Vol. 13, No. 1 April 19

Notes from the Editor: Wrts on CLnrent Field Wor . Contri tions for the Support of the MA& Resw?h Council ...... 2 Research Notes Research in East Kalbntan on Interactions between People and Forests: A Preliminary Report .... 3 Why Lb Apo Kayan Shifting Cultivators Pbve? ...... Timthy C. Jessup 16 Some Consonantal knmd Changes in the Kadazan Dia- lects of the Pmaqmg, Papar, and Beaufort Dis- tricts of , Mdlaysia .....Inka Pekkimen 33 Brief hnmmications 47

News and Amouncenents News Book Reviews, Abstracts, and Bibliography Colin N. Crisswell: Rajah Charles Bmoke: Mmarch of All He Surveyed (R. H. W. Reece) ...... 59 Luuim. D. M.. W. Chin, and E. R. Dingley, eds.: - - fibalu: sumit of Borneo ...... Nababan, P. W. J. : Languages of ..... Nicolaisen. Joharmes: Penan Death-names ...... Nqwndoh. R.: Gawai Mpijog Rantau Festival . Rousseau, Jercme: Kayan Stratification ...... Rubenstein, Carol: The Honey Tree Song: Poem, Chants, and Epics of Day& ...... S~3l-l ict: e Pelian Bejereki: Iban Rite of Expectant Mther .-,--,-. Szi&yQ Fen?! an ... earner. Clifford: Iban Folk Mycology ...... Bibli

mB meo &search Bulletin is published twice yearly (Apri and S the Borneo .- eptanber) by Research Council. Please address all hquiries and contributions for publication to Vinson H. Sudive, Jr., Editor, Romeo Research Bulletin, Dep artment 0f AnChropolom. College of William v-TzTinb burg, vir- Single issues are available at IS$ 2 NOTES m THE EDITOR

Reports on current field mkdominate tkis issue, and are encouraging. During the late 1970s there was a decline in proportion of such reports, and an increase in the proportion of contributions based upon work completed a year or meprior to publication, analyses of literary sources, or discussions of issues addressed in earlier volumes. Lest these remarks be misunderstood or misconstrued as ungracious, let me hasten to note that the change was inwitable and, perhaps, even desir- able. For a variety of reasons there was a mnaller nmber of researchers in the field, and we had an opportunity to reflect upon and consolidate hypotheses and conclusions. Publication of one's mterials after leaving the field is usual. Eteviw and reinterpretation of one's materials are iqortant. And analyses and syntheses of published mterials, as well as exchanges based upon differences of opinions, are essential aspects of scholarship. We are indebted to those scblars wbenhanced the Bulletin and enriched its readers throughout the 1970s. Volune 13 seems auspicious in the r*rmber of reports treating current and continuing research. In addition to mterials appearing here, we have received articles by Carol J. Pierce Colfer, Andreas Wssing, and Joseph Weinstock for the next issue. We invite prompt suMssion of field reports, and encourage the contribution of types of mterials. We had intended to publish a "List of Fellows" in this issue, but have decided to delay it until September in order to accormPdate the research reports which appear hde. Ox gratitude is expressed to the following persons who have made financial contributions for the support of the Bulletin: E. K. Adams, &tin bier, Ian Baillie, kth Carol Bames and RFcmFidler, Paul Beavitt, Stanley Bedlington, E. J. H. Corner, Barbara Harrisson, Stephanie Wrgan, Christine Padoch, Ifor B. Powell, &. and &s. Paul Sack, William Scimeider, Richard Shutler, Barbara B. Smith, Orville Smith, John Sutter, Carol and Jams Warren, Peter Weldon, and William Wilder. THE BORNEO RESEARCH COUNCIL

