HISTORICAL COMMENTARY AND NOTES Shipbuilding at Bombay

R. K. Kochhar

The arrival of the Portuguese by sea in marine was meant to protect the coastal dated 23 June 1661, her dowry included 1498 introduced navy as a new para­ area, whereas the navy could cast its net 'the Port and Island of Bomhay in tttl: meter in the Indian geopolitical equa­ wider. It is said that at one time when East Indies, together with all the rights. tions, placing the Indian rulers at a Lord Nelson, 'the future victor of Nile profits, territories, and appurtenance~ disadvantage for all times to come. The and Trafalgar was in embarrassed thereof whatsoever'. The small island, Portuguese and the Dutch success in circumstances, he was a candidate for some eight miics long and three miles East Indies as brought home by the the appointment of the superintendent wide~ no doubt mattered little to the capture of their ships brought the of the Bombay marine,4. king of Portugal. But it enclosed a land­ British to the Indian shores in 1608. The The seaport of Surat was located some locked bay and its natural harbour could trade was extremely lucrative despite 12 miles to the west at a village called shelter a large fleet. When the news the risks. During the third voyage cloves Swally. The British repaired their old reached India, the Portuguese- circles in were purchased at Moluccas for £2948, ships here and in course of time started India were dismayed and immediately which on return to England fetched building new ones. Surat had a long pointed out the disadvantages of making £36,287. The first 11 years of trading tradition of shipbuilding and even the such a gi ft. An attempt was nlade to with East Indies- (including India) "gave Mughal emperors got their ships built purchase the island back from England, clear profits, seldom below one here. (Figure I shows a traditional boat but Charles II wanted such large sums hundred~ and often more than two that was used on the eastern waters.) 'that they reach to millions'. The island hundred, per cent, on the capital Once the British shifted from Surat to of Bombay was finally transferred to invested on the voyage'. The Portuguese Bombay~ shipbuilding activity was also England on 8 February 1665, without violently opposed the British presence transferred. The tirst Europeans to touch any trace of grace or pleasantness that in what they considered to be their own Bombay were the Portuguese who one normally associates with a bride's zone of influence. The British decided arrived at Mahim in 1509 and took over dowry. The king's govcrnor of Bombay to meet force with force and inflicted a the island in 1534. In 1538 (or 1541) soon discovered that the island cost crushing defeat on the Portuguese on Bombay was rented in perpetuity to more to govern than it yielded as sea in 1612. The chain of events that Garcia d 'Orta., a physician and professor revenue. By a charter datcd 23 March culminated in the 1757 battle of Plassey of Lisbon (and said to be a converted 1668, Charles II granted the port and in Bengal had its beginning in this sea Jew). He paid a yearly quit rent of about island of Bomhay to the East India skirmish. The naval prowess and the £85. In 1563 he wrote a book Company 'to be held to the said religious neutrality of the British greatly "Dialogues on simples and drugs' where Company... in perpetuity and in free impressed the Mughal emperors who he mentions the island under the names and common soccage at a fee farm rent though powerful on land like the of Bombaim and Mombaim. D'Orta of £ 1() payable on the 30th or elephant were helpless on sea which was lived in India from 1534 to 1572 September yearly at the Custom-house'. infested with European crocodiles. The (ref. 5). The island of Bombay was formally British were asked to contain the handed over to the east India company fanatically anti-MusliIn Portuguese, on 23 September 1668. who were particu larly severe on the Haj Bombay While opposing the inclusion of' pilgrims. In return the English mer­ Bombay in the dowry. the Portuguese chants received attractive business con­ While Portugal and Britain were viceroy of Goa f Antonio de Mellow de 7 cessions. (Another factor in favour of engaged in bitter rivalry in India, they Castro] had' written , 'I foresee that the British was the expertise of its entered into a royal marriage contract India will be lost the same day on which ships' doctors, which was made which had far reaching consequenceso. the English Nation is settled in available to the Mughal umra, that is The English king Charles II married Bombay.' These words were prophetic nobility.)2 princess Infanta Catherine of the House indeed. The British shifted their capital To protect its trade from the of Braganza of Portugal. According to from Surat to Bombay in 1686. The Portuguese and the pirates, the English the 11th article of the treaty of marriage, little island' became the naval fortress merchants at Surat locally established, from where Britain went ahead to build in 1613. east India company's marine. Table 1. The evolution of I ndian navy a vast overseas colonial empire. The small naval service consisted of 1612-1950 coastal boats. known as grabs and gallivats, on which were mounted two to 1613-1686 East India company's marine Dockyard six guns and which were manned by 1686-1830 Bombay marine Her majesty's Indian navy volunteers from the company's ships 1830-1863 Bombay h:ad taken to shipbuilding in 1863-1877 Bomqay marine who fought as well as traded. This the Portuguese time itself. In 1625 when 1877-1892 Her majesty's Indian marine service developed first into Bombay the English and the Dutch jointly raided 1892-1950 Royal Indian navy marine and finally into Indian navy3 Bombay they found two boats under 1950- Indian navy (see Table 1). Generally speaking, , constructi'On which they pron1ptly put to

