The Phenomenon of Cross-Dressing in Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai Story in Chinese Literature, Theatre and Film: Origin and Modern Versions

FILOZOFICKÁ FAKULTA

The phenomenon of cross-dressing in Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story in Chinese literature, theatre and film: origin and modern versions

Bakalářská diplomová práce

KAROLÍNA KRIŠTOFOVÁ

Vedoucí práce: Roman Shapiro, PhD

Seminář čínských studií Kulturní studia Číny

Brno 2021

THE PHENOMENON OF CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN CHINESE LITERATURE, THEATRE AND FILM: ORIGIN AND MODERN VERSIONS

Bibliografický záznam

Autor: Karolína Krištofová Filozofická fakulta Masarykova univerzita Seminář čínských studií Název práce: The phenomenon of cross-dressing in Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story in Chinese literature, theatre and film: origin and modern versions Studijní program: Mezinárodní teritoriální studia Studijní obor: Kulturní studia Číny Vedoucí práce: Roman Shapiro, PhD Rok: 2021 Počet stran: 50 Klíčová slova: Liang Shanbo a Zhu Yingtai, cross-dressing, literatúra, film, divadlo, adaptácia

2 THE PHENOMENON OF CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN CHINESE LITERATURE, THEATRE AND FILM: ORIGIN AND MODERN VERSIONS

Bibliographic record

Author: Karolína Krištofová Faculty of Arts Masaryk University Department of Chinese Studies Title of Thesis: The phenomenon of cross-dressing in Liang Shanbo an Zhu Yingtai story in Chinese literature, theatre and film: origin and modern version Degree Programme: International Territorial Studies Field of Study: Cultural Studies of China Supervisor: Roman Shapiro, PhD Year: 2021 Number of Pages: 50 Keywords: Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, cross-dressing, literature, film, theatre, adaptation

3 THE PHENOMENON OF CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN CHINESE LITERATURE, THEATRE AND FILM: ORIGIN AND MODERN VERSIONS

Anotace

Hlavným zámerom tejto bakalárskej práce je sledovať fenomén cross-dressingu v mo- derných adaptáciách príbehu Liang Shanbo a Zhu Yingtai v rôznych umeleckých pre- vedeniach ako je literatúra, divadlo a film. História tohto príbehu má viac ako tisíc ro- kov a dodnes stále vznikajú nové adaptácie. Element cross-dressingu je jeden z hlav- ných znakov príbehu a môže sa líšiť v závislosti od adaptácie. V novodobých adaptá- ciách príbehu sa cross-dressing líši najmä jeho prevedením a funkciou.

4 THE PHENOMENON OF CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN CHINESE LITERATURE, THEATRE AND FILM: ORIGIN AND MODERN VERSIONS

Abstract

The main focus of this bachelor's thesis is to follow the phenomenon of cross-dressing in modern adaptations of the Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story in various art forms such as literature, theatre, and film. This folktale has a history longer than a thousand years and new adaptations emerge still today. The cross-dressing element of the story is one of the main features of the narrative and may differ in various adaptations. In modern versions, the cross-dressing of the story differs mainly in execution and function.

5 THE PHENOMENON OF CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN CHINESE LITERATURE, THEATRE AND FILM: ORIGIN AND MODERN VERSIONS

Declaration

I hereby declare that the submitted thesis with the title The phenomenon of cross- dressing in Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story in Chinese literature, theatre and film: origin and modern versions is a result of my own work and that it contains no material previously published or written by any other person except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis.

Brno June 14, 2021 ...... Karolína Krištofová

6 THE PHENOMENON OF CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN CHINESE LITERATURE, THEATRE AND FILM: ORIGIN AND MODERN VERSIONS

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Roman Shapiro for his advice, support and all the helpful tips.

Table of Contents

Introduction 11 Methodology ...... 11 Research questions ...... 12 The historical and cultural development of the story and cross-dressing ...... 13 Historical development ...... 13 Historical background ...... 14 Cross-dressing ...... 15

1 Cross-dressing in Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story in literary adaptations 17 1.1 Cross-dressing theme in traditional Chinese literature ...... 17 1.2 Cross-dressing in modern literary adaptations of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai ...... 19 1.2.1 Imitating male scholar ...... 20 1.2.2 Anxiety of cross-dressing ...... 22 1.2.3 Emphasis on love theme and education ...... 23 1.3 Summary ...... 25

2 Zhu Yingtaiʹs cross-dressing in theatre and opera film 27 2.1 Cross-dressing in Chinese theatre ...... 27 2.1.1 Yue Opera ...... 27 2.1.2 The first colour opera film ...... 29 2.1.3 Huangmei Opera and The Love Eterne ...... 30 2.2 Double-dressing in The Love Eterne and the male impersonator Ivy Ling Po ...... 30 2.3 Cross-dressing of Zhu Yingtai in The Love Eterne ...... 32 2.4 Summary ...... 35

3 The modern reading of the cross-dressing in Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story in modern adaptations 36 3.1 The homosocial male world ...... 36 3.1.1 Male bond in modern Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai adaptations ...... 37

8 BIBLIOGRAPHY

3.2 Zhu Yingtai in modern movie adaptations ...... 39 3.3 The role and the depiction of cross-dressing in movie adaptations ...... 40 3.4 Anxiety about Zhu Yingtaiʹs gender or Liang Shanboʹs sexual orientation?41 3.5 Summary ...... 43

Conclusion 44

Bibliography 45 Primary sources ...... 45 Secondary literature ...... 45

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Methodology

In this work, I will analyse selected adaptations of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai 梁山伯与祝英台 or Liang-Zhu 梁祝 story from the second half of the twentieth century and the twenty-first century, focusing on the phenomenon of cross-dressing. The adaptations differ in the year of release and in the artistic form. The analysed adaptations are: • Chinese novel Liang Shanbo yu Zhu Yingtai 梁山伯与祝英台 (1954) by Zhang Henshui 张恨水 • English novel Butterfly Lovers : a Tale of the Chinese Romeo and Juliet (2000) by Fan Dai • Opera film The Love Eterne (Liang Shanbo yu Zhu Yingtai 梁山伯与祝英台) (1963) directed by Li Han Hsiang 李翰祥 • Movie The Lovers (Liang Zhu 梁祝) (1994) directed by Tsui Hark 徐文光 • Movie The Butterfly Lovers (Hudie meng: Liang Shanbo yu Zhu Yingtai 蝴蝶梦：梁山伯与祝英台) (2004) directed by Ming Chin Tsai 蔡明钦

I chose two novels that follow the traditional narrative of the story. Adaptation from Fan Dai is the first English version in the fiction form of the story. The author of the Chinese version is popular novelist Zhang Henshui. The most popular version of the story is the opera film The Love Eterne. This version emerged from the opera version of the story and contains the episodes most beloved by the audience. One of the movies I will analyse is The Lovers, in which the main theme is a teenage love story. Another movie, The Butterfly Lovers, is an animated version of the story targeted at junior spectators. In these modern adaptations I will focus on the depiction and function of cross- dressing in the story, and in the case of the opera film The Love Eterne also on the cross- dressing on a theatrical level. My thesis will also include a review of the previous research on the subject, in- cluding the traditional roots of the Liang-Zhu. The evolution of the story in pre-modern China is wildly studied by Wilt Idema. His The Butterfly Lovers : The Legend of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai: Four Versions with Related Texts (2010) offers translated texts with comments from various time periods in different genres. The cross-dressing theme of the story in pre-modern literary versions is studied by Altenburger (2005). He indicates the cross-dressing of Zhu Yingtai as a thematic core of the story and as the main cause of the tragic ending. Li (2003) studies cross-dressing in Chinese opera and also concentrates on The Love Eterne as on The Lovers by Tsui. He argues that the Liang- Zhu story is most successful with Liang Shanbo played by a woman. The movie The Lovers, Li marks as an unqueer version of the story. Shuen's thesis (2011) deals with

Šablona DP 3.2.2-ARTS-dipl-obor-anglicky (2021-04-29) © 2014, 2016, 2018–2021 Masarykova univerzita 11 INTRODUCTION double cross-dressing in the opera film The Love Eterne and studies the gender trouble caused by multiple layers of cross-dressing. Director Stanley Kwan in his documentary Yang ± Yin: Gender in Chinese Cinema (1997) interviews Tsui Hark and asks him about his decisions of a depiction of cross-dressing and the relationship between Yingtai and Shanbo. To deal with the issue of gender, Judith Butler's gender performative theory will be used. The main ideas of Butler's theory are that gender is “the repeated stylization of the body, a set of repeated acts” that congeal over time and are mistaken as natural (1999, p. 43–44). Butler suggests that gender is “a term in process, a becoming, a con- structing that cannot rightfully be said to originate or to end” (1999, p. 43). She also argues that gender performativity is not a voluntary act and one cannot easily act as one gender. Butler notes that gender performativity is “neither free play nor theatrical self-presentation; nor it can be equated with performance” (1993, p. 95). The thesis is divided into an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography. The chapters are organised according to the artistic forms of the adaptations. In the first chapter, I analyse the phenomenon of cross-dressing in the literary adaptations by Zhang Henshui and Fan Dai. This chapter also deals with the cross- dressing theme in traditional Chinese literature. In the second chapter, I analyse the opera film The Love Eterne. In this chapter, I probe into the topic of cross-dressing in Chinese theatre and the popularity of female cross-dressers in the role of Liang Shanbo. In the third chapter, I analyse the cross-dressing in two film adaptations. In recent years, the Liang-Zhu story is associated with the queer culture in modern China. With this reality in mind, directors (e.g. Tsui Hark in The Lovers) had to deal with a fragile depiction of cross-dressing and its connotations. Therefore, in this chapter, I also present the views on the Liang-Zhu story associated with the queer culture.

Research questions In this thesis, I aim to answer these research questions: How was cross-dressing treated in Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story adaptations in China from the second half of the twentieth century? and What is the connection between the popularity of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story in modern China and the phenomenon of cross-dressing? To answer the first question, I will follow changes and different readings, execution, and function of cross-dressing in the story. To answer the second question, I will try to show that cross-dressing is one of the main themes of the story, and its depiction and function change over time with association to different ideas and agendas in modern China.

12 INTRODUCTION

The historical and cultural development of the story and cross- dressing

Historical development The story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai can be traced back at least to the Song dynasty (960–1278), some records indicate that the origin of the story can be found as far as in the Tang dynasty (618–906). The time period in which the story is usually set in is the Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420). That is why some scholars suppose this might be the original date of the story (Sookja, 2018, p. 2). However, the earliest textual evidence comes from the Tang and the Song dynasties. For Idema (2010, p. xv), the evidence that dates the history of the tale to the Tang dynasty is a poem by late-Tang poet Luo Ye 罗邺 (c. 900). Even though this short poem does not contain either of the names of the two main characters of the story, Idema suggests, that this may be the strongest piece of evidence dating the origin of the legend. The passage in the poem that persuades Idema that, indeed, the poem illustrates the story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, is a reference to the butterfly transformation emerging from the torn gown of Zhu Yingtai that appears in later versions of the story (2010, p. xvii). An even earlier account of the story from the second half of the ninth century is recorded in a certain Tang-dynasty short story collection, but Idema doubts its date of origin (2010, p. xv). This short version of the story is mentioned by Altenburger (2005, p. 175), where he argues that the character of Zhu Yingtai is the centre of the narrative. The circulation of the story started in the ninth and the tenth century, but the transmission was primarily oral. More textual records are found from the twelfth century onwards and are implemented in different literary genres. Translations of these early records could be found in Idema's The Butterfly Lovers, The Legend of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai: Four Versions with Related Texts (2010). They not only offer the story in different literary styles but also draw attention to diverse content in terms of narrative. Idema (2010) points out the variety and richness of the story and underlines that the tale as we know it today underwent a rich historical development. He chooses versions and passages that are not found in the “canonical” version and are rather unfamiliar, especially to the English reader. Since the legend of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai underwent a long historical development and transformation, and as Idema points out that the variation of the story is quite rich, it is difficult to talk about a canonical version. In 1920s China, the Folklore Movement took place and the story was chosen as one of the four great folktales1. To acquire this status “diversity was denied, as a single version was selected as the true version” (Idema, 2012, p. 26). For example, ballads of the story in the nineteenth

1 The Four Great Folktales of China are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, Tale of the White Snake, Lady Meng Jiang, The Cowherd and the Weaving Girl.