The Borneo Research Council was founded in 1968 and its hership consists of Fellows, an internatid group of scholars vho are professionally engaged in research in Borneo. The goals of the Council are (1) to promte scientFfic research in Borneo; (2) to permit the research cdty,inte- rested Borneo government departments and others to keep abreast of ongoing research and its results; (3) to serve as a vehicle for drmhg attention to urgent research problems; (4) to coordinate the flow of infation on Borneo research arising from mmy diverse sources; (5) to disseninate rapidly the initial results of research acvitity; and (6) to facilitate research by reporting on ment conditions. The functions (continued on p. 6 The third main location was the vicinity of East Kalirmntan's beaning capital city of . Initial work here, consisting of recomissance RESEARCH NOTES trips and surveys by me and students of Wawannan University, began in October 1979. A supplerent from the U.S. Agency for International Develop- ment to the original U.S. Forest Service project grant enabled four Indonesian hwecology trainees, Drs . Syamuni Anmn (Tanjung Pura Wver- RESEARCH IN EAST KAZ.= ON I~GI?O~BFIWEEN sity, ) , Ir. M. Brotokusm (Mulaw- Uhiversity , Samarinda) , PEOPLE AND FORESTS: A PFEL'IEENARY REPORT Dr. G. M. Hatta (Mung Mangkurat University, Banjarbaru) , and Drs . A. Sahur (Hasanuddin Lhiversity , Ujmg Pandang) , to begin intensive research in the Samarinda vicinity in March and April of 1980 for approxhtely five-month periods. A fifth Indonesian hmecology trainee, Dra. Mini Andrew P. Vayda M. Sangat (Herbarium Bogoriense, Bogor), joined the Ap Kayan research team Cook College, Rutgers University fur elevm weeks beginning in May 1980. In addition to the investigators at these locations, another hrican investigator, Nancy Lee Peluso (fomly at Gadjah Mada Universiv, Because of the rapidity with'which social and ecological changes are ! Yogyakarta), was engaged in research from October 1979 to July 1980 in l occurring in East (Daroesman 1979, Kartawinata et al. 1978). selected forest, village, and urban locations where the so-called minor it has become urgent to make forest management in the province mre forest products are collected or traded and along the riverine and land effective and to canbine it with development that benefits the people trade routes by which they are transported. As a senior research associate who live in or by the forest and use it. Policymakers atterrpting to of the project, Dr. Kuswata Kartawinata (head, Herbariun Bogoriense) visited achieve these objectives have been handicapped by the lack of infom- all of the research locations and held consultations with all investigators. tion on existing uses of forests by people in . The As project director, I myself made several visits to the locations from my U.S.-Indonesian ElAB (Man and Biosphere progrd project on "Interactions , base in Samarinda and frequently exchanged letters with the mre remtely between People and Forests in East Kalimantan, " supported by funds hrom located investigators regarding their research. Face-to-face consultations the U. S. Forest Service and the U .S . Agency for International Develop- between me and the investigators in the Samarinda vicinity were easier to ment and administered by the Envirmnt and Policy Institute of the arrange and occurred one or more tims per week. Much of my tirre was East-West Center, was intended to provide such informtion. More devoted to administrative aspects of the project. specifically, research undertaken in the project was intended to show: (1) the range of people's forest-related hmledge; (2) their repertoire Given the limited time and £unds available in the project, the rapidity and of forest-related activities; (3) the variety of situations in which uniquity of change in East Kalimultan, and the lack of previous wrk to decisions to engage in those activities or to change them are made; build on, the investigators did not concentrate on obtaining findings as a and (4) the environmental and socioeconcmic effects that the activities result of highly regorous and quantitative studies. Instead they resorted have. mainly to ad hoc combinations of qualitative and quantitative methods to discwer and analyze irrportant processes and system that are operating in Wee main locations mechosen for the research because of the East Kalimantan (cf. Hill 1970; -preface and Ch-s 1980 on that the latter opportunities they afford for studying significant variations in shift- calls "quick-and-clean" methods of rural research) . The project is, hawever, ing cultivation and other forest-related activities and in the conditions providing a foundation for mre specialized and rigorous studies. A pro- mder wtlich they are practiced. The two locations to which two hrican posal for such studies in the Qo Kayan has already been submitted (Vayda investigators, Tinvthy C. Jessup (Graduate Program in Ecology, Rutgers with Jessup 1980) . biversity) and Dr. Carol J. P. Colfer (University of Hawaii at Moa), and one Indonesian investigatur, Drs. Herwasono Soedjito (Herbariun Wlike sam other hman ecologists (e.g., Boyden 1979), the investigators Bogoriense, Bogor), wre deployed in September and October of 1979 are: also did not undertake to observe and describe comprehensively the lives (1) the rmte interior plateau called the Apo Kayan, which is the home and interacths of the people studied. Instead, they concentrated their of nearly ten thousand living in comrmnities, attention on particular activities that affect or can affect the forest possessing a wealth of forest-related knawledge, and practicing an and on the causes and effects of those activities. apparently stable, long- fallcw, forest-maintaining form of ; and (2) the luwland area, where settlements of The approaches used by the investigators have already served to produce so= migrants from the Apo Kayan were established prior to the post-1967 findings inportant for development planning. Thus the work in the Apo man timber boan and whese the subsequent granting of timber concessions has has shom tkt, contrary to assmptions prevailing amxlg East Kalhmntsn led to further changes in the physical and socioeconcmic conditions to I developmt planners, the Dayak people there, rather than uniformly being Aich migrants are adapting. Soedjito ended his field work in July 1980 dangerously nomadic destroyers of the forest, vary in theh mbility from and Colfer ended hers in Septder of that year, but Jessup is remining time to time and fram village group to village group and make rmst of their in the field in the Apo Kayan until at least 1981. I ladanss (swiddms) in previously fadsites left in fallq lang enough The research in Sai Barang and elsewhere in the Apo Kayan is continuing. for forest regeneration. The work in the Telen River lowland area has Anmng the findings important for the follow-up investigations that have shom that, contrary to govement hopes and expectations, land use by been proposed (Vayda with Jessup 1980) are these: (1) As already noted, sane Dayak shifting cultivators "resettled with the aid of government most ladanqs are made in secondary forest; this is true even where subsidies is not less but mre extensive than in the Apo Kayan halands primvy forest is easily accessible, as in the case of recently established (where chainsaws and outboard mtors are not readily available) and does villages. (2) hof the secondary forest now being used for shifting mre damage to the forest. cultivation was first cleared (converted from primry forest) as long as a century ago, perhaps even earlier. (3) Although some prirrary forest is 'Ihe mrk in the Samarinda vicinity has shthat felling logged over still being cleared, the rate of abandonment of old secondary forest (as forests--the completion of a process of forest des,truction begun by the the result of enrigration fran the Apo Kayan) is greater than the rate of timber companies--is not always by such poor, subsistence-oriented, land- clearing in primary forest; therefore the extent and average age of hmgry farmers as have been called "shifting cultivators by necessity" secondary forest have been increasing. (4) The landscape in the vicinity in other parts of the mrld (Wattas 1971); often it is by city-based of such villages as Sai Barang from which there has been substantial merchants, govenrment anployees, and professional people seeing investment migration in recent years includes a zone of active shifting cultivation opportunities and by conmercially oriented interisland migrants such as extending no mre than about five kiluwters from the village and a larger, the Bugis pepper-famrs, seeking not mere subsistence but rather wealth medistant area canposed of parches of secondary forest varying in age enough to be able to advance themselves socially by such means as making from ten to mre than 100 years. the pilgrimage to kcca. And the work on the trade in minor forest products has sbm that, contrary to recmdations often made, benefits to the Landscape exhibiting this pattern are now rare in Kalirnantan or, for that collectors cannot be readily increased at the expense of the traders. matter, anywhere in the tropics because such factors as population increase and the advent of tiher companies, cmrcial plantations and ranches, and Som details about research activities and findings at the various locations peasant migrants have led elsewhere to a rapid re-conversion of any avail- and som stggestim of the significance of the findings follow. able secondary forest patches, either by the indigenous shifting cultivators or by othas (Myers 1980). 'Ihe Sai Barang pattern, however, is representa- I. The Apo Kayan. Research in the Apo Kayan was concentrated in the tive of conditions which were mecm in tropical forests in the past Kenyah Dayak village of Long Sungai Barang (Sai Barang) and its hilly and which have certainly been an important factor in the distribution and environs, a msaic of prirrary forests, secondary forests of different ages, strucutre of myso-called "primary" forest ecosystem (Fosberg 1960; ladangs, and sett~emtareas occurring on soils ranging frm podzols and Hartshorn 1980; Padoch and Vayda in press). The Sai Barang area is there- latosols to andosols and mre complex muntain soils. The populatim was fore of theoretical interest for the study of ecosystem or landscape develop- close to 2,500 in the 1960gs, but migrations to the lowlands, mainly for ment in tropical forests, as well as having practical significance for the the sake of better access to trade goods such as salt, kerosene, and steel design of conservation areas or reserves within which primary forest species tools, have reduced it to a present size of about 370. can recolonize secondary forest patches while a diversity of habitats to which different species are adapted is maintained (cf. Foster 1980, Gilbert Jessup's work in Sai Barang consisted of infonml interviews, visits to 1980, Pickett and Thcmpson 1978). village households and rice fields, and day trips accompanying m and men to their present ladangs, old fields, secondary forest (or "old old" With respect to the design of reserves and the planning of tropical forest fields), and primary forest, as well as systematic collection of census mmgewnt systems, it is notmrthy also that the investigations of the infomation, tire allocation data, and land use histories extending back history of shifting cultivation, migrations and changing population to the first occupation of Sai Barang by the present Ma1Tukung village- densities in the Apo Kayan (Jessup 1981) have revealed dynamic adjusants group forty years ago. His work was cqlgnented by that of Soedjito, who to changing environmental, social, and economic pressures on the part of systematically sampled and collected specirrens from ladangs, orchards, and the who live in--or have lived in--that isolated region. There forests in Sai Barang in order to detennine their structure and species has been a great diversity of mbility patterns within and between village composition. He and Sangat also recorded the people's use of plants for groups and between different historical periods over the last two centuries. tools and utensils, for medicine (some 40 different species used), for food Some groups, in sane periods, have moved as frequently as once every six to (at least 142 different plants, including 67 wild species), for handicrafts ten years, while others have lived in the same village for 150 years. (43 wild species), and for building houses and bridges. A nunber of Villages have split, and the "daughter" villages have, in some cases, gone apparently new species, including several species of domestic fruit trees, their separate ways, to Sarawak or daA7 the ; sane have were discovered by the investigators. Before our project, the only botanical rejoined with people from the parent village; still other groups join collecting from the area had been done by the Eemenhuis expedition of 1900 people from a separate village group, even other ethnic groups. (Stemis-Krusenan 1950; Kartawinata et al. 1981b). Moreover, migrations vary in size and speed as well as in frequency: in the 18th century thousands of Kenyahs entered the Apo Kayan from the north- west, as thousands of Kayans were leaving in virtually all directions. Between 1965 and 1975, thousands of Kenyahs migrated to the Mahakam as a necessity for their wll-being, and sm Long Segar Dayaks have River and the lmer Kayan; others wed across the border to Sarawak. wen sold the handsaws, harmers, measuring tapes, and nails provided But all through the 19th century village groups mved. The reasons for by Respen for house-building and have applied the sale maring are, like the resultant migration patterns, diverse (Jessup 1981). proceeds tavards the purchase of chainsaws and outboard rotors. (For Internal social and ecological processes have played a part -- cornpeti- more details of the adoptions and rejections noted in this paragraph, tion for land, warfare, status rivalries, and the mintenance of kinship see Colfer et al. 1980; on the concept of the 'kse rejector," see ties, for example -- as have external influences and perturbations, such Helleiner 1975:49. ) as the institution of a Dutch colonial achinistratim in the early 20th century, the Second World War, and, mst recently, the oil and timber Beneficial as the exercise of economic rationality has been for raising bocms of the 1970s. Given the diversity and fluidity of land use and the people's standard of living, it cannot be said to have been unfail- settlanent patterns in the Apo Kayan dming the last tm hundred years, ingly good for the forest. The familiar conflict between what is it is perhaps remarkable that one of the first hpressians an ecologist ecologically desirable in the long run and what is economically desir- receives on visiting the area is the apparent stability of the "forest- able in the short =--a conflict largely absent fram the Apo Kayan-- farming" ewsystan (Kartawinata et al. 1978, 1981b) -- or, if not stability, does obtain in Long Segar. The "ecological wisdom" of the Kenyahs in at least a form of dynamic hamy between people and their forest environ- the Apo Kayan apparently gets lost in Long Segar's new technological and ment. cmercial enviromt. The people have been cutting prhry forest rapidly to make ladangs. Apparently because of poor soil and also The corhinatim of this inpression of hanrrxly or stability and the because of being able to market surplus rice (for which the markets are evidence of dynamic adjustments by the Kenyahs suggests that viable lacking in the isolated Apo Kayan) , the people have made these ladangs tropical forest mnagement system need not be formulated in static mch larger than those in the Apo Kayan. And, with the passage of years terms, nor wen on the basis of carefully programned changes, but rather since the first settlemnt of bng Segar in 1964, they have had to go can give scope to the kind of flexible and adaptable hc~nanbehavior which farther and farther from their village to find suitable prirrary forest we are finding in the Ap Kayan. for the ladanqs, This extensive rode of land use has been facilitated by labor-saving machinery, inclvding the chainsaws and outboard mtors. 11. Se ar This Telen River lowland cmityof sm 1,000 "reset tled" A main ladan9 area cleared and planted in 1979 measures approxhtely KenYa%h om the Apo Kayan is located on an alluvial plain in 300 hectares and is 5 or 6 Ian. upriver from Long Segar. Reversion of Kecamatan MaWahau. Participant observation of forest-related activit ies such vast fields to forest is likely to be difficult and there is ws Colfer's minwork here, supplemented by infod interviews, ladanq accordingly a danger that the Long Segar shifting cultivators, unlike measuremnts, and the systanatic collection of census data, land use the sanethws mliged Apo Kayan ones, are turning extensive areas of histories, and data on thallocation, diet, and health and on genera- forest into unproductive erata grasslands. Indeed Soedjito fomd tional differences in forest-related concepts. For a month, comparable mainly grasses, climbers,% and ems and not myseedlings of woody data were collected by her in Long Anpung, the Apo Kayan village whence species in areas where the Long Segar people had recently made large rost of the Long Segar Kenyahs had migrated. To facilitate making Ap? ladangs. When primary forest is no longer readily accessible to the Kayan-Tden River comparisons, Soedj ito joined Colfer for two rmths m people (and this condition my develop soon if current government plans Long Segar to conduct studies similar to those pursued by him in the Ap to establish plantations just north of Long Segar and to mve thousands Kayan. of Javanese transmigrants into the area are realized), increased cutting I of young secondary forest for Jadanss in Long Segar and subsequent In our original research proposal and in an already published description further land degradation will bece likely. of the project (Vayda et dl. 1980), three models of the economic behavior of rural and tribal people were set forth, and the research in Long Segar 111. The Samarinda Vicinity. Initial reconnaissance trips and surveys has borne out the appropriateness of the third model, anphasizing economic in the Smarinda vicinity involved looking for the forest-converting rationality and continuing responsiveness of changing circmtances, rather "shifting cultivators by necessity" previously referred to and hoping than the other two models, emphasizing traditionalism and stagnancy. The to find them in cumunities of poor farmers such as recent migrants from Long Segar people have been quick to adopt chainsaws, outboard mtors, and the island of Buton (Butung), which is near southeastern . Our other new tools and techniques that could benefit them economically, both preliminary investigatims showed that most of these famers were using in ladang-making and in free-hlce ~~dcuttingfor rraking balok (bm) for hilly land that other people had converted from forest decades earlier. sale. They have also fomd ways to undertake experbts with new crops From this land, the fmrswere obtaining rather poor yields of cassava, like cloves and pepper re11 before the govwmrx~tresettlement agency pineapples, and other crops--for sale in nearby city markets and for (Respen) provided seeds or seedlings. At the same time, the people have consunption by their own households whose mders often included urban bem "wise rejectors" of minds requiring daily care and other