New Approaches to Conflict Analysis Everyday resistance, peacebuilding and state-making Insights from ‘Africa’s World War’ Marta Iñiguez de Heredia EVERYDAY RESISTANCE, PEACEBUILDING AND STATE-MAKING New Approaches to Conflict Analysis Series editors: Peter Lawler and Emmanuel Pierre Guittet, School of Social Sciences, University of Manchester Until recently, the study of conflict and conflict resolution remained comparatively immune to broad developments in social and political theory. When the changing nature and locus of large-scale conflict in the post-Cold War era is also taken into account, the case for a reconsideration of the fundamentals of conflict analysis and conflict resolution becomes all the more stark. New Approaches to Conflict Analysis promotes the development of new theoretical insights and their application to concrete cases of large-scale conflict, broadly defined. The series intends not to ignore established approaches to conflict analysis and conflict resolution, but to contribute to the reconstruction of the field through a dialogue between orthodoxy and its contemporary critics. Equally, the series reflects the contemporary porosity of intellectual borderlines rather than simply perpetuating rigid boundaries around the study of conflict and peace. New Approaches to Conflict Analysis seeks to uphold the nor- mative commitment of the field’s founders yet also recognises that the moral impulse to research is properly part of its subject matter. To these ends, the series is comprised of the highest quality work of scholars drawn from throughout the international academic community, and from a wide range of disciplines within the social sciences. 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Published by Manchester University Press Altrincham Street, Manchester M1 7JA www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for ISBN 978 1 52615261 0878 0876 4 0 hardbackopen access First published 2017 This electronic version has been made freely available under a Creative Commons (CC-BY-NC-ND) licence. A copy of the licence can be viewed at https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for any external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Typeset by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited To the Congolese people who have died and survived aiming for a dignified future CONTENTS List of figures, maps and tables—page viii Acknowledgements—ix List of abbreviations—xi Chronology—xiii Introduction: Resistance and the liberal peace: a missing link—1 1 Legitimacy, violence and extraction in the practice of building states 25 2 Patterns and practices of everyday resistance: a view from below 50 3 The history and present of ‘Africa’s World War’ 75 4 Claims to legitimate authority and discursive attacks 106 5 Everyday violence and Mai Mai militias in Eastern DRC 127 6 Creative survival as subversion 153 7 Everyday resistance and everyday order in world politics 179 References—196 Index—229 vii FIGURES, MAPS AND TABLES Figures 3.1 DPKO uniformed and total personnel 98 3.2 DPKO budget by mission 99 3.3 Peacekeepers/100,000 people 100 3.4 Reconstruction budget 2004 101 6.1 Home-made broom, copyright © Marta Iñiguez de Heredia 154 6.2 Street view with community-built electricity lines, copyright 168 © Marta Iñiguez de Heredia 6.3 Street in Goma, self-made electrical line, copyright © Marta 169 Iñiguez de Heredia 6.4 Commercial generator, copyright © Marta Iñiguez de Heredia 170 6.5 Businesses supplied by the generator, copyright © Marta Iñiguez 171 de Heredia 6.6 Maternity hospital, copyright © Marta Iñiguez de Heredia 172 Maps 1.1 Democratic Republic of Congo: presence at mine sites of armed 45 groups and other entities. Reproduced by permission of the Humanitarian Information Unit, United States Government 3.1 Regional alliances and interventions in the DRC wars of 1996 88 and 1998, from The Atlas of War and Peace, Dan Smith, copyright © 2003 Taylor & Francis Ltd. Reproduced with permission of Taylor & Francis Books UK (image provided by the British Library) Tables 2.1 Characteristics of everyday and formally organised resistance 55 2.2 Hollander and Einwohner’s types of resistance 70 2.3 Overview of the everyday framework of resistance applied to 72 current practices in the DRC 3.1 Features and achievements of the 2009–11 Goma Accords 96 operations 3.2 Comparison of private contributions to OCHA appeals 100 6.1 FARDC extortion at checkpoints in Kabare and Kasha 160 6.2 ‘Food constraints and household strategies’ 162 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As I see my son growing, the African saying that ‘it takes a whole village to raise a child’ becomes even more meaningful. Something similar applies to academic work. It takes a whole community of scholars and their personal relationships to create it. This book has been made possible thanks to the support, encourage- ment, inspiration and understanding that I have received from many people. To acknowledge them all would be impossible as they include those who have shared their tears, thoughts, ideas, reflections, experiences, fears and aspirations during fieldwork either spontaneously or as part of formal interviews. The content of the book rests on their generosity and enlightenment. Additionally, the long journey this book has taken means that the list of debts is equally long. There are, however, particular people whom I would like to mention for sharing this entire journey and contributing to the book’s final shape. George Lawson and Mark Hoffman have been a source of intellectual stimulation and profes- sional support ever since they took me on as their supervisee. It was not until I finished my PhD that I became aware of the long-term commitment they had acquired. I wish I could reciprocate one day, but for now I can only hope that they know that their mentorship fosters enthusiasm for scholarship. I would also like to thank my family and friends for their love and under- standing. Many of them have shaped this book by offering helpful comments, editorial assistance and personal support. Special thanks go to Kathryn Fisher, Myriam Fotou, Juan Pedro García Cuevas, Joe Hoover, Paul Kirby, María Robles, Meera Sabaratnam, Ana Sama and to my mum, my father, my sister and Mavi. I do not know if my son, Pablo, who is just about three months old as I am writing these lines, will ever read this book. He will be free not to. But he has provided me with the necessary strength and hope to finish it with happiness. I am grateful for the research assistance that I was provided by Jacques Abamba, Adili Romuald Amani, Jean Marie Kamalebo, Augustine Kilau, Janvier Lukele, Evariste Mfume, Baudouin Miruho, Charles Miruho and Fidele Ngeleka. Without them, my fieldwork would not have been possible. Jacques Abamba was assassinated by two unidentified men in June 2012 when he was on a fact- finding mission. His death is testimony to the difficult and dangerous task that research is in the DRC, especially for local researchers. My gratitude also goes to the UK Economic and Social Research Council for the funding it granted me to undertake this research (ref. number: EH/H17704/1). Funding was also granted by the International Relations Department at the London School of Economics for living expenses, fieldwork and conference attendance. Several other institu- tions to whom I would like to extend my gratitude have facilitated access to ix Acknowledgements material and fieldwork support. The MONUC/MONUSCO provided me with logis- tical support, secure transport and opened as many doors to my research as I have asked.