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 66. NO. 12~ 25 JUNE 1994 965 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY AND 'NOTES

first dry dock to be built in India is still in use, now known as the upper old Bombay dock. Others were built in the following years. In the first phase of shipbuilding the emphasis had been on repairs and construction of coastal boats for protection. The things however soon changed. Increasing prosperity of the east India company meant building of bigger and larger number of ships in England. This and the marine rivalry in Europe resulted in large scale fell ing of oak trees in Britain. Accordingly in 1772 the company was prohibited from building any large ships. They were asked instead to either build their vessels in India or colonies or to charter vessels built there. Preservation of British oak forests was one rcason. >, • , ,

, ,',\ ' Superiority of teak over oak was '.' I" another. Oak contains lignic acid ·which corrodes and consumes the very metal Figure 1. 'Decca Pulwar', of 17 ton burden, used on the eastern branches and upper (iron) which is employed to unite and channels of the deltas of Ganga and Brahmaputra. The bottom of the boat resembles secure it in the various forms into wh.ich the immersed portion of the nautilus shell. 'These are well-built boats of hard wood, it is converted for the purposes of naval and use square sails.' (Henderson A., British Association for the Advancement of architecture'. In contrast teak "abounds Science Report for 1858, p. 272.) with oleaginous particles. the best and certain defence of iron from corrosion flames. As soon as Bombay passed into or Lowji's son and successor l\1aneckji by the action of the acid'. In addition "teak was not disposed to splinter to the the British hands~ repairs and Lowji. The surname Wadia was shipbuilding were started under the new not appended inofficial correspon­ same extent as oak' and thus "the eflcct auspices. The British repaired their dence.) of shot upon teak is Hu less dangerous than upon oak 10 merchant ships. In addition they built This was tl1~' lime when the British new ones to deal with the menace of were engaged 1n a bitter fight against piracy from Indian and foreign the piracy 01 ! Il~ Angrias, which lasted adventures as well as to meet the threat morc than -4( I )- cars from about 1707 to from their European competitors. There 1751. COnlld.l(;(; or Kanhojec [Kanha-ji] were problems~ though. The Portuguese Angria ,\ as a common seaman in obstructed the supply of timber~ and the Shivaji's neet, but rose to command a Mughal authorities did not permit good fleet of his own. •Animated by a lust for carpenters to leave Surat. Most of the plunder, there now flocked to his carpenters at Surat were Parsis. A letter standard numerous adventurers, includ­ from Bombay to Surat dated 10 January ing renegade Christians. mostly Dutch 1736 states that 'We have intention to and Portuguese, Arabs, Mussulmen and build a new grab but we are in want of a Negroes, a most daring and desperate good carpenter. We are told that there is band,0. (Note the selective use of the one in Surat named Lowjee. If he will adjective renegady.) Kanha-jee Angria , , ' come hither he shall have aJl fitting died in about 1731 and was suceeded by encouragement'. Lowjee Nusserwanjee his son Sambh~~ee. He was finally [Wadia] arrived in Bombay from Surat defeated by the British in 1751. During in March 1736~ accompanied by ten the period Bomba:v built a number of other carpenters. The salary demanded coastal boats apart from repairing by them was prelt: high. but the merchant ships. In 1745 two boats were Bombay governmCl)1 hoped that 'they made for the viceri,oy of Goa for usc would deserve it by their performance'. against his enelnies. This was done as (The hope was certainly fulfilled. the 'same will be th(~ means of keeping a Lowjee was designated master builder number of workmen lupon the Island and in 1740. The post remained with his be otherwise benefidal'. In' addition to descendants ti 11 1884 when the meeting its own f(~quirements on the Figure 2. Maneckji Lowji Wadia (1720- dockyard was transferred from the west coast, Bombay; also built ships for 92), the second master builder of Bombay government to the Indian Calcutta and Madra~~. Construction of a Bombay dockyards 1774-92 (picture governments. Figure 2 shows Lowjee dry dock was taken! up in 1749. This courtesy: Neville N. Wadia).