proffered laborers. With the realization that these farmers had only weak inter- bmovations that would have interfered with their attending to necessary actions with the forest, attention shifted to unlicensed woodcutters. tasks in the annual romd connected with swidden agriculture. They have pepper-farming Bugis migrants, city-based owners of forest land, and tended also to reject Respen's emphasis on 'hPdeml' single-family houses other subjects with palpable impacts on the forest. Four of the Indonesian trainees who joined the project concentrated their research on these subjects. Impacts of Bugis pepper-fams on East Kalimantan forest can be clearly Among the activities studied by Hatta and Arn-an in the Sminda vicinity seen fran the major Samarinda- road, which had been under con- was modcutting as a ccxnnercial operation by people other than timber struction for mre than a decade and was finally opened to the public concessionaires. Smenviromtal damage results of course from this in 1976. Along about twenty-five kilaneters of this road is the Loa also. The woodcutting that was observed is, hmever, much less mechanized than either illegal timber operations els&ere (e.g., in Janan subdistrict, forest previously selectively logged by timber by companies has been converted to pepper plantations by Bugis migrants as reported by Sacerdoti 1979b) or the logging performed the appro^- both fran elsewhere in East Kalimantan and from the homelands of the mately 100 timber concessionaires operating at present in East Kalirnantan. Bugis people in . Smof these migrants had arrived in Along the Samarinda-Balikpapan road, between fifty and sixty unlicensed Help in getting settled and modcutting teams were at work in 1980, each equipped with a chainsaw and the 1960's. but mst came in the 1970's. two obtaining land was provided to later arrivals by kin and friends ranang each consisting of a chainsaw operatar and his assistant and men to In 1980 Sahur found 770 Bugis households with transport the sawn planks or bearrrs frcm the cutting site to the roadside. the earlier settlers. ar pepper plantations in Loa Janan, and he estirrates that 1,170 hectares This transporting was either by carrying on hum shoulders by skidding of logged over forest have been cleared for these plantations. The land with a water buffalo. Transport of the d fram the roadside to sdlls use strategy of these pepper farmers is essentially that of Bugis migrants was by trucks. Financing and provisioning of the woodcutting teams was by to other frontier areas of Indonesia. By this strategy, forest is cleared entrepreneurs of "bosses" in cammities with samills. These bosses had £run land which is then planted with rice or other annual food crops £ram recruited the chainsaw-operators, who then, generally on the basis of kin- which the farmers subsist until the perennial camnercial crop that they ship. had recruited other members of the team. Both bosses and mkers have also planted is ready to be harvested; after the perenriial crop has were ethnically Banjarese. begun to yield, the land is no langer used for food staples. (On this strategy among Bugis coconut-growers in Smatra's coastal swamplands, see &st of these unlicensed operations were in forests that had been selectively Lineton 1975; chap. G and Vayda 1980; interviews that Sahur and I con- logged by timber companies within the last few years. Having been assigned M4B projects in East Kalhmtan (Kmtawinata et al. 1981a), direct ducted in April 1980 in Sulawesi indicated the sane strategy to be operat- to other ing amng Bugis clove-grovers in that island's frontier areas.) And like investigations of the effects of mchanized logging were not part of om the Bugis rural migrants elsewhernose along the Smrinda-Balikpapan project. Hatta therefore used findings from other studies to compare the road had gone there not in a desperate quest for sheer subsistace but forest damge resulting fwm mechanized logging with the damge he found in rather in the expectation of having better opporhmities away from hcme a one-hectare sqle area that had been subjected recently to unlicensed to advance thenselves socially as well as econanically. Sahur found that cutting by Banjarese tans but not to mechanized logging by timber companies. Only 25% of the standing trees were damaged in Hatta's sample plot, but seventy of them had already become ha ji . about 5CR were damaged in mchanized logging areas (Kartawinata 1978, 1980). Like the Kenyah Dayaks of Long Segar, the Bugis pepper-farmers act rational- If only crmn andlor branch damage are considered, the figures are 1Pk and ly to achieve their goals. In doing so, however, they, again like the Long 41% for the sample plot and mechanized logging areas (Abdulhadi et al., Segar people, engage in sane practices that are envir~tallydamaging. in press) respectively. As for gaps in the forest, these could hardly be in the sample plot, whereas about of mechanically logged areas 'Ihese include the clean-weeding of the pepper plantations for the approxi- seen 30"/. is made bare by skid trails, haul roads, and logyards (Kartawinata 1978, 1980) . mately ten years before decline in yields causes their abandmt. Cb ' fertilizers are used, and erosion and loss of soil fertility can be such In areas so disturbed, the desirable dyspecies that can grow are few and their rate of recolonization is generally slow (Kartawinata 1978, 1979). that sane sites of former pepper plantations become alanq alanq cylindrica) grasslands and sane others are no good for rrany The canpacting of soils by tractors and other heavy machinery constitutes any econanically useful plants other than a few fruit trees. further envirorment.1 drnrage where the timber companies operate (Hamzah 1978). It need mt, however, be inferred from such observations that Bugis pepper farmers will be responsible for widespread enviromtal degradation in Woodcutting teams similar to those along the Sarnarinda-Balikpapan road were working along the road fKm to Wars Badak, a coastal town East Kalimantan, fur Sahur 's research suggests that Bugis migrants will Sannrinda increasingly mve in other directions than to East Kalimntan's pepper- 20 lan. north of the muth of the Mahakm River. Arm estktes that the mmher of teams in this area in 1980 was no less than 100, each with a growing areas in the caning years because of declines in pepper prices, chainsaw and each capable producing half a cubic meter of mod per day. increases in clove prices, and the opening of new frontiers suitable for of The research nevertheless h,like Brotokusm, had originally chosen as his research topic the clove-growing in Central Sulawesi and elsewhere. processes whereby land cleared for agricultural use from logged over is significant for development planning in East Kalimntan insofar as it forest is acquired by urban entrepreneurs and speculators. Reference to shows that Bugis migrations and land-opening are well organized processes the operation of these processes in East Kalirrrantan has been nnde elsewhere whereby lands along new roads can quickly get at least temporarily settled (Vayda et al. 1980), and some data concerning than were collected. As, (and environmental damage can result) if comnercial crops can profitably be however, the research progressed, it was foud that many of the city-based grown there. Plans, such as are currently being made in East Kalimantan, for new roads and for conserving forests along such roads clearly need to entrepreneurs, including merchants and govenment employees, were interested take the processes into account. less in profit from land speculation and absentee land mership than in fran 'Ihis focus While warning against mking such people as were the subjects in our profit cutting and selling the timber on the land. project the scapegoats for deforestation, we must note also that what rakes sense from a short-term profit--zing standpoint insofar as the Jacobs (1980: 3428) h reproachfully described as "claims mde on poor soils of mst of the forest lands in the Sminda vicinity, like nature in the name of the poor people" cannot be readily applied to our soils elsewhere in Borneo, can support herbaceous agriculturf only for subjects. Unlike forest-des troying fanrers elsewhere, the subjects are short periods. As one tropical forest ecologist has noted, 'no sustain- much not desperately poor people--not "rootless, landless people ...squeezed able low-input alternative crop has yet been devised for of the land fran their hanelands by unequal land tenure or population growth (and) MDF (Mixed Dipterocarp forest) has previously occupied" (Ashton 1980; cf. Jacobs 1979). It nlay be that many farest-felling entrepreneurs struggling to m4e what living they can amidst &-liar &ologi&l-' conditions". . (Eckholm 1979: 18; cf, Ewe1 1978; Raven 1981: 30) . When recognize this, even if many agricultural development planners do not. our subjects engaged in activities causing environmntal dge, it has, In order to facilitate access to land fromwhich tir&er could be cut. as a rule, because those activities seemed mre profitable than any per- city-based entrepreneurs have even becm members of the so-called Fmr ceived alternatives and not because no other means of gaining subsistence Groups (~elompok~ani) and Village Cooperative Units (Koperasi Unit ~esa) for themselves and their families were available. which the gavernnent has been encouraging for the purpose of rural develop- ment. Along the Sminda-ma Badak road these groups were found to the Taking a more positive view of these activites, we my note a role for have obtained permits from govmt to convert forest land to agricul- sane of then in case the predicted taming of the Indonesian timber tural use and then to have concentrated on getting tinher from the land. Sane areas frcm which forest was felled by the groups were mch larger industry's "cowboy mntality" (Sacerdoti 1979a) actually occurs. If pricing qwtas, pressures for increased domes tic processing, and generally than the areas planted--or apparently ever intended to be planted--by them. stricter'enforcment of the forestry agreements between concessionaires Rural residents amng Arman's informants stated that woodcutting rather than farming was what kept them in the countryside. Conformably it was what and the government reduce timber production and drive out some companies, attracted urbanites there. the kind of woodcutting that Hatta and Arman studied may be cdined with reforestation methods to have a legitimate place in conh-ibuting to supplies It is important to maintain perspective on the research findings in the for dmestic markets and for doing so in a way that brings sow economic Samarinda vicinity. The pepper farmers and modcutting team that were benefit to people in rural areas, makes use of their already demnstrated organizational and technological capabilities, and is considerably less studied have undeniably contributed to environmental damage in East damaging Kalimantan. But they have contributed relatively little, partly because to the forest than are the mechanized operations of timber the scale of their operations has been dlcompared to that of the thber companies. ccmpanies which have logged some 2.5 million hectares of East Kalk~~tan IV. forest since the beginning of the tiher boom in the late 1960's. bst The trade in minor fores t products. How important minor forest pro- ducts can be~~for agro-forestry development in East Kalimantan will of the companies profess to use the "Inbesian selective logging systan," depend not only on factors in the forest &d in the camnmities -of the--- which is intended to combine forest exploitation wiCh conservation; it is, but however, generally achowledged that the specifications of the systan primary collectors also on the availability and nature of channels regarding the minimm size of trees to be cut and the nunber, spacing, and through which the products can be mved and marketed. Peluso studied size class of residual trees to be left standing as core trees have rarely these &annels for nine mnths The products whose trade she laoked at been heeded in practice (Kartarwinata 1978; Sastrapradja et al. 1980). bre- mst closely are cmrcial varieties of , resins, edible birds over, even if the rules had been followed, it is not clear that eey muld nests, aloe wood (qaharu, obtained in the ADO bvm frnm Anlril aria have served to mintain forests without significant "genetic eroslon" and species), Borneo ironwood (din or and valuable smaller cmdities species loss (discussed in Kartawinata et al. 1981a) , for, as Ashton (1980) - from--- notes, no sound ecological basis for any selection system has yet been research featured the collection of statistical data trading established. Indeed Ashton's data and argments lead to the conclusion canpanies and stores and government offices, participant observation in that "a selection systan will rarely be successful in MDF, with the the course of trading trips and collecting expenditions and interviews possible exception of parts of the Philippi2es where there are claimed with current and former river traders, urban buyers and exporters, forest to be major differences in stand structure. A hther point is that both collectors, village shopkeepers, trade-boat and taxi-boat operators, the pepper farmers admodcutting teams studied in our project did mst of pilots, priests, and goverment officials. Various fom of their forest felling in logged over forest in the wake of the tinber the basic trading system, camprising forest collectors at one end, urban companies. The fact that such felling scmetimes completes the destruction buyers at the other, and vruying types and nwnbers of middlm in between, of forest should not be allowed to obscure the role of the timber companies were recorded. The conclusion tentatively reached is that the system does in the process. A graphic statanmt of this point has been mde by -1 maintain an effective balance between the credit needs of collectors I (1978): "To say that deforestation results from the action of the peasant living far frcm capital-holding buyers of forest products, varying environ- fanners is analogous to,,saying that the vulture which struck the lethal blow mtal mtraints on supplies, and the fluctuations in world danand for killed the dying horse. various forest products. I ' Peluso was attentive to her research also to destructive and inefficient rights to certain valuable forest produce) have been eliminated, policies collecting and marketing activities , e .g . , harvesting birds ' nests before of harvesting as mch as one can from a resource before scxnebody else canpletion of the hatching cycle and, in the case of rattan, cutting canes gets to it gain ground inevitably. An important but often ignored impli- too close to the shoots, haxvesting imnature canes, and unsufficiently cation of such findings is that education and propaganda will be insufficient drying the rattan before bdling or shipping it. Historical research to change people's behavior. Sane way will have to be found to institute stggests that difficulties in controlling the quantities and quality of effective new controls in place of the lapsed traditional ones or sane the products harvested have recently increased as a result of the overall concrete and profitable alternative sources of income will have to be expansion of the trade netmrks. The following surmary is fram a report offered to those who are now acting destructively. by Peluso (1980) : Acknowledgments. For their help and cooperation, I thank the institutions During the explosion of general eccnanic prosperity at the time and individuals mentioned in the first four paragraphs of this report. of banjir kap (the name for practices which were ccrrmon at the Parts of the section on the Apo Kayan are dram from a proposal prepared beginning of the tMer boom in the late 1960's and early 1970's jointly by Ththy Jessup and me (~aydawith Jessup 1980). and involved manually felling trees near the rivers and then floating the logs down), clever entrepreneurs had built boats or Bibliography: Abdulhadi, R., K. Kartawinata, and S. Sukardjo, in press. shops wfiich they retained after the general trade in logs was "Effects of Mechanized Lagging in Lowland Dipterocarp Forest in Lempake, restricted to tinher companies approved by the central govern- East Kalimantan," in Proceed' s of the International Worki Group on mt. Dipterocarpaceae. Second Roun?Tmen~e. Kuala Lwp:. Ashton, I P. S., 1980, "Tne Biological and Ecological Basis for the Utilisation of Since that tine, some of these relatively new entrepreneurs have Dipterocarps," Bio-Indonesia, Vol. 7, in press. Boyden, Stephen, 1979, limited their business activities to the sale of trade goods and An Integrative Ecological Approach to the Study of Hunan Settlements, MAB foodstuffs; others have participated in the trade in minor forest TBchnical Notes 12, Paris : UNESCO. Chambers,,,Robert, 1980, "Understanding products only when the prices for certain products have been Professionals: Small Farmers and Scientists, UTE Occasional Paper, New partidarly high; still others have taken on the trade in minor York: International Agricultural Develomt Service. Colfer. Carol J. P.. forest products as a regular occupation. The competition at all Herwasono Soedjito, and Albar Azier, 1980, "On Resettl-t fr& the Bottcnn' stages of trade has thus increased sharply and is even mre Up," in Proceedings, National Resettlemnt Workshop, Sarnarinda. April 1980, pronounced when the urban prices of forest products rise sigpifi- , in press. Daroestmn, Ru , " Economic Survey o East cantly. At such tb,the nunber of part-time river middlemen Kalhmtan, 'I Bulletin of InQnesiz Ei;dkc%udies 15(3) :43-82! Eckholrn, looking for lucrative deals also increases. Collectors gain mre Erik, 1979, Planting for the Future: Forestry for Hunan Needs, Worldwatch pak~lr Views s~h- bargaining in that there are mre potential buyers of their Paper 26, Wash-ton: Worldwatch Institute. Ewel. Jack.. 1918., -- forest products, but they do not make the best of this situation mitted to State 6eparbnent-AI~Strategy ~onference'onTropical Deforesta- by trying to improve the quality of their products. Rather, tion, June 12-14, 1978, Washington, D.C. Mimeographed. Fosberg, F. R., hming that saneone will buy, they offer large quantities 1960, "Nature and Detection of Plant Cammities Resultim from Activities instead of high quality. Formerly, regular traders could of Early Em,'' in UNESCO Symposiun on the Impact of Man o: HddTropics enforce greater quality control over contractors with whom Ve etation, Goroka, Territor o Nm Guinea, pp. - ' Foster, Ro in B., they had credit ties. In addition, there seened to be mre 1980, "Heterogeneity and DisYmgance in Tropical ~~e~:~on."in Consb-- mtual respect among the traders in certain locales in tion Biology: An Evolutionary-Ecolo ical Perspective, M. E. Soule'and B. regard to territorial rights--the rights to forest products A. Wilcox, eds., Sunderland. Mass.: ginauer. Gilbert, Lawrence E.. 1980. collected by particular contractors and other debtors. How- "Food Web Organization and the Consenration of ~eotro~icalDiversi&." in wa, control is becaming increasingly difficult as part- Conservation Biology: An Evolutimaq-Ecological perspective, M. E .' ~oule' A. thor new entrepreneurs offer, for example, to pay cash ..-and B. -. Wilcox, eds., Smderland, Mass.: Sinauer, Hamah , Zoefri, 1978, for wet or dry rattan of any quality in order to break into "Sane Observaticns on the Effects of Mechanical Logging on Regeneration,

