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Thermal Imaging Shows Submarine Groundwater Discharge Plumes Associated with Ancient Settlements on Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile)

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Thermal Imaging Shows Submarine Groundwater Discharge Plumes Associated with Ancient Settlements on Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile) remote sensing Communication Thermal Imaging Shows Submarine Groundwater Discharge Plumes Associated with Ancient Settlements on Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile) Robert J. DiNapoli 1,* , Carl P. Lipo 1 , Timothy S. de Smet 1,2 and Terry L. Hunt 3 1 Environmental Studies Program, Department of Anthropology, Harpur College of Arts and Sciences, Binghamton University, State University of New York, Binghamton, NY 13902, USA; [email protected] (C.P.L.); [email protected] (T.S.d.S.) 2 Department of Geological Sciences, Binghamton University, State University of New York, Binghamton, NY 13902, USA 3 Honors College and School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) is an important component of many coastal environments and hydrologic processes, providing sources of nutrients to marine ecosystems, and potentially, an important source of fresh water for human populations. Here, we use a combination of unpiloted aerial systems (UAS) thermal infrared (TIR) imaging and salinity measurements to characterize SGD on the remote East Polynesian island of Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile). Previous research has shown that coastal freshwater seeps are abundant on Rapa Nui and strongly associated with the locations of ancient settlement sites. We currently lack, however, information on the Citation: DiNapoli, R.J.; Lipo, C.P.; differential magnitude or quality of these sources of fresh water. Our UAS-based TIR results from de Smet, T.S.; Hunt, T.L. Thermal Imaging Shows Submarine four locations on Rapa Nui suggest that locations of variably-sized SGD plumes are associated with Groundwater Discharge Plumes many ancient settlement sites on the island and that these water sources are resilient to drought events. Associated with Ancient Settlements These findings support previous work indicating that ancient Rapa Nui communities responded to on Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile). the inherent and climate-induced hydrological challenges of the island by focusing on these abundant Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 2531. and resilient freshwater sources. Our results highlight the efficacy of using UAS-based TIR for https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132531 detecting relatively small SGD locations and provide key insights on the potential uses of these water sources for past and current Rapa Nui communities. Academic Editor: Dimitrios D. Alexakis Keywords: archaeology; drones; thermal imagery; Polynesia Received: 19 May 2021 Accepted: 24 June 2021 Published: 28 June 2021 1. Introduction Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) represents an important factor in coastal with regard to jurisdictional claims in environments and hydrologic processes [1]. SGD consists of the flow of fresh and brackish published maps and institutional affil- groundwater from inland aquifers into the ocean. These flows serve as a significant iations. source of nutrients to marine ecosystems [2]. SGD can also be exploited by humans for drinking water and thus potentially offer an important source of fresh water for human populations [1,3,4]. Researchers have used a range of methods to identify, map and quantify SGD [1,5]. Among the available options, thermal imagery offers a particularly powerful tool for Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. mapping SGD given its ability to quickly isolate the spatial extent of groundwater flows This article is an open access article that are revealed as temperature differences relative to those of ocean waters. While satellite distributed under the terms and imagery is useful for large-scale occurrences of SGD (e.g., [6,7]), the large pixel resolution conditions of the Creative Commons of most satellite imagery limits their applicability to isolate smaller and more localized Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// areas of groundwater seepage. Here, we explore the use of relatively inexpensive unpiloted creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ aerial systems (UAS) with small thermal imagers as a way of systematically exploring 4.0/). coastal features for SGD. The use of UAS for SGD detection has grown in popularity given Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 2531. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132531 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 2531 2 of 14 Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 2531 2 of 13 unpiloted aerial systems (UAS) with small thermal imagers as a way of systematically exploring coastal features for SGD. The use of UAS for SGD detection has grown in pop- ularity given the ability of these platforms to rapidly and inexpensively produce high- the ability of these platforms to rapidly and inexpensively produce high-resolution maps of resolution maps of freshwater discharge sources (e.g., [8–14]). Here, we further demon- freshwater discharge sources (e.g., [8–14]). Here, we further demonstrate the utility of this strate the utility of this approach in a study conducted on Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile, approach in a study conducted on Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile, Figure1), a small island Figurein the southeastern1), a small island Pacific in the where southeastern freshwater Pacific access where has shown freshwater to be vital access for understandinghas shown to bepast vital and for future understanding communities past [and15– 19future]. Our co researchmmunities adds [15–19]. to the Our results research of recent adds studies to the resultsshowing of recent that SGD studies is plentiful showing on that Rapa SGD Nui is plentiful and strongly on Rapa associated Nui and with strongly the locations associ- atedof ancient with the settlements, locations of andancient we settlements, hypothesize and that we the hypothesize use of SGD that by the past use communities of SGD by pastrepresents communities a solution represents to the inherenta solution and to th climate-inducede inherent and climate-induced surface freshwater surface scarcity fresh- on waterthe island. scarcity on the island. Figure 1. Rapa Nui (Easter Island) with locations mentioned in the text. Figure 1. Rapa Nui (Easter Island) with locations mentioned in the text. 1.1. Rapa Nui Hydrogeology 1.1. Rapa Nui Hydrogeology Rapa Nui is a mid-plate volcanic high island situated at 27◦070 S, 109◦270 W, approx- imatelyRapa 3700 Nui kmis a frommid-plate South volcanic America. high The island island situated is relatively at 27°07 small′ S, 109°27 (164 km′ W,2) approx- and low imatelyin maximum 3700 km elevation from South (~500 America. m asl), with The aisland roughly is relatively triangular small shape (164 measuring km2) and roughlylow in maximum23 km by 11elevation km in its(~500 longest m asl), dimensions. with a roug Thehly island triangular is composed shape measuring of three main roughly basaltic 23 kmshield by 11 volcanoes km in its (Maunga longest Terevaka,dimensions. Rano The Kau, island Poike) is composed and numerous of three smaller main cinder, basaltic sco- shieldria and volcanoes tuff cones, (Maunga all of Terevaka, which are Rano relatively Kau, Poike) young and and numerous range in agesmaller from cinder, ca. 0.78 sco- to ria0.11 and Ma tuff [20 cones,–25]. Terevaka all of which forms are the relatively central young dominant and geologicrange in feature,age from whose ca. 0.78 summit to 0.11 is Mathe [20–25]. highest Terevaka portion of forms the island the central at ca. 500dominant m asl. Poikegeologic forms feature, the eastern whose pointsummit and is isthe ca. highest370 m aslportion with of Rano the island Kau in at the ca.southwest 500 m asl. cornerPoike forms at ca. th 320e eastern m asl. point While and coastal is ca. areas 370 maround asl with Rano Rano Kau, Kau Poike in the and southwest the northwestern corner at ca. coast 320 of m Terevaka asl. While are coastal dominated areas byaround steep Ranocliffs, Kau, the majorityPoike and of the southwestern,northwestern coast northern of Terevaka and southern are domina coasts areted gentlyby steep sloping. cliffs, the majorityThe geology of theof southwestern, the island is basaltic, northern composed and southern mainly coasts of hawaiites, are gently basalts, sloping. mugearites, trachytes,The geology and rhyolites of the [20 island,21,25, 26is]. basaltic, These volcanic composed flows aremainly highly of permeable, hawaiites, and basalts, the ex- mugearites,istence and trachytes, characteristics and ofrhyolites a low-permeability [20,21,25,26]. volcanic These volcanic core are poorlyflows areunderstood highly perme- [20,27]. able,These and geologic the existence attributes and result characteristics in an island of witha low-permeability limited surface volcanic freshwater. core The are only poorly per- understoodsistent water [20,27]. bodies These are three geologic relatively attributes small result crater in lakes. an island Rano with Kau limited and Rano surface Raraku fresh- are water.precipitation-fed The only persistent lakes, whereas water Ranobodies Aroi are is th alsoree fedrelatively from a perchedsmall crater spring lakes. [27]. Rano Rano Kau Kau andis the Rano largest Raraku at ca. are 1 precipitation-fed km in diameter andlakes, ca. whereas 6 m deep Rano and Aroi is surrounded is also fed from by steep a perched slopes. springRano Raraku[27]. Rano on theKau southeastern is the largest slopes at ca. of 1 Terevaka km in diameter is ca. 300 and m inca. diameter 6 m deep and and Rano is sur- Aroi roundednear the by Terevaka steep slopes. summit Rano is ca. Raraku 200 m on in diameter.the southeastern Both Rano slopes Raraku of Terevaka and Rano is Aroica. 300 are shallow, with Rano Raraku periodically going dry and Rano Aroi frequently reverting to a bog during drought events (e.g., [28,29]). Both Rano Raraku and Rano Kau are believed to Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 2531 3 of 14 Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 2531 m in diameter and Rano Aroi near the Terevaka summit is ca. 200 m in diameter.3 Both of 13 Rano Raraku and Rano Aroi are shallow, with Rano Raraku periodically going dry and Rano Aroi frequently reverting to a bog during drought events (e.g., [28,29]).
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