of a population
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Table 53-2 population ecology
define and be able to use/interpret the exponential population growth model
. Exponential Growth
Exponential population growth is population increase under idealized conditions
Under these conditions, the rate of reproduction is at its maximum, called the intrinsic rate of increase
. Equation of exponential population growth:
dN r N dt max
.
The J-shaped curve of exponential growth characterizes some rebounding populations
. Fig. 53-11 population ecology
define and be able to use/interpret the logistic population growth model define and understand the terms K and r
. Exponential growth cannot be sustained for long in any population
A more realistic population model limits growth by incorporating carrying capacity
Carrying capacity (K) is the maximum population size the environment can support
. The Logistic Growth Model
In the logistic population growth model, the per capita rate of increase declines as carrying capacity is reached
We construct the logistic model by starting with the exponential model and adding an expression that reduces per capita rate of increase as N approaches K
dN (K N) dt rmax N K . Table 53-3 The logistic model of population growth produces a sigmoid (S-shaped) curve
.
population ecology describe K-selection and r-selection
What sort of life tables and survivorship curves would you expect for each type?
Give examples of organisms of each type.
If given a typical life history for an organism be able to categorize it as K- selected and r-selected. . K-selection, or density-dependent selection, selects for life history traits that are sensitive to population density
r-selection, or density-independent selection, selects for life history traits that maximize reproduction
. Fig. 53-13 Fig. 53-14 population ecology
List and describe six density-dependent factors known to affect population growth rates.
Describe how population cycles may be linked between predators and their prey.
. Competition for Resources
In crowded populations, increasing population density intensifies competition for resources and results in a lower birth rate
.
Territoriality
In many vertebrates and some invertebrates, competition for territory may limit density
Cheetahs are highly territorial, using chemical communication to warn other cheetahs of their boundaries
. Fig. 53-17a
. Fig. 53-17b
(b) Gannets . Disease
Population density can influence the health and survival of organisms
In dense populations, pathogens can spread more rapidly
. Predation
As a prey population builds up, predators may feed preferentially on that species
. Toxic Wastes
Accumulation of toxic wastes can contribute to density-dependent regulation of population size
. Intrinsic Factors
For some populations, intrinsic (physiological) factors appear to regulate population size
. Human population history and future
Be sure that you understand figures 53.22-26.
What was industrial revolution and how did it affect human population growth?
What is the demographic transition and how does it affect human population growth?
What is the global carrying capacity for humans?
. The Global Human Population
The human population increased relatively slowly until about 1650 and then began to grow exponentially
. Fig. 53-23 To maintain population stability, a regional human population can exist in one of two configurations:
Zero population growth = High birth rate – High death rate
Zero population growth = Low birth rate – Low death rate
The demographic transition is the move from the first state toward the second state . Fig. 53-24
50
40
30
20
10 Sweden Mexico Birth rate Birth rate
Birth Birth or death rate 1,000 per people Death rate Death rate 0 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 Year The demographic transition is associated with an increase in the quality of health care and improved access to education, especially for women
Most of the current global population growth is concentrated in developing countries
. Age Structure
One important demographic factor in present and future growth trends is a country’s age structure
Age structure is the relative number of individuals at each age
. Fig. 53-25 Age structure diagrams can predict a population’s growth trends
They can illuminate social conditions and help us plan for the future
. Infant Mortality and Life Expectancy
Infant mortality and life expectancy at birth vary greatly among developed and developing countries but do not capture the wide range of the human condition
.
Global Carrying Capacity
How many humans can the biosphere support?
. Estimates of Carrying Capacity
The carrying capacity of Earth for humans is uncertain
The average estimate is 10–15 billion
. Limits on Human Population Size
The ecological footprint concept summarizes the aggregate land and water area needed to sustain the people of a nation
It is one measure of how close we are to the carrying capacity of Earth
Countries vary greatly in footprint size and available ecological capacity
. Fig. 53-27 Our carrying capacity could potentially be limited by food, space, nonrenewable resources, or buildup of wastes
. community ecology
Community ecology is the study of:
A biological community is:
. community ecology describe the following interspecific interactions in general terms of the +/-/0 system
competition
predation
herbivory
parasitism
mutualism
commensalism
. community ecology
define the terms (ecological) niche resource partitioning character displacement
. Ecological Niches
The total of a species’ use of biotic and abiotic resources is called the species’ ecological niche
An ecological niche can also be thought of as an organism’s ecological role
Ecologically similar species can coexist in a community if there are one or more significant differences in their niches
. Resource partitioning
Resource partitioning is differentiation of ecological niches, enabling similar species to coexist in a community
. Character Displacement
Character displacement is a tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations of two species than in allopatric populations of the same two species
An example is variation in beak size between populations of two species of Galápagos finches
. Fig. 54-4 predation
Describe how these defenses can help animals avoid predation:
camouflage
warning coloration
Batesian mimicry
Müllerian mimicry
.
mutualism What is the difference between obligate and facultative mutualism?
. community ecology
What is symbiosis?
Which interspecific interactions are types of symbiosis?
. community ecology
What is keystone species and a pivotal niche?
. community ecology
What is a food web?
How do energetic limits affect food webs/chains?
. community ecology
Describe
ecological succession
primary succession
secondary succession
.
ecosystems
Diagram the biogeochemical cycles of
water
carbon
nitrogen
phosphorus
. Fig. 55-14a Fig. 55-14b Fig. 55-14c Fig. 55-14d ecosystems
Describe how biomagnification (biological magnification) of a toxin works in an ecosystem.
. Fig. 55-20 How we almost killed ourselves: the ozone hole story Describe the importance of the ozone layer.
. How we almost killed ourselves: the ozone hole story
Describe how human activities led to depletion of the ozone layer.
. Fig. 55-24 How we almost killed ourselves: the ozone hole story
Describe what humans have done about the depletion of the ozone layer.
.
How we still might kill ourselves: global warming
Describe the greenhouse effect and why
CO2 is called a greenhouse gas.
.
AP story realclimate.org Global cooling myth debunked How we still might kill ourselves: global warming
Describe how human activities
increase CO2 in the atmosphere, the logic behind how that leads to global warming, and the evidence that global warming is occurring.
. How we still might kill ourselves: global warming
Describe what effects global warming may have. What is the feed-forward effect of thawing tundra?
Describe what humans have done about global warming.
Define
ecosystem biodiversity
species biodiversity
genetic biodiversity
. Fig. 56-3 biodiversity
Describe the value of biodiversity in
maintaining the global ecosystem and biogeochemical cycles
providing unique resources such as food, remediation, drugs
intrinsic value of biodiversity
. Fig. 56-5 Fig. 56-6 Fig. 56-4 The sixth extinction ...or how we are killing lots of things (and perhaps ultimately ourselves as well)
What is habitat loss and how is it affecting life on Earth today?
What are introduced species and how are they affecting life on Earth today?
What is overexploitation and how is it affecting life on Earth today?
. Fig. 56-2 Fig. 56-7 Fig. 56-8
(a) Brown tree snake (b) Kudzu The sixth extinction ...or how we are killing lots of things (and perhaps ultimately ourselves as well)
What is overexploitation and how is it affecting life on Earth today?
. Fig. 56-9
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/fishwatch
What is the sixth extinction?
What can humans do about it?
.