the market. Regular traders subsequently accept low- Soil and Hydrolo~icalConditions in East Kalimantan." in koceedines- - - of- - the-..- quality forest products to protect their relationships with. -ing in ~o;theas~Asia(~I'OIROP and their investments in, their contractors. pecla Pu icatlon I%. , R.S. uparto et al., eds. , Bogor: BIOTROP, pp. 73-87. Hartshom, Gary S., 1980, "Neotropical Forest Dynandcs," Biotropica Here again, short-term econanic considerations are apparently being put 12, supplmt, pp. 23-30. Helleiner, Gerald K. , 1975, "Smallholder Decision ahead of long-term ecological ones. Peluso, like the other imrestigatars, Making: Tropical African Evidence," in Agriculture in Developnent 'Iheory. fdthat her subjects typically acted in what they considered to be L. G. Reynolds, ed., New Haven: Yale lh?versity Press, pp. 27-52. Hill, their best interests . The problem is not one of ignorance. Collectors Polly, 1970. Studies in Rural Capitalism in West Africa, Canbridge: whose harvesting methods are destructive how, for example, the regeneration Cambridg; University Press. Jacobs, Marius, 19/9, "ATea for S.E. Asia's cycles of the varieties of rattan growing in their locales and the repro- Forests , Habitat, August , pp . 8- 12. , 1980, "Vanishing Species : ductive cycles of the swiftlets whose nests are taken. The fact is that Things Rung Between Man and Nature," Flora Malesiana Bulletin, No. 33, pp. the people's resource-destroying behavior brings quick profit to them and, since traditional controls wer these resources (such as the sultan's -16-

3427-3431. Jessup, Ththy C. , 1981, ''Why b Apo Kayan Shift% Culti- WHY DO APO KAYAN SHIFTING CULTIVATORS MOVE? vators We? A Preliminary Report," Borneo Research Bulletin 13: 1, pp. 16- 32. Kartawinata. Kuswata. 1978. "Biological Changes atter Logging in Irrw- iand ~i~tem~'~orest,".inproceedings of the Symposim on the Long-Term Timothy C. Jessup Effects of Lo ' in (BI~PSpecial Publication No. Rutgers University Ecology program1 POTRDP,pp. 27-34. "An- - - 17~ervic.w- .- .- - .. of- - the--. - -tal- - - - Chsecjuences of Tree Rarwal hXnll the Forest in Indonesia," in Biological and-~ociologicalBasis for a Rational Use of Forest Resources for berm and Organics: An Internatid Workshap, Introduction S.G. Boyce, ed., Asheville, N.C.: Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, U.S. ~epktnmtof Agriculture, pp. 129-140. , 1980, 'East One of the purposes of our research project on "Interactions between mimantan: A Comnent ," Bulletin of Indonesian 'Jkonomic Studies 16 :3) : 120- People and Forests in East Kalhtan" (Vayda et al. 1980)2 is to 123. Kartawinata. Kuswata. Andrew P. Vayda, and R. Sdms Wirahmmh, provide useful infomtion for developnent planners, including those 1978, "East ~alimktanand.the Man and ~iosphereProgram," Borneo Research involved with resettlment programs, about forest-related activities Bulletin lO(1) :28-40. Kartawinata, Kuswata, Soenartono Adisomto, of shifting cultivators in different parts of the pmince. In this Soedarsono Riswan , and Andrew P. Vayda, 1981a, 'RmInpact on the bland paper I will report on some observations I have made of shifting Dipterocarp Forest in East mimantan, Indonesia," &, in press. cultivation in the Apo Kayan, a remte interior plateau near East Kartawinata, Kuswata, Andrew P. Vayda, Tirrothy C. Jessup, ~TUIR. Sambas Kalhtan's border with Sarawak. I beliwe the question posed in the Wire.1981b, "F'engenbmgan Cagar Biosfer sebagai fiternatif title of this report is an important one for resettlement planners to Pernbangunan di Apo Kayan" (The Establisherit of a Biosphere Reserve as a consider because it focuses attention on the relationship between a Developnent Alternative in the Apo Kayan), Berita Ilmu Penget- dan critical (and mch criticized) aspect of land use - "shifting" from Tekmlo i, Vol. 25, in press. Lineton, Jacque he, , In esian one field to another - and migration or resettlement on a larger scale, dandIts miverse: A Study of the Buui:of Sd%'2-szCelebes) £ran one residence to another, a process which resettlenent planners and Their Role within a Wider Social and Econdc Systan, Unpublished Ph.D. in Indonesia ard elsewhere are interested in controlling. The question dissertation, Scbol of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. of "wing" also leads to a consideration of travel on a temporary Myers, Nom, 1980, Conversion of Tro ical mist Forests, Washington: basis for purposes of trade and qloyment, and the effects of such National Acadmy of Sciences. Padoch,P%istine, and Andrew P. Vq&, in travel on mre permanent migrations. press, "Patterns of Resource Use and Hunm Settlanent in Tropical Forests," in Structure and Wction of Tropical Forests, F. B. Golley and H. Lieth, The approach we have used in our research has been to start by identi- eds. , Elsevier Series on Ecosystws of the Warld. Peluso, Nancy Lee, 1980, fying particular hu~nactivities which affect or can affect the forest, E'rogress Report on "Trade in Minor Forest Products Sub-project," typescript. and *en to try to understand those activities through attention not Pickett, S. T. S., and John N. Thpsan, 1978, "Patch Dynamics and the only to the goals, knmledge, and resources which actors have, but also Design of Nature Reserves," Biological Conservation 1:: 27-37. Rsven, Peter H, to the situations or contexts in which they act. The situations are 1981, 'Tropical Rain Forest: G o onsl ~ty.Natural Histo 90(2) : not, hwever, defined at the start; rather, by tracing the relevant 28-32. Sacercioci, w, 1979: rkEe2.t &aLssmtem influences and effects of an activity outward, away fran the actors Econanic Review, Novembe~30, pp. 63-66. , 1979b, 'Where Timber and their imnediate enviromt, we are able to discover which factors is Booty," Far Eastern Econdc Review, November 30, pp. 64-65. Sastrapradja, are significant for our understanding of the activity and its impact on Setiati, Soenartono Adisoemarto, Kuswata Kartawinata, and R. C. Tazumingkeng, the forest, and which can be left out of the analysis. 1980, "The Conservation of Forest AnImdl and Plant Genetic Resources," Bio-Indonesia, Vol. 7, in press. Stemis-Krusanan, M. J. van, 1950, Note in Theoretical confusions Flora Mdlesiana l(1) :385-386. Vayda, Andrew P. , 1980, "Buginese Colonization of 's Coastal Swamplands and Its Significance for Developrmt Pla, The shifting of cultivation frcm one field to another is ~t~scon- in Proce - s of the Jakarta Works on Coastal Resources %ma anent. fused with wing residences or settlecents - that is, a pattern of land E. C. F. B=d rilani Soegiarto ,?s. , To , WedNations &iversity, use on a local scale is confused with migration on a broader scale of pp . 80-87. Vay&y Andrew P. , with Timothy C?Jessup, 1980, ''Shifting time and space. Hill called the fomr pattern "recurrent cultivation," Odtivation and Patch Dynemics in an Upland Forest in East Kalimantan, a system which involves "individual farmrs returning to cultivate their Indonesia," Research proposal submitted to the "Consortim for the Study of portions of land after fallow" (1970:15). Recurrent cultivation (which Mm's Relationship with the Global Emiromt," typescript. Vayda, Andrew P. I shall still refer to as "shifting cultivation"), as it is practiced in mytraditional, "farest fanning" systems, chines a ocmplex cropping Carol J . E'ierce Colfer , and Pbhamd Brotokusm3, 1980. "Interactions between People and Forests in East Kalktan," Impact of Science on Society 30:179- system with sustained yield magemnt of secondary and primary forest 190. Watters, R. F., 1971, Shift- Cultivation in Latin America, F%O resources (Coklin 1954, Nye and Greenland 1960, Clarke 1976, Q-andstaff Forestry Develomt Paper No6, Rrxne:FAO. 1978, Xunstadter et at. 1978). But there is also a more sophisticated confusion - about the causes of ming fields and camnmities. Many shifting cultivators (including those in the Apo Kayan) mefrom one field to another every few years, and they also mve their residences at longer intervals. The "sophis- ticated confusion" canes frcm a widely held among anthropolo- gists, geographers, and others that these tw kinds of mving have saw TRADE ROUTES necessary, causal relationship. Specifically, migrations are supposed I fi to be population responses, either to envirmntal degradation brought FROM THE APO KAYAN TO about by shifting cultivation (e.g., decreasing soil fertility and crop SARAWAK AND EAST KALIMANTAN productivity, increasing scarcity of prkry forest), or to an increase in population beyond the size that can be supported by the shifting cultivation system. (The latter response - to population increase - is similar to the first because it is supposed to avoid environmental degradation by relieving population pressure on resources.) SOU T H CHI N A Authors who have characterized shifting cultivation as a destructive form of agriculture that inevitably degrades the envimmt (see SEA reviews in Conklin 1954, Grandstaff 1978) and those who believe that shifting cultivaticm in its traditional forms can function as part of a stable, productive forest ecosystm (e-g., Conklin 1954, Rappaport 1968, Clarke 1976) share two basic assuptions. The first asswption is that shifting fields (Hill's "recurrent cultivation") and migration have similar fmctions or purposes, that is, to mintain or restore a balance between pcople's need for fccd and the environment's capacity to produce it (the environment, in this case, being the whole forest-fanning sys- tem, not necessarily fixed in one place). The semd assmption is that the behavior of shifting cultivators, and the cultural contexts in which they act, are unchanging, or only slowly and gradually evolving. A corollary of this second assunption (for those who believe in the stability of traditio~lsystans) is that both local and long-term stability have broken down when traditional shifting cultivators have come in contact with "civilization" - or a cash econcnny - because the people have been unable to adapt to the new conditions.

