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Flying High: Limits to Flight Performance by Sparrows on the Qinghai-Tibet

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Flying High: Limits to Flight Performance by Sparrows on the Qinghai-Tibet © 2016. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd | Journal of Experimental Biology (2016) 219, 3642-3648 doi:10.1242/jeb.142216 RESEARCH ARTICLE Flying high: limits to flight performance by sparrows on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Yan-Feng Sun1,2, Zhi-Peng Ren1, Yue-Feng Wu1, Fu-Min Lei3, Robert Dudley4,* and Dong-Ming Li1,* ABSTRACT hypoxic air, in parallel with reduced capacity for aerodynamic force Limits to flight performance at high altitude potentially reflect variable production, impose limits to locomotor performance at high constraints deriving from the simultaneous challenges of hypobaric, altitudes (Altshuler and Dudley, 2003; Altshuler et al., 2004). hypodense and cold air. Differences in flight-related morphology and Among different hummingbird species, high-altitude hovering is maximum lifting capacity have been well characterized for different associated interspecifically with relatively longer wings, and also hummingbird species across elevational gradients, but relevant with a decline in maximum lifting capacity associated with limiting within-species variation has not yet been identified in any bird stroke amplitudes and thus with total force production by the wings species. Here we evaluate load-lifting capacity for Eurasian tree (Altshuler and Dudley, 2003; Altshuler et al., 2004). Hummingbirds sparrow (Passer montanus) populations at three different elevations are nonetheless a highly derived avian lineage with wing kinematics in China, and correlate maximum lifted loads with relevant anatomical and behavior radically different from all other birds, and the features including wing shape, wing size, and heart and lung masses. potential generality of the decline in elevation-dependent flight Sparrows were heavier and possessed more rounded and longer performance remains to be established for other small birds. wings at higher elevations; relative heart and lung masses were also Intraspecific comparison of populations at different elevations greater with altitude, although relative flight muscle mass remained reduces much of the genetic variability necessarily associated with constant. By contrast, maximum lifting capacity relative to body among-species comparisons, particularly those of body size and its weight declined over the same elevational range, while the effective flight-related correlates. At present, intraspecific analysis of wing loading in flight (i.e. the ratio of body weight and maximum lifted maximum flight capacity in birds is limited to studies on ruby- Archilochus colubris weight to total wing area) remained constant, suggesting throated hummingbirds ( ) hovering in aerodynamic constraints on performance in parallel with enhanced hypodense air. Hummingbirds with higher wing loadings failed in heart and lung masses to offset hypoxic challenge. Mechanical flight at relatively higher air densities under hyperoxic conditions, limits to take-off performance may thus be exacerbated at higher consistent with aerodynamic rather than metabolic limits on elevations, which may in turn result in behavioral differences in maximum hovering capacity (Chai and Dudley, 1996). We escape responses among populations. therefore hypothesized that for other avian taxa, the capacity for maximum vertical force production would similarly decline with KEY WORDS: Altitude, Eurasian tree sparrow, Flight, Maximum elevation among different populations, but that the maximum performance, Wing loading aerodynamic wing loading attained during such flights, i.e. the ratio of effective body mass (including any supplemental load) to INTRODUCTION wing area, would be similar. To this end, we chose to study a Montane habitats pose diverse physiological challenges to animals representative passerine, the Eurasian tree sparrow [Passer montanus relative to their basic physiological functions, including respiration, (Linnaeus 1758)], which is one of the most broadly distributed birds circulation and thermoregulation. Associated morphological across the Eurasian continent (Summers-Smith, 2014). adaptations in birds and mammals are known to include increases The Eurasian tree sparrow has a wide elevational distribution in the relative size of internal organs (e.g. Hammond et al., 2001) from sea level to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), representing a and in overall body size (e.g. Blackburn et al., 1999; Blackburn and vertical difference of more than 5000 m (Fu et al., 1998; Summers- Ruggiero, 2001). Moreover, animal flight at high altitude involves Smith, 2014). The QTP is the largest high-altitude land area on the aerodynamic responses to hypodense conditions, along with earth, and is characterized by hypobaric and cold habitats enhanced oxygen delivery to flight muscles to compensate for its (Thompson et al., 2000), which likely impose selection on a reduced atmospheric partial pressure (Altshuler and Dudley, 2006; variety of features of organismal design. Prior studies have found Dillon et al., 2006). Increased metabolic demands in hypodense and that Eurasian tree sparrows at different elevations express variable physiological and ecological traits (e.g. in stress response and life history characteristics; Li et al., 2011, 2013). As a human 1Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of commensal, Eurasian tree sparrows settled on the QTP in parallel Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, People’s Republic of China. 2Ocean College, Agricultural University of with human colonization approximately 20,000 years ago (Zhao Hebei, Qinhuangdao 066003, People’s Republic of China. 3Key Laboratory of et al., 2009; Y. H. Qu et al., unpublished data). Humans inhabiting Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of the QTP also exhibit phenotypic and genetic adaptation to the low- Sciences, Beijing 100101, People’s Republic of China. 4Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. oxygen and cold environments (see Beall, 2014). Comparable adaptation might be expressed in Eurasian tree sparrows on the *Authors for correspondence ([email protected]; [email protected]) QTP, which would shape flight-related adaptation to local elevation. D.-M.L., 0000-0003-2759-3435 As such, this short-lived species represents a convenient system in which to study intraspecific variation in flight performance (e.g. Received 21 April 2016; Accepted 1 September 2016 wingbeat kinematics and load-lifting capacity) and morphological Journal of Experimental Biology 3642 RESEARCH ARTICLE Journal of Experimental Biology (2016) 219, 3642-3648 doi:10.1242/jeb.142216 correlates (e.g. flight muscle mass, wing loading, and heart and lung MATERIALS AND METHODS indices) relative to both aerodynamic force production and Animal collection and sampling sites metabolic capacity. In China, the Eurasian tree sparrow is a Thirty-three male and 29 female adult Eurasian tree sparrows were common resident species with large population sizes (Zhang and captured opportunistically in nature using mist nets during winter at Zheng, 2010) and very small home ranges (∼7600 m2; Pan and three different sites in the People’s Republic of China (see Table S1 Zheng, 2003), so local adaptation in flight-related features is not and Fig. S1). Within 30 min post-capture, body mass was measured likely to be overcome by migrants among populations at different for each individual to the nearest 0.01 g using a portable digital elevations. balance. Birds were used in flight experiments within 2 h of capture. Here, we identify patterns of flight-related morphological variation, wingbeat kinematics and maximum load-lifting capacity Load-lifting assay among three populations of Eurasian tree sparrow covering Birds were placed individually in a rectangular flight chamber ∼3000 m in elevational range, which corresponds approximately (45×45×150 cm) made from transparent Plexiglas on two adjacent to a 25% reduction in air density and oxygen partial pressure. We sides, and with a mesh covering on the top. Each tree sparrow was also include data on heart and lung mass to identify potential gross evaluated for asymptotic load-lifting capacity using an assay anatomical underpinnings to any increased capacity for oxygen described elsewhere in detail (Chai and Millard, 1997; Chai et al., transport and overall metabolic capacity. 1997; Altshuler and Dudley, 2003; Buchwald and Dudley, 2010) Table 1. Morphological variables (means±s.d.) and statistical results among Eurasian tree sparrows across an altitudinal gradient including three sites (Shijiazhuang, 80 m; Zhangbei, 1400 m; Jiangxigou, 3230 m) in a linear mixed model with sex and site as fixed factors Variable 80 m 1400 m 3230 m Statistical results a b c Body mass (g) 19.17±1.82 20.78±1.54 23.31±1.30 Site: F2,55=27.088, P<0.001 Sex: F1,55=3.409, P=0.07 Interaction: F2,55=0.012, P=0.988 a a b Wing length (cm) 9.38±0.24 9.07±0.38 9.63±0.36 Site: F2,55=13.554, P<0.001 Sex: F1,55=5.334, P=0.025 Interaction: F2,55=0.320, P=0.728 a a b Wingtip shape (C2) 1.04±0.01 1.08±0.01 1.10±0.01 Site: F2,56=13.389, P<0.001 Sex: F1,56=0.791, P=0.378 Interaction: F2,56=1.249, P=0.295 2 a a b Total wing area (cm ) 98.54±8.78 97.64±8.28 113.06±13.58 Site: F2,55=10.330, P<0.001 Sex: F1,55=12.999, P=0.001 Interaction: F2,55=2.915, P=0.063 Wing aspect ratio 1.79±0.14 1.90±0.14 1.94±0.18 Site: F2,55=1.753, P=0.183 Sex: F1,55=2.416, P=0.126 Interaction: F2,55=0. 923, P=0.403 −2 a b a,b Wing loading (N m ) 19.11±2.10 20.77±1.75
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