Šablona DP 3.2.2-ARTS-dipl-obor-anglicky (2021-04-29) © 2014, 2016, 2018–2021 Masarykova univerzita 13 INTRODUCTION century and the first half of the twentieth century, tend to give an account of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai after their butterfly transformation, which was sometimes longer than the story leading up to this transformation. After 1949, the story usually ended with the butterfly transformation (Idema, 2010, p. xxiii). This is also the case of all the adaptations I will analyse in this work. In his book (2010), Idema also stresses out that the chosen versions of the story translated in the volume “try to play down the wilfulness of Zhu Yingtai” (p. xxxvi). That is important, because in modern versions of the story, and all the adaptations I will analyse in this work, the wilfulness of Zhu Ying- tai is very present and could be characterized as a part of her personality. By de-emphasizing this characteristic of Zhu Yingtai, Idema shows again the variety of the story. For example, in the second ballad translated in his volume (2010), it is Yingtai's parents praise her for her intelligence and wish she were a boy and could study in school (p. 72). In the fourth ballad, her parents long for a son and dress Yingtai and her maid Yinxin 银心 as boys from an early age (p. 140). The main narrative arising from the historical development of the story that is widely prevalent in modern versions can be roughly summarised as follows: Zhu Yingtai dressed as a boy goes to school to pursue advanced education. On her way, she meets Liang Shanbo and they study and spend time together. They study for three years, form a strong bond and Liang Shanbo is not aware of Zhu Yingtai's true sex. Zhu Yingtai leaves school early. Liang Shanbo accompanies her for a part of the journey home and Zhu Yingtai tries to hint at her true sex, to which Liang Shanbo is oblivious. Yingtai plays matchmaker and offers marriage between Shanbo and her made-up sister. Shanbo finds out about Yingtai's true sex either through the teacher's wife at the school or later when he visits her. When Shanbo arrives, Yingtai is already betrothed to the powerful Ma 马 family. Shanbo dies and Yingtai is grieving. On the way to her wedding, she visits Shanbo's tomb. The tomb opens up and Yingtai jumps or is pulled by a fantastic force into the tomb. A pair of butterflies emerge from there.

Historical background The story is generally set in the Eastern Jin dynasty and Confucian ideology is present throughout the whole narrative. In some versions, Confucius himself is a teacher in a school where Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai go to study (Idema, 2010, p. xvii). Social norms derived from Confucianism were generally upheld in the period in which the story is set. To follow the Confucian rules in private and public life was expected from every individual. For Zhu Yingtai, as for any other woman, the main Confucian moral code to obey was the Three Obediences and Four Virtues (sancong side 三从四德). The three obediences for women were to obey her father before marriage, obey her husband after marriage, and later obey her son. The four virtues are morality, proper speech, modest manner, and diligent work. Marriage was decided by parents and matchmakers. Chinese women were not supposed to make any decisions on their own.

14 INTRODUCTION

Because of the separation of men and women from a young age, one could not choose their spouse. Young girls and unmarried women were expected to spend their time in their inner boudoir doing women's work such as silkworm breeding, spinning, knit- ting, sewing, and were taught social etiquette and sacrifice rituals (Wong, 1995, p. 348). The saying that women's virtue is having no talent (nüzi wucai bianshide 女子无才便是德) condemned women to limited education. If their circumstances were a little more fortunate they could be taught at home and some could benefit from a private tutor (Wong, 1995, p. 353). The Liang-Zhu story challenges the Confucian dogma and morally acceptable demeanour in traditional Chinese society. The main female protagonist could be seen as a rebellious figure unable to submit to Confucian traditions. Her aspiration to study in an outside male world, her inevitable romantic feelings toward the male student, de- termination to choose her own husband and final decision to deliberately take her own life could be understood as resistance toward traditional Confucian society. To stand up against the society that was oppressive towards her, Yingtai disguised herself as a man. This act confirms and reinforces male-dominant hierarchy. Even though her cross-dressing is successful, her destiny is unfortunate. Altenburger (2005, p. 172) links “failed recognition caused by cross-dressing, which leads to the confusion of ulti- mately incompatible roles and relations” to an unhappy ending of the story. In a word, her desire to study in male disguise within the context of traditional morality is scandalous (Idema, 2010, p. xxxvi). The story remains still popular primarily to its various themes and messages which speak to the audience over time. During the Ming–Qing period, the story “ap- pealed to local audiences with themes of love and friendship” (Sookja, 2018, p. 3). Idema (2010, p. xxxvi) also points out that the story in Ming and Qing period “may have been understood as a cautionary tale” because of the transgressive behaviour of Zhu Yingtai that eventually ended disastrously. In the early twentieth century, the political and social reforms towards modernization saw this story as an example of pursuing the education of women, of free love and freedom to choose one's partner in marriage, and equality between men and women (Idema, 2010, p. xxxvii). From the end of the twentieth century, the story has also inspired the queer movement in Hong Kong (Li, 2003, p. 134).

Cross-dressing Cross-dressing practice by men and women is commonplace throughout history. Bullough and Bullough in their study Cross-dressing, Sex and Gender (1993) research cross-dressing in numerous cultures in history. They concluded that “the cross-dressing has been ubiquitous" (p. 18) and that women's cross-dressing was more accepted and common in society (p. 68). Their book shows that cross-dressing and gender-bending were omnipresent throughout human history.

Bullough and Bullough notes that “what we believe to be feminine and masculine behaviour is socially and culturally derived” (1993, p. 360). They also conclude that “gender is an achieved rather than an ascribed characteristic and is based on tasks performed and the significance of clothing rather than on any anatomical factor” (ibid). This corresponds with Butler's theory about gender performativity where gender is formed through “the repeated stylization of the body, a set of repeated acts” (1999, p. 43–44). As for Bullough and Bullough and also for Butler, gender is doing rather than being, where one is not born one's gender, but becomes one (Butler, 1988, p. 519). Altenburger identifies the cross-dressing of Zhu Yingtai as a thematic core of the story (2005, p. 166). As Bullough and Bullough, Altenburger points out that female to male cross-dressing was more accepted in Chinese patriarchal society than male to female transformation, and was viewed simply as “dressing-up” (2005, p. 171). Zhu Ying- tai is not a rare example of a cross-dressed woman in Chinese fiction. What is unique about her cross-dressing is her purely self-serving motives. The most popular version of the story is a theatrical adaptation in the genre of Yue Opera (yueju 越剧). The Yue Opera is an almost all-female theatre and in this version, there is another layer of cross-dressing of the role of Liang Shanbo on a theatrical level.

16 CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN LITERARY ADAPTATIONS

1 Cross-dressing in Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story in literary adaptations

1.1 Cross-dressing theme in traditional Chinese literature

Feng Menglong 冯梦龙 in his Stories Old and New (gujin xiaoxhuo 古今小说) published in 1620, includes a story called Li Xiuqing Marries the Virgin Huang with Honor (Li Xiuqing yijie Huang zhenmai 李秀卿义结黄贞女) where he tells about “bizarre, enig- matic pretenders to masculinity who lack the yang element – or, rather, true women who are in men's disguise” (Feng, Yang, Yang 2000, p. 489). In this story, he records about cross-dressed heroines such as Mulan 木兰 and Huang Chonggu 黄崇嘏, and also includes an account about Zhu Yingtai. Altenburger argues, that by putting the story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai in the chapter dominated by cross-dressed heroines, Feng Menglong manifests that “cross-dressing indeed provide the thematic core of the Zhu Yingtai narrative” (2005, p. 180). Zhu Yingtai with her cross-dressing stands out among other cross-dressed heroines in Chinese history. Sookja (2018, p. 64) remarks that it is motive that dictates the consequences of cross-dressing. Woman's reasons for cross-dressing in pre-modern Chinese stories could be: to become an official, to enter military service, to revenge a wrong, to find a husband, and to pursue personal goals such as religious enlightenment or learning. The first three are socially tolerated or even praised in the stories, and the latter two are controversial (Sookja, 2018, p. 64). Zhu Yingtai's reasons are purely self- interested and could be viewed as controversial. Comparing Zhu Yingtai with the most famous Chinese cross-dressed heroine, Mulan, we can see several differences. For example, the reason behind Mulan's decision to put on male attire is an example of filial piety. As a result, her actions are rewarded. At the end of the story, Mulan easily switched back to her female gender and is praised for her bravery. This ease of gender- switching is in contrast with Zhu Yingtai's return to her female attire. She cannot ef- fortlessly reverse back to female life because her “male impersonation caused a lasting rupture in the gender order” (Altenburger, 2005, p. 181). Feng Menglong in his stories about cross-dressed heroines includes other records about women who pass as men. One example is Huang Chonggu, who presents herself as a man after she is left orphaned. She proved herself as a wise administrator and was appointed to the prime minister who wished to have Huang Chonggu as his son-in-law. Her gender was revealed and she was forced to return to her female attire. The story has a happy ending when Huang Chonggu marries a scholar and becomes a respected woman. There is another story with a cross-dressed heroine with a happy end. It is about a woman whose father dressed her as a boy to travel with him for a business. After her father's death, Huang Shancong 黄善聪, continues her father's business in

Šablona DP 3.2.2-ARTS-dipl-obor-anglicky (2021-04-29) © 2014, 2016, 2018–2021 Masarykova univerzita 17 CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN LITERARY ADAPTATIONS male disguise. She found herself a business partner with whom she develops a strong bond. For several years she is successfully masking her gender. After returning home, she revers back to her female attire, and in the end, she marries the business partner. In both stories, female cross-dressers are rewarded. In both cases, heroines had to cross-dress because of their unfortunate circumstances and they showed that they can justify the cross-dressing “if it was motivated by survival and the desire to benefit family or others, and if they continued to conform to other normative values even while transgressing gender boundaries” (Sookja, 2018, p. 64). In modern Liang-Zhu adaptations by Fan Dai and Zhang Henshui analysed in this chapter, the parents of Liang Shanbo are delighted when Shanbo tells them that Yingtai is a girl and they want to marry. They praise her for her bravery and do not see her cross-dressing as transgressive. Besides Liang Shanbo and his parents, also his servant Sijiu 四九, the teacher and his wife are all impressed by Yingtai's and maid Yinxin's act of cross-dressing and sympathize with them. In the Chinese version by Zhang Henshui, Shanbo's mother is further investigating and asking Sijiu how is it possible that after three years of living together they did not suspect anything unusual. Sijiu responded that they masked themselves very good and they did not have any suspicion that they can be women (chapter 16)2. In Feng Menglong's (2000, p. 492) account, Liang Shanbo blames himself for not being able to recognize Yingtai's true gender. But in the end, Feng Menglong adds a comment, that one should not blame Shanbo for not seeing the truth, but praise Yingtai instead. Modern versions tend to highlight Yingtai's cleverness instead of portraying Liang Shanbo as someone dull, who was not able to see through Yingtai's trick. He is depicted as an empathetic gentleman respecting all the excuses Yingtai makes up to mask her true gender. In late imperial and early twentieth-century China, the female-oriented literary genre tanci 弹词 was written and read mainly by women who shared common interests and values. Tanci depicted adventures of heroines who infiltrated male's outside world as “cross-dressed scholars, female warriors, Daoist monks, or even eminent min- isters” (Guo, 2015, p. 3). The tanci fiction was written, read, and circulated in women's inner quarters (Guo, 2015, p. 12). Cross-dressing is a frequent theme in tanci and it “reveals women's imaginative depiction of alternative gender identities” (p. 19). Tanci authors “often insist on the moral competency of cross-dressed women” by emphasizing their chastity and filial obligation to parents (p. 22). Tanci heroines who disguise themselves as men, often do so because of their life circumstances, but once they enter public life dominated by men, they wish to pursue life as an equal, and cross-dressing is a means of self-empowerment (p. 19). Cross-dressing in tanci liberates and allows women to explore and pursue a life of autonomy outside their inner chambers, and become an equal of men in social space. To reason feminine desires in texts, plenty of

2 Retrieved versin of the novel by Zhang Hensui is an online versin divident into chapters without page numbers, therefore, I refer to the chapters.