These assmptions underlie views as disparate as Freeman's, of the Baleh lbans in Sara&, and Rappaport's, of the Tsgnbaga Maring in Papua New ,/'CENTRAL Guinea. Freeman (1970) saw the Ibans as inveterate destroyers of prhmry forest who must keep roving because they cannot (or will not) \, KALIMANTAN MACAS SAR cultivate secondary forest. Rappaprt (1968) suggested that Maring warfare, territorial conquest, and migrations are part of a ritually STRAIT regulated system which maintains a balance between populations of people and pigs on the one hand, and their enviromnt on the other. Although Freenan's characterization of the Ibans as destructive pioneers sm diametrically oppsed to Rappapork's idea of a self-regulating, con- servative ecosystem, both depend on the notion that changes in the availability or quality of agricultural resources (1) are of prim inportance in "triggering" expansion or migration and (2) m about as SEA - I predictable consequences of the shifting cultivation practices (cf. LEGEND: Vayda 1976) . Furthermore, the behavior of the shifting cultivators in question is seen by both Frem and Rappaport as fixed, in one repeti- W River Route tious pattern or the other, ad the ability of the people themselves to ...... Troll adaptively change those patterns is denied. Trading City or Town

220 hlm State Boundary I I 5' --- Regional Boundary The assqtion that shifting cultivators mve only in response to popu- Vayda 1980, Vayda et al. 1980) refute the armt that shifting culti- lation pressure or enviromtal changes is contradicted by my observa- vators cannot adjust to new enviromntal and econcmic conditions, or tions in the Apo Kayan, as well as by studies in other parts of Borneo that they avoid and resist change. (Miles 1976, Vayda et al. 1980) and elsewhere (see review in Padoch and Vayda 1980). The evidence points to a diversity of causes of, or rea- Reasons for nu* sons for, migration; many of these causes are unrelated to food pro- duction, or to maintaining an equilibriun between population and environ- A decline in the yield of successive harvests is the mst ccmwn reason mnt. The idea that an equilibriun must be mintained in order for a given in the literature of shifting cultivation for the abandonment (or population or ecosystem to survive (persist) is, in fact, misleading. mving) of fields. Watters (1971:37) points out the diversity of factors Of course it is usually easier to survive in a well balanced, predict- underlying the decline, which my include loss of soil fertility, able envirommt, but even a tropical rain forest is, in the long run, increased weed ccqetition, increased depredation by pests, or accele- an unstable place - as is indicated by recent archaeological and paleo- rated erosion. He goes on to say (p. 49): ecological research (Brown 1979, Fledey 1978, Harrison and Tbmer 1978). People who are swcessN in circmtances they bow well during The rapidity of forest regeneration and of week invasion in the a period of envirmental stability are (by definition) well adapted - hmid tropics is . . . obvious, and given the buildup of hums under for a time - but to survive a period of instability it is not enough-to the forest fallow and the choking of weeds, shifting cultivation have been ada ted in the old envirmt. People must be ada table, 1.e.. is a rational response to these natural conditions. able to re&o new problem and opportunities (Vayda a-1977. 1978). Whimre (1975:229-30), reviewing the literature on shifting cultivation, cites the following causes of decline in yield: The second assunption mentioned above - that traditional shifting culti- vators are essentially unchanging, and that they cannot adjust to the . . .deterioration of the nutrient status of the soil (due partly to problems and opportunities of a "modern" cash econany - is cast in changes in its microflora and fa-), erosion of the top-soil, doubt by ethnographic and historical evidence. For ample, Padoch deterioration of the physical condition of the soil, multiplication (1978) tested kern's (1970) hypothesis that -the Ibans ' cultivation of pests and diseases, and increase of weeds. ... It now seem that sys ten would fail if they could not nuve into new areas of primary weed invasion is the min reason why a famz abandons his fields. forest. Padoch compared Ibans who were pioneering in primary forest with Ibans who had not moved in many years, and who had little or no (See reviews of causes of shifting fields, Clarke and access to primary forest. She found that the people in ccmmmities where ing yeilds, in Sanchez 1976.) primary forest was scarce adjusted their land use practices to utilize the secondary forest more effectively. Furth-re, in cummities According to shifting cultivators I have intenrimed in the Apo Kayan where opportunities to anigrate were limited, population growth rates the situation there is sawhat diffaent (perhaps in part because of were lower, and the people's involvemmt in non-agricultural economic the high altitude - about 800 mters - and the presence of relatively activities was greater. young, volcanic soils in the area; BarmeLen 1970:329). They say that if fields are made in old secondary forest or prhxy forest their rice , Brawn (1979) presents historical and ethnographic data on land use, popu- yields can be higher in the second year of cultivation than in the first. lation distributions, migration, and trade in the highlands This is supported by data on rice yields (as reported by farmers) from sbhg that Chimbu shifting cultivators have repeatedly adpated to first, second, and third year fields during the last 40 years (see envirmental and social chmges, rather than raining in the kind of Table 1, pg. 32). Driessen et al. 1976 report an increase in rice equilibriun proposed by Rappaport (1968). People who, less than 50 yields in the second year of shifting cultivation fran an area of years ago, were using a stone-age technology, and who have only recently podzolic soil in .) Some farmers in the Ape Kayan cane in contact with a cash econq, were nevertheless able to take had an explanatim for this increase. They attributed it to the decay advantage of opportunities to raise and sell cash crops in areas where of atup, a mat-like layer of fine roots which covers the soil in prirrary roads have been built. In the case of Sunatra and Kalimantan, shifting and old secondary forest. During the first year of cultivation the cultivators have been growing cash crops for mre than 50 years, and atup inpedes the grawth of rice seedlings (they say), but by the second they produce a significant portion of Indonesia's rubber and clove year it has decomposed, thus adding to the organic matter in the soil exports (Pelzer 1978). (Xlr research in East Kalimantan reveals that as well as allaving easy patration of the soil by the roots of rice Kayah shifting cultivators who have recently wed fran the Apo Kayan plants. As rice yields increase, so do the nunber and vigor ofweeds, to lowland areas have adapted their economic activities in response to and consequently so does the time required for weeding. To escape the new opportunities (e.g. , a market for surplus rice and forest products) weeds a fmmves to (makes) another field. and nw technology (chahaws , outboard rotors, rice mills) (Colfer n. d. , Vayda et al. 1980). These and other studies (see reviews in Padoch and Another inportant part of the situation in which an Apo Kayan farmer Secondary forest is rme than just fallow vegetation. 'Tallow" implies 1 decides to meor stay in a field is the intentions expressed by that the land is out of use between periods of cultivation, but old 1 other people; i.e. , people do not act alone. People must coordinate fields and secondary forest (older fields) provide habitats for many 1 their activities in order to make their fields together, adjacent to plant and animal species used by people (Conklin 1958. ktadter 1978). . me another. A group of fields is less vulnerable to ankls from the Scme of these species are rare or absent in prirrary forest (Whibncrre surmunding forest than is an isolated field because the perimeter 1975:228). In the Apo Kayan old fields are sources of food - including The fields are all planted meor cultivated fruit trees as well as wild plants and anirrals - clothing, I which must be guarded is smaller. less sinultaneously so that the crops will ripen at the same time - if fuel, and building materials (Soedj ito n.d.) . I a field is planted too early or too late it will ripen out of phase with other fields and will attract mre than its share of pests. I By ming their fields every fw years, shifting cultivators repeatedly i (Seasonality of rainfall is also a critical factor in the choice of renew the process of ecological succession in different parts of the planting times.) Although cooperation is inportant, fams can landscape so that at any one time there is a diverse "patchwork" of naJ usually choose which group of people they will cooperate with. This fields, old fields, secondary and primary forest, as well as of various allows sum extra fledbility, since in a given year it rray be possible gardens and orchards near the villages. Old fields are unstable - they to move (or stay) with one group, to join another group, or to make two soon return to secondaxy forest - but as long as new fields are being or mefields with different groups. mde the "supply" of useful plants and animals living in old fields will be maintained. LaFd3. use rights are smtixe~inwlved in the selection of field sites, but this is not always the case. Dove (1978) reported that Melaban Not only do shifting cultivators reuse old fields which they have made, Kantu' shifting cultivators in West Kalhmtan adopted household land but they also mve into areas of secondary forest made by 0th- shift- use rights soon after Iban settled near their territory. Che reason ing cultivators before than (see Vayda 1961). Whittier (1973:24) used for adopting the new system seem to have been to establish claims to genealogies and oral histories to date the entry of the Kenyahs (the Dove ancestors of the present inhabitants) between 1820 and 1850, about the I land - claims which the Ibw and the government would recognize. noted that although secondary forest had been preferred for cultiva- same time as the emigration of the Kayans from the Apo Kayan to other tion, people began clearing more primary forest in order to establish parts of Borneo (cf. Rousseau 1977). The Kenyahs paid the departing rights to land near the borders of their territory. In the Apo Kayan, Kayans for the rights to their land wittier 1972:28), which inplies people in sane villages recognize hereditary rights to secondary that they were buying the rights to secondary forest rnade by the Kayans, forest (descending from the first person to clear the primary forest) in accordance with the land use rights systgn still practiced by some but in other villages these rights, though mderstood, are not now in Kmyahs . use. In the village of Long Nawang, where good land near the village is relatively scarce, households have (and claim) rights to clear Sane Kenyah village groups have rraved from one tributary of the Kayan i certain fields wittier 1973:62). In Long Smgai Barang and Long River to another, while others have left the Apo Kayan (see Whittier Uro' , hver, there is plenty of good land and hereditary rights, 1972:28ff). The inhabitants of Long Smgai Barang, where I have where they exist, are not usually claimed; the first household to mark collected land use histories, moved there from the next river valley a patch of forest in a particular year is entitled to clear it. Another to the north (the Jdang) about 40 years ago. What is interesting reason land use rights are less inportant in hgSmgai Barang (in about that me, in the context of this discussion, is that between the comparison with Long Nawang) is that much of the land nm cultivated time of the Kayans ' departure and the arrival of the present inhabi- there was first cleared by manbers of another village, and the rights tants (the UM' Tukmg) at Long Sungai Barang, three other Kenyah are held in camnon by the village as a whole (see below). People groups had come and gone. In fact, the ha' Tukmg arrived before there told me that they have used the system of land use rights in the the last of those three goups (the Lepo' Ben) had finished mving past, in different circunstances, which suggests that it is a "cultural from their village on the nearby Danun River. The Una' Tbkmg bought precedent" which can be used or discarded in different situations (cf. the rights to Lepo' Barn secondary forest, as well as acquiring sm Bennett 1976, Vayda et al. 1980: 186) . older secondary forest made by an earlier group (the Lepo' Tirnai I Kenyah). They also continued to use fields in secondary forest they I Prjmary forest and secmdary forest had made near their old hane on the HBmahang River. 1 Shifting cultivators in the Apo Kayan, as in other parts of Borneo lhis brief histcry of Long Sungai Barang illustrates tmo points about I (Dove 1980, cf. Vayda 1961), usually make their fields in secondary shifting cultivation and migration which are worth emphasizing. The i rather than primary forest. (he old man in Zang Smgai Barang told me first is that shifting cultivation does not necessarily "wear out" the / I tbat one of the reasons people cleared primary forest when they first land on which it is practiced. Even after more than 100 years, secon- moved there was to 'We" secondary forest, which is easier to clear. dary forest is considered by shifting cultivators to have sufficient (Canpare this with he's report of people making secondary forest to future value to be borruwed or traded like other agricultural land. i establish land rights .) Confrontation 'lhe second point is that, if land left behind when shifting cultivators ming travel ceased and no trade took place. At the move is still valuable, then they wst have reasons for mwing - and end of Confrontation, the Lepo Tau had been without trade goods for for all mving together - other then that the land left behind is several years except for the salt dropped in by the army. Massive expenditims set off for sarawak, leaving Lcng Nawmg a village exhausted. of wunen, children and elderly. A labor shortage resulted and rice crops The diversity of habitats created by shifting cultivators is reflected were poor. In 1970 large nmbers of mn returned home putting a in the reasons for mving and in the selection of village sites. Thus bigger drain on already meager rice supplies. the lha' '!bkung had fertile land to cultivate near their old hane on When I a Kenyah why the Kenyahs like to live in large villages the River, but they were too far from prirrary forest to easily asked man Jenahang (cf. Whittier 1978) his first answer was that trade expediticns could obtain the large trees needed building houses. The primary forest for go away fran a large village and still leave enough yomg men behind near Long Sungai Barmg, however, had not been cleared by any of the previous inhabitants, and it is still kept by the lira' Wgas a to work in the rice fields. Many villages in the Apo Kayan were re- timber reserve and a source of other useful forest products. When I duced in size by emigrations in the 1960s and early 1970s. Lag Swai Barang, for example, had a population of L,440 in 1970 wittier 1973: asked people why prirrary forest so near the village had not been 19; about 1,000 people had already left during the 1960s) but in 1978 cleared (while saw fields had been mde much farther wy), I was con- only 363 inhabitants rwained. Of these, 84 were rnales of 15 or older fused at first, because sane people said it was a forest reserve, while Nawang) othms said the soil was poor for growing rice. Considering these (Statistics from kecama tan office in Long . king the rice harvest in March 1980 (with the population little changed) 55 men - different - though not contradictory - reasons, and those given abwe from for moving from the Janahang, I have come to the tentative conclusion about 65% of the adult male population - were away the village, that the pattern of land use in bgSungai Barang is an adaptation of in Sarawak or on the Mahakan. The absence of men from a village is ccmplen-entary needs and activities to the local diversity of soils and not always a problem, but it: is a potential problen. It leaves the vegetatfon, and that the village site was cbsen accordingly. people at home with less flexibility in their choice of activities and will make them more vulnerable in situations requiring additional labar. Mimation and trade I It is possible that trade-related problem have stimilated migrations I in the past, particularly when conditions to which people had been "If Sqai Barang is such a great place, " the reader may ask, ' Wny have so mypeople wed away?" Indeed, Kenyah village groups have mved accustmed ckged for the worse, e.g., when the Sultan of in and out of the area since the 19th century (Whittier 1973:30), mst extended his political and econcmic control into the upper of thm caning £ran further down the Kayan (Jhg,wg, and the latter half of the 19th centlay (Nieuwenhuis 1929:27) .mein Nawang rivers) and leaving over the watershed to the Mahakam River. 1880s the price of salt was so high on the upper M&akam (more than The mst recent migrations, in the early 1970s, were assisted by the 16 times the price in Samarinda, where the Sultan held a nrmopoly) Irdonesian government ' s resettl-t program (Resetelmen RPnduduk, or that many people li there bcaveled to Sarawak to buy salt Respen) , which helped mre than 1,000 people frcm Long Sungai Barang (Nietmrhuis 1929:23 Kenyahs fmm the Ap Kayan also traded in to meto Ritan Baru (kecamatsn Tabang) and other villages on the Sarawak at that time, in part because of hostile relations with the Nahakm and its tributaries. People still living in Long Sungai Bar= - Kutai gwernment (Whittier 1973:130). Behaus and Kenyahs trading on about 370 row - say the others Left primarily because of the difficulties the Mahabwere harassed by Kutai officials; some had their goods in obtaining trade goods in the Apo Kayan, particularly salt, cloth, stolen and other were imprisoned (Niewenhuis 1929 :27-29) . "On the kerosene, cwking pots, and steel tools. other hand, Kayans in Sarawak claim that their ancestors moved from the Apo Kayan (about 200 years ago, according to Rousseau 1977) because of For a century or mre the people from the Apo Kayan have gotten trade opportunities to sell forest products in Bnmei d other trading goods by working on the Kayan and Mahakam rivers in East Kalktan centers of the northwest coast (Southwell 1959) ." In the 20th centlny and the Baluy, Rajang, and Baram rivers in Sarawak. modern Kanyah men fran the Apo Kayan have worked in Sarawak (and to a lesser , Miles (1976) exanined a case of trade-oriented migration by extent in East Kalhtan) cutting tinher, planting and harvesting shifting cultivators in Central Kal~tar~during the 1960s. In addi- plantation crops such as pepper and cloves, tapping rubber, and collect- tion to seeing people mefran upriver agricultural cammities to ing minor forest products, as well as engaging in various other part- market centers domstrem he found changes occurring in settlement patterns near Kuala Karis, a village in the upriver area: time occupations. Tne men travel in groups, and smtifies stay away I £ran lmme for several years before returning with a load of trade goods. (See Whittier 1973; cf. Padoch 1973 on Iban trade expediticns.) The standard theories of shifting cultivation emphasize the breaking up of me local nwleus into a nunber of more conyenient nuclei. 5. The absence of men can be a problen for the people who stay behind in the vicinity of Kuala Kasis the apposite process is in operatim. . . . the Apo Kayan as Whittier (1973:133-34) described in the case of brig mst) of the people .. . have migrated in the opposite direction £ran Nawang aft- Confrontation: that in which their farms are located. . . . Cbviously, other Snfluences must be counteracting the effects of shifting cultivation. (Miles 1976: 9-10) 'Ihe "other influences" he discovered were opportunities in the village village, who depended in turn on a regular supply of trade goods from center for wage labor and selling forest products. domstream. Like Apo Kayan camanities, villages further up the river were cut off fran trade by rapids, and, as Miles points out, people In the mid-1970s airstrips were built in several Apo Kayan villages for in those isolated villages were more vulnerable to fluctuations in use by the Mission Aviatibn Fellawship m),a church-related organi- prices and demand for forest products thim were residents of Kuala zation of pilots. Srflall planes flm by MW canry goods and passengers Karis, whereae market econany prarided themwith alternative sources to and fran Lmg Bia , on the lowex Kayan; , near the muth of of incane. Econcanic security as well as opportunity attracted people the Kayan; and Samarinda, at the lower end of the Mahakam. Although to the market center. Households in the upriver settlements were me the flights have reduced the time and danger involved in obtaining sow self-sufficient than those in the market center, but they were also trade goods, the cost of transportation (even though it is partially mre vulnerable to trade related problems. 9 sdsidized by M4F) is high and getting higher with the rising price of fuel. The flights are not frequent enough to meet all the transporta- On the basis of Miles' study and my observations in the Apo Kayan I tion needs of people in the Apo Kayan, even if they didn't have to tentatively suggest a general strategy for resettlement planners: leave the Apo Kayan to earn enough mey to pay for the imported goods. I develop a flexible program achwill ateact (not canpel) people to (The collection and sale of aloe wood (Indonesian, gaharu; Kenyah, metowards a nunber of village centers or "nuclei" by offering them seko; in the Apo Kayan, obtained from trees of the genus &uilaria, I opportunities and security. A basic point to keep in mind is that it family Thymelaeaceae) which grows in primry forests, particularly my not be possible to acconplish all the objectives of a program at around Img Sqai Barang, has very recently becane a source of cash, once and that therefore it my be wise to keep a nunber of options open but it is too soon to tell how this new activity will affect people's and to experiment with various alternatives. It is not necessary to decision to mve.) ~ select a single plan at the outset; hcwever, the priorities of objec- I tives my suggest a general approach. For exanple, if the principal People with whan I have talked in bng Sungai Barang expressed a nm- goal of the Respen program is to discourage emigration fram the Apo ber of opinions on the subject of migration from the Apo Kayan, Kayan (or to encourage people to stay), then it may be better to pro- though all agree that a critical factor is the difficulty of obtaining ceed meslowly with the "regrouping" of villages. If several trade goods. Some say they want to mve in any event while others say resettlement caters were to be set up initially as pilot projects - they will definitely stay. (he man who has seen the 'hdm life" perhaps as centers for employment or health care - they my or my at close quarters in Sarawak, having been as far as , said he not attract people kan other villages. If they don't, the project lad no desire to join it himself. "It's too hot," he ccmplained.) has not "failed." People might have other reasons for not moving, and The prevalent view seem to be to 'bait and see" what the govement the next step in the program would be to discover what those reasons will do to improve conditim in the Apo Kayan in the next few are and to make adjustments accordingly. To keep the program flexi- years. 7 ble, people administering itrrmst not let their expectations become fixed plans, and if the project does not seem to be -king out as Saw su~gesticnsfor resettlanent planning expected (for exanple, if nobody is mving to the resettlment centers) they mst not assune it is because the shifting cultivators are Went plans for resettlmt of shifting cultivators in the Apa Kayan. "uncooperative" or that they are trying to spoil the project (cf. kecamatan Kayan Mu, are to "regroup" twelve of the fourteen villages Sautter and Wndjmmagni 1978:75). An important assumption underlying there into three large village centers at Long hang, Long Nung. the strategy I have proposed is that people being resettled have and Mahak Baru.8 Work begw in 1980 at Long mqon a landing strip useful knowledge to contribute to the program, knowledge about their which will be able to accomrodate larger planes then those which can problems ard about what action is appropriate in their situations now land at the ElAF strips. One aim of the Respen progrm in the Apo (Vayda 1979, Driessen et al. 1976). If they do not do what is Kayan is to discourage further emigration by providing for people's expected (if they do scmethhg unexpected) it my be that the planners' needs in these three centers. expectations are inappropriate and that the plans rather than the people need to be changed. The process of "nucleation" planned by Respen in the Apo Kayan is similar in some ways to a process that Eles (1976) observed in Central Kalimm- Because of the diversity of situations and activities within the Apo tan; here, migration to a market center was involved. Miles found that Kayan there may not be one 'best" resettlement plan. Not only are shifting cultivators living near the market village of Kuala Karis on different approaches to dwelopent possible in different villages, the upper Wtaya River, as -11 as those farming finrther upstream. but planners or program managers my have to revise their ideas of what moved their residences away from their fields into the market center a proper or desirable settlmt pattern sl-ould be. To take the (see above, p. 10) in order to take advantage of opportmities for example of "nucleation" again" it may be impossible to find a plan, nm-agricultural econanic activities such as wage labor, the sale of or canbination of plans, which will attract all the people from all the forest products, and other specialties created by local demand within villages in the Apo Kayan to live in a few, large resettlment centers. the village. These activities grew up around traders living in the Sane people, for one reason or another, my choose to live in smaller is established. 'Wilderness" tours might be organized and led by natu- groups, near their fields for instance, even if they have to travel ralists and local guides, to take enthusiatic plant- and anirral-watchers farther to use the facilities in the village centers. I suggest that into the forest. Similar schemes have been econcrnically successful in the progrm managers achmledge this diversity and allm for it in South America and Papua New Guinea (see, e.g., advertisements in Natural the settlement patterns hich develop from the program. A nuher of History magazine). mller, outlying hamlets ar residences is not incompatible with the developent of a few large village centers where most people could mintain their permnent homes and where health care, education, and markets could be provided. Such a pattern is, meover, likely to be I have tried to distinguish different kinds of mving in an Ape Kayan accepted by the Kenyahs since they, like other shifting cultivators, shifting cultivation systen and to anphasize the diversity of reasons are accustaned to mrving back and forth between rice field hamlets and or causes involved. lhese can be complex; it is not always possible to village centers (Miles 1976, Whittier 1973) . find a single cause. Developh trade and employment in the &o Kayan Sanetimes it is possible to ask, as a "thought experiment," what muld happen if people didn't mve in a particular situation and one can then The imnediate needs of people in the Apo Kayan are for improved health see smof the problems that are awided by mving a field or a settle- care, a reliable supply of trade goods, and easier access to wage ment, but this method does not always give a satisfactory explanation labor. I will briefly discuss sane possibilities for developing the of why people do mve (cf. Vayda and &Cay 1977). It is not enough latter tsm, which could be accanplished either by inproving existing to say that they are acting according to "tradition," because tradi- trade routes or by creating new economic opportunities in the Apo tims are not necessarily fixed; shifting cultivators have often Kayan. changed or discarded traditional ways of doing things in response to new conditions. (1) Improving existing trade routes. The greatest difficulty in finding jobs or markets outside the Apo Kayan is getting there and back. be The decision to move to another place - to another field, another valley, solutim would be to provide transportation by air to and from the dm- or another river systm - always involves weighing the lcncm difficulties river areas, paid for by workers from the Apo Kayan, their employers, and advantages of the old place against the uncertainties of the new. the govenmnt, or sane conbination of these. Another possibility is Consultation and cooperation between people are important during the to clear and maintain the existing channels in sdl streams where process of xndcing a decision as well as during and after the meit- prahus must be dragged. (People have told me that when the trade self. A person gets mst of his information about his envirmts routes weused mre often the channels were kept free of rocks, but fran other people, and his activities usually depend to sane extent now it is medifficult to get through. ) (2) Possibilities for on how the people around him are expected to behave. econanic developnent in the Apo Kayan include the collection and sale of minor forest products and the cultivation of cash crops. lhese Development planners have expectations about hew people will or should might be ccmbined as an agroforestry system (similar to the present behave, *ether the people happen to be shifting cultivators of fellm shifting cultivator system) in which forest and field crops are planners. I suggest that planners consult and cooperate with the rotated. 'Ihe main problem is in finding products which have a high people for whan they are making plans, just as they consult and coope- and reliable price far their weight. Rather than bringing products rate with their colleagues. These plans can be flexible programs rather to market fran the Apo Kayan, people nm find it mre profitable to than rigid schedules: program which take account of the diversity of work near the markets. An exception is aloe wood, which has became an shifting cultivators envirormmts and activities, and which are capable important source of cash, especially near Long Sungai Barang. h 1979 of responding (adapting) to new problems which may arise during the a tokay (trader) fran Tanjmg Selor cam to the Ape Kayan in search of course of development. the wood, the price of which had recently risen on the international market. (lhe cause of the price increase is still obscure - to me - Acknowledgements but it may be related to a falloff in the exports frcm other Southeast Asian countries such as .) The price is apparently unstable, I would like to thank my fellow researchers - Andrew P. Vayda, Nancy however; at any rate the collectors and buyers in the Apo Kayan are Lee Peluso, Herwasono Soedj ito, Carol Pierce Colfer, and Kuswata concerned that it could drop unexpectedly. (For mre informtion on Kartawinata - for their discussions with me of shifting cultivation, aloe wood see Burkill 1966:198-206, 1117; and Peluso n.d.) trade, migraticn, and forest ecology. Greta A. Watson and Cynthia mckie (both of Rutgers) made several helpful ccxrments on an earlier Tourism might also be developed in the Ap Kayan, possibly in conjunc- draft of this paper. I thank Dr. Vayda for his editorial assistance. tion with a program of forest conservation and research suggested by Kartawinata et al. (1981). A few tourists pass though the area now and then, and the nunber will probably increase if regular air service large village centers wauld have populations of 2,266, 1,419, and 915. The tsm villages not included in the plan (as of 1979) are Netulang 1. Present address : Long Sungai Barang, d/a MAF, Kotak Pos 82, (285) and Long Lebusan (480) . Samarinda, Indonesia. ?he findings reported in this paper are pre- 9. Miles ' study illustrates what I think my be a general problgn or liminary, and my be extended or revised as my research in the Apo "cost" of the flexibility which has been observed amg shifting culti- Kayan continues. vators (Padoch and Vayda 1980, Vayda et a1. 1980) , that is, the uncer- 2. 'Ihe grant supporting this research was awarded by the U.S. Forest tainty associated with economic marginality (see Kunstadter et al. Service - U.S. MU "Gmsortiun for the Study of Nm's Relationship 1978) and the health hazards and risks of geographical isolation. (It with the Global Envirorm-ent" and was adninistered by the Envirvt could also be argued that living on the margin of a national economy and Policy Institute of the East-West Center. Research was done in 1 allm the freedan to be flexible; I am suggesting that flexibility association with the Indonesian MAB Program (LIPI) and with the coopera- and uncertainty go together. ) Miles ' observation of trade-oriented tion of Mawamin University. Dr. Andrew P. Vayda was the principal migraticn suggests that one way in which people respond to the uncer- investigator. This paper has been sukmitted (in Indonesian) for pub- tainty is to give up sane of their flexibility in exchange for security lication in Berita IhPengetah- dw Thlogi (1981). in a mespecialized (though less diverse) economy. 'Ihis *lies that 3. Cf. Schriefe's (1957) analysis of the Wisnu (Vislmu) "-kings" in the flexibility, which enables the mrginal cultivator to choose old Java as restorers of cosmic and political order. (If Rappaport's whether or not he will join the center, is lost in the transition; i.e., interpretation of regulation is a "Vishnu del" - i.e., of an it is mre difficult to return to the -gin than it was to meto the eauilibratinrr or self-restoring system - are F'reeman's destpctive center. (The transition may not be irreversible but there is a steep &IS actingYaccording to a "&iG mdel"?) gradient.) I am not saying that the market econq itself is less 4. See Kunstadter (1978) on the maintenance of habitat diversity by flexible, or less capable of change, than the marginal economy, but shifting cultivators in Thailand. See Pickett (1980) on 'batch dynami rather that each person or household in the market center is limited (processes of disturbance and succession which create and maintain to a narrwr range of activities than in the rimre ratevillages. diversity, within and between habitats), and Pickett (1976, 1980) and The relatively small nunber of options my, however, give more security Wiens (1976) on adaptation by plants and anirrals to "patchy" (hetero- within a nonnal or "expected" rarge of econdc fluctuations. Are the geneous) envirmnts. nore flexible-marginal shifting cultivators better able to cope with 5. Archaeological evidence suggests that migrations of shifting culti- drastic changes? vators occurred for political reasons in the first millenim A.D. , in western Panma: Bibliography: Bemnelen, R. W. van 1970. me Geology of Indonesia. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Bennett, J. W. 1976. "Anticipation, Apparently the migrations of peoples . . . started well before maximun adaptation, ad the concept of culture in anthropology," Science population densities and sociopolitical differences had evolved. . . . 192:847-53. Brm, P. 1979. "Change and the boundaries of systems ?he implica tiom of our data accord better with the theory . . . that in highalnd New Guinea," In Social and Ecological S stem. P. Bumham group fissioning and migrations nay take place well below the carrying and R. Ellen, eds. Burkill, I. H. 1966. A Dictid of the capacity of the land and for other than $+le ecological reasons. Ewnanic Products of the hlay Peninsula, Vol. I, Kwya Lmnpur (re- print of the 1936 editicn). Clarke. W. C. 1976. 'Naintenance of Social factors, rather than strictly envirmtal ones, also seen to ---- ~ -- .- explain the general sparseness of occupation in the imnediate area. agriculture and huwn habitats wi& the tropical forest ecosystm," At present, the best explanation far the avoidance of these rich and Human Ecolo 4:247-59. Golfer, C. P. n. d. "Research report for M3 m11-placed lands smto be a desire to keep social, and later project on %t:Leractions between People and Forest in East Yalktan," political, distance from the larger villages to the southwest. In preparation. Conklin, H. C. 1954. "An ethnoecological approach to (Linarea et al. 1975:143 .) shifting agriculture." Trans. N .Y. Acad. Sci. , Series 11, 17 :133-42. 6. Sellato (1980) reports that the price of salt at Long Apari on the Dove, M. 1978. "?he significance of the distinction between prhry upper Mahak;n;l is ktili (again?) ten to twenty times as mch as in and secondary forest in the swidden system of the Melaban ktu'." Sminda, and that the supply is unreliable. Presented in the Dept. of Anthropology, Univ. of California. Santa 7. In the last few mths of 1980 I received reports that fairly large Barbara. . 1980. "Developnent of Tribal Land-rights nunbers of people £ran J-mg Nawang and other villages downstream were in Borneo: The Role of Ecological Factors," Borneo Research Bulletin either leaving the Apo Kayan or preparing to leave in 1981. I will be 12:3-19. Driessen, P., P. Buurman, and Pemdhy. 1976. "?he influence investigating these reports in the near future. of shifting cultivation on a 'podzolic' soil from Central Kalimantan," 8. According to "Renm lokasi regrouping desa &lam wilayah In Peat and Podzolic Soils and their Potential for Agriculture in Icecamatan Kayan Hulu tahun 1978/1979 ," &mat's office, Long Nawang. Indonesia, Bogor: Soil Research Institute Bul. No. 3. Flenley, J. R. According to a kecamatan censw taken in early 1980, the population I9f9.e Equatorial Rain Forest: A Geological History, Londm: of Kayan t6ilu is 5,365, with a mean village size of 383 (standard Butterworth. keanan, D. 1970. Report on the Iban. London: Athlone deviation = 286) . With this population, after "regrouping, " the three Press- Grandstaff, T. 1978. "The developat of swiddm agriculture

SCME CrnONANrAL SOW aIANG!3s IN THE KAI)I1ZAN Figure 1 shows the villages from which data were collected. ?he dia- lect bomhries do not attempt to be geographically accurate; they are DIALECTS OF TIE PJ3WPANG, PAPAR. AM) BEAUFORT only used to indicate which villages belong to each group. Sound changes The sound changes were studied by charting cognates in the wmk lists and comparing their phonological shapes. This led to establishing two Inka P-en types of sound changes: those which are regular within each phonologi- Swner Institute of L.inguistics cal dialect group, and those which display irregularities within the groups., They will be discussed in separate sections. The aaples are given in seniphonemic writing, as phonemic analysis has not been done in all these dialects. Thus, for instance, /o/ is used for the allophones of the mid central or back urnrounded or 'Ihe purpose of this paper is to describe sm consonantal sound changes slightly rounded vowel. that occur in the ~adazanldialects spoken in the Penampang, Papar, and Beaufort districts of Sabah, . The five dialect areas are Western PenarnpanglPapar, Eastern Penampang/ Papar, Western Papar, Membakut, and Beaufort. Hereafter they shall be 'Ihe Penanpang, Papar, and Beaufort districts were chosen as the basis of referred to as WPP, EPP, WP, M, and B, respectively. this study for the following reasons: Regular changes These tlnree districts form the southwestern end of the large area in which Kadazan-bun dialects are spoken. In the soutlwest, the Kadazan Some sodchanges were fmd to be regular within each group. Seven dialect area borders on the language and the Kadazan of the Kuala such changes are displayed here Penyu district, which is locally known as Tatana but which lexico- statistically differs notably frommost Kadazan dialects. In the south the area borders on the btlanguages. Another reason why these thee districts were chosen for this study is that they offer a broad spectrm Some lexical itens have the regular sound change of t -d word-initially of phonological variations. 'Ihe Penanpang Kadazan dialect, which is one (See Figure 2. ) of the dialects of Sabah used in radio broadcasts and local newspaper, is also spoken within this area. -tadau -adau 'day' -tinan inan 'My' This study is based on the data collected during an extensive language -topos -0pos ' lungs ' survey carrip out by the Malaysia branch of the Smer Institute of -tulun -dun 'person' Linguistics. Msbibution: ; The work lists used in this study were collected during erch-Jul 1979 fran 35 villages in the Penanpang, Papar, and Beaufort districts.3 The villages were chosen on the basis of information given by district WPP officials, village heabn, and other local people. An attempt was made to collect material frcm every place where, according to these sources, the language was said to be different. Tne people who supplied z--y the language data were native speakers of the dialect.4 In a word-medial pition /z/ occurs in all dialect areas except in EPP, After initial comparison of the word lists £ram the Pmampang, Papar, ere /y/ occurs. (See Figure 3.) and Beaufort districts, five distinct groups merged. It must be stressed that this grouping is based totally on sodchanges. 'Ihe agazo agayo 'big' division does not take into account gramnatical differences, percent- ovipu nowiyau 'full' (person; of food) ages of shared cognates, or mtual intelligibility between dialects. kap kayu 'wood ' A canparison of shared cognates percentages, hawev&, supports this humo~og 1 umoyog 'swim' division. 5 pu~ut pugut ' space mder house ' 2' KOTA KINABALU

0 BEAUFORT [.- WP Western Papar M Membakut B Beauforl District Border Underscored villages belong to WPP

FIGURE 1. Map of villages and their grouping into phonological dialect areas. Distribution :

WPP EPP

Word-initially or medially, /h/ in WF'F' and WP corresponds to /1/ in other areas. (See Figure 4. ) -ha zo -layo ',n,y' -hamin -lamin 'house -hikud -likud 'back (of person) ' -houson -louson -hunok -1 unok ::m;om) tuba2 tulan 'bane ' toggo toligo 'ear' tombokq tombolog 'bird ' FIGURE 4 vaeu walu 'eight ' Distribution: 2

a BEAUFORT 2'

The correlation between initial liquids /1/ and /r/, the semivwel /y/, the wiced stop /d/, and the lack of initial consonant is best illu- /S' KOTA KINABALU strated through a chart s-g the sound changes in different dialect groups. 7 (See Figure 5. ) Figure 5

'leaf' , 'chin' 'trail' 'tear' 'thorn' 'rain' WPP 1 lorn loo lahan C mu ugi8 asam -- EPP r rm roo ralan rmu rugi rasam

WP Y Y0l-m YO0 ~abymu yugi yasm M d dam Y Yo0 b alan anou ugi asm B d dom r roo d alan mu wi asam

BEAUFORT /" NKOTA KINABALU Intervocalic /r/ only occurs in EPP. Where it does not occur, length- ening of the vowel results if both vuwels are the sanae.9 ,(See Figure 6.)

a tagom a tEm ' sharp ' kicop kw 'eyelashes ' opugak op~k 'whit: gasn g~n 'W bozos boos ' langyage ' sugud s~d 'comb Distribution:

VhVN 4 Intervocalic /h/ occurs in W and M but not in WPP and B. lo Where /h/ does not occur, lengthening of the wwel results if both vuwels are the same. (See Figure 7. )

o BEAUFORT / ' manakk mansk give ' ka&u kcu 'chicken lice' momihid momgd 'Wipe' konihab kongb 'yesterday' molahig noh* 'old !person) ' a KOTA KINABALU t~t 'vein 2 tuba t Distribution: 2

Eletathesis of Is/ and /h/ When /s/ and /h/ occur in a word, in that order, they are metathesized in Wpp. The phonere /h/ corresponds to /1/ in EPP, M, and B, as pre- sented in h -1 above (See Figure 8.)

kozi lghon kosihchon kohisaun ' east -sinzilog zinziho -hihinsog ' (river) eel' -sondulu -sond uku -bond usu ' finger nail ' -siliu zifiiu Fiziu 'floor' 050~0t omt o&ozo t 'crowded, narrow' ozilpu ozihou oh-isou 'yellow' Metathesis of 5 and I! /

BEAUFORT i " Distribution: No metathesis Metathesis A further variation is manifested by the mds for 'nvon' and 'snake' , areas I which begin with a labial fricative in mst in accordance with their distribution pattern shm in Figure 9, except for EPP. In EPP, the word for 'mwn' has an initial It/ in mst lists; in two lists it has an initial /w/, in me list an initial /v/, and in one list no initial consonant occurs. The word for 'snake' in EPP begins with It/ in all other word lists except two, in which it has an initial voiced Irregular chqqes bilabial stop /h/. Three lists fran WPP also have an initial /h/. This sectim deals with somd changes which do not fall neatly into vuhan WP,WP 'moon' groups that would correspond to the five dialect groups defined in bulan M, B this paper. 'Ihus, there are more variations within each area than tulan EPP there are in the other sound change patterns described in the pre- ulan EPP ceding section. wulan EPP vulan W w N v - b free variation vuhanut WPP, WP 'sde' ?he use of a voiced bilabial semivmel (w) in some areas corresponds bulanut M, B to the use of a miced labio-dental fricative (v) or of a voiced tulanut EE' bilabial fricative Q) in other areas. In sane villages any two or bulanut EPP all three are in free variation in analogous envirmts in words. buhanut WPP Most of the EPP villages use the bilabial seniw~wel(w); most of the WPP villages use the voiced labio-dental fricativ (v); most of the M villages use the voiced bilabial fricative Q) .f In B, Kinman Only two itens in the word list illustrate the change between the wrd- 1 initial /g/, /h/, It/, or zero phoneme. uses (b) in mst instances, hereas Takuli uses (v) in most instances I (See Figure 9. ) The following changes were found:

'cloud' 'leg' -watu vatu katu stone' -waig -vaiq haiq 'wflter' h - g havun qakod EPP woqok voqok Eoqok 'pig' g-t gavun takod w, EPP - h h havun bawdy bavay baey 'rxver' - hakod m,M saw0 sax0 saBo spouse ' g-h gavun hakod W, M tawu tap abu 'ashes' d - h abun hakod M d (fmn given not akod B free total nunber comparable) w v b variation of word lists EPP 10 3 13 Where a liquid /1/ or /r/ occurs mrd-finally in EPP, other dialects WPP 5 3 1 9 have a zero phmene or a glottal fricative /h/. When the final /I/ or /r/ does not occur, the final vwel may be lengthened. Kolopis in WP 2 1 3 6 WPP has a glottal stop instead of a lengthened vmel. N 4 1 5 B 2 2 Figure 9. w -v-b -free variation. Wers show hm many word lists use each variant. a kapal akapah akap~ ' thick ' aka tol aka to5 aka too 'itch' /SKOTA KINABALU tampagil tampagih tampays 'ankle ' sumimbar sisimbah sumimb~ 'answer' tansag tansah tans= ' fence ' totombir totombih totow 'needle ' totombi- 'needle ' totombi? 'needle '

In some word lists of WP /1/ occurs word-finally where a zero phonene muld be expected. For example, Gana uses sumimbul run' where Liubabau uses sumimbuu.

The changes in the medial consonant or consonant cluster in the word for 'bathe' generally follow the division of the area into dialect groups. ?he root is ~ODU,where ID/ stads for the medial consonant(s). However, in WP, Gadung uses dy instead of h. In the sarre area Tibabar uses dz, which is used in M and B. Geographically Tibabar is very close to M. 1 In EPP several variations have been found. byog uses s: mosu. Tagudon uses ns: mansu. Pogtnon uses d instead of ds. The village borders on the WPP area. Kogop uses h as does WP, to which it is geographically close.

d mimpodu WPP h mimpohu WP ds mimpodsu EPP dz mimpadzu M, B Conclusion BEAUFORT /'.'

In has been noted that with different sodchanges the five phonological dialect areas fall into different groups. Same sound changes are partic- ular to one group only. Thus, cnly EPP uses the intervocalic /y/, where- as the other groups use /z/. Also, EF'P is the only one to use /r/ in initial, medial, and final position in words. WFT is the only one in hich the s/h metathesis occurs. It is also distingusihed by the use of root-initial 111. (See 1- rN y -d-q5) Only WP uses the root- initial /y/ consistently in contrast with the EPP /r/. M and B generally pattern together with one or meof the other groups, but they are distinguished -fran each other on the basis of the occurrence or m-occurrence of the intervocalic /h/. Thus it can be noted that for the majority of sound changes, all of the lists within a phonological dialect group pattern as a unit.

1. Each language infmtwas asked what the nam of his language was. bst informants gave the name of Kadazan. In Longkogungon the m 'Kadazan Pahu' is used. Tagudon gave the same me, but they also Tibabar Gad'-% Other places using /z/ ~alledtheir language by the name of 'Sinulihan' . In Ikyog, ,both Kadazan' and 'Llusm' are used. vgopon gave three terms: Kadazan', (tidzan) (tid?an) ,(tizan) 'belly' 'Kadayan' (local pronunciation of Kadazan') , md 'Fun Ulu Papar' . (n~bidzau) (napi&au) (ijvizau) 'full: (person) In sane places 'Kadazan Penampang' and 'Kadazan Papar were given as (sidzm) (s id~am) (sizam) ' nine names for their dialects. (hdm) (hadyo) (hazij) 'ginger ' 2. Over 300 villages were visited in the twenty-three districts of the 7. An interesting complexity is noted in two words. Tne words for state. At each village a mrd list, ethnographic questionnaire, and a 'blood' and 'sea' dmstrate a wide range of forms as illustrated tw to three-minute tape recorded story were collected in order to pre- below. pare sufficient linguistic data for later dialect intelligibility test- ing (Casad, 1974). The word list contains 367 items. It is adapted EPP WPP WP M B fran the ward list used by the Philippine brach of the smInstitute of Linguistics . raha zed baa haa raa 'blood' raa yaha 3. Word lists *re collected from the following villages: Babagon, araha Buayan, Bmduon, Inobong. Kipowo, Kolopis, Longkogmgon. Wyog, ara Pcgunon; Po-, Sugud, Tagudon. Tmaki, Terawi, Tinpangoh Sugud, Ya 'Ibavon (Penaflpwg District) ; Gadmg. Gana, Himbutmg, Kogopon, Lkbahau. Limpufong, L~ngan.Plmdalipau, Penanpang Baru, Sabandil, Tibabar (Papar EPP Wf'P W,M Mstrlct); Kinamam, Mandangin, Pinopok, Poring Valley, Tahak, Takapan, Takuli, Tandui (Beaufort District). The villages of Buayan, rahat daat dehat ' sea' Lmgkagmgm, Mandalipau, and Tagudon were not visited, but the data laha t was collected elsewhere frannative speakers habitually living in daha t those villages. The people of Penampang Baru in the Papar district daa t Pve mved there Pan the Pmmpang district and said they spoke 'Permpang Kadazan . The word list bun Poring Valley also represents 8. In WPP, five villages use omou 'tear', four use lomou. Six WPP "Penampmg Kadazan' , as a nunber of the present inhabitants have mved villages use uqi 'thorn', three use lugi. Che village, Kolopis, uses to the village fran the Permnpang district. houn 'leaf' instead of loun.

4. Word lists were taken by different technicians under field condi- 9. In sane words 111 is medial position corresponds to /r/ in EPP. tions, wfiich were not always ideal for rraximm accuracy in transcrip- tion. ?he elicitation was done in Bahasa Malaysia, but occasionally WP m English was used also to clarify the meaning of a given item on the mrd list. adalas adaras 'strone.' 5. A matriv coqaring cognate percentages of all these lists shows that although tfie relationships bemeen the m/range from language 10. In EPP nine of the thirteen word lists retain the intervocalic family to subdialect (see Smith, 1980), the closest relationship of 1' /h/. In the lists from Inobong, Kipowo, Tuawn, and Pogunon the each list is to another within its phonological group. M exceptions intervocalic /h/ does not occur. This my be due to the fact that are noted. Kolopis in WPP is equidistant from Poring Valley within these four villages are geographically very close to WPP, here the the same group and frm EPP Tuavon, to which it is geographically intervocalic /h/ does not occur. One village in the WF'P groups has close. Tibabar in WP has the highest percentage of shared cognates the intervocalic /h/. The village, Poring Valley, is located near with Poring Valley in WPP. the dialect area of M, where the intervocalic /h/ occurs.

6. The phonene /z/ is a voiced alveolar grooved fricative in all 11. ?his metathesis ltss also been found to occur in me of the EPP places except Tibabar in WP, here a voiced alveolar affricate (dz) yllages, Tuavon. ?ere /1/ c:rresponds to the WPP /h/ : lilinsog is used, ard Gadmg in WP, here a voiced affricate (dy) is used, the eel', lisiu 'floor , londusu finger nail', olisou 'yellm'. point of articulation being closer to a palatal one. t2. Gadmg in WP uses the voiceless bilabial fricative p: pat" stone', paiq 'water', pogok 'pig', sap0 'spouse'. Bibliography: Antonissen, A., Kadasan dictionary and gramnar (Canberra, In the early 1970's dismssions were begm within the government regarding the status of . in 1958). Casad, Eugene, Dialect intelligibility test ' (Norrran, These discussions culminated Oklahcma. 1974). Clavre. B. M.. "A curwarison of smydialects of Kaharingan being declared an official on March 31, 1980 as Dusun," &ah ~ocie J&l 311 (Jesselton, 1966) . Gossens, A. L. , part of the religious category, Hindu/Dhanna/Kaharingan. The - decision to put Kaharingan into the same category with stems "A &r- and wcaLary of the hem language." Joumal of the fran Malaysia Branch of the bay1 Asiatic Society 2: 2 (, 1924) . the mistaken belief that Kaharhgan is an ancient form of Smith, Kenneth D., !Ihe languages of Sabah: a tentative leuicostatisti- Hinduism. While sane elements of Hinduism exist in Kaharingan, there cal classification 7To appear) . Wurm, S . A. , and B . Wilson, "Ehglish are wen stronger strains of ancient Chinese ancestor mrship and Finderlist of reconstructions in (post-Brand- indigenous traditions. setter) ," Pacific Linguistics C-33 (Canberra, 1975) . Acceptance of Wingan by the govenmu37t has enhanced the status of Kaharingan and boosted the male of the people, but it also offers som potential problem. Without a fonnal "book1' there is a great deal of pressure to codify the belief systan and practices of Kaharingan. Since a fair degree of variation occurs anwng the various BRIEF COMMUNICATIONS tribal groups, and actual ceraronial format varies ahst from village to village, this may be m insurm~untablechore. A mre serious threat Kaharingan : Borneo' s "Old Fdigion" may be the attitude of the Balinese . Many Balinese Hindus view Becanes Indonesia's Newest Religion the Kaharingan Dayaks as lost sheep returning to the fold. It appears quite likely that the Balinese Hindus will not be willing to accept Joseph A. Weins- Kaharingan as a seperate religion.

Kaharingan is the naw which is nw widely accepted for the traditional 1. lhis is the of Central Kalimantan, not to be confused religion of the DaYaks of southern Borneo. htil the second world war with the Kapuas River of West Kalhmtan. the religion of the hangan (Lawangan), Maanyan, Ngaju and Ot Danun Eayaks had no specific nam. It was simply referred to as "the religion" or "the old religion". thrring the colonial period Dutch achhistratms and labled it "hiden" (heathenism) or "saten" (satenism). ThresCkmder Personal Pronouns in Sans Languages It was not until the period of Japanese occupation during the war that a nowderogatory name arose for the traditional Dayak religion. of Central Borneo

There is sane debate regarding the precise origin of the tm Kaharingan, Bernard J. L. Sellato but it appears most likely to have arisen frcm Bahasa Sangiang, the ritual language of the Ngaju Dayaks of the Kapuas Ever .l The root, haring, rrvans "self-existant" or "source". Thus, the terfn Kaharingan, has been variously said to refer to the "source of life", 'vitality", bater of life". The reference to water is quite cFn,with one popular inter- pretation being that Kaharingan refers to bater so pure that a baby can be bathed in it". This short paper presents saw preliminary linguistic data on a few little-knm languages of the Muller-Schwmer Wmtains , across the After independence Kaharingan was not recognized by the gwemnumt as a three Indonesian provinces of East-, West- and Central Kalirmntan. "!=cue" religion, but only as a belief. ?his posed problems for the people since under the Panca Sila everyone had to have a religion. Tnis These languages are spoken by a group of fomkrly nomadic mall tribes, became particularly acute after the 1965 coup when anyone without a some of than still partly dependent on . We will refer to than as religion was suspected of being a ccmnmist. Thus, in the past decade "bller-Sclwaner Punan" @SF') . ?he Aoheng (or Penihing) nmher mre and a half many Dayaks have ncPlrinally declared thanselves to be than 2000 in Kecmtan Long Apari (upper-Mahakm). There are . Likewise, many Kaharingans have encouraged their children fewer than 400 Seputan in the same area, and about 300 keho-Busang to declare thanselves Christians before they go to school outside the (or Punan-Penyavmg) scattered along the upper Busang river (Central- village so as to avoid discrimination. Kalimantan); the latter are cousins of the Kereho-Uheng of the Keriau river (West-Kalimantan) . The Punan-Bmgan form a few smll villages on thee Bmgan river (West-Kalimantan). Very few of the Nanga Ira' -49- A variety of reports are produced with the General Report likely to be people of the upper Kapuas are left. The Huvung were assiniilated long of greatest interest to Bulletin readers. These reports contain data on ago by the Aoheng, but still form a village of their own at Nanga Enap the socio-ecanomic chars-cs of the adult population in the tmms (qper bpuas). covered and on their mass dahabits, including frequency and recency of daily~y/mnthlynwspapr and magazine reading, cinema going, As far as the upper Mahakam is concaned (see Sellato 1980), the EP radio listening, and television viewing. Figures are grossed up to total tribes are the only remants of the populations which were living there ppulation values for easy mnparisons with govemmnt and other reports Lingisti- before the Bahua-Busang-Kayan invasion from the Ap Kayan. on these tawns. The msts of the General mrt is appdtely USS3000 cally, the MSP group is quite distinct £run the Bahau group, and seems and the report will be available by the end of July, 1981. to be distantly related to the Bukat group (which includes Bukat. Punan-Merah and Punan-Lism, as far as is known). Further infomtion on the research can be obtained fnm Mr. Yong Kim Seng, Maging Director, Survey Bsearch Malaysia, Sdn. W., 63c Wism Kimtoo, Che of the peculiarities of the WP language group is a three-gender Jalan Loke Yew, P. 0. Box 2231, Kuala Lmpur, Malaysia. third person pronoun systm. Gender is distinct only in the singular. The "he" pmnom is used exclusively by male spas(including young male children), female speakers using a form identical to the "she" Kayan, Iban Dictionaries pronom instead. It can also be noted that the Aoheng language has dropped a separate form for "she", both male and fdespeakers I C. Hudson Southwell and A. 3. N. Richards have edited Kayan-English and using the neutral form instead. Iban-English dictionaries, respectively. Richards' dictionary is m in proof with publication by Oxford Umversity Press expected in the first SEPW KERMO NANGA IRA' Am half of 1982. Southwell's dictionary was reproduced from typescript in Marudi, Sarawak, in May, 1980, and totals 389 pages. Male he ana ana ana ana Speaker she is0 SO SO? h0 Conaxning his project, Southwell writes: "I have been working (on the it h0 h0 h0 h0 dictionary) for over 30 years. It therefore reflects the traditional language as wll as modern usages. I cam to Sarawak in 1928 and have Fernale he is0 SO SO? h0 wrked in Iban, Murut (), Kelabit and Kayan, kt I have m3de a she is0 SO SO? h0 special study of the Kayan language and am happy to have been able to get it h0 h0 h0 h0 this Kayan-English dictionary published before I retire to Australia.