966 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 66. NO. 12, 25 JUNE 1994 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY AND NOTES

The shipbuilders in Britain were not implied that the case was brought to Britain was now an industrial nation, impressed by these arguments. Their trial not because of the illegality and captive India was the best thing main concern was loss of business. As a involved but because the judge of the happening to it. In the. year 1793, sop to them, the British parliament high court wished to embarrass the England sent out cotton goods worth ordered that the crew and the captain of Bombay governor (Sir 10hn Malcolm) £ 156 to India. In the year 1802 the Indian ships should be Englishmen. The and his brother. the navy superintendent figure was £27,876, while 10 years later British Indian government chipped in by (Sir Charles Malcolm). it had gone up to £ I O~.824. In 1813, the levying 150/0 duty on goods imported The court pronounced Hawkins guilty British parliament abolished the trade into India in India-built ships but only of slave trade and condemned him to 'be monopoly of the company. so that the half this amount on goods brought in transported to the east coast of New British manufacturers and traders were British-built ships. In addition, it was South Wales for the term of seven now free to enter the huge Indian stipulated that only British ships could years.' The sentence was however market. During the 16 years after 1813, import goods 'froin south and east of subverted. Hawkins was put in a navy the company's annual trade averaged the Cape of Good Hope'. ship with clear instructions that he be £ 1,882,718 whereas private trade was Ship-building industry in Bombay treated as an officer and a gentleman. three tin1es higher at £5,451.452 (ref. under the leadership of the Lowjee When the ship touched Madras, 18). (In 1833 the company ceased to be falnily now entered its golden agel I. The Hawkins and the ship commander "were a trader altogether. It became admini­ frigate 'Cornwallis' built for the com­ feted for three days by the community'. strator and ruler of India, deriving its pany in 1800 by Jamsetjee Bomanjee At Batavia [Jakarata], the conlmander dividend from the revenues from the was found to be so beautifully const­ decided with a straight face that his ship country. Control of India passed to the ructed and of such great strength, that it could not proceed to Sydney. It nlust be crown in 1858, and the company was was purchased by the admiralty. diverted to England to deliver some wound up in 1874.) J anlsetjee took a pri vate revenge for the important despatches that had accumu­ The merchants were keen to introduce racial insults that were the order of the lated at Batavia. In London. the presi­ steam navigation on three routes: on the day. On the kelson of this ship, he dent of the company obtained an placid north Indian rivers, in the opium­ carved the words 'this ship was built by interview with the king who pardoned tea trade with China, and for steam a d-d Black Fellow A.D. 1800'. Attent­ Hawkins and "graciously commanded communication between Calcutta and ion was drawn to this by Jamsetjee that he should appear at the next levee.' England. Early steam machinery was himself when the ship, renamed Ackbar "Commander Hawkins obeyed the royal rather daunting. It used coal voraciously by the admiralty. returned to the mandate, when His Majesty received and was extremely complex for easy 12 Bombay docks many years later • him with great kindness, and conversed maintenance. Merchants neither had the In 181 O~ Bombay built a 74 gun vessel with him.' Hawkins was paid his back capital nor the patience to see it through 'Minden' for the British navy. It was the wages as well as lawyer's fees and the developmen~al stages. The cOlnpany. first line of ship of the admiralty built reappointed to the command of his old no longer the monopolist it once was, had no intention of sinking its money outside UK 13. At about the same time "a ship "Clive'. He rose to become the into stearn for trade, but it had wars to similar vessel was subscribed by the superintendent of Indian navy. win. What saw the steam navigation inhabitants of Calcutta, built at Kidder­ through was the Burmese war 1824-26 pore .. and presented to the Admiralty,14. (refs 19, 20). The admiralty however was not impres­ Steam navigation Captain Charles James Collie sed and -did not oblige by placing a Davidson of Bengal engineers and son further order for a vessel of that size Although a patent had been obtained as of a Calcutta merchant brought an 8 HP with the Calcutta shipwrights' 15. early as 1736 (by Jonathan Hull) for engine with an iron boiler and meant for An 18 gun ship 'Clive' built at applying steam engines to propel ships, a river boat. It was the first steam BOlnbay in 1826 lends itself to a brief it was not till the steam engine was engine in India. It was left to rust till the mention of the prevalent slave trade and perfected by James Watt that steam company bought it in 1822 for use in a the patronage it received 16. Commander navigation could show signs of success. dredging boat. When the Burmese war. of the ship, 10hn Croft Hawkins, was The lead came from USA, which did not broke out it was converted into a pedal asked in 1830 "to proceed to the coast have roads but had large tree-lined boat and fitted out as a floating battery. of Africa and islands in its vicinity' and rivers. The first steam vessel that was a 'Though her speed was only 4 knots, "to adopt the best means of entering for practical success and remunerated its much benefit was derived from her in the service as many able-bodied lads as owners was a river boat 'Clermont' that the passage of troops over creeks and you can, in age from twelve to eighteen, in 1807 ran the 146 mile distance estuaries of that [Arakan] coast'. between New York city and Aibany. It free from all disease and bodily IncidentaIly~ the first steam-propelled infIrmity. and of that compact symmetry was almost immediately followed by the 7 vessel in India does not belong to the best calculated for seamen.' On his first sea-going vessell • In Britain steam realm of compulsions of history, but to return Hawkins was tried for slave navigation was established in 1817 with the romance of history, as exemplified trade. It became certain that there were a small 3.5 HP steam boat ~Comet' on by the idiosyncracies of a nawab. other secret instructions that were never river Clyde. The first regular sea-going Displaying a magpie like fascination for brought on record. Hawkins in fact did steamer, 'Bob Ray' ~ with a 30 HP not permit his lawyer to address the engine commenced operation in 1815 novelties and probably as a comme­ court lest the lawyer compromise for the between Glasgow and Belfast. In 18] 9~ moration of declaration of "inde­ sake of his client the navy super­ the British navy acquired its first pendence ~ from the titualar emperor of intendent or the government. It was steamer, named 'ComeC. Delhi~ nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider of

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27 the 1 tch north Indian state of Oudh performance was declared unsatisfactory steam communication with India by t. ,.. orrectly Avadh) got a river boat built by the mercantile community, because a the Red sea', asking at the same time for hin'l)elf at Calcutta, in 1819. It has splendid sailing ship could cover the that "the expenses may be materially un 8 HP butterfly engine which gave the same distance in 90 days. Steam reduced' . boat a ')peed of 7-8 miles an hour. The enth usiasts were disappointed but not Steam. navigation had far-reaching :)cat was a toy; when the governor­ the investors. On its arrival at Calcutta, consequences. First, Bombay became g~!l.:ral of India visited Lucknow. the 'Enterprize' was purchased by the gateway to India. It has continued since huat was decked up for inspection. (The government for £40.000. and sent to then as the business capital of India. nawab, who had a European wife, also Rangoon. It was put to use for towing Secondly, the Red sea and the Persian built a short-lived modern observatory ships between Calcutta and the newly gulf area was scientifically surveyed. at Lucknow. )21 Finally, all the countries en route lost acquired territories. 