18 CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN LITERARY ADAPTATIONS tanci authors explain their cross-dressing themes as a way to entertain or promote the moral integrity of their readers. The author's possible anxiety of censorship was also present (p. 12). Authors tried to eradicate discrimination they faced in real life in the fictional world of literature, and “freely indulge their wildest fantasies” (Idema, 2010, p. xxxv). The famous cross-dressed heroine of tanci fiction is Meng Lijun 孟丽君. She eventually becomes Prime Minister and refuses to voluntarily shed her male disguise. However, like Mulan, and in contrast with Zhu Yingtai, she disguises herself as a man inevitably because of her life conditions. Moreover, she is careful to avoid romantic entanglements. In contrast with earlier tanci works, cross-dressed heroines in 1905 A History of Women Warriors (xianü qunying shi 侠女群英史) tanci often refuse to revert to their feminine identity and successfully continue to live their life in the male sphere. Some even arrange mock unions with women who do or do not know about their true gender (Guo, 2015, p. 141). These stories of self-empowerment influenced the reality in early twenty century China and “presage women's activism in real life” (Guo, 2015, p. 157). An important example is a Chinese revolutionary, feminist, and writer Qiu Jin 秋瑾. She frequently cross-dressed and participated in social and political events (p. 158). Tanci stories were a means to advocate women's enlightenment and education and in the Republican era (1912–1949) were adapted for radio programs (p. 193) and published in newspapers and journals (p. 166).

1.2 Cross-dressing in modern literary adaptations of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai

Two adaptations analysed in this chapter, with a focus on cross-dressing in the story, are a book by Zhang Henshui and a book by Fan Dai. Liang Shanbo yu Zhu Yingtai by Zhang Henshui is an adaptation of the story published in 1954. The author is a famous Chinese novelist who published more than 100 novels in his 50 years of fiction writing3. His adaptation of the story follows a familiar storyline and contains episodes that are known to the reader. A novel by Fan Dai, Butterfly Lovers: A Tale of the Chinese Romeo and Juliet, was published in 2000 and it is the first English publication in original fiction form. Fan Dai is a native Chinese, she received her English and professional training in England and America. As the author notes, the basic storyline is complemented with a more com- plex characterization of Liang Shanbo. In this adaptation, he is inspired by Zhu Yingtai's love and consequently fights for his own happiness. The author also remarks that

3 Informations retrived from https://m.99csw.com/author/%E5%BC%A0%E6%81%A8%E6%B0%B4.html and https://www.silkgauzeaudio.com/author/zhang-henshui/.

Chines versions lack psychological description, therefore, Fan Dai's version also fo- cuses on the inner feelings of the main characters (p. 7–8).

1.2.1 Imitating male scholar The cross-dressing in Fan Dai's story is rather more depicted than in the story by Zhang Henshui. The passage where Zhu Yingtai finally gets approval from her parents to go to study in male disguise and cross-dresses for the first time receives a different amount of attention in both books. In Zhang Henshui's novel, the description of first- time cross-dressed Zhu Yingtai and her maid Yinxin is somewhat brief:

祝英台是读书人打扮，倒是白白净净的脸，正是一位翩翩浊世佳公子。银心头戴青色便帽，身穿一件青色对襟夹袄，倒也像一个小书童样子。4 Zhu Yingtai is dressed up as a scholar, but with her clean white face, she really is like a noble son who soars above the vulgar world. Yinxin wears a cyan cap and a cyan jacket with buttons down the front looking like a little boy attendant of a scholar. (chapter 3)

Here, Zhu Yingtai does not have to convince her parents by her male scholarly appearance prior to her final look in which she travels to the male world. To persuade her parents to let her go travel and study in male disguise, she uses her knowledge and argumentation instead. Zhu Yingtai shows her acquired knowledge she received from private tutors and successfully vindicates her intention to go to study in male disguise. In Fan Dai's version, the process of cross-dressing is described more comprehen- sively. Both Zhu Yingtai and Yinxin are trying male scholarly clothes before their de- parture. Moreover, a tailor is appointed to make a custom gown for them. It may seem quite controversial for a tailor to make a man's gown for a woman in the Eastern Jin dynasty China. The description of fixing their hair to look like scholars and wearing a cap that was an essential part of academic dress are included. In both adaptations, the final decision is made when Zhu Yingtai uses her cunning and bribe the fortune-teller. Furthermore, Fan Dai's version emphasizes that in order to pass as a man, a simple change of clothes is not enough, but it was also important for Yingtai and Yinxin to change their voices, the way they were walking, and their general demeanour. After few days of training, Yingtai's parents approved of their looks and allowed them to leave the house (p. 29–31). After three years Yingtai returns home from school and Shanbo comes to visit her. Her mother advises Yingtai to go to see him in male scholar's clothes, the one Shanbo knows her in (p. 161). Yingtai's mother realizes the power of one's clothes and is anxious about a meeting between Yingtai in

4 Chinese texts in this work are translated by the author of the work.

20 CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN LITERARY ADAPTATIONS women's attire and Shanbo. Somewhat, she felt it was more appropriate and probably socially acceptable for Yingtai to meet with a man in man's clothes. Butler in her Bodies that matter (1993, p. 231) emphasizes that clothes do not make one man or woman. Fan Dai's extensive description of Yingtai's transformation into a male scholar (or rather her acquisition and execution of the socially accepted image of male scholar) supports the idea that the clothes are not enough to transform her into the male gender. Here, according to Butler's gender performative theory, Ying- tai is expressing a male gender through “the repeated stylization of the body, a set of repeated acts” (1999, p. 43–44). Fan Dai's version is targeted at English speaking audience and the author is probably aware that an average English reader does not have to know about the appearance and demeanour of Chinese scholars in imperial China. The more precise description of the transformation of Zhu Yingtai from a teenage girl to a young scholar may also indicate that to change and pass as an opposite gender requires preparation and effort. Kam Louie in his Theorising Chinese Masculinity (2002) uses the concepts of wen 文 and wu 武 to explain attitudes to masculinity in China. Zhu Yingtai with her intention to go to study tries to infiltrate the wen realm of masculinity. Kam Louie notes, that women cannot be discussed in wen-wu dichotomy but it can be “applied to women only when they have transformed themselves into men” (p. 11). Even though a woman possessed qualities in wen-wu dichotomy, official recognition of the achievements was demonstrated through passing the civil service examinations and the military service examinations, which were available only to a man or woman disguised as a man (p. 12). Zhu Yingtai does not intend to participate in civil service examination, she goes to study out of personal interests. Wen generally refers to those “genteel, refined qualities that were associated with the literary and artistic pursuit of the classical scholars” (Louie, 2002, p. 14). Kam Louie demonstrates Zhu Yingtai as an example of a woman who “can gain recognition for wen accomplishments by entering a scholarly academy but had to do so dressed as men” (p. 46). Zhang Henshui's brief description of cross-dressed Zhu Yingtai can be understood that Yingtai's transformation into wen man, a young scholar, was not difficult and a simple change into appropriate attire was sufficient. Also, when we compare the response of Liang Shanbo when he learned that Yingtai is a woman, in the Chinese version he cannot believe that Yingtai is a woman at first and says that “he is indeed a man” (他是一位男子呀) (chapter 10). In the English version, Shanbo says that it never crossed his mind that Yingtai could be a woman but it makes sense to him (p. 116). It could mean, that in the Chinese version her disguise was more believable and Shanbo really did not have a clue and that in the English version, even though she looked effeminate, nobody suspected her.

1.2.2 Anxiety of cross-dressing In both novels, there is a passage when Zhu Yingtai and Yinxin meet with Liang Shanbo and his servant Sijiu for the first time. Yinxin is talking with Sijiu and addresses Yingtai with a female form of address. In Zhang Henshui's adaptation, Yinxin wants to call Ying- tai xiaojie 小姐 (miss). She starts with xiao 小 but then quickly stops and continue to say xiao xianggong 小相公 (master) (chapter 4). In Fan Dai's version, there is the same scene where Yinxin starts with “mi…” but quickly changes to “master” (p. 38). In both cases, it does not attract any attention from Shanbo or Sijiu. In Fan Dai's version, Yinxin later calls Yingtai “miss” and it is impossible for others to overlook. Here, Yingtai answers promptly and says that “the miss” stayed at home. Neither Liang Shanbo nor Sijiu question Yingtai's explanation because in Fan Dai's version Yingtai has eight sib- lings, in Zhang Henshui's she is an only child, and this scene is omitted. We can see that even if she gets to the point where her disguise may be questioned, her clever quick answers are enough to convince others. This tension coming from Yingtai's cross- dressing and the possibility that she may be revealed keeps the reader in suspense. Zhu Yingtai has to embody the role of a young male scholar and execute the role of opposite gender right, otherwise, “those who fail to do their gender right are regu- larly punished” (Butler, 1988, p. 522). Butler notes that “gender is not a fact, the various acts of gender creates the idea of gender, and without those acts, there would be no gender at all” (ibid). Because gender is a social construct, Zhu Yingtai is trying to imitate the socially acknowledged idea of young male scholar in imperial China. Her body, which carries traits that creates an idea of her female gender, is an obstacle. The scene found in both adaptations where Shanbo questions Yingtai's identity is, for example, when he notices her pierced ears. This trait, usually connected with the female gender, undermines her male disguise. Nevertheless, those specific traits attributed to male or female gender show us that gender is constructed and acknowledged according to specific symbols by society. In literary adaptations, scenes where Yingtai's secret is in jeopardy, are more abundant than in other art form adaptations. In Fan Dai's version, the tone of tense situations is rather playful than stressful as we can see in Zhang Henshui's novel. For example, in the scene where Zhu Yingtai is ill and Liang Shanbo insists on taking care of her. He persists in sleeping next to her to look after her. Yingtai came up with an idea to put a box or a bowl full of water or sand to make a barrier between them. In Fan Dai's version, when maid Yinxin came in the morning to check on them, she and Yingtai laughed about it (p. 86). In Zhang Henshui's version, Yingtai immediately pointed at a hand-made barrier between them so Yinxin can see that she was careful during the night (chapter 7). Apart from acting as a male scholar, she does not forget to behave like a young noblewoman. In Fan Dai's version, the next day a doctor comes to examine ill Yingtai. The doctor does not discover Yingtai's secret, he does not even suspect anything unusual. Here, any nervousness or discomfort concerning Yingtai is not

22 CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN LITERARY ADAPTATIONS mentioned (p. 87). In Zhang Henshui's version, maid Yinxin was from the first encounter with Liang Shanbo and his servant Sijiu cautious. When Yingtai agreed to Shanbo's proposition to study together and share the same room, Yinxin felt nervous (chapter 4). There is also a passage when they return home and her father is reminding them to immediately change their scholar's clothes.

祝公远道：“现在回来，改换装束要紧。你们先回房去，改换衣服。 Zhu Gongyuan said: „Now that you returned, it is important to change your attire. You both go first to the room and change your clothes.” (chapter 11)

Similarly, as mentioned above, in the scene when the mother asked Yingtai to wear the clothes of a scholar when meeting with Shanbo in Fan Dai's version, the power of clothes is also strengthened in Chinese adaptation. By comparing cross-dressing in Fan Dai's and Zhang Henshui's version of the story, we see that in the English version portrait of cross-dressing is rather playful than in the Chinese version. Although a certain level of anxiety is still present. However, every suspicion is played down and the author repeats that no one suspected that Ying- tai is a woman, even though everybody saw that “Yingtai did not look manly enough” (p. 77). In Feng Menglong's account of the story in Stories Old and New (2000, Feng, Yang, Yang, p. 490) the anxiety about family's image and reputation caused by Zhu Yingtai's cross-dressing is emphasized by objections by her brother and sister-in-law. In modern adaptations, the plot is rather playful, and cross-dressing performance could be seen even as a parody.

1.2.3 Emphasis on love theme and education In the English version of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, the author emphasizes the inner feelings of the main characters. The author also gives more space to the character of Liang Shanbo and encompasses the episode where he is comforting the future husband of Zhu Yingtai. In this adaptation, Liang Shanbo is an active figure fighting for his own destiny and love for Zhu Yingtai. Zhu Yingtai has eight older brothers with whom she was studying at home from an early age. She is frustrated that this gained knowledge cannot be cultivated and demonstrated. She is very aware that as a woman there is no use for her knowledge, and feels sometimes angry for being a woman (p. 18) saying that it is a waste of life (p. 16). Cross-dressing was for her an act of liberation from social limitations she faced as a woman. Yingtai's hunger for education is evident in both adaptations, but Fan Dai's emphasis on both Zhu Yingtai's and Liang Shanbo's inner feelings and grievance about their ill fate highlights the love theme in the story. After all, the novel's title associates the pair with Romeo and Juliet. To underline the

Šablona DP 3.2.2-ARTS-dipl-obor-anglicky (2021-04-29) © 2014, 2016, 2018–2021 Masarykova univerzita 23 CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN LITERARY ADAPTATIONS romantic idea in the story, the servants of Zhu Yingtai and Liang Shanbo visit the shared tomb of Yingtai and Shanbo together and promise to take care of both of their parents. In Zhang Henshui's we can see the reflection of the call for free marriage in Liang Shanbo's words. His statement is emphasized as it is his last words before death.

最后才道：“我对不住你二位老人家。但是男女婚姻事件，千万不能以父母之命，媒妁之言为主，总要听凭儿女自愿…..尚有为男女婚姻事件以死力争的人。” Lastly, he said: „My parents, I am letting you down. However, marriage between man and woman must not be arranged by parents based on the matchmakers' words as the most important argument, nevertheless let your children decide on their own, freely... There are still people who fight to the death for the marriage of man and woman.” (chapter 16)

After her return home and to her female attire, Zhu Yingtai is protesting against an arranged marriage and thus refusing traditional social norms. In the 1950s People's Republic of China, the story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai served as an example of anti-feudal ideas, fighting for a woman's sense of selfhood and marriage based on one's decision (Xue, 1996, p. 34). The story also works as propaganda of the 1950 Marriage Law (Xu, 2016, p. 110). Gradually, women gained the same rights to education as men, the option to decide on their marriage, participate in politics and social activities. Cross-dressed heroine Zhu Yingtai was an example of women's emancipation. As Al- tenburger states, the modern “politically correct” reading of the story is that “Zhu Ying- tai stands for female emancipation, equal rights for both sexes, as well as faithfulness in marriage” (2005, p. 167). In early versions of the narrative, Shanbo's response to the revelation of Yingtai's true genders could differ. In the Song dynasty account of the story, Liang Shanbo's reaction is rather disappointing and he feels like he lost something. By analysing an earlier account of the story, Altenburger (2005, p. 176) notes, that Liang Shanbo was disappointed by the loss of a male companion he saw in Zhu Yingtai. In modern versions, Shanbo is delighted by the fact that Yingtai is a girl and he fully allows his feeling for her to develop. Zhu Yingtai's primary reason to cross-dress is to go to school and pursue an education. In the Chinese version, she is voicing her opinion that it is unfair to deny education to women. She believes that in the future education will be available also to women, but for now, she does not have any other option than to disguise herself as a man. In the Chinese version, as an only child of her parents, she was lucky to gain an education from an early age, and she is aware of the power and importance of education.

“但是人只要肯念书，总比不读书的要强上好几倍吧。”

24 CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN LITERARY ADAPTATIONS

“But as long as people are willing to study, they are a lot better than those who do not.” (chapter1)

When her father suggests an alternative of a new private tutor, Yingtai has concerns that new tutor will not be as educated as her (老师生来授读，也许…..也许不如我) (chapter 2). This shows how confident she is with her knowledge and that she is ready for a challenge to study in school among other young scholars. As an only child, she knows what power she has over her parents and that they eventually give her what she desires. For Yingtai, to gain permission to cross-dress and go to study is evidence that her parents will eventually give in to any of her desires. But as the story evolves, we see that this was the last time Yingtai and her parents reached an agreement about her future. After returning home, she is no longer capable to persuade her parents about arrange marriage and she is refusing to submit back to the traditional social hierarchy. Her mother remarks, that after she came back from school “she is behaving even more as a scholar” (越发带了几分蓝衫习气) (chapter 13) and that she should also “practice a little bit of needlework” (也当习点女红) (chapter 18). After her experience as a cross-dressed scholar, she was not only concerned about in- equality between men and women in education anymore but now she was also aware of the unfairness of traditional arranged marriage. As we can see in both adaptations, the staff of the Zhu house comment upon her return home and remark that she did not change and is still the same person. Therefore, even after three years of education outside the home, her social status did not change and she is expected to resume back the role of a traditional woman. Butler is reminding us that gender identity is a social construct which she sees as unstable (1988, p. 519). For Butler, gender is doing rather than being, an act of “a rep- etition and a ritual” (1999, p. xv) to the extent that it becomes congealed over time and mistaken as natural (1999, 43–44). Yingtai found herself back in an environment that recognizes her as a female and all of the stereotypical connotations with the female gender are prescribed to her body.

1.3 Summary

The cross-dressing theme in Chinese traditional literature is represented by numerous examples. Feng Menglong in The Stories New and Old devoted one story to cross- dressed heroines. In the nineteenth and twentieth century, tanci fiction gained its popularity among women. The stories that depicted cross-dressed heroines and their adventures were a popular topic that permitted women to experience adventures in the fictional world. Cross-dressed Zhu Yingtai stands out among other fictional cross- dressed heroines because of her self-interested motives.

Re-reading and re-writing of the story in modern literary adaptations focus on themes like education and love. For the 1950 Marriage Law, the story became an example of the fight for free love and against an arranged marriage. Zhang Henshui's novel published only four years after the implementation of the law reflects the call for free marriage. A more recent adaptation by Fan Dai emphasizes the romantic theme in the story by making the character of Liang Shanbo an active fighter for love between him and Zhu Yingtai. Cross-dressing is Zhu Yingtai's means to gain higher education. Wilfulness, witti- ness, and cleverness are characteristic features of Zhu Yingtai in literary adaptations. As a result, her cross-dressing was successful and she demonstrated that gender is to a certain extent intentional (Bulter, 1988, p. 522). Yingtai's disguise is sometimes doubted by Shanbo. Not only because Yingtai is a girl (there is no indication that Yingtai identifies herself other than female) and all her life she is expected to behave and act like a girl, but she is also betrayed by her body that bears connotations of female gender in society. In both adaptations, the cross-dressing theme is an amusing trait of the story, but in Fan Dai's version, it is depicted more playfully than in Zhang Henshui's novel where the execution of cross-dressing is more stressful.

26 ZHU YINGTAIʹS CROSS-DRESSING IN THEATRE AND OPERA FILM

2 Zhu Yingtaiʹs cross-dressing in theatre and opera film

2.1 Cross-dressing in Chinese theatre

As well as in English Renaissance theatre or Japanese kabuki theatre, cross-dressing in Chinese theatre is not an unusual element. The history of male dan 旦 (female impersonator) can be traced to the Han dynasty (206 B.C–219 A.D.) (Tian, 2000, p. 79), and female cross-dressing can be dated as far as the eight-century Tang dynasty (Li, 2003, p. 33). The occurrence of female impersonators was inevitable because of the socio- political situation that banned women from participation in theatre. Mixing women and men players was prohibited, and “Chinese theatre had necessarily become a cross- dressed theatre” (Li, 2003, p. 59). The period when the socio-political climate for women in theatre was more favourable was the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). At this time, there were more actresses than actors, and they also played the male parts (Tian, 2000, p. 80; Li, 2003, p. 38). By the end of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), the ban on women participating in theatre was lifted, and female performers were allowed to en- gage in theatre. Because of the social and cultural changes in the twentieth century, the rise of mixed or all-female troupes could take place (Jiang, 2009, p. 21). The Yue Opera5, shaped in 1930s Shanghai, transformed from all-male to all-female theatre, and, along with the Peking Opera (jingju 京剧), it is one of the most popular forms in China (Jiang, 2009, p. 3).

2.1.1 Yue Opera Eventual social changes in the Republican era allowed women to enter public space. The female audience in the role of a consumer in the entertaining industry initiated the demand for a female representation (Jiang, 2009, p. 34). The Yue Opera became popular with its romantic love stories in its repertoire, and the all-female cast turned out to be an advantage for portraying romantic relationships on stage (Jiang, 2009, p. 80–81). The story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is one of the most famous Yue Opera plays, and it is this art form that enhanced the popularity of the story in modern China. The actresses portraying the main characters of this story gained immense popularity in the 1940s. After the 1950s, the Yue Opera and the Liang-Zhu story gained support from the PRC that accelerated domestic and international success (Jiang, 2009, p. 104–105). Theatre undertook reform under the PRC leadership and was supposed to be used to

5 Chinese theatre is a mix of various artistic elements. It is accompanied by music and the actors use dialogues, arias, dances, acrobatics and martial arts. All traditional Chinese theatre is often called opera in the West, although it is different from the European opera.

Šablona DP 3.2.2-ARTS-dipl-obor-anglicky (2021-04-29) © 2014, 2016, 2018–2021 Masarykova univerzita 27 ZHU YINGTAIʹS CROSS-DRESSING IN THEATRE AND OPERA FILM translate ideas such as nationalism and feminism to the masses (Idema, 2015, p. 9). Theatre gained a strong audience base and was regarded as an effective means to spread new values and ideas. The ideas and themes that the new leadership wanted to avoid were those that carried a notion of backwardness or feudalism (Idema, 2015, p. 31). Theatre that supported modernizing agenda of the nation-state survived (Idema, 2015, p. 9). To ensure that the theatrical plays were spreading messages in accord with party-state ideology “long training sessions were organized in which actors, play- wrights, and managers studied Marxism with Party cadres and engaged in the practical details of the reform“ (Idema, 2015, p. 13). With its Liang-Zhu adaptation, the Yue Opera was an effective instrument to promote gender equality, free marriage, and propagate the 1950 Marriage Law (Xu, 2016, p. 110). In the Yue Opera version of Liang-Zhu story, we meet with double cross-dressing (or double-dressing). The cross-dressing of Zhu Yingtai on the story level and cross- dressing of an actress (male impersonation) on the theatrical level. As Jiang (2009, p. 81) pointed out, having two actresses portraying a romantic relationship with a male impersonator was advantageous to gender-straight theatre troupes. Even with the gradual desegregation of genders in the public sphere, the intimate relationship between man and woman on stage was for the audience and actors “embarrassingly real” (ibid). The audience, which was gradually more female (Jiang, 2009, p. 79), favoured the character of Liang Shanbo, famously executed by a male impersonator Fan Ruijuan 范瑞娟 in the 1950s (p. 104). At the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, cross-dressing fashion stepped from the theatre stage into the real world. Women dressed in men's clothing could be seen on the streets of big cities like Shanghai. This act manifested compassion with revolutionaries aiming to overthrow the Qing dynasty and declaring their equality with men (Chou, 1997, p. 137–138). In the early 1900s, men's clothes worn by women were even a fashionable choice (Chou, 1997, p. 139). Famous Chinese figure Qiu Jin was a walking example, and “through cross-dressing, she and others challenged the dominant system of Confucian relations, rebelled against traditional arranged marriages, and rejected feminine role models, preferring martial heroic masculine roles“ (p. 141). In contemporary China, the cross-dressing tradition on stage is upheld by Yue Opera and male impersonators, rather than Peking Opera and female impersonators. The PRC tried to “straighten” Chinese theatre and restrict cross-dressing on stage, male or female. Because female cross-dressing seemed like a lesser threat to society, nowa- days, the representation of female sheng 生 (male impersonator) surpasses that of dan (Li, 2003, p. 191–192).

28 ZHU YINGTAIʹS CROSS-DRESSING IN THEATRE AND OPERA FILM

2.1.2 The first colour opera film The 1950s Yue Opera adaptation of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story was one of the love drama masterpieces that emerged and defined Yue Opera's artistic and popularity peak in the early years of the PRC (Jiang，2009, p. 185). In 1953 Liang-Zhu Yue Opera play was made into the first Chinese 35 mm colour movie. The PRC chose this film to represent China at international events, and it was screened at the 1953 Geneva Con- vention (Jiang, 2009, p. 188). The movie represented the country in numerous international film festivals, and the troupe was able to perform the play abroad (p. 105). The 1953 film adaptation of Yue Opera Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai started the golden age of Chinese opera films (Xu, 2017, p. 256). With opera still being the most famous form of theatre in twentieth-century China, the specific genre of opera film flourished between the 1950s and 1960s (Teo, 2013, p. 2). With its possibility to reach an even greater audience, the opera film served as a tool to “inculcate policies and the new ideology of socialism” (Teo, 2013, p. 5). The new regime was trying to look sympathetic in the eyes of overseas Chinese and international audiences. They tried to change its masculine and military image in the global community, and the appearance of gentle, feminine Liang Shanbo was a great example (Xu, 2017, p. 259). A male impersonator embodying young male characters is a distinctive symbol of Yue Opera (Jiang, 2009, p. 222). The feminization of male roles not only emphasizes the overall feminine aesthetics of the opera where the typical lovers on stage are both “beautiful, delicate, and graceful, and their speech and singing are soft and senti- mental,” but it also feminizes the female roles (Jiang, 2009, p. 229). Similarly, as in Pe- king Opera, the female roles were portrayed from the male perspective and by a female impersonator. In Yue Opera, the male roles were depicted from the female perspective and by the male impersonator. It was assumed that in Yue Opera, “women observed the men created by actresses, while men watched women performing men” (Jiang, 2009, p. 223). In the 1953 Liang-Zhu opera film, the actress that attracted the most attention was the one portraying the character of Liang Shanbo - Fan Ruijuan. Her cross-dressed performance was highly praised by domestic and international fans (Xu, 2016, p. 120). She was also appointed to accompany Zhou Enlai on his meeting with Charlie Chaplin, who was impressed by her performance (Xu, 2017, p. 256). Fan clubs consisting mainly of women were established to celebrate Fan Ruijuan's cross-dressing artistry (Jiang, 2009, p. 122), and some even expressed their pity about her true gender and that she is “only a cross-dresser” (p. 228). Director Stanley Kwan in his documentary Yang ± Yin: Gender in Chinese Cinema (1997) asked his mother if she accepted Fan Ruijuan as a man on stage. She said that she saw her as a man and that her adoration of Fan Ruijuan continued also off stage.

2.1.3 Huangmei Opera and The Love Eterne Huangmei Opera (huangmeidiao 黄梅调) is a regional genre of opera. Unlike Yue Opera, Huangmei Opera is performed in a language similar to the national standard, and the arias were sung to simple melodies that could easily catch on (Idema, 2015, p. 23). The opera film is not just a simple record of stage performance. In opera films, the action is happening in realistic indoor and outside settings, although the acting, dia- logue, and arias may retain the same as on the theatre stage (Idema, 2015, p. 19). The acting in Huangmei Opera was also more natural than, for example, in Peking Opera (Idema, 2015, p. 21). Because of these qualities, Huangmei Opera was an eligible adept to became a popular cinematic genre. The Love Eterne (1963) directed by Li Han Hsiang is an opera film inspired by the 1953 Yue Opera film of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai but performed in Huangmei style. The producers wanted to detach from opera by emphasizing the melody that was characteristic of Huangmei Opera and “put the stage at the service of cinema” (Teo, 2013, p. 8). The Hong Kong Shaw Brothers studio created an adaptation that resulted in a more “cinematically fluid version of the opera” (Teo, 2013, p. 7). In this adaptation, the emphasis is put on the film's cinematic aspect (Li, 2003, p. 236). Together with the characteristic melody, The Love Eterne makes a successful movie true to its opera roots (Teo, 2013, p. 8). The feature of cross-dressing was also regarded as a symbol of opera.

2.2 Double-dressing in The Love Eterne and the male impersonator Ivy Ling Po

Cross-dressing in the 1963 opera film The Love Eterne exists in two dimensions: the cross-dressed character of Zhu Yingtai on a narrative level and in the form of a male impersonator Ivy Ling Po (Huang Yujun 黄裕君) portraying the character of Liang Shanbo on the theatrical level. This adaptation of the story gained great popularity from domestic and international audiences. Determined by the earlier success of the Yue Opera adaptation, it was expected that Liang Shanbo would be played by a woman (Li, 2003, p. 112). Except Zhu Yingtai's cross-dressing on a textual level, the gender play and the phenomenon of cross-dressing are intensified by theatrical cross-dressing. Like Fan Ruijuan, in the 1953 Yue Opera adaptation, Ivy Ling Po received great popularity emerging from her portrayal of Liang Shanbo. Her fan base was mainly female (Wang, 2012, p. 175). Ling Po's real-life stardom emerged and is connected to her art of male impersonation. Her fans often referred to her as Liang xiongge 梁兄哥 (brother Liang) because of the nickname for Liang Shanbo by Zhu Yingtai in The Love Eterne (Wang, 2012, p. 195). Wang argues that her popularity “cannot be simplified as adulation for a fictional male character, nor can their (fans') embrace of Ling Po be considered merely as identification with a female star” (2012, p. 179). It was assumed

30 ZHU YINGTAIʹS CROSS-DRESSING IN THEATRE AND OPERA FILM that in cross-dressing Yue theatre the female fans were adoring the character of Liang Shanbo, not the actress herself. Therefore, the interaction between a female cross- dresser and female fans was regarded as a kind of romantic but asexual relationship (ibid). Director Ang Lee in an interview stresses out that the audience was not confused by double cross-dressing in The Love Eterne. He says, that the audience saw “man as a man, not as a woman pretending to be a man” but also points out that the spectators “appreciated that it was a woman pretending to be a man” (Lyman, 2001, Watching movies with Ang Lee). Female same-sex attraction cannot be overlooked, as Wang demonstrates by pointing out the connection between The Love Eterne and other Chi- nese movies with female homoeroticism themes (2012, p. 174). Possible female homoeroticism can be connected to the reality of two actresses portraying the romantic relationship on-stage and to the adoration of feminine Liang Shanbo which transcends into the real-life adoration of Ivy Ling Po off-stage. Even though the cross-dressing on stage is functional, Li (2003, p. 165) stresses that the simple change of appearance is not enough. The Chinese cross-dresser is expected to cap- ture the essence of the opposite gender and retain this essence outside of the theatre (ibid). Shuen Chan (2011) associates fanchuan's 反串 (cross-dressed actor) gender identity outside the binary understanding of gender. The gender crisis is explicit when the performer leaves the theatrical space and is forced to be assimilated back into the rigid gender binarism outside the theatre (Shuen, 2011, p. 92). For example, Ling Po is recognized by her fans as “brother Liang” which contradicts her biological sex. Because of Ling Po's fluid gender-switching from stage to real life, fanchuan's gender identity is proposed as a unique “third” gender (Shuen, 2011, p. 88). In the eyes of her female fans, the man performed by an actress is seen not as an ordinary but an ideal man (Shuen, 2011, p. 85). Tan See-Kam's (2007, A sexless sex-free gender-play? Questions of specta- torship) view on the cross-dressed performance of Ling Po is similar to Shuen's idea when he denies the gender classification of the fanchuan in binary categories or as non- gendered. Judith Butler argues that gender performativity is “neither free play nor theatrical self-presentation; nor it can be equated with performance” (1993, p. 95). She points out that in theatre, the audience knows that the boundaries of the play and all the characters are restricted to the stage. She draws an example saying that “the sight of a transvestite onstage can compel pleasure and applause while the sight of the same transvestite on the seat next to us on the bus can compel fear, rage, even violence” (1988, p. 527). The act becomes dangerous because “there is no presumption that the act is distinct from reality” (ibid). The double-dressing in Liang-Zhu play challenges the fictional from the real. Butler points out an idea similar to the proposition of fanchuan's third gender. She says that on the stage “the act is not contrasted with the real, but constitutes a reality that is in some sense new, a modality of gender that cannot readily be assimilated into the pre-existing categories that regulate gender identity” (italics original) (ibid).

Ivy Ling Po won several awards with her performance as Liang Shanbo in The Love Eterne. One of the most prominent is from the Golden Horse Film Festival 6. She won the award in 1963 in a special category for the Best Performer because her performance did not fit the Best Actress nor Best Actor award. Due to her successful gender ambivalence, her cross-dressing was celebrated, and in a sense, “the public recognized the link between cross-dressing and gender play” (Wang, 2012, p. 183). In 2002, the 40th anniversary of The Love Eterne was celebrated with the Liang-Zhu concert starring surviving members of the film with Ivy Ling Po in the role of Liang Shanbo. Tan See- Kam (2007, The Love Eterne, Ivy Ling Bo and Liang Xiong) argues that due to the popularity of the film and the unforgettable performance of Ling Po and her loyal fan-cult of “brother Liang”, the memory of the opera film and Ling Po as Liang Shanbo is still alive. That means the considerable general acceptance even celebration of masters of cross- dressing is still present. The casting in The Love Eterne further complicates the gender play that comes out from the cross-dressing of Zhu Yingtai on the story level. Even though the audience knows that Zhu Yingtai is a girl dressed in male clothes and watches the female Zhu Yingtai that falls in love with Liang Shanbo, the first half of the relationship is compel- lingly suggestive of two men falling in love with each other. Only after the revelation of Zhu Yingtai's true gender their relationship fits into the norm of heteronormativity. Even then, the romantic relationship on screen can be regarded as that of two women because of the actual gender of the actress playing Liang Shanbo, reminded to us by her feminine look and singing. Li (2003, p. 126) also argues that because the character of Liang Shanbo does not achieve the status of an ideal scholar by assuming a civil service position, he fails to meet the criteria of masculinity in imperial China. He concludes that the adaptation is most successful with the cast of a woman in the role of Liang Shanbo because it corresponds with his character (ibid). In other words, Ling Po's real-life gender complicates the designated gender of Liang Shanbo (Wang, 2012, p. 194). The theatrical cross-dressing, which is supposed to be mainly functional, transcends into the real world and is actively celebrated by her fans. On the story level, Ling Po's cross-dressing makes the adaptation overall more feminine and gentler.

2.3 Cross-dressing of Zhu Yingtai in The Love Eterne

The plot in The Love Eterne follows an expectable storyline and episodes that are familiar to the audience. The story starts with Zhu Yingtai's ambitious idea to pursue higher education outside her home. She cleverly tricks her parents into letting her study in male disguise. She spends three years in school with Liang Shanbo, who is

6 Film festival awarding Chinese-language movies in Taiwan, founded in 1962

32 ZHU YINGTAIʹS CROSS-DRESSING IN THEATRE AND OPERA FILM unaware of her true sex. The story follows its tragic path when the love between Ying- tai and Shanbo cannot be fulfilled. Shanbo dies of lovesickness, and the story ends with a butterfly transformation. Due to the incredible popularity of this adaptation, the modern Liang-Zhu story is associated with this particular version, and we can say that the story of Liang-Zhu was canonized. Due to the format, the opera film version is offering us fewer story episodes than the literature form. To express the inner feelings of the characters, the choir articulat- ing those inner emotions is present during the whole film, helping the audience empa- thize with the characters. As we saw in both literature adaptations of the story analysed in Chapter one, Zhu Yingtai's tactics to persuade her parents to let her study in male disguise are her stub- bornness, intelligence, and cunning. The most effective move is to bribe a fortune teller. In The Love Eterne adaptation, this whole persuading passage is skipped, and the con- fidence, intelligence, and cunning of Zhu Yingtai are depicted in one scene. She dresses as a doctor who is supposed to examine ill Zhu Yingtai. Yingtai, dressed as a doctor, tells her parents that the only option to cure their ill daughter is to let her go to school and proposes to disguise her as a male scholar. The parents object that her disguise surely will not be convincing. Yingtai disagrees and expresses that even her parents will not be able to recognize her. Her father states that it is not possible, and if she succeeds in tricking them, they will let her go. After her father's statement, Yingtai immediately reveals her disguise. Even though a little disappointed that they were tricked, her parents do not object and let her go to study. In the next scene, when we see Zhu Yingtai, she is together with her maid already in male scholarly disguise. Yingtai's revelation to her parents is quite simple, and the main role is played by the cap covering her hair. In ancient China, the cap was usually a part of an outfit that represented an official rank or status in society (Heroldová, 2010, p. 79). The gown and the cap that masks Yingtai's hair are enough to fool her parents. Even though her disguise is simple, her parents do not question a person in an official position (in this case, a doctor) wearing socially recognized attire. The opera film is portrayed in a light-hearted mood until its tragic ending. Cross- dressing seems to be a source of amusement. Right at the beginning, when Zhu Yingtai dresses in a doctor's disguise, the maid Yinxin, who is aware of this trick, cannot hide her giggles. Zhu Yingtai perceives her cross-dressing as a fun experience. During their time in school, Yingtai's disguise is not entirely believable. The teacher's wife saw through her disguise but kept the secret. There is a particular scene where the whole class is going for a swim. Yingtai is naturally trying to avoid embar- rassment and disclosure of her secret. Unfortunately, maid Yinxin is dragged by Shan- bo's servant to join in the swimming. The frightened expression on Yinxin's face functions as an amusement for the audience, who is aware of the truth and can foresee how the scene might develop. The abrupt cut of the scene demonstrates that the particular segment was added by the film production just for the amusement of the audience. The

Šablona DP 3.2.2-ARTS-dipl-obor-anglicky (2021-04-29) © 2014, 2016, 2018–2021 Masarykova univerzita 33 ZHU YINGTAIʹS CROSS-DRESSING IN THEATRE AND OPERA FILM anxiety arising from the possible revelation of cross-dressing serves as a comedic element. In this adaptation, there is a parallel between Yingtai and Yinxin attempting to depict an opposite gender. As for example in this scene, Yingtai is the one who uses her intelligence to avoid a dangerous situation. In contrast, Yinxin has problems pretending seamlessly the role of a young boy. She lets herself be dragged into situations that may reveal her gender, or attracts unwanted attention with her difficulty to address Yingtai with male pronouns. Another scene questioning Yingtai's and Yinxin's cross- dressing involves their classmates, who are pointing and laughing at them. This inci- dent is decisive in their eventual return home, not the letter saying that her mother is ill. The fear that her secret could be revealed is a primary reason for their return home. On the other hand, Liang Shanbo is entirely unaware of her secret and does not question her gender. In the long scene where Shanbo accompanies Yingtai on her way home, known as “Eighteen li”, Yingtai unavailingly hints at her true gender. When the teacher's wife finally reveals to Shanbo that Yingtai is a girl, at first, he does not believe her and is genuinely surprised. After this first reaction, Shanbo quickly embraces the reality and is pleased when he realizes that Yingtai betrothed herself to him. He does not see her cross-dressing as transgressive. The biggest concern when he sees Yingtai for the first time in female attire seems to be a change from male to female form of address. In school, they called each other Liang xiong 梁兄(older brother Liang) and xiongdi 兄弟 (younger brother). Now, Ying- tai proposes to Shanbo to call her xianmei 贤妹 (worthy sister). Shanbo finds himself in a new reality where Yingtai is a girl. To call Yingtai with the right form of address is an important step for him to embrace this reality. Li (2003, p. 123)remarks, that the change of pronouns in the story is an unavoid- able issue in every adaptation. He points out, that, for example, Zhang Henshui (Chap- ter one) “follows the modern attempt at neutralizing the tension resulting from the confusion of gender” and lets Shanbo use female pronouns addressing Yingtai after her revelation (ibid). In this scene, the atmosphere is slightly comic and light-hearted when Liang Shanbo teases Yingtai about his reasons for the visit. First, he says that he came to see her brother with whom he has been studying. Then, he continues teasing Yingtai, saying he is there to meet her parents because he wants to marry Yingtai's sister. The audience knows that Shanbo is aware of Yingtai's secret. Therefore, this scene has a function of amusement. The root of this amusement is the depiction of cross-dressing in the story and Shanbo's view of Yingtai's cross-dressing as playful rather than transgressive. The anxiety and unpleasantness coming from cross-dressing are attenuated by an overall entertaining spirit of the opera film.

34 ZHU YINGTAIʹS CROSS-DRESSING IN THEATRE AND OPERA FILM

2.4 Summary

Cross-dressing is a distinct feature of Chinese theatre. The Yue Opera is an almost all- female theatre. Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is one of the signature plays of Yue Opera. The cross-dressing in Yue Opera Lang-Zhu occurs in two dimensions: on theatrical and story level. This double-dressing further expands the gender play in the story. The first Chinese colour 35 mm opera film was inspired by the Yue Opera version of the story. The portray of the character of Liang Shanbo by a female actor is preserved and becomes a tradition in further opera versions of the story. The most popular version of the tale is the opera film The Love Eterne. The Love Eterne is adapted to film format but the story stays true to its opera version, where one of the distinctive symbols of opera is cross-dressing. In The Love Eterne adaptation, a great deal of attention was gained by the actress portraying the character of Liang Shanbo – Ivy Ling Po. Her off-stage popularity connected to her cross-dressed performance highlights the fluidity of the gender. Tan See- Kam (2007) and Shuen Chan (2011) categorize fanchuan outside the binary understanding of gender, and Butler (1988) also suggests that the theatrical performance creates its own reality. The popularity of fanchuan outside the fictional role crosses the imaginary boundaries of the stage. The cross-dressing of Zhu Yingtai in the story is depicted in a light-hearted mood. Yingtai's act is not seen as transgressive or scandalous. When Shanbo found out about Yingtai's secret he was delighted and even took an advantage of the new reality to tease her about it. The character of Yinxin is parallel to Yingtai who is more successful in her disguise. Yinxin often gets herself in trouble that may lead to her reveal. The scenes, when their disguise is in jeopardy, are a source of comedy in the adaptation.

Šablona DP 3.2.2-ARTS-dipl-obor-anglicky (2021-04-29) © 2014, 2016, 2018–2021 Masarykova univerzita 35 THE MODERN READING OF THE CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN MODERN ADAPTATIONS

3 The modern reading of the cross-dressing in Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story in modern adaptations

3.1 The homosocial male world

In traditional Chinese society, the segregation of sexes was widely practiced, and men's and women's roles were strictly prescribed. Men and women occupied different social spheres with few opportunities to interact with each other. In a shared domestic sphere, the man was a dominant one, and the relationship between husband and wife was not equal. The mutual bond and friendship between male peers played an important role in social life, academia, or office career (Huang, 2007, p. 3). The male bond was predominant in almost every aspect of China's patriarchal society (Mann, 2000). Friendship was viewed as a masculine relationship and was a sign of a man's ability to travel and meet other men, i.e. a sign of masculinity (Huang, 2007, p. 5–6). On the other hand, women were expected to stay at home and take care of the family. The patriarchal misogynic society discouraged the female presence in certain environments and regarded it as a threat to the bonds among men (Song, 2004, p. 175). Zhu Yingtai as a woman in male disguise penetrated the male sphere, violated the social order of gender separation and hierarchy, and became a part of a male homosocial world. Altenburger (2005) argues that Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai understood their bond differently. Shanbo saw his relationship with Yingtai as a friendship between two males. Yingtai saw their relationship as a bond between a man and a woman that could develop into a romantic relationship. This misunderstanding caused an unfulfilled mutual desire for relationships that are on different social levels. Altenburger (2005) ob- serves that in the modern versions of the story, Shanbo's response to the revelation of Yingtai's true sex differs from the earliest accounts. In the earlier versions, his response is not always positive, he is even disappointed (Altenburger, 2005, p. 176). Altenburger links the tragic ending to failed recognition caused by cross-dressing (p. 172) and Shanbo's death to the loss of a (male) companion (p. 176). Sookja (2018, p. 79) points out that the core of the Liang-Zhu relationship is formed when Zhu Yingtai presents herself as Liang Shanbo's male companion in school, which conflicts with her true gender and emotions. Sookja (2018, p. 86) also sees a problem in transforming the relationship from friendship to romance and perceives the oath of brotherhood as a limitation that forestalls further development of the relationship. The continuous denial and hiding of her true gender send Shanbo a message that Yingtai doesn't want to reveal her identity. The only acceptable relationship between them is that of sworn brothers, friends (Sookja, 2018, p. 99).

36 THE MODERN READING OF THE CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN MODERN ADAPTATIONS

Song Geng (2004, p. 17) argues that Chinese masculinity has to be studied within the context of homosexuality, bisexuality, and homosociality. Because the distinctive feature of the male homosocial group is the absence of women, same-sex relationships were expected (Mann, 2011, p. 140). The friendship between men was regarded as egalitarian, but the same-sex relationship in traditional China was strictly hierarchical and a symbol of power (Huang, 2007, p. 32; Mann, 2011, p. 140). Analysing the Ming literature, Giovanni Vitiello links friendship and love between men in the context of male homosociality and states that "friendship between two men becomes the para- digmatic model of romantic love" (2011, p. 66). In the Liang-Zhu story, the friendship between Shanbo and Yingtai at school is depicted as egalitarian, and there is no power imbalance in their relationship. Sookja (2018) points out that male friendship in traditional China represented a relationship with a great emotional depth. The relationship between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is an example of such a strong bond that blurred the boundaries between love and friendship (Sookja, 2018, p. 80).

3.1.1 Male bond in modern Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai adaptations The tension arising from a complicated emotional relationship between Liang Shanbo and cross-dressed Zhu Yingtai in a homosocial environment offers a space for a queer7 reading of the story. The developing mutual feelings between Shanbo and Yingtai's male personae serve as an attempt to question Shanbo's sexuality. Li (2003, p. 115) argues that the popular reading of the story is centering around queer/straight sexuality. Director Stanley Kwan considers the Liang-Zhu story a part of every Chinese gay man's memory and fantasy (1996, Yang ± Yin). Zhu Dake 朱大可 (2015), cultural critic and professor of Tongzhi University in Shanghai, marks the tale as an “emotional elegy for a gay man” (nantongzhi de qinggan aige 男同志的情感哀歌) and labels Liang Shan- bo's extraordinary friendly behaviour towards effeminate (niangniang qiang 娘娘腔) male Zhu Yingtai as unusual. For Vitiello (2011, p. ix), the puzzling feelings of Liang Shanbo towards his classmate Zhu Yingtai, were an inspiration to write a book on male homosexual and homosocial relations The Libertine's Friend : Homosexuality and masculinity in Late Imperial China. The queer reading of stories that do not contain canonically queer characters is not unusual (Björklund, 2018). The lack of queer representation in media calls for a subtextual queer reading in places where it may not canonically exist. With intensifying speculation of Liang Shanbo's sexual orientation, the authors of modern adaptations started to be aware of the delicacy of the portrayed relationship between Shanbo and Yingtai in her male disguise. An explicit attempt to queer the Liang-Zhu story is a play by Hong Kong playwright Raymond To Kwok-Wai (Du Guowei 杜国威). In his The Lover (Liang Zhu 梁祝) (1998), Liang Shanbo is simply gay and

7 An umbrella term for sexual and gender identities other than heterosexual and cisgender.

Šablona DP 3.2.2-ARTS-dipl-obor-anglicky (2021-04-29) © 2014, 2016, 2018–2021 Masarykova univerzita 37 THE MODERN READING OF THE CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN MODERN ADAPTATIONS mistakes a heterosexual female for a gay man while Zhu mistakes a gay male for a heterosexual man (Li, 2003, p. 131). Another modern adaptation that links the story with queer culture is the musical The Butterfly Lovers (Liang Zhu xia shi chuanqi 梁祝下世传奇) (2005) by Alvin Wong Chi-lung (Huang Zhilong 黄智龍). In this piece, Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai live as a same-sex couple in the afterlife (Shuen, 2011, p. 6). Shuen argues, that these existing modern adaptations do not reach the queer potential of the Liang-Zhu story and “neglect the complexity of cross-dressing besides its association with homosexuality” (2011, p. 6–7). In To's adaptation, the main characters are played by a male actor in the role of Liang Shanbo and a female actor in the role of Zhu Yingtai. Li (2003, p. 112–113) points out that this straightening of the cast is “ironic” and erases the queer subtext that can be found in traditional opera versions. An alternative approach to portray the Liang-Zhu story and its theme of gender ambiguity is adopted by playwright Edward Lam. In his adaptation of the story, Art School Musical: Successors to Liang and Zhu (Liang Zhu jichengzhe men 梁祝继承者们 )(2014), actors can play any role regardless of their gender (Liang, 2014, p. 138). Lam's employment of the actors underlines the original gender ambiguity created by cross- dressing. This adaptation shows that the theme of cross-dressing offers an alternative depiction of gender identity or queer reading other than homosexual, and implies that love has no gender. Two movie adaptations analysed in this chapter, with the focus on Zhu Yingtai's cross-dressing, are Tsui Hark's (Xu Wenguang 徐文光) The Lovers (1994) and animated movie by Ming Chin Tsai's (Cai Mingliang 蔡明钦) The Butterfly Lovers (2004). Li argues that Tsui Hark's version is supposed to be a “down-to-earth straight love story” (2003, p. 113) and uses the adaptation as an example of an unqueer version of the story (p. 127). Li (p. 118) identifies the successful queer resolution in Tsui Hark's adaptation, in early exposure of Zhu Yingtai's identity to Liang Shanbo and their romantic encounter. The early revelation of Yingtai's identity and an emphasis on the romantic theme of the story is also present in Ming Chin Tsai's version. The change of relationship from friendship to romance, which marks the change from an egalitarian companionship to a power-imbalance romantic relationship, is in Tsui's adaptation depicted cinematically with specific camera work. When Shanbo visits Yingtai in a different environment than the academy, in her home, the camera frame changes based on the captured character. Even though Shanbo and Yingtai are sitting opposite each other at the same eye level, when Shanbo is on the screen, the camera shot is positioned at a low angle pointing up to his face. Shanbo (the actor) looks di- rectly into the camera, lowering his chin. On the other hand, when the character of Zhu Yingtai is captured, the camera is positioned in front of her face. Zhu Yingtai (the actress) slowly raises her head and eyes, looking slightly upwards to Liang Shanbo. The low-angle shot is used to make the character tall, dominant and powerful (Huang,

38 THE MODERN READING OF THE CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN MODERN ADAPTATIONS

Olson and Olson, 2002). In this scene, in a new environment where Yingtai represents her own gender, Shanbo is depicted as a dominant person in the relationship.

3.2 Zhu Yingtai in modern movie adaptations

In both Tsui Hark's and Ming Chin Tsai's adaptations, the character of Zhu Yingtai is depicted differently than in the traditional narrative. Her ambition and hunger for education are lessened. On the other hand, the focus is on emphasizing her feelings as a teenage girl who falls in love with her classmate. In Tsui's adaptation, it is Yingtai's parents who send her to the academy. Tsui's Zhu Yingtai is not that bright and curious girl the audience knows from the earlier versions. To pass an exam, she has to cheat and make maximum effort. Not only she is not a successful student but she also shows no genuine interest in learning. In Tsai's version, Zhu Yingtai is eager to pursue higher education but this theme is only a marginal storyline in comparison with the original narrative. The fight for equality between man and woman that was usually voiced in traditional versions is toned down. In Tsai's version, Yingtai does have a monologue about inequalities between men and women in traditional Chinese society but it is during a school drama performance. Even though her actions are spontaneous and not scripted, she is not the Yingtai that her classmates know, but speaks for a character in the play. In Tsui's The Lovers, this passage is completely missing. Zhu Yingtai is not depicted as a fighter and voice for gender and social equality. It is probably because Tsui's Yingtai is spoiled by her parents and feels comfortable in the role of a traditional young woman from a high social class. In the traditional narrative, to be allowed to study in an all-male school, Zhu Ying- tai has to obey three rules by her parents. Tsai's The Butterfly Lovers omits this part. This version is targeted at a younger audience and the mention of rules that will eventually be disobeyed may look like a bad example for young spectators. Besides, these rules do not pose an obstacle that eventually has to be overcome to naturally transform the friendship between Yingtai and Shanbo into romance. In Tsui's version, Zhu Yingtai is fully aware of these rules she has to obey. Moreover, before she leaves for school, she is also aware of her engagement with a man from a powerful family. Her intimate encounter with Liang Shanbo does not only make her an unfilial daughter who diso- beys her parents, in addition, she also defiles her status as an engaged woman.

Šablona DP 3.2.2-ARTS-dipl-obor-anglicky (2021-04-29) © 2014, 2016, 2018–2021 Masarykova univerzita 39 THE MODERN READING OF THE CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN MODERN ADAPTATIONS

3.3 The role and the depiction of cross-dressing in movie adaptations

In both movie versions of the story, Zhu Yingtai is not always cautious of her cross- dressing. She gets herself into awkward situations that could be easily avoided if she were more careful and thoughtful. In Tsui Hark's adaptation, she puts herself in posi- tions that could lead to her reveal several times. In school, she is protected by the headmistress herself (in this adaptation this headmistress is surprisingly a woman). The headmistress provides her a place, a school library, where she could eat and sleep alone. Here, Liang Shanbo likes to study and sleep at night. Instead of telling Shanbo that he cannot be present at the library at night, she allows him to study there and eventually lets Shanbo sleep next to her. Another practice that puts her disguise in jeopardy is tying her feet at the ankles with a rope. At the beginning of the story, we could see that her parents insisted on this practice because Yingtai was not walking “like a lady”. She continues with this practice even in school, far away from her parents, and risking the revelation of her secret. Why she continues to practice this habit is un- clear but it shows that Yingtai is not thinking critically and blindly following the rules. Tsui depicts Zhu Yingtai not as a witty and clever character we know from the traditional narrative. In Ming Chin Tsai's version, Zhu Yingtai also puts herself in dangerous situations. In the school drama, she plays a role of a woman sacrificed to the River God. We do not know if the role was chosen or assigned but Yingtai is not protesting to portray this role. By this, she puts herself into a direct threat and exposes her true identity. In addition, the husband of a girl Yingtai plays is Liang Shanbo. In the scene, Yingtai goes off the script and kisses Shanbo. Their classmates are not disgusted by watching the two supposedly male classmates kiss. On the contrary, they cheer and demand a kiss from Yingtai. As expected, her reveal in the play made some of her classmates suspicious about her true gender, especially the antagonist Ma Wencai 马文才 who insists on find- ing the truth about Yingtai. Another case where Yingtai's real gender conflicts with her male impersonation are when she meets Shanbo for the first time. Her body betrays her and an evident blush shows on her face. Altenburger concludes that blushing is typically a gendered response, a sign of femininity. It is Yingtai's body that undermines her cross-dressed disguise (Altenburger, 2005, p. 191). Blushing is, indeed, a human reaction that is usually associated with the female gender. Even though Yingtai was in a role of a male scholar, she could not manage the natural, involuntary emotional response of her body. As Butler emphasizes, gender performativity is “neither free play nor theatrical self-presentation; nor it can be equated with performance” (1993, p. 95). Yingtai's blushing can be understood as a sexual desire towards the opposite sex. Yingtai being a girl, her sex, gender, and desire are maintained under a heterosexual binary and she confirms the gendered norms of

40 THE MODERN READING OF THE CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN MODERN ADAPTATIONS cultural intelligibility. Butler explains that ““intelligible” genders are those which in some sense institute and maintain relations of coherence and continuity among sex, gender, sexual practice, and desire” (quotes original) (1999, p. 23). But as a cross- dresser who is trying to imitate the opposite gender, she fails to meets the criteria of intelligible gender. In both adaptations, the spectator is constantly reminded, not only by Yingtai's feminine appearance but also by her thoughtless behaviour that Yingtai is a girl attempting to pass as a man. Reminding us that anyhow she tries to fool people around her, there is always something that gives away her secret. In both versions, hints, and situations where she almost unveils her secret eventually lead to the revelation on her own terms. Gradual tension and inevitable uncover of her cross-dressing serve as a justification of her romantic encounter with Liang Shanbo. Undermining and questioning Yingtai's male persona verify that the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is heterosexual. In Tsui's version, the role and depiction of cross-dressing are more prominent than in Tsai's. In Tsui's The Lovers, the idea to send Yingtai to study comes from her mother. She does not see a problem sending her daughter to an all-male school. When she was younger, she also attended school dressed in male clothes. The clothes that the mother gives to Yingtai are the very same clothes she went to study in. Her father and all the numerous staff from the Zhu family are aware of her cross-dressing and do not see anything transgressive in sending her to school. Her mother's own positive experience and recognition from other people make cross-dressing in the story tolerable. In Tsui's adaptation, it is clothes that, after all, reveal Yingtai's secret and confirm Liang Shanbo's suspicion. In the scene, Shanbo finds a piece of cloth that Yingtai has lost. At first, he does not know how and why Yingtai uses the garment. Later, while Shanbo caresses her back he feels the garment and realizes that it is used to flatten Yingtai's breasts to make her look like a boy. In the traditional narrative, the role and use of female garments are ignored or marginally mentioned. Fan Dai in her literary adaptation implements the issue of specific female garments into the plot. At one point, Ying- tai and Yinxin realize that they have to be careful when they will be washing and drying their female clothes (p. 48). Also, the issue of menstruation is ignored in most tales of cross-dressing heroines (Idema, 2010, p. xxxv).

3.4 Anxiety about Zhu Yingtaiʹs gender or Liang Shanboʹs sexual orientation?

In Tsui Hark's The Lovers, Yingtai's fear of being exposed is partly substituted by Shan- bo's fear of romantic emotions towards his male classmate Yingtai. Li (2003, p. 113) poses Tsui's The Lovers in opposition to Raymond To's version in sense of queering and unqeering the story. While in To's version, Liang Shanbo is a homosexual, in Tsui's

Šablona DP 3.2.2-ARTS-dipl-obor-anglicky (2021-04-29) © 2014, 2016, 2018–2021 Masarykova univerzita 41 THE MODERN READING OF THE CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN MODERN ADAPTATIONS adaptation Shanbo is afraid of his romantic feelings towards another man. In Tsai's animated version, the response and portrayal of Shanbo are similar to the opera film The Love Eterne. He is oblivious of Yingtai's comments and the hints at her identity and does not question his relationship with his classmate Yingtai as we can see in Tsui's version. To unqueer the Liang-Zhu story, Tsui Hark must acknowledge that there is some queer element to begin with. In an interview with director Stanley Kwan, who considers the story a part of Chinese queer culture, Tsui offers his view on the traditional narrative of the story. He thinks that if Liang Shanbo had some feelings for Zhu Yingtai, it was for the male-classmate-Yingtai, not the revealed-girl-Yingtai (Kwan, 1996, Yang ± Yin). Tsui admits that it was not easy to depict Liang Shanbo's emotions toward Ying- tai while in school. To reinforce the heterosexual reading of the story, Tsui explicitly denies the homosexual reading. Li points out that “the ideological structure of Tsui's film is built upon a reinforced binary opposition of homosexual and heterosexual” (2003, p. 129). Kwan (1996, Yang ± Yin) labels Tsui as a director who is most fascinated with cross-dressing and gender-bending, but his films always end by reaffirming heterosexual norms. In his adaptation, Tsui adopts a pair of opposite terms to name the contemporary notion of gay and straight. The words in opposition are xu 虚 (unreal/empty) and shi 实 (real/substantial)8. In the movie, Liang Shanbo explains these terms to Zhu Yingtai. He says that xu is not what a man is to a woman (bu xiang nanren dui nüren 不像男人对女人). Shanbo associates the term xu with their classmate Ting Wangchun 亭望春, a real gay character in the movie. Ting Wangchun has a visible crush on Liang Shanbo that makes Shanbo uncomfortable. Tsui's solution to demonstrate that Liang Shanbo, indeed, is not in love with the male Yingtai but the girl Yingtai was to let them consum- mate their heterosexual love soon after she reveals the truth to Shanbo. Li states that “the queer reading is by no means a far-fetched, over-interpretation of the Liang-Zhu story” (2003, p. 119). Tsui Hark's story with an explicit and physical demonstration of romantic love between Shanbo and Yingtai could be understood similarly. In both Tsui's and Tsai's adaptations, Liang Shanbo gets violently attacked which leads to his death. The biggest obstacle that stands between the love of Yingtai and Shanbo is not the arranged marriage or Yingtai's subversion of gender. In Tsui's version, Shanbo gets beaten by the staff of the Zhu family and in Tsai's animated version he is attacked by companions of the antagonist Ma Wencai. This violent tragic ending evokes empathy in the audience and explains why the (heterosexual) love between Shanbo and Yingtai could not succeed.

8 Translation of the terms in Li, 2003, p. 129.

42 THE MODERN READING OF THE CROSS-DRESSING IN LIANG SHANBO AND ZHU YINGTAI STORY IN MODERN ADAPTATIONS

3.5 Summary

The modern movie adaptations of the Liang-Zhu story focus on the romantic theme of the tale. Both Tsui's and Tsai's adaptations offer a space for exploration of romantic feelings between Zhu Yingtai and Liang Shanbo. The early revelation of Yingtai's identity to Shanbo while still in school confirms the heterosexual reading of the story. The deep emotional relationship formed between Shanbo and Yingtai in her male attire in a homosocial environment and Shanbo's joyful acceptance of Yingtai's reveal allow queer interpretations of the relationship between Shanbo and the cross-dressed Yingtai. In Tsui's The Lovers, the queer subtext is explicitly present when we see Shanbo question his feelings towards cross-dressed Yingtai. In Tsai's version, Shanbo does not question his feelings towards schoolmate Yingtai, he sees their relationship as a friendship. For Kwan (1996, Yang ± Yin), the Liang-Zhu story represents an important narrative of the gay community. The limitation to the homosexual interpretation of the story and erasing other queer possibilities arising from cross-dressing is criticized by Shuen (2011). Even though some modern adaptations attempt to depict the story in the queer spectrum, most of them fail, and as Li (2003, p. 112–113) notes the queer subtext is most present in opera versions with double cross-dressing. Tsui's and Tsai's versions focus to depict the story as a teenage romance. The main obstacle between Shanbo's and Yigtai's love is the social practice of arranged marriage. The unfortunate reality is exaggerated by a violent attack on Shanbo that leads to his death. Yingtai's cross-dressing is not seen as a violation of social norms. The spectator is constantly reminded that Yingtai is a woman. Her disguise is not believable and her reckless actions lead to her own revelation. Themes as education and equal rights, that could be found in traditional versions are minimal. In this modern movie adaptation, Yingtai's cross-dressing is a comic relief of the story that ends tragically.

Conclusion

As we can see from the analysis of the selected modern adaptations of the Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai story in this thesis, the modern versions may differ in the plot as in the portrayal and function of cross-dressing. These changes occur because the absence of a canonical version of the story gives the authors of the new adaptations space for their own interpretation. The cross-dressing in the story functions as an element that deter- mines the overall message and atmosphere of the tale. The story and the cross-dressing theme evolved and served to different ideas and social changes in history. The art form in which the adaptation is realized has also influence on the portray of cross-dressing. Zhang Henshui's Liang Shanbo yu Zhu Yingtai and Fan Dai's The Butterfly Lovers contain most episodes emerging from the historical development of the story. Zhang's adaptation published only four years after the implementation of the PRC's 1950 Mar- riage Law echoes the call for free marriage and love. Fan Dai's version adds a new feature where Shanbo actively fights for his love for Yingtai. The emphasis on the love theme and Yingtai's hunger for education achieved by cross-dressing is evident in both adaptations. The difference in the overall depiction of cross-dressing is that Zhang Henshui's is more stressful and Fan Dai's is rather playful. Another layer of cross-dressing and further gender play is present in the opera film The Love Eterne. Zhu Yingtai's cross-dressing is depicted as a fun experience light- ening the overall mood of the tragic story. Cross-dressing of the actress portraying Liang Shanbo on a theatrical level is considered a great artistic skill. This adaptation is the most popular version of the story. The art of cross-dressing became widely celebrated and respected in Chinese society even after many years of tradition to cast the role of Liang Shanbo by a male impersonator. The connotation of cross-dressing with subversion of gender that deviates from the heteronormativity and the increasing voice of queer minorities in China connects the Liang-Zhu story with the queer culture. With cross-dressing as the main reason, the explicit attempts of queering but also unqueering the story have emerged in recent years. The directors as Tsui and Tsai in their adaptations chose to deny any queer connotations and depict the story as a heterosexual teenage romance. The cross-dressing of Zhu Yingtai is hardly believable and the spectator is constantly reminded that under her disguise Yingtai is a girl. The comic and entertaining atmosphere of the two adaptations is linked to the dubious cross-dressing of Zhu Yingtai. It will be indeed interesting to see how the future adaptations of the story resolve the cross-dressing theme of the story which, as we can see, is influenced by the move- ments and socio-cultural atmosphere in the real life.

44 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bibliography

Primary sources

DAI, Fan. Butterfly lovers : a tale of the Chinese Romeo and Juliet. New Jersey : Homa & Sekey Books, 2000. ISBN 9780966542141.

Hudie meng: Liang Shanbo yu Zhu Yingtai 蝴蝶梦：梁山伯与祝英台 [The Butterfly Lovers], 2004. Directed by TSAI, Ming Chin 蔡明钦 [Film]. Produced by Central Motion Pictures, Taiwan. Available WWW: .

Liang Shanbo yu Zhu Yingtai 梁山伯与祝英台 [The Love Eterne], 1963. Directed by LI, Han Hsiang 李翰祥 [Film]. Produced by Run Run Shaw, Hong Kong. Available WWW: .

Liang Zhu 梁祝 [The Lovers], 1994. Directed by TSUI, Hark 徐文光 [Film]. Produced by Film Workshop Paragon Films Ltd, Hong Kong.

ZHANG, Henshui 张恨水. Liang Shanbo yu Zhu Yingtai 梁山伯与祝英台 [online]. Hong Kong : Wen Zhong Press, 1954. Available WWW: .

Secondary literature

ALTENBURGER, Roland. Is it clothes that make the man? Cross-dressing, gender, and sex in pre-twentieth-century Zhu Yingtai Lore. Asian Folklore Studies [online]. 2005, vol 64, n. 2 [cit. 2021-05-19], 164–205. Nagoya : Nanzan University. Availa- ble WWW: .

BJÖRKLUND, Jenny. Queer Readings/ Reading the Queer. Lambda Nordica [online]. 2018, vol. 21, n. 1-2 [cit. 2021-05-19], 7–15. Sweden : Lambda Nordica. Available WWW: .

BULLOUGH, Vern L. and BULLOUGH, Bonnie. Cross-dressing, Sex, and Gender. Univer- sity of Pennsylvania Press, 1993. ISBN 9780812214314.

BUTLER, Judith. Performative Acts and Gender Constitution : An Essay in Phenome- nology and Feminist Theory. Theatre Journal [online]. 1988, vol. 40, n. 4 [cit.

2021-05-19], 519–531. Baltiomore : The John Hopkins University Press. Available WWW: .

BUTLER, Judith. Bodies That Matter : On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York : Routledge, 1993. ISBN 9780415610155.

BUTLER, Judith. Gender Trouble : Tenth Anniversary Edition. New York : Routledge, 1999. ISBN 9780415924993.

CHOU, Hui-ling. Striking Their Own Poses : The history of Cross-Dressing on the Chi- nese stage. The Drama Review [online]. 1997, vol. 41, n. 2 [cit. 2021-28-04], 130– 152. Cambridge University Press. Available WWW: .

FENG, Menglong, YANG, Yuqin, and YANG, Shuhui. Stories Old and New : A Ming Dyn- asty Collection. Seattle : University of Washington Press, 2000. ISBN 9780295978437.

GUO, Li. Women's Tanci Fiction in Late Imperial and Early Twentieth-Century China. In- diana : Purdue University Press, 2015. ISBN 9781557537133.

HEROLDOVÁ, Helena. Čína – Země hedvábí : od starověku po současnost. Praha : Nakla- datelstí Lidové noviny, 2010. ISBN 9788074220289.

HUANG, Martin. Male Friendship in Ming China: An Introduction. Nan Nü – Men, Women and Gender in Early and Imperial China [online]. 2007, vol. 9, n. 1 [cit. 2021-05-19], 2–33. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Available WWW: .

HUANG, Wei and OLSON, Judith and OLSON, Gary. Camera angle affects dominance in video-mediated communication. Conference paper : CHI'02 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems [online]. Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, 20– 25 April 2002. [cit. 2021-05-19], 716–717. Association for Computing Machinera : New York, USA. Available WWW: .

IDEMA, Wilt L. The Butterfly Lovers : The Legend of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai: Four Versions with Related Texts. Cambridge : Hackett Publishing Company, 2010. ISBN 9781603841948.

IDEMA, Wilt L. Old Tales for New Times: Some Comments on the Cultural Translation of Chinas Four Great Folktales in the Twentieth Century. Taiwan Journal of East Asia Studies [online]. 2012, vol. 9, n. 1 [cit. 2021-03-28], 25–46. National Taiwan Normal University. Available WWW: .

46 BIBLIOGRAPHY

IDEMA, Wilt L. Metamorphosis of Tianxian Pei : Local Opera Under the revolution (1949-1956). Hong Kong : The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2015. ISBN 9789629965938.

JIANG, Jin. Women Playing Men : Yue Opera and Social Change in Twentieth-Century Shanghai. Seattle : University of Washington Press, 2009. ISBN 9780295988443.

LI, Siu Leung. Cross-dressing in Chinese Opera. Hong Kong : Hong Kong University Press, 2003. ISBN 9789622096035.

LIANG, Lia Wen-Chin. Revitalising the Liang-Zhu legend: Edward Lam Dance Thea- tre's postdramatic Art School Musical. Journal of Adaptation in Film and Perfor- mance [online]. 2014, vol. 13, n. 2 [cit. 2021-05-19], 135–148. Intellect. Available WWW: .

LOUIE, Kam. Theorising Chinese masculinity : Society and Gender in China. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 9780521119047.

LYMAN, Rick. Watching Movies with Ang Lee: Crouching Memory, Hidden Heart. The New York Times [online]. September 3, 2001 [cit. 2021-28-04]. Available WWW: .

MANN, Susan. Gender and Sexuality in Modern Chinese History. New York : Cambridge University Press, 2011. ISBN 9870521865142.

MANN, Susan. The Male Bond in Chinese History and Culture. The American Historical Review [online]. 2000, vol. 105, n. 5 [cit. 2021-05-19], 1600–1614. Oxford Univer- sity Press. Available WWW: .

SHUEN, Chan. Double-Dressing : Queer Performativity in Liang-Zhu's Cross-Dressing Theatre. National Taiwan Normal University, Department of English, Taipei, 2011. Master Thesis. Available WWW: .

SONG, Geng. Fragile Scholar: Power and Masculinity in Chinese Culture. Hong Kong : Hong Kong University Press, 2004. ISBN 9789622096202.

SOOKJA, Cho. Transforming Gender and Emotion : The Butterfly lovers Story in China and Korea. Ann Arbor : The University of Michigan Press, 2018. ISBN 9780472130634.

TAN, See-Kam. Huangmei Opera Films, Shaw Brothers, and Ling Bo: Chaste Love stories, Genderless Cross-dressers and Sexless Gender-plays?. Jump Cut: A Review of Contemporary Media [online]. 2007, no. 49 [cit. 2021-28-04]. Jump Cut Associates.

Available WWW: .

TEO, Stephen. The Opera Film in Chinese Cinema : Cultural Nationalism and Cine- matic Form. In ROJAS, C. and CHOW, E. (ed.). Oxford Handbook of Chinese Cinemas. Oxford University Press, 2013, 209–224. Available WWW. .

TIAN, Min. Male Dan : The Paradox of Sex, Acting, and Perception of Female Imper- sonation in Traditional Chinese Theatre. Asian Theatre Journal [online]. 2000, vol. 17, n. 1 [cit. 2021-28-04], 78–97. Honolulu : University of Hawai'i Press. Available WWW: .

VITIELLO, Giovanni. The Libertine's Friend : Homosexuality and Masculinity in Late Im- perial China. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 2011. ISBN 9780226857923.

WANG, Chun-Chi. Eternal Love for Love Eterne: The Discourse and Legacy of Love Eterne and the Lingbo Frenzy in Contemporary Queer Films in Taiwan. Art Stud- ies [online]. 2012, vol. 11 [cit. 2020-12-09], 169–237. National Central University Art Institute. Available WWW: .

WONG, Yin Lee. Women's Education in Traditional and Modern China. Women's history Review [online]. 1995, vol 4, n. 3 [cit. 2021-03-28], 345–367. Routledge. Available WWW: .

XU, Lanjun. The lure of sadness : the fever of Yueju and The Butterfly Lovers in the early PRC. Asian Theatre Journal [online]. 2016, vol 33, n. 1 [cit. 2021-03-28], 104–130. Honolulu : University of Hawai'i Press. Available WWW: .

XU, Lanjun. The Southern Film Corporation, Opera Films, and the PRC's Cultural Di- plomacy in Cold War Asia, 1950s and 1960s. Modern Chinese Literature and Cul- ture [online]. 2017, vol. 26, n. 1 [cit. 2021-04-28], 239-282. Foreign Language Publications. Available WWW: .

XUE, Keqiao, and YIU, Angela. Women Disguised as Men: Longing for the Past in Chi- nese Cinema. Review of Japanese Culture and Society [online]. 1996, vol. 8 [cit. 2021-03-28], 33-36. University of Hawai'i Press. Available WWW: .

48 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Yang ± Yin: Gender in Chinese Cinema [online]. Directed by KWAN, Stanley. British Film Institute : Hong Kong and United Kingdom, 1997. Available WWW: .

ZHU, Dake 朱大可. Liangzhu gushi nantongzhi de qinggan aige 梁祝故事–男同志的情感哀歌 [Liang-Zhu story – The Emotional Elegy of Gay Man]. Zhu Dake Blog, 2015 [online] [cit. 2021-05-19]. Available WWW: .