Bibliography: Bernard, J. L. 1980. "fie upper Mahakam area," Borneo "The process of ccnpilation, and the lexical nethods used are discussed Research Bulletin 12 :40-46. in the General IntrcduAion. Also, a certain munt of antlumplogical data are mrded under wrds covering cultural thaws. I am therefore hoping that this Kayan dictionary may be useful as supplying source mate- rial for workers in Southeast Asian fields of study." NEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS The dictionary, published from private funds, my be ordered from Madam Survey Research Malaysia Begins Fieldwork Lily Soo, P.O. Box 153, Mandi, Baram, Sarawak, at M$18 plus postage, or from Mr. Southwell at Gracemd Mge, 20 Pcebuck Drive, In March, 1981, Survey Research Malaysia (SRM) began fieldwork for the Manning 6152, West Australia for M$20 or A$10. second media and marketing index which it has carried out in Sabah and Sarawak. fie survey will cover the cities of Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan, EPIK Conference in Sminda, , , Total sample size Tawau, and and four small towns. November 30 to Ceenbex 9, 1980 will be 2600 randdy selected households and individuals, divided dy Four hundred households will be selected in betwen Sabah and Sarawak. A conference on Ethnographic Problens in Kalimantan (EPIK) was con- tawns, Kota Kinabalu and in Kuching, 300 in each of the next largest and in Samxinda at the TAD Guest Fuse fnm November 30 through the first 150 in each of the four small tams. week in Bcebr. Those who attended ul~lre: Bernard J. L. Sellato, Nikita Siberoff, Anna Lmenhaupt, Joseph Weinstock, and George N. -11. The first SRM study of this kind in Sabah and Sarawak was carried out in SRM has mdertaken surveys in West Malaysia since the late 1979. similar pllato, MESS, is eyaged in linguistic and anthmplogical research 1960s on an annual basis and also has done many other studies in East mgthe Penihing the upper &&&am region and various Punan groups. Malaysia. Siberoff, CeDRASEMC, is wrking on the translation of various Bahau texts. Anna Imerhupt, Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, is I, studying social organization and ritual anwng the Bukit of South Kali- mantan. Joseph Weinstock, a graduate student in the Department of Wal Lmguage Educational Health and Total Sociology at Cornell Vniversity, is mkhg a genml survey of the Titles t Kscelh-s ntles Luangan -grow in Central Kalimantan and the Benuaq in the Mahakam River 1 -- region. He has traveled extensively in these areas during his year of research. George N. Appll, Departn~tof Anthropology, mandeis Univer- Bahasa 10 35 8 sity, is beginning ethnoqmphic and linguistic fie-rk in the Kabpaten Mdaysia Bulungan, East Kalinantan. English 35 68 41 I Iban 32 61 7 The conference included a presentation of the results of research by the Chinese 13 41 5 participants. Past research in the region was critically evaluated, and I Kadazan 5 1 the irqmrtance of future research was discussed. The problem of f-g WJagoi 1 3 qualified anthropologists to undertake research in Borneo was wmider€!d, Kayan 3 wcularly those trained in the study of rrodernization. And the problem Kenyah 2 of finding funds to support ethnoyraphic research in Borneo was explored. Bukar/Sadong 1 Biatah 1 One of the results of the conference was the fonmtion of a local journal Bidayuh 1 in S-inda entitled, Buletin Budaya Kalimntan, which is to serve as a 1 Nsrut/hm Dayeh 1 rredium for the publication of the results of scholarly results by Indonesian 1 and foreign scholars. 1 Including literary, poems, foIklore, history, etc. ~ullOccasional Paper Series ' In addition to items tabulated, there are phrasebooks or mrdlists from English to &lay. WJagoi, Ih,Biatah, and Mnut/Jim Dayeh. The Centre for South-East Asian Studies has begun the publication of a ! series of Occasional Papers. The Papers which are now ready for issue are: In 1977 the national language and publishing agency, Dewan Bhsa dan Pustaka (D.B.P.), established a branch in Sarawak, at Kuching, taking No. 1 "Eiritish Attitudes to Indigenous States in South-East Asia in the over the Borneo Literature in its entirety. The objective of the D.B.P. Nineteenth century," by D.K. msett, 71 pp. ,jF 1-50, excluaing pas-. as defined by the dam^ Bahasa dan Pustaka Ordinance (1959), is "to develop and enrich the national language" and priority is therefore given No. 2 "Ethnic Classification and Mhnic l7dations: A Borneo Case Study, " to the publication of books in Bahasa Wlaysia. by V.T. King, 49 pp.,g1.50, excluding postage. a visit to the Kuching office of D.B.P. in October, 1980, I was, in It is hoped to publish similar lawcost Papers written by staff of the fact, told that the Sara* branch did not have local control over the Centre or associated colleagues approximately twice a year. !Re Papers will choice of titles. Future policy would be set by the national headquarters, mmdly reflect the particular interests of the Centre, which is concerned and was likely to imrolve the publication of &lay-language works only, or with the study of the ecodcs, m3ddr1-1 history, human geography, politics, (exceptionally) parallel bilingual texts (e.g . , Ehglish and May) . D. B .P. sociology and social anthropology of South-East Ilsia. will not, therefore, continue the role of its predecessor in the East klaysian states in pmting the vernacular languages of Sarawak and Sabah. Institutions, departmnts or individuals wlm wish to receive copies of the Occasional Papers should write to The Secretnry, Centre for South-East Asian The inpact of the Borneo Literature keau in this field is certainly a Studies, Gniversity of Hull, Hull HU6 7M. Ehqland. potential research topic. The strongest interaction, to judge from the ~nrinberof titles, was with lban writers. Whether their output achieved a significant cultural inpact rmst be amtterfor careful evaluation. That The Borneo Literature Bureau the rnarket ms overestimated I judge fKrm the rnnuber of unsold copies of many titles that were remaindered and offered for sale (in October, 1980) The Borneo Literature Bureau (~iroKesusastraan ~orneo)WS funded jointly at large discounts. by the State govenmmts of Sarawak and Sabah. bring its existence, the keau not only published official educational and other materials, but As far as I know, the 1976 catalogus of B.L.R. is still available. Inte- also provided an outlet for the work of local authors writing in a variety rested readers are advised to contact the Director, &wan Bahasa dan of vanacdar Languages. Its scope is daumstrated by the range of titles Pustaka, Cawangan Saratak, P.O.B. 1390, Kuching, Sarawak, as soon as possible. listed in the Bureau s final catalogue, issued in 1976, tabulated below: (Earl of anb book) -53- 1 Timber Resources in East Kalhantan The canpany currently operates several facilities, ranging from samilling to the rr!anu£acture of n-olding, mod-mol canent board, carved doors and Appmximately 28.8 million acres, or 20 percent of Indonesia's total windows and prefabricated busing. comrrrciaL of 144 million acres, lie within East Kalbtan. Inhutani has also completed advanced platming of two plywood mills. In addition to the &tani operations (see below), East Kalimmtan's timber industry currently comprises 92 forest concession blders, 29 Forest Mmaganent large samills, 230 smaller milling facilities, four plymod mills and one chip mill. Local timber industries have a combbed processing capa- Since its foundation, the state-owned company has established standards for city of 2.5 million cubic mters per year. forest mganent procedures and logging operations. The Government anticipates the establishnent of 16 additional wood-based Conservation of timber resources is an integral part of Intutani's operating industries in East Kalimmtan by 1984, bringing the total annual capacity policy. The conpry observes selective cutting rules and wanages tm of local industry to 5 million cubic meters. ruirseries whose experimental farms grow seedlings used for enrichnent planting and replanting areas denuded by farmers wtP still practice "slash- The province's local Inveshnent Coordinating Board (BKPMO) said 12 dome- and-burn: farming methods. stic investment applications for timber-based industries, valued at U.S.$116.8 million, had been filed recently. Research conducted by the nurseries on various tree species and perennial crops helps to establish which trees or plants are mst suited to the Inhutani Plans Nly Integrated Wood industryL local terrain. The completion of the first stage of a feasibility study of a pulp and Inhtani's forestry research will be £urther supported by the Tropical paper mill project in East Kalirnantan prwince has brought P.T. Tnhutani, Reforestation Research Center, which is being constructed in Sminda, a state-run forestry corporation, nearer to its goal of establishing an East Kalirnantan, with a $6.4 million grant from the Japan International integrated wod industry to utilize the millions of cubic meters of mod Cooperation Agency. wastes from local sawnilling industries. Swamp Wlffalo Investigation Study Initiated iri Bfunei Preliminary results of the study, which is scheduled to be completed in 1981 by YaaWco Pyry Consulting Conpany, a Finnish firm, projects the plant's A census and mmagement study of the indigenous swamp buffalo (Bubalus capacity at 42.000 tons of paper, 16,000 tons of pulp, 6,300 cubic meters of bubalis) has recently been initiated in Bnmei with a view to de£- and veneer, 81,500 cubic meters of plymod and 62,000 cubic meters of sawn timber. establishing an improved mnagenent program. The wrk is being carried out on a joht basis bemen the veterinary and livestock sections of the The project will cost an estimated U.S.$ 560 million and will be hnplanented Department of Agriculture and staff at the Shut Agricultural Training in a joint venture with foreign participants. Negotiations with potential Centre. investors are currently in progress. Field staff are currently 9out a State-wide census which incor- Established as a limited liability corporation in 1973, P.T. Inhtani is porates a farmer managanent questlormaire, body measlngnent and carcass the second largest state forestry conpany in Indonesia, with forest concessions meaguranent study. In conjunction with this, a feedlot program will be totalling 6.17 &lion acres; all of its concessions are in the province of initiated at the Sinaut Centre to provide data on possible optimal growth East Kalimmtan. The campany, which is in its seventh year of operation, rates. exports an average of 1.2 million cubic meters of logs and processed wood per. Y-. Iater in 1981, it is l-oped to establish a cooperative ram- program and further feedlot investigation units. The Indonesian Govermnent lqes to balance the country's mdexports betseen logs and processed timber on a 50:50 ratio, by value, and has recently iuposed The program organizers would be pleased to hear from any other workers export quotas on logging operations to sthulate the establislment of down- undertaking research programs into the swaq~buffalo in the region. The stream industries. The Govemmmt anticipates andearnings of about $2 person to contact is The Director, Sinaut Agricultural Training Centre, billion from vtsof logs and processed wxd by 1984. (In 1979 processed c/o E%smei Shell Petrolem Company mted, Seria, . mod accounted for abut 16.5 percent of the country's mod exports .)

Inhutani has endeavored to follow Government directives and has established industries to produce greater quantities of processed timber for export.

Reprinted, Indonesia Develo-t -.4:2, p.8. October 1980. UNEP Experts Meeting on Tropical Forests 1 BORNEO NEWS

A UNEP kperts Meeting on Tropical Forests was convened in Gabon for Regional News 25 February to 1 kch, 1980, but actually held in Nairobi. Of the c. 55 participants from 25 countries, some 20 qualified as experts . . . llE ASIA FOtNLWTON has made a grant of $2933 to enable PERWU (Waxen's in the opinion of one (real) expert from the Netherlands. The U.S.A. Association of the Republic of Indonesia) to conduct a workshop on the sent 8 or 9 persons, Brazil 3, Indonesia none. RDle of hbmm in the Pramtion of Hcme Industries for the Benefit of Family Welfare in Banjar Baru, South Kalktan, and a grant of $7070 to An Overview Document had been prepared in advance. . . This 70-page I enable the Center for the Study of Land Iaw at Labung Mmglarrat w- Overview Docmt (UNEP/W.35/4, 8 Jan. 1980), with its 253 nunbered I versity (Banjamasin) to publish its newsletter and disseminate the paragraphs, is the best account of rain forest blgns so far. It is results of discussions, symposia, seminars, and workshops and research divided into a descriptive part (51 p., 203 paryand a Pmgrm of on land law (The President's Review and Annual Report, 1979, pp. 31. 33). Activities. JOHN HOBDAY, a helicopter pilot for Airfast Service, P.O. Box 29, Singa- New Lizard in Sarawak pore 2879, is building a library of photographs of the of Borneo and Thailand. He has currently pixtographs of Kayan, Kenyah, A new species of lizard, Harpesaurus thescelmhinos, has beat discovered Ih, Punan and Kelabit in Sarawak, and also some photographs of the in Sarawak and is described by F. Wayne King in the Sarawak Wsem Ngadju of the in Kalhmtan. Hobday also has been building Journal. It is the first of its genus to be found on the island of Borneo. a library of photographs of the natural history of the region. His (OryxXV:4, p. 334, August 1980). permanent address is No. 5, Nford Park, York, England. These pixtographs are available for publication purposes. His agent for his natural history Primate hports photographs is Peter Ward, Natural Science Pbtos, c/o Entymlogy Depart- ment, Natural History Section, British hem, London. In 1977-78, the kited States imported about 60,000 primates, 90 percent of than £ram Waysia, Indonesia, India, the , Kenya, Bolivia, Borneo News Thailand and Samalia. Rhesus mcaques methe cmnest import in 1977, but after the Indian ban on rhesus exports, effective from April 1 1978, G. N. APPELL while visiting the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in they were replaced by other mcagues from South-east Asia. The other Singapore in July, 1980, gave a sgllinar on "The Status of hean Eth- mjor imports, in declining order, were squirrel es,tree shrews. gyphy. '.' Appell then spent a week visiting the Deparbnent of Anthropology, mumosets, black-faced vervet nrmkeys, baboons and doumucoulis. lkuverslty of Malaya. In addition to reviewing and inventorying the theses (Oryx XV:4, p. 328, August 1980). dealing with Barneo ethography written by students in the Department of Anthropology, he gave a sminar on ethnographic research in Borneo and its Women and Dwiance current status. Also during July Appell and his family visited the Sarawak M~~eunand the Brunei M~~eum,and Mrs. Appellmade a brief visit to the Professor M. D. Evans and several colleagues are writing "a book on the Ftmgu village where she and her husband originally did field work in the comparative (cross-national) study of men's irmolvanent in deviance, early 1960s. notably crime." He is interested in "the extent of men's involvement in crime (as compared with men's), and in the ways in which fernale crime During August. September, and October, Appell was a Visiting Fellow in the is dealt with by the ammity and the criminal justice systm (types of DeparOnent of Anth~opology,Research Scbl of Pacific Studies, Australian punishnent meted out to wmen as cmpared to those meted out to nm, and National University, in Canberra. He gave saninars on "What Constitutes a the like) ." Persons having data on this subject are asked to write Healthy Society" and "Status of Borneo Ethnography." He also gave a sgllinar Professor M. D. Evans, Department of Sociology, 1126 E. 59th Street, a epistermlogical issues in anthropological research at the lsliversity of Chicago, IL, 60637, U.S.A. Sydney. As a result of his work at the Australian National University, Appell is preparing a book of contributed essays entitled, Pbdernization and the bergence of a Landless Peasantry. Anyone who might like to contribute to this nunograph should contact G.N. Appell. The Agricultural Development Gnmcil, Inc. my be able to assist one or tm U.S. Ph.D. students, although not financially, to do research in South and Appell and his family are currently in East Kaljmantan where he is undertaking Central Kalimantan. Inquiries should be addressed to Dr. William L. Collier, linguistic and ethnographic research until Septanber. 1981. On their way to Associate, The Agricultural Developlnent Council, P. 0. 62, Bogor, Indonesia. Kalimmtan from Jakarta they visited Michael Dwe at Gadjah kda University and Patricia Whittier at Airlangga Mversity. They also attended the EPIK Conference held in Sminda in early December.

14flora Malesiana Bulletin 33, p. 3407. July, 1980. Kalimantan News other aspects of resource use in the area. The study was largely cqa- rative, with cammities engaged in wet rice agriculture contrasted with WILLIAM L. COLLIER, Associate of The icultural Council, Inc. , areas whexe shifting cultivation predominated as a farming metbd. reports that the Council has selectedY 4 villages in the Coastal Wet- lands in South and Central Kalbtan and will be caxrying out studies BERNARD J. L. SJZMTU has been engaged in research in the Upper fihakam in these villages for the next tm years. His article, "Fifty Pears of River area and amng the Penihing from &y, 1974, to Decenber, 1975, and Spontaneous and (hemnent Sponsored Migration in the Swanpy Lands of from Decenber, 1979, to April, 1981, under the sponsorship of the Ecole Kalimantan: Past Results and F'uture Prospects," printed in Prima: des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris. Sellato has been doing The Indonesian Indicator (No. 18, Septanber 1980, pp. 32-55-es on general ethnographic research but has focused on the ethhistory and transmigration, a topic of interest to mvly readers of the Eiulletin. comparative linguistics of the Penihing, Seputan, Penyavung, and related "Punan" groups. His goal is to complete an ethnohistorical reconstruction DRS. G. SIM)N DEVUNG, Falailtas Keguruan dan Ilrm Pendidikan of Universitas of the peoples of the Miller-Scmer muntain ranges and the Upper W- Wawarmm, will be delivering a paper entitled, "The F'ronoun Systan in kmRiver region. He is attanpting to reconstruct the proto-- lingui- the Bahau tIwang Triing Dialect," at the Third International Conference of stic grouping for the center of Kalbtan. He also has been collecting Austronesian Linguistics, ma-, Bali, 1981. basic vocabularies from other groups in East Kalimantan for his study of the comparative linguistics of the region. LAURENJTUS DYSON of the Fakultas Ilm Social, Airlangga University, Sura- baya, is planning to do field work armng the Ma'anyan people of Kalhmtan Sellato has mde a phgraph record of the Dayak msic of the Upper Maha- with a focus on their ritual. kam area that includes an introduction in French and Ehglish and a tran- script and translation of Penihing songs. The record is entitled "Dayak M4RY BEIH FVUXER, graduate student fmm Northwestern Lhiersity, is bicof Borneo" and is distributed by the ~oci6tdRaneise de Productions doing field work in a transmigration cdtyin East Kalirnantan. Phonographiques. Paris. Sellato also has an article appearing in the 1981 issue of Archipel entitled, "he isolie de Borneo: la Haute Fhhahm.' WSYAH GUDAI, of the Faldtas Kegmum, Universitas Lambung t&nghcat, Banjmsin, is studying in the Ph.D. program in the Department of LFngui- His p-ent address is rue A. Silvestre, 92400 Courbevoie, France. stics, Faculty of Arts, Australian Natid University. He plans lingui- stic field work on the &'anyan language. NIXITA SEEROFF, CeDRASEML, Paris, has done research Fn 1979 on shamanism and agricultural mng the Balnu byaks of Tring, Kecmtan Long DES HOBAN is woreas an adviser to the Pbnning Board in the Province Iram, and the Tunjung hyaks of Kecarr&tanMelak, &XI groups located in of Kalbtan Barat, having been engaged for this purpose by the Australian Kabupaten Kutai, East Kalimantan. Siberoff is currently engaged in colla- Development Assistance Wueau. Hoban is attempting to carpile a general boