Avian Habitat Fragmentation Sullivan County, Pa

AVIAN HABITAT FRAGMENTATION SULLIVAN COUNTY, PA

ARIEL RIES TABLE OF CONTENTS

BACKGROUND SHALE FRAGMENTATION 3 AVIAN HABITAT IMPORTANCE 4

AVIAN HABITAT MAPS YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER 5 - 7 AMERICAN BITTERN 8 - 10 BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER 11 - 13 CHIPPING SPARROW 14 - 18 BLUE JAY 19 - 23 GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER 24 - 28 EASTERN TOWHEE 29 - 30

IMPLICATIONS CURRENT SPECIES HABITAT LOSS 31-32 INVASIVE SPECIES HABITAT GAIN 33-34 IMPLICATIONS 35-36

SUPPORTING MATERIAL ADDITIONAL AVIAN INFORMATION 37 - 43 SOURCES 44 [CONDITIONS]

The changes of the natural ecosystem based on human interac- tions have altered the landscape over time. Pennsylvania has seen the change in the landscape from the booming natural gas industry, [AGRICULTURAL FIELDS] especially in the northern and western part of the state. As the landscape changes, so too does the natural habitats of the wildlife that depends on them. Ecosystem fragmentation is inevitable in human growth and development, but with planning and analysis, there can be pro-active ways to manage the fragmentation. Birds are one of

the most identiﬁ able wildlife species that can indicate disturbances [WETLANDS] in the natural ecosystem (McWilliams, xi). Indications can show the health of the ecosystem through the migration and immigration of bird habitats in the area. The health of the ecosystem for the avian species can indicate water quality, air quality, core forest acreage, and invasive wildlife species (US Forest Service, ‘Importance’).

Not only are birds important for the ecosystem, it is also a resource [EVERGREEN FOREST] appreciated by humans alike. Visually and audibly stunning, birds are both a hobby and a connection to nature for many people. The early morning chirping of birds is a morning symphony for people who have located themselves within the natural landscape. With the absence of bird habitats, many birds are forced to relocate to other areas that can still support their breeding and nesting needs. [DECIDIOUS FOREST]

[STATE GAME & STATE FOREST] 3 [CONDITIONS] This project will highlight 7 key bird species that are either present in Sullivan County at the moment or will migrate in once Marcellus Shale gas drilling takes place, and their habitat changes through the process. The 3 species that have current habitats in Sullivan County are Yellow-bellied Flycatcher, American Bittern, and Black-throated Green War- bler. These 3 avian species highlight speciﬁ c and different types of habitats that each prefer. This project will then look at the disturbance of natural gas drilling with relationships to the current species and the introduction of 4 other bird species.

By utilizing ArcGIS mapping systems and sourced information on the speciﬁ c birds, habitat maps were created based on 3 conditions: current conditions, market based pipeline disturbance, and conservation based pipeline disturbance. For each of the maps, the natural habitat is in a color based on the color of the birds with a red showing fragmented habitats. Each of the maps show the speciﬁ c disturbance pipelines for natural gas drilling has on fragmentation of habitats. The birds seen below correspond to the certain conditions for their habitat, such as agriculutral lands, roads, wetlands, and forest.

[ROADS] [AGRICULTURAL FIELDS] [WETLANDS] [CONIFEROUS] [DECIDUOUS]

4 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / ANTHROPODS / FRUIT [FOOD] CORE DECIDUOUS &CONIFEROUS FOREST /FOUNDIN THICKETS [HABITAT] YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER ROAD CORE HABITAT 5 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / ANTHROPODS / FRUIT [FOOD] CORE DECIDUOUS &CONIFEROUS FOREST /FOUNDIN THICKETS [HABITAT] YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD FRAGMENTED HABITAT CORE HABITAT 6 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / ANTHROPODS / FRUIT [FOOD] CORE DECIDUOUS &CONIFEROUS FOREST /FOUNDIN THICKETS [HABITAT] YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD FRAGMENTED HABITAT CORE HABITAT 7 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / FISH / CRUSTACEANS / AMPHIBIANS /REPTILES [FOOD] FORESTED FRESH WATER WETLANDS [HABITAT] AMERICAN BITTERN ROAD LAKE CORE HABITAT 8 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / FISH / CRUSTACEANS / AMPHIBIANS /REPTILES [FOOD] FORESTED FRESH WATER WETLANDS [HABITAT] AMERICAN BITTERN TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD LAKE FRAGMENTED HABITAT CORE HABITAT 9 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / FISH / CRUSTACEANS / AMPHIBIANS /REPTILES [FOOD] FORESTED FRESH WATER WETLANDS [HABITAT] AMERICAN BITTERN TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD LAKE FRAGMENTED HABITAT CORE HABITAT 10 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / INSECT LARVAE [FOOD] CONIFEROUS FOREST / TRANSITIONAL FOREST [HABITAT] BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER ROAD CORE HABITAT 11 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / INSECT LARVAE [FOOD] CONIFEROUS FOREST / TRANSITIONAL FOREST [HABITAT] BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD FRAGMENTED HABITAT CORE HABITAT 12 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / INSECT LARVAE [FOOD] CONIFEROUS FOREST / TRANSITIONAL FOREST [HABITAT] BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD FRAGMENTED HABITAT CORE HABITAT 13 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] SEEDS / GRASSES / HERBS / INSECTS [FOOD] CONIFEROUS FOREST EDGES [HABITAT] CHIPPING SPARROW ROAD HABITAT 14 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] SEEDS / GRASSES / HERBS / INSECTS [FOOD] CONIFEROUS FOREST EDGES [HABITAT] CHIPPING SPARROW TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT 15 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] SEEDS / GRASSES / HERBS / INSECTS [FOOD] CONIFEROUS FOREST EDGES [HABITAT] CHIPPING SPARROW TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT 16 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] SEEDS / GRASSES / HERBS / INSECTS [FOOD] CONIFEROUS FOREST EDGES [HABITAT] CHIPPING SPARROW TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT 17 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] SEEDS / GRASSES / HERBS / INSECTS [FOOD] CONIFEROUS FOREST EDGES [HABITAT] CHIPPING SPARROW TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT 18 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / NUTS / SEEDS / OTHER BIRD SPECIES EGGS [FOOD] DECIDUOUS FOREST EDGES/URBAN AREAS [HABITAT] ROAD HABITAT BLUE JAY 19 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / NUTS / SEEDS / OTHER BIRD SPECIES EGGS [FOOD] DECIDUOUS FOREST EDGES/URBAN AREAS [HABITAT] TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT BLUE JAY 20 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / NUTS / SEEDS / OTHER BIRD SPECIES EGGS [FOOD] DECIDUOUS FOREST EDGES/URBAN AREAS [HABITAT] TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT BLUE JAY 21 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / NUTS / SEEDS / OTHER BIRD SPECIES EGGS [FOOD] DECIDUOUS FOREST EDGES/URBAN AREAS [HABITAT] TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT BLUE JAY 22 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / NUTS / SEEDS / OTHER BIRD SPECIES EGGS [FOOD] DECIDUOUS FOREST EDGES/URBAN AREAS [HABITAT] TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT BLUE JAY 23 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / SPIDERS [FOOD] SUCCESSIONAL FORESTS/ CLEARCUTS / ABANDONED FARMS [HABITAT] GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER ROAD HABITAT 24 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / SPIDERS [FOOD] SUCCESSIONAL FORESTS/ CLEARCUTS / ABANDONED FARMS [HABITAT] GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT 25 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / SPIDERS [FOOD] SUCCESSIONAL FORESTS/ CLEARCUTS / ABANDONED FARMS [HABITAT] GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT 26 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / SPIDERS [FOOD] SUCCESSIONAL FORESTS/ CLEARCUTS / ABANDONED FARMS [HABITAT] GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT 27 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] INSECTS / SPIDERS [FOOD] SUCCESSIONAL FORESTS/ CLEARCUTS / ABANDONED FARMS [HABITAT] GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT 28 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] SEEDS / INSECTS /FRUITS [FOOD] FOREST EDGES/DENSE SHRUB [HABITAT] EASTERN TOWHEE TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT 29 [CURRENT CONDITIONS] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - MARKET BASED] [DISTURBED CONDITIONS - CONSERVATION BASED] SEEDS / INSECTS /FRUITS [FOOD] FOREST EDGES/DENSE SHRUB [HABITAT] EASTERN TOWHEE TNC WELL LOCATION PIPELINE ROAD HABITAT 30 [HABITAT LOSS] YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER 125,350 35,870 32,461 CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED LOSS CONSERVATION BASED LOSS AMERICAN BITTERN 2,910 667 593

CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED LOSS CONSERVATION BASED LOSS BLACK-THROATED10,490 GREEN WARBLER 2,036 1,845

CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED LOSS CONSERVATION BASED LOSS 31 [HABITAT LOSS] YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER 125,350 28% 26% CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED LOSS CONSERVATION BASED LOSS AMERICAN BITTERN 2,910 23% 20%

CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED LOSS CONSERVATION BASED LOSS BLACK-THROATED10,490 GREEN WARBLER 19% 17%

CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED LOSS CONSERVATION BASED LOSS 32 CHIPPING SPARROW [HABITAT INCREASE] 3,460 917 987 CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED GAIN CONSERVATION BASED GAIN BLUE11,305 JAY 4,214 4,678

CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED GAIN CONSERVATION BASED GAIN GOLDEN-WINGED17,533 WARBLER 5,783 6,580

CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED GAIN CONSERVATION BASED5,827 GAIN EASTERN15,428 TOWHEE 5,298

CONSERVATION BASED GAIN CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED GAIN 33 CHIPPING SPARROW [HABITAT INCREASE] 3,460 27% 29% CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED GAIN CONSERVATION BASED GAIN BLUE11,305 JAY 37% 41%

CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED GAIN CONSERVATION BASED GAIN GOLDEN-WINGED17,533 WARBLER 33% 38%

CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED GAIN CONSERVATION BASED GAIN38% EASTERN15,428 TOWHEE 34%

CONSERVATION BASED GAIN CURRENT ACRES MARKET BASED GAIN 33 YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER AMERICAN BITTERN BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER

CHIPPING SPARROW BLUE JAY

GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER EASTERN TOWHEE HABITAT

33 [IMPLICATIONS]

So what does all this mean for Sullivan County and the avian species that reside there? As the current conditions of Sullivan County already show, the core forest habitats are already heavily fragmented in the northern portion because of human development. With the introduction of natural gas development into the western southern portion of the county, we will see more fragmentation of core habitats with the development of edge conditions ideal for invasive bird species such as the Blue Jay and Chipping Sparrow. With proper ecological management of the pipeline right-of-ways, ideal habitats for invasive bird species that will beneﬁ t the ecosystem can thrive.

As seen in the ﬁ nal acreage of the 7 bird habitats, the differences in the market based pipelines and the conservation based pipelines are extremely minimal. It shows that even when ecological preferences are taken into account, many of the factors for bird habitats can be disturbed. It becomes inevitable for the avian species of Sullivan County to become fragmented in some aspect, but in many cases the amount of disturbed habitats are minimal and overall inconsequential in the larger picture of Pennsylvania bird habitats.

The word fragmentation is a word that is synonymous with bad and detrimental. Yet as this project shows, though habitat is lost for key species, many bird species are able to thrive with the created edge conditions. With the loss of habitat is the creation of new habitat, forming a continuous circle of new habitats that will forever be changing based on human conditions. As humans change and evolve over time, so too does the landscape that they inhabit. The evolution of bird species to adapt and survive changing landscapes has enabled them to thrive in today’s fragmented society.

34 YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER Empidonax ﬂ aviventris The easiest eastern Empidonax to identify, the Yellow-bellied Flycatcher is a bird of the boreal forests and bogs. Its yellow underparts distinguish it from the other eastern Empidonax

HABITAT FOOD BEHAVIOR BREEDING RANGE MAP

During migration they Insects and arthropods Flight song given at Breeding habitat is at are found in thickets predawn or dusk. elevations above 1700ft or the understory of Occasionally takes fruit in poorly drained areas deciduous, mixed, or Catches ﬂ ying insects in such as bogs or open coniferous woodlands. mid-air, or gleans them swamps from foliage Breeds in boreal Nest built on or near coniferous forests and ground, well covered peatlands. with hanging vegetation.

Nests in cool, moist Nest made mostly of forests, bogs, swamps, moss, lined with rootlets, and muskegs. pine needles, or grass stems Winters: forests to semi-open habitats. Most common in dense rain forest, montane evergreen forest, pine- oak forest, and shaded coffee plantations. 35 AMERICAN BITTERN Botaurus lentiginosus A stocky and well-camouﬂ aged heron of dense reed beds, the American Bittern is difﬁ cult to see. Its far-carrying booming call is distinctive, but the bittern itself likes to keep under cover.

HABITAT FOOD BEHAVIOR BREEDING RANGE MAP

Wetlands of many sizes Prey upon insect, Almost always solitary Typically sits 3-8 inches and types, typically less fi sh, crustaceans, and can be diffi cult to above the water densely vegetated and amphibians, reptiles, and see shallow small mammals The nest is made of a Often hide among foundation of emergent Breed in freshwater Preferred insects include wetland vegetation, vegetation like reeds, marshes with tall dragonfl ies, water walking slowly as they sedges, or cattails vegetation striders, water beetles, forage and grasshoppers Build nests in an area Winter: they move to Typically hunt in low of thick vegetation areas where water Frequently consumed light, catching food with emerging from shallow bodies don’t freeze, fi sh are eels, catfi sh, their bill and killing prey water, such as cattails, especially near the pickerel, sunfi sh, with biting or shaking bulrushes, and sedges coast, where they suckers, perch, killifi sh, movements may occasionally use and sticklebacks brackish marshes Flight is stiff and fairly clumsy with rapid wingbeats

36 BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER Dendroica virens An abundant breeder of the northeastern coniferous forests, the Black-throated Green Warbler is easy to recognize by sight and sound. Its dark black bib and bright yellow face are unique amongst Eastern birds, and its persistent song of “zoo-zee, zoo-zoo-zee” is easy to remember.

HABITAT FOOD BEHAVIOR BREEDING RANGE MAP

Boreal coniferous Insects and insect larvae Gleans from small Typically located at a forest and transitional branches; sometimes fork in tree branches, coniferous-deciduous hovers and picks one to three meters forest prey from leaves and (three to ten feet) from branches the ground

Male sings persistently An open cup of twigs, during the breeding grass, bark, and spider season - one individual silk, lined with moss, was observed singing hair, and feathers 466 songs in one hour

37 CHIPPING SPARROW Spizella passerina A crisp, pretty sparrow whose bright rufous cap both provides a splash of col- or and makes adults fairly easy to identify. Chipping Sparrows are common across North America wherever trees are interspersed with grassy openings.

HABITAT FOOD BEHAVIOR BREEDING RANGE MAP

Grassy forests, Mainly eat seeds of a Feed on the ground, Build their nests low in a woodlands and edges, great variety of grasses take cover in shrubs, shrub or tree parks and shrubby or and herbs and sing from the tops of tree-lined backyards small trees People have found their During the breeding (often evergreens) nests among hanging Gravitate toward season they also hunt strands of chili peppers, evergreens in places for protein-rich insects, When singing, they cling on an old-fashioned where these trees are and these form a large to high outer limbs mower inside a tool available part of their summer diet shed, and on a hanging On the ground they hop basket ﬁ lled with moss Use aspen, birch, oak, Sometimes eat small or run through grasses pecan, and eucalyptus fruits such as cherries searching for seeds trees

38 37 BLUE JAY Cyanocitta cristata This common, large songbird is familiar to many people, with its perky crest; blue, white, and black plumage; and noisy calls. Blue Jays are known for their intelligence and complex social systems with tight family bonds.

HABITAT FOOD BEHAVIOR BREEDING RANGE MAP

Found in all kinds of Glean insects and take Known for their Build their nests in the forests but especially nuts and seeds in trees, intelligence and complex crotch or thick outer near oak trees; they’re shrubs, and on the social systems, and branches of a deciduous more abundant near ground; they also eat have tight family bonds or coniferous tree, forest edges than in grains usually 10-25 feet above deep forest Often mate for life, the ground Take dead and injured remaining with their Common in urban small vertebrates social mate throughout and suburban areas, the year especially where oaks or Sometimes raid nests for bird feeders are found eggs and nestlings, and Frequently mimics the sometimes pick up dead calls of hawks, especially or dying adult birds the Red-shouldered Hawk Hold food items in feet while pecking them open Wide variety of vocalizations, with an immense “vocabulary”

40 GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER Vermivora chrysoptera The Golden-winged Warbler is a small, strikingly marked warbler of eastern early successional habitats. Its population increased for over 100 years as forests were cut down. Now, however, it is losing ground, both because of refor- estation and displacement by the spreading Blue-winged Warbler.

HABITAT FOOD BEHAVIOR BREEDING RANGE MAP

Prefers early Insects and spiders Forages mostly in upper Breeds in patchy successional habitats for half of trees and shrubs shrubland and forest nesting edge, such as shrubby Probes dead leaf ﬁ elds, marshes, and Recently abandoned clusters in winter, bogs farms and clearcuts are spreading bill to open ideal curled leaves Usually on or near ground These habitats do not Often hangs upside last long, and the warbler down Open cup of grasses, often quickly disappears bark, and dead leaves from an area

Winters in canopy of tropical forests

41 EASTERN TOWHEE Pipilo erythrophthalmus A strikingly marked, oversized sparrow of the East, feathered in bold black and warm reddish-browns – if you can get a clear look at it. Eastern Towhees are birds of the undergrowth, where their rummaging makes far more noise than you would expect for their size.

HABITAT FOOD BEHAVIOR BREEDING RANGE MAP

Forest edges, overgrown Seeds, fruits, insects, Rummaging in the leaf Usually nest on the ﬁ elds and woodlands, spiders, millipedes, litter or creeping through ground, the nest cup and scrubby backyards centipedes, and snails, thick shrubs sunk into the fallen or thickets as well as soft leaf and leaves up to the level of ﬂ ower buds in spring Tend to hop wherever the rim Dense shrub cover with they go, moving plenty of leaf litter for Eat seeds and fruits, deliberately Some cases they build the towhees to scratch including ragweeds, their nests in shrubs or around in smartweeds, grasses, Scratch at leaves with a grape, honeysuckle, or acorns, blackberries, characteristic two-footed greenbrier tangles, up Occur in the blueberries, wheat, corn, backward hop, then dart to about 4 feet off the Appalachians to about and oats after anything they’ve ground 6,500 feet, uncovered

Favor warm and dry Common victims of the south-facing slopes parasitic Brown-headed more than cool, moist Cowbird - female northern faces cowbirds lay eggs in towhee nests, then leave the birds to raise them 42 [SOURCES]

“American Bittern.” Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Cornell University, n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2012. .

“Black-throated Green Warbler.” Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Cornell University, n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2012. .

“Blue Jay.” Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Cornell University, n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2012. .

“Chipping Sparrow.” Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Cornell University, n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2012. .

Drohan, P. J., M. Brittingham, J. Bishop, and K. Yoder. “Early Trends in Landcover Change and Forest Fragmentation Due to Shale-Gas Development in Pennsylvania: A Potential Outcome for the Northcentral Appalachians.” Environmental Management 49 (2012): 1061-075.

“Eastern Towhee.” Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Cornell University, n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2012. .

Fischer, Joern, and David B. Lindenmayer. “Landscape Modiﬁ cation and Habitat Fragmentation: A Synthesis.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 16 (2007): 265-80.

“Golden-Winged Warbler.” Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Cornell University, n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2012. .

McWilliams, Gerald M., and Daniel W. Brauning. The Birds of Pennsylvania. Ithica: Cornell UP, 2000. Print.

“Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.” Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Cornell University, n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2012. .

US Forest Service. Wings Across America: Importance of Birds. US Forest Service, n.d. Web. .