Another word used to describe Ancient Urban Gardens of Persia: Concept, pleasant spaces planted with trees and History, and Influence on Other World shrubs is bagh. For example, the word Baghdad (the capital city of Iraq) is Gardens rooted from the words bagh and daad (meaning ‘‘the garden of justice’’), 1 2 1 as the ancient Persian city of Ctesi- Esmaeil Fallahi , Pontia Fallahi , and Shahla Mahdavi phon and Supreme Court of Ivan-e Madayen during the Sasanian dynasty ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. art of gardening, bagh, Iran horticulture, landscape of Persia were located near Baghdad. design In the past, Persian elite ensconced themselves in these lavish private gar- SUMMARY. The history of Persian gardens goes back to a few millennia before the dens, nine of which have been named emergence of Islam in Iran (Persia). Designs of Persian gardens have influenced and are used extensively in the gardens of Al-Andalus in Spain, Humayun’s Tomb and collectively as the Persian gardens and the Taj Mahal in India, and many gardens in the United States and other countries count among Iran’s United Nations around the globe. Bagh in the Persian language (Farsi) means garden and the word Educational, Scientific and Cultural Baghdad (the capital city of Iraq) is rooted from the words bagh and daad (meaning Organization World Heritage Sites. ‘‘the garden of justice’’). Pasargadae, the ancient Persian capital city, is the earliest They include the Ancient Garden of example of Persian garden design known in human civilization as chahar bagh or 4- Pasargadae near the tomb place of fold garden design. Bagh-e-Eram, or Garden of Eden or Eram Garden, is one the Cyrus the Great, Eram Garden, Che- most attractive Persian gardens and is located in Shiraz, Iran. There are numerous hel Sotun Garden, Fin Garden, Abbas other urban ancient gardens in Iran, including Bagh-e-Shahzadeh (Shazdeh), Abad Garden, Shahzadeh Garden, meaning ‘‘The Prince’s Garden’’ in Mahan, Golestan National Park near the Cas- pian Sea; Bagh-e-Fin in Kashan; Bagh-e-El-Goli in Tabriz; and Bagh-e-Golshan in Dowlat Abad Garden, Pahlavanpour Tabas. The design of each Persian garden is influenced by climate, art, beliefs, po- Garden, and Akbariyeh Garden. In etry, literature, and romance of the country and the region where the garden is addition to their aesthetic beauty, it is located. In addition, each garden may have a gene bank of fruits, flowers, herbs, and arguably the ability of these gardens vegetables. Although countless gardens were destroyed in the hands of invaders to adapt to and flourish in extreme throughout the centuries, Persians have attempted either to rebuild or build new climates that render them remarkable. gardens generation after generation, each of which has become a favorite destina- The Iranian plateau is not a conducive tion to tourists from around the world. environment for gardens to thrive. Little rainfall, extreme hot and dry Introduction, history, and Pasargadae from 3000 years ago and temperatures in the summer, and cold the garden of Cyrus the Great, the temperatures in the winter, as well as concept of Persian gardens outline of which remains visible today gusty winds provide less than oppor- Gardens and green spaces have (Mahmoudi Farahani et al., 2016). In tune conditions (Fallahi, 2017b; always played a significant role in Ira- the Persian language, these gardens Tajaddini, 2011). These human-made nian history and culture, as evidenced were called pardis,fromwhichthe havens therefore relied on proper use by the gardens of the ancient city of Englishwordparadise—inthesenseof of space and a subterranean irrigation heaven—derives (Fallahi, 2017a). From system (SIS). Received for publication 20 May 2019. Accepted for the era of the Achaemenian and Sasanian Throughout time, these gardens publication 28 Aug. 2019. dynasties, Iran itself was conceptualized have shifted in terms of layout, aes- Published online 8 October 2019. by its rulers and citizens as a huge garden thetics, and use. During the Sasanian 1University of Idaho, Department of Plant Sciences, with surrounding walls that encom- Empire, between the third and sev- 29603 U of I Lane, Parma, ID 83660 passed different tribes and beliefs, with enth century, a time in which the 21421 Narrow Lane Parkway Montgomery, AL 36111 everyrewardpromisedtobeinheaven. Zoroastrian religion was dominant, This vision was evident from a speech flowing water and fruit trees played We express our gratitude to Professor Morteza Khosh-Khui, University of Shiraz, Department of about Iran and its walls by Persian King a vital role, as illustrated in the garden Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Shiraz, Iran, Anushirvan of the Sasanian dynasty. designs replete with fountains and for providing some information for this article. However, the fantasized walls came ponds (Fallahi et al., 2018). After This paper was presented during the 2018 American Society for Horticultural Science Annual Conference down and Arabs, Turks, Mongols, and the Arab conquest, the ancient Per- in Washington, DC, as part of a workshop titled others went into Iran. Still, the concept sian concept of chahar bagh (four ‘‘Urban Horticulture: From Local Initiatives to of the Persian garden remained in Iran, gardens) was used in Persian land- Global Success Stories.’’ and all these conquerors continued to scaping, placing a greater emphasis on E.F. is a Professor and Director of Pomology and Viticulture Program. build gardens (Daryaee, 2014). aesthetics, mirroring the Garden of P.F. is an expert in international tourism and culture. S.M. is a Postdoctoral Fellow of Pomology and Viticulture Program. Units E.F. is the corresponding author. E-mail: efallahi@ To convert U.S. to SI, To convert SI to U.S., uidaho.edu. multiply by U.S. unit SI unit multiply by This is an open access article distributed under the CC 0.4047 acre(s) ha 2.4711 BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/ 0.3048 ft m 3.2808 licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). 0.0929 ft2 m2 10.7639 https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH04415-19 1.6093 mile(s) km 0.6214
6 • February 2020 30(1) Eden described in verses of the Koran (Ghavidel, 2008; United Nations Ed- attractive feature. Without water, the as a place where two rivers intersect, ucational, Scientific and Cultural Or- Persian garden cannot exist; there- thereby dividing the garden into four ganization, 2018). fore, flowing water is central to the quadrants. The Mongolian invasion In past decades, the influence of concept because its presence is con- during the 13th century brought with the Persian garden can be seen in ceptual, functional, and aesthetic. it ornamental and decorative floral numerous parks and landscaping Because these gardens are in regions species. Finally, during the 17th and landmarks around the world. Long- where water sources are scarce, irri- 18th centuries (the Safavid dynasty), wood Gardens (Kennett Square, PA) gating the land is a major con- a palace became an extension of the is one of the world’s great horticul- cern. Water from underground SISs, garden. In other words, residential tural displays, encompassing more springs, or rivers functions to irrigate quarters or a pavilion were con- than 450 ha of dazzling gardens and the land by waterways (Mahdi Nejad structed on the garden grounds and woodlands. In our opinion, several et al., 2017). became an integral element of the aspects of Persian gardens, such as the Vegetation is a vital part of the Persian garden. concept of chahar bagh or charbagh Persian garden and includes diverse and waterways, are merged with trees, shrubs, and flowers. The types Influence of Persian gardens on other garden designs at Longwood of plants in these gardens vary accord- Gardens. The Walled Gardens in ing to location, but serve different gardens in other countries Untermyer Park, also known as functions, including providing shade Over millennia, the Persian gar- Untermyer Garden, in Yonkers, NY, and ornamentation. Evergreens, such den had a major influence on and is an excellent example of a garden as iranian cedar (Cupressus sempervi- served as inspiration for other gardens mimicking the design of ancient Per- rens) and turkish pine (Pinus brutia), around the world—from the Alham- sian gardens of antiquity in the mod- and deciduous trees, such as orna- bra in Spain to the Taj Mahal and ern western world. This garden was mental plane tree (Platanus orienta- Mongolian Garden in India to the developed by Samuel Untermyer dur- lis), are the main types of trees used in paved and tiled Andalusian court- ing the early 20th century and is Persian gardens. Fruit-bearing and yards with arcades, pools, and foun- considered ‘‘America’s greatest for- shade-providing trees are also fea- tains testifying to their Persian roots gotten garden today’’ (Gannon, tured prominently in Persian gardens. (Ghavidel, 2008). When Alexander 2017; Untermyer Gardens Conser- Pasargadae Garden is believed to have the Great conquered parts of the vancy, 2019). been used as both a hunting ground Persian Empire in 334 BCE, he In modern days, attention has and a garden of fruit trees for con- brought back with him new varieties been given to the influence and inte- sumption (Ghavidel, 2008). of fruit and other plants, and these gration of Persian garden concepts with The last element of the Per- materials were later grown in Gardens park designs of the new world where sian garden is the architectural space. of Lucullus (Horti Lucullani) on the Iranian immigrants reside (Ghavidel, Persian gardens are enclosed by sur- Pincian Hill at the edge of Rome 2008; Yazdani, 2018; Yazdani and Loz- rounding adobe walls, offering seclu- (Bowe, 2004). The concept of the anovska, 2016, 2017). Yazdani (2018) sion and solitude. These walls are Persian garden prompted an interest revealed that historical icons and cultural borders of the gardens themselves in horticulture that was renewed in landscapes play prominent roles in in- and serve as a boundary between the Europe around 60 BCE (Bowe, spiring Iran’s park environments, arid, uncultivated land outside and 2004). Fallahi et al. (2002), when whereas sociocultural activities, resto- the protected, so-called paradise in- describing the history of apple (Malus ration, and bonding with the past have side (Massoudi, 2009). Within the domestica) rootstocks, reported that great importance for Iranian immi- borders of the wall, water flows the use of dwarf horses (Equus ferus grants in Australia. throughout the garden to create one caballus) and dwarf trees was popular space despite the geometric patterns in Persia, as illustrated in the hiero- Elements of the Persian garden created by the waterways. The chahar glyphic of Persepolis, the palace of The naturally unsuitable environ- bagh feature reflects the earth, sky, Achaemenian, and other documents mental conditions throughout much water, and God, thereby providing an and monuments of the Sassanian and of Iran called for creative artificial almost ethereal quality (United Na- Parthian dynasties. By the mid 15th engineering in Persian gardens includ- tions Educational, Scientific and Cul- century, the use of dwarf apple root- ing four major elements: land, water, tural Organization, 2018). Unlike stocks for training trees in different plants, and space (United Nations European gardens, the geometric shapes and forms in gardens became Educational, Scientific and Cultural and symmetrical features of Persian more common, and paradise (derived Organization, 2018). These elements gardens are visible to the observer on from the Persian word pardis) apples serve a practical purpose, such as water the ground. became an important component of for irrigation, and an aesthetic one in In the following sections, we todays’ dwarf rootstocks, which facil- the form of waterways, fountains, and look at some examples of Persian itate establishment of modern, high- ponds. Bright colors and the use of gardens around Iran and describe density apple orchards. tiles at the bottom of the pools en- some of their defining qualities, fea- It was around the Safavid and hanced the aesthetics. tures, and styles. Qajar dynasties that western gardens Constructing these gardens on also began to influence the gardens of various levels not only allows for Bagh-e-Fin, Kashan ancient Persia, most notably in the irrigation, but also the opportunity The city of Kashan, located in types of flowers, shrubs, and plants to create waterfalls, which are another Esfahan Province, has two main parts:
• February 2020 30(1) 7 mountain and desert. The eastern is the site where Amir Kabir, a chan- as various medicinal plants and part of the city faces the central desert cellor during the Qajar era, was mur- countless decorative flowers. Fruit of Iran, where one can find the Mar- dered by an assassin. trees include pomegranate, medlar anjab Desert, which is known for its A major characteristic of Fin (Mespilus germanica), sour orange shifting sands, and Salt Lake. Garden is water. The pools and (Citrus aurantium), persimmon Bagh-e-Fin, or Fin Garden, fountains of this garden, which func- (Diospyros kaki), apple, pear, quince, therefore, is a welcome retreat from tion entirely without the use of me- apricot, almond (Prunus amygda- Kashan’s otherwise desertlike dryness chanical pumps, are sourced by an lus), and persian walnut (Juglans (Fig. 1). Fin Garden is the oldest SIS from the surrounding hillside. regia). Among the nonfruit trees surviving garden in Iran, which ex- These pools are lined with blue tiles are turkish pine, iranian cedar, per- emplifies the chahar bagh element. and now contain goldfish (Carassius sian maple (Acer velutinum), weep- This garden was completed in 1590 auratus) that, along with the bub- ing willow (Salix babylonica), under the Safavid dynasty; however, bling fountains, create a pleasant mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans), what remains of it is from the Qajar atmosphere. pussy willow (Salix cinerea), silver rule between 1799 and 1834. Bagh- Sarv-e-kashan or iranian cedar dollar tree (Eucalyptus cinerea), and e-Fin was given life from the nearby trees line the walking paths and pro- white poplar. The sarv-e naz shirazi or Soleymanieh Spring (Mahmoudi Far- vide shade for this 2.3-ha garden. shiraz cypress (C. sempervirens var. ahani et al., 2016). This spring is in Other vegetation includes ornamen- cereiformis) is a towering tree plenti- the proximity of the ancient Tepe tal plane trees, white poplars (Populus ful in this garden (personal observa- Sialk, a ziggurat (an ancient temple alba), long-leaved violet willows tion) and is one of the oldest—said to tower with the form of a terraced (Salix acutifolia), weeping willows date back 5000 years. Bagh-e-Eram pyramid of successively receding (Salix babylonica), and forest box- mainly sources its water from a spring stories), the oldest settlement of wood (Buxus hyrcana). Fruit trees that runs out in a stream to join which dates back to 6000 and 5500 such as fig (Ficus carica), mulberry several SISs to form a river that di- BCE. The existence of this nearby (Morus alba), apricot (Prunus arme- vides into many brooks to irrigate not spring is also the reason this location niaca), green gauge plum (Prunus only nearby gardens, but also the city has been favored by various kings and domestica), pear (Pyrus communis), of Shiraz (United Nations Educa- governments throughout history. Fin pomegranate (Punica granatum), tional, Scientific and Cultural Orga- Garden was developed over time, and and quince (Cydonia oblonga), as well nization, 2018). this is reflected in the exquisite archi- as various decorative flowers are also tecture of the main pavilion, which plentiful (United Nations Educa- Bagh-e-Golshan, Tabas contains features from the Safavid, tional, Scientific and Cultural Orga- Lying in the remote eastern town Zandiyeh, and Qajar eras and is re- nization, 2018). of Tabas, Bagh-e-Golshan is one of plete with fresco paintings, plaster- the most breathtaking gardens in work, woodwork, and stained-glass Bagh-e-Eram, Shiraz Iran. Dating back to the Zand and windows (United Nations Educa- Located in Shiraz, the capital of Qajar dynasties, this garden was con- tional, Scientific and Cultural Orga- Fars Province in southern Iran, along structed under the order of Mir Hos- nization, 2018). The bathhouse, the northern shore of the Khoshk sein Khan, a governor of the city of located on the left side of the garden, River, Bagh-e-Eram, or Eram (Per- Tabas appointed by Nader Shah dur- sian for paradise or heaven) is ing the Afshariyeh dynasty during the a 110,380-m2 rectangular garden 18th century. with a west-to-east slope. The main Given its isolated location be- pavilion is located on the western tween two salt deserts, the Lut and end, and there is a central pool. the Kavir-e-Markazi, the abundance Although the layout of the garden of water to this 3.25-ha plot of land is said to have begun during the 11th seems inconceivable, but it is, like century by the Seljuk dynasty, it is other gardens, sourced from an an- suggested it was actually built in cient subterranean SIS system. This the 13th century during the Ilkha- garden is also designed with the cha- nate dynasty (Wilber, 1979). Water har bagh feature, with two streams streaming down the blue-tiled foun- intersecting. tains and ornamental pools leads to Fruit trees such date palm (Phoe- a three-story pavilion flanked with nix dactylifera), sour orange, and vibrant mosaics and inscribed with pomegranate grow abundantly here, the poems of Persian lyric poet as do other trees such as cypresses Hafez. Like many other sites in (Cupressus sp.) and cycads (Cycado- Shiraz, the structure underwent ren- phyta), and decorative flowers such as ovation by the subsequent Zand and wild rose (Rosa persica) and hollyhock Qajar dynasties. (Alcea rosea). This vertical garden Today, the garden and building leads to a centrally located pool where Fig. 1. Bagh-e-Fin (Fin Garden) is are part of Shiraz’s Botanical Garden. pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) have located near Kashan, Iran, and uses There is an abundance of fruit- taken residence (E. Fallahi, personal many water features and rows of trees. and nonfruit-bearing trees as well observation).
8 • February 2020 30(1) Bagh-e-Shahzadeh, Mahan, has been able to flourish in an other- interlocking ribbed arches. Garofalo Kerman wise arid, unforgiving environment. (2016) also studied the drawings, The exquisite two-story sardar module, and proportions of the Located about 35 km southeast khaneh, or entrance, is equipped with Hashti pavilion with the exclusive of Kerman in Mahan, Bagh-e-Shah- paired columns, colorful tiles, stucco, purpose of providing a key to reading zadeh or Shazdeh (The Prince’s Gar- plaster moldings, and gazebolike geometries that, although complex in den) is a Qajar-era, walled Eden of structures that jut toward the inside appearance can, in reality, be traced towering trees and cascading water of the garden. The building on the using a simple ruler and compass. (Figs. 2 and 3). This garden is 5.5 ha garden’s upper side was dedicated as Other features of this building and sits on a 6.4% slope that contains the living quarters of the prince. include stained-glass doors and win- a 20-m height difference from top Among the trees in this garden are dows. This colorful glass serves many to bottom (Abbasalizadeh Rezakolahi evergreens, such as turkish pine and purposes, some of which include et al., 2015). As a result of this iranian cedar, and shade-providing blocking the view from the outside. difference in height, the water flow- trees such as common ash (Fraxinus They block direct sunlight to protect ing from the upper end to the lower excelsior), ornamental plane tree, rugs and other decor, and their re- end creates a symphony that is pleas- white poplar, and field elm (Ulmus flections are said to keep mosquitos ant to the ear, and the fountains minor). Grape vines (Vitis vinefera) away. Some local people claim this shooting water upward are delightful and several fruit-bearing trees such as type of glass has health benefits, in- to the eye (Bachari, 2012). The water, apple, pomegranate, quince, pear, cluding the prevention of Alzheimer’s which is supplied by the Tigran un- apricot, peach (Prunus persica), and disease and depression (Fallahi and derground SIS from the nearby town black plum (P. domestica) grow Fallahi, interview with local people). of Joupar, is carried longitudinally alongside flowerbeds with various This garden sources its water (Abbasalizadeh Rezakolahi et al., decorative flowers (Bachari, 2012). from five small SISs that originate in 2015). It is thanks in part to this SIS the nearby town of Mehriz. These as well as the plentiful sunshine, fertile Bagh-e-Dowlat Abad, Yazd historical SISs date back two centu- soil, and mild winds that this garden Dowlat Abad Garden in Yazd is ries. Trees in this complex include said to have the most complex layout turkish pine and iranian cedar. Fruit of Persian gardens (Fig. 4). With an trees and vines include pomegranate, area of about 40,000 m2, it was con- mulberry (one tree of which is said to structed in 1740 by Mohammad be the complex’s oldest), and, to Taghi Khan, a governor of Yazd, a lesser extent, fig, olive (Olea euro- during the Zand rule. A 208-m-long paea), and grape (E. Fallahi, personal pool, the longest in Iran, with 47 observation). fountains runs down the center of the garden between the octagonal Bagh-e-Pahlavanpour, Mehriz summer and winter quarters (United Located about 35 km from Yazd Nations Educational, Scientific and in the town of Mehriz is Bagh-e- Cultural Organization, 2018). Pahlavanpour, which has been nick- The winter pavilion faces the named ‘‘the garden town of Yazd.’’ south, thereby absorbing more natu- Although this 25,000-m2 garden was Fig. 2. Bagh-e-Shazdeh (The Prince’s ral sunlight. On the opposite side, the largely constructed during the Qajar Garden) in Mahan, Iran, has the most summer pavilion is arguably best dynasty, many of its architectural fascinating water features among all known for its windcatcher, which highlights belong to the Zandieh ancient Persian gardens. towers 33 m into the Yazd city skyline era. The property was first established and is said to be the tallest of its kind by Hassan Mullah Reza, who then in the world (Akhgar et al., 2013). This ancient, natural ventilation sys- tem, which was an essential architec- tural element in residential buildings and structures located in the desert, kept the water at near-freezing tem- peratures. Garofalo (2016) analyzed the karbandi of the Hashti pavilion at Bagh-e-Dolat Abad. Karbandi is a spatial system obtained through the projection of a star-shaped draw- ing onto a curved surface. He reported that the karbandi of the Fig. 3. The pavilion in Bagh-e Shazdeh (The Prince’s Garden) in octagonal vestibule of the Hashti Mahan, Iran, has a two-floor pavilion consists of a complex roof Fig. 4. Bagh-e-Dowlat Abad in Yazd, residential structure at the upper end, system that completes the octago- Iran, has a main pavilion with a large facing water fountains, and rows of nal volume of the room below; water pool and rows of trees on both ornamental and edible fruit trees. its intrados presents a pattern of sides of the pool.
• February 2020 30(1) 9 passed it on to his son-in-law, Ali paintings of Europeans, which were The garden complex of Kalat-e- Pahlevan. The summer and winter painted by two Dutch artists who were Naderi was rebuilt by Nader Shah residences were once occupied by frequent visitors (E. Fallahi, personal Afshar (King Nader) in the city of the town’s noblemen (United Na- observation). Kalat, located northeast of the city of tions Educational, Scientific and Cul- Mashhad. By the decree of King tural Organization, 2018). Bagh-e-Akbariyeh Nader, a building called Emarat-e- The water in this garden is Bagh-e-Akbariyeh is located just Khorshid (House of the Sun), with sourcedfromanSISthatenters 5 km outside Birjand in the South magnificent architecture and Persian through the southwest and goes Khorasan Province, a city known for artwork, carvings and paintings, was through the Anjirak watermill, filling its plentiful sunshine. There are few built in this garden complex for the the basin and gutters, before entering clouds in this area, so the shortage of tomb of King Nader, who died in the Mirza Nasrollah watermill on the rain and rapid evaporation of water 1747 (Dalrymple, 2018). eastern end, after which it proceeds to creates some challenges for a garden. irrigate the garden (United Nations The water, however, is supplied by Bagh-e-Saad Abad, Tehran Educational, Scientific and Cultural the eponymous SIS, which runs to The Garden of Saad Abad is Organization, 2018). a miansara basin, where it branches located in the southern foothills of Pahlavanpour Garden consists out and runs underneath the main Alborz Mountain in the north of mostly of turkish pine and iranian building and into the garden. Tehran. Initially, an 8000-m2 garden cedar trees, with fruit-bearing trees Akbariyeh Garden has a variety used to lodge Qajarid authorities be- such as fig and pomegranate. The of plant species, including many in- fore 1920. Then, Reza Shah the brooks that run through the garden digenous plants. Trees include turk- Great, founder of Pahlavi dynasty, to irrigate the land are flanked ish pine, iranian cedar, common ash, expanded and added the Green Palace by ornamental plane trees (Aladin and juniper (Juniperus sp.). Fruit- Kakh-e-Shahvand to the initial Travel, 2019). bearing trees and shrubs include 8000-m2 complex in 1923 (Jalali, 2017). pistachio (Pistacia vera) and plum. Var- This garden has two features that are Bagh-e-Chehel Sotun, Esfahan ious other shrubs and seasonal flowers different from older Persian gardens. Located in Esfahan, Bagh-e- also grow here (P. Fallahi, personal First, many plants (shrubs, trees, and Chehel Sotun is a 16th-century Safa- observation). flowers) are imported from Europe vid-era garden measuring 6.75 ha and other regions of the world. Sec- (Mahmoudi Farahani et al., 2016). Bagh-e-Joogh, Mako ond, Saad Abad garden plants are The courtyard in the pavilion contains This garden is in a village called grown alongside local species, along 20 slender columns made from the Baghcheh Joogh, which is 5 km from streams, and throughout the garden trunks of ornamental plane trees. the city of Mako. Bagh-e-Joogh was according to their height and the These columns, combined with their built by Governor Eqbal-o-Saltaneh land’s topography. Today, this gar- reflection in the large pool in front, at the end of the Qajar dynasty and it denisusedasanimportantmuseum give the garden its name, which has been used as museum complex and is visited by tourists from around means ‘‘40 columns’’ in Persian, and since 1988 (P. Fallahi, personal the world every year. count among the garden’s most no- information). table features. Other Persian gardens Plants and trees in Chehel Sotun Numerous other ancient botan- Garden are mainly comprised of turk- Bagh-e-Cheshmeh Belghies ical gardens still exist in Iran, includ- ish pine, persian elm ( ), This beautiful garden was built Ulmus boissieri ing Ghadamgah Neishapour, Garden black maple ( ), orna- toward the end of Qajar dynasty in Acer nigrum of Shookat Abad Birjand, Garden of mental plane tree, cade juniper ( a town called Ghaleh Kareh, located Juni- Delgosha in Shiraz, Garden of Hasht ), iranian cedar, forest in the state of Boyer Ahmad. In 1951, perus oxycedrus Behesht in Esfahan, Garden of Divan boxwood, norway maple ( this garden was expanded by its new Acer plata- Khaneh (Chehel Sotun) in Mazan- noides), white poplar, egyptian acacia owner, Eskandar Khan Charmin (P. Fallahi, personal information). daran, Garden of Abbas Abad in (Acacia nilotica), bay laurel (Laurus Behshar, and Garden of El Goli in ), and common ash, among nobilis Tabriz. It is important to remember others. Water is supplied by a stream Bagh-e-Kalat-e-Naderi that countless other magnificent gar- that continues to the Naqsh-e-Jahan Kalat-e-Naderi is essentially a for- dens existed throughout Persia’s long Square after irrigating the garden. tress that was built during or before and rich history, but were destroyed Ornamental stone fountain jets carved the Achaemenian Empire of Persia by invading Arabs, Mongolians, and as lions and people have been placed (550–330 BCE). This fortress is sur- Tamerlanes for various cultural and around the pool. rounded on three sides by high cliff religious reasons. Inside the pavilion in the Royal walls that range from 500 m on the Hall, the walls and ceilings are graced south side to 650 m on the west side, by exquisite frescos and gilt. Frescos with lower eastern walls and a gently Outlook and conclusionary depict epic battle scenes as well as the sloping plain leading up to the remarks on Persian gardens king’s reception of guests for ban- heights from the north. This is the The Persian garden as a concept quets and ceremonies. These frescos only fortress that withstood the siege has a long history. Persian gardens are continue on the outer facades of the of Tamerlane from 1336 to 1405 secluded and peaceful environments palace. The south facade even includes (Dalrymple, 2018). that survive under environmentally
10 • February 2020 30(1) harsh conditions. The concept of combination of the passion of Ira- potential and challenges. HortScience chahar bagh is among the most prom- nian growers for Persian garden de- 52:1145–1147. inent features of the Persian garden sign and the science of horticulture. Fallahi, P. 2017b. The 10 most beautiful that dates back millennia. In Persian Efficient use of water by drip irriga- parks and gardens in Iran. 23 Aug. 2019. gardens, pavilions and luxury build- tion and rainwater storage in reser-
• February 2020 30(1) 11 Eng. Tech. Intl. J. Architectural Environ. Wilber, D.N. 1979. Persian gardens Yazdani, N. and M. Lozanovksa. 2016. Eng. 5:351–354. and garden pavilions. Dumbarton Oaks The design philosophy of Edenic gardens: United Nations Educational, Scientific Trustees for Harvard University, Wash- Tracing ‘‘paradise myth’’ in landscape ar- and Cultural Organization. 2018. The ington, DC. chitecture. Landsc. Hist. 37:5–18. < Persian garden. 23 Aug. 2019. https:// Yazdani, N. 2018. Meanings of urban Yazdani, N. and M. Lozanovksa. 2017. whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/ park landscapes as insiders and outsiders. Australian mythical landscape and the 1372.pdf >. Landsc. Hist. 39:103–120. desire of non-English-speaking immigrants. Untermyer Gardens Conservancy. 2019. Landsc. Rev. 17:78–95. The walled garden. 23 Aug. 2019.
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