28 The economics of early steam It was not only Calcutta that was their independence . To provide "Hugh Lindsay' with fuel, the small island of navigation can be seen from Calcutta's interested in a steam link to England. Socotra, off the horn of Africa, was first steamer, 'Diana'. A member of the Bombay was interested even more. needed as a coaling station. Accordingly company's factory at Canton ordered a Monsoon winds made it easier for a it was taken over by the British in 1835. pair of 16 HP engines with a copper sailing ship to reach Calcutta than Soon, it was realized that Aden was a boiler and the whole frame with a view Bombay. Steam would give Bombay the better choice; it was taken by force in to getting a river steamer built for benefit of shorter distance to Europe. 1839. The only bottleneck in the Red service on the Canton river. UI1able to The Bombay governor, Mounstart sea route was the 10-day long arduous go ahead with his scheme, he reshipped Elphinstone, made 'a distinct official journey across Egypt. Suez canal was the whole thing to Calcutta and offered proposition' in 1823 to the court of dug in 1869. Ironically, it was dug with it to the government for Rs 65,000, directors for the establishment of steam which was however refused. A group of French capitaL even though the biggest communication between Bombay and beneficiaries were the British interests. 111erchants bought it and spent another England, via the Red sea. (In the pre­ Rs 10.000 to replace the original The first ship to pay the toll on the Suez Suez canal days this involved an canal was British. Egypt was added to oakwood frame with the sturdier one of overland journey across Egypt to reach teaK. The steamer was launched in 1823. the British colonial empire in 1882. the Mediterranean sea.) The proposal The next year. luckily for the owners, Introduction of steam navigation did was renewed in 1826, "but the Court the government bought it for Rs 80,000 not mean immediate end of sailing were unwilling to act upon the suggest­ for the Burmese war22. "Diana', unaffec­ ships. Early steamships were so ion'. Elphinstone's successor, Sir John ted by the south-west monsoons, was unprofitable that they had to depend on Malcolm, decided to go ahead on his the 'star of the war'. Called 'tire devil' government subsidies. The commercial own. A steamer was .Quilt at the Wadia by the Burmese, it easily brought about viability of steam came only when dockyard and ironically named "Hugh British victory which secured Assam engines were greatly improved and Lindsay' after the sceptical company and added the provinces of Arakan and ships were made of iron and then of 23 chairman. 'Hugh Lindsay' was a small steel. This effectively brought teak-ship Tenesserim to the Company's fold . ship of only 411 tonnes, with two 80 HP building at Bombay to a close, bringing The river steamers were no substitute engines. It left Bombay in March 1830 to an end a chapter in the colonial for steam link between Calcutta and on its experimental voyage of 3000 history. From 1736 to ] 884 .. the Wadias England, for which both the government miles, to Suez. It had to carry sufficient built a total of 334 vessels for a variety and merchants worked. A steam fund of coal to reach Aden., 1641 miles away. of owners: East India company, private Rs 69 ,903 was collected at Calcutta and Before ~Hugh Lindsay' left, a collier merchants. N izam of Hyderabad, Imam offered as a prize to anyone whose brig. laden with 600 tonnes of coal, was of Muscat, and the British navy. Out of steamship could make four consecutive dispatched so that coal could be stored these 334, 39 were either specitically voyages between Bengal and England at at Aden, liddah and Suez. 'Hugh built or subsequently acquired by the an average of 70 days per trip (via the Lindsay' itself carried as much coal as it British navy during the period 1777- cape of good hope). Towards this fund could, filling with coal more than two 1849. A frigate Trincomalee built in Rs 20,000 came from thl: !:!overnof­ thirds of the space meant for passengers. 1817 for the British navy is still afloat general, Rs 2,000 from th~ na\Vab of. The voyage was a spectacular success. under the name 'Foudroyant'. The Oudh~ and the rest from various The ship could reach Aden in 11 days Wadia vessels were put to a wide 24 businessmen of Calcutta . The inve­ under steam alone. The journey to Suez variety of use, from carrying coal to the stors in England made a gallant attempt took a total of 32 days consisting of 21 Bombay governor himself. For comple­ to rise to the occasion by building days of actual journey and 11 for teness it may be added that from 1885 to Britain's first sea-going ship propelled stoppages. 'Hugh Lindsay' made a total 1936 another 46 vessels were built at 25 29 by steam . Aptly named 'Enterprize', it of five voyages to Suez till 1833, all the Bombay dockyards . was a ship of 500 ton powered by two heavily subsidized. The average expense Britain owed its colonial empire to its 60 HP engines, with copper boilers of coal per voyage was Rs 46,250 while sea power. The Bombay dockyard under extending across the ship, and seven receipts from passengers and letters the Wadias was an important, though furnaces" each seven feet in length. avt?raged only Rs' 14,225 (ref. 26). small, contributor towards efficient and Carrying passengers and 30 tons of coal, Finally in 1834, the parliamentary low-cost maintenance of that power. .. Enterprize left England in August committee resolved that 'it is expedient 1825, and took as many as 1] 5 days' to that measures should be immediately 1. Low, C. R.,. History of the Indian Navy, reach Calcutta under steam and saiL The taken for the regular establishment of voL 1, 1877; see pp. 6, 12. [Gives 968 CURRENT SCIENCE~ VOL. 66, NO. 12,25 JUNE 1994 HISTORICAL COMMENTARY AND NOTES

a detailed account of events 1613- when iron was replacing teak as the Historical Records of the Survey of 1863.] material for building ships, a India, 1945, vol. 1, p. 394. 2. A ship's doctor [Gabriel Boughton] conservator of forests [Dr Alexander 15. Ref. 3, p. 212. visited Shah lahan's court at Agra in Gibson] was appointed at Bombay. 16. Ref. I, p. 505. 1645 and later served as a surgeon to 12. Ref. 3, p. 191. 17. Since Robert Fulton, the owner of the emperor's son Shah Shuja who was 13. The national anthem of USA, • star­ ·Clermont'. had obtained the exclusive the viceroy of Bengal. Then in 1716, the spangled banner') was composed by right of navigating the waters of the company's embassy to Delhi included a Francis Kay on board the 'Minden~ state of New York, John Cox Stevens surgeon [William Hamilton] who cured when it was in Baltimore. Ref. 3~ boldly conveyed his ship from New the emperor of a painful disease that p.20S. York city to Delaware by sea. had delayed his marriage. In both cases, 14. This was 'Hastings'. the 74 gun, Samuelson, Martin, Q. J. Sci., 1864, 1, medical services were reciprocated with solitary, line-of-war ship built at 239. handsome gifts and trading concessions. Kidderpore near Calcutta in 1818. The 18. Dutt, Romesh, The Economic History of See Crawford, D. G., A History of the dockyard was established in 1780 by India, 1906, 2nd edn, vol. 1, pp. IS3, Indian Medical Service, 1914, vol. 1, Henry Watson (1737-86) of Bengal 209. pp.51,113. engineers, on a piece of land obtained as 19. Ref. I, pp. 520-S32~ Ref. 3, eh. 12. 3. Wadia, R. A., The Bombay Dockyard a grant from the government. In 1781 he 20. Headrick, D. R., The Tools of Empire, and the Wadia Master Builders, launched the 36 gun frigate 'Nonsuch'. Oxford Univ. Press, 1981, eh. 1. Bombay, 1957 (Reprint 1983), 2nd edn, In 1788 he launched another frigate, the 21. Kochhar, R. K., Vistas in Astronomy, see p. 20. 'Surprize', of 32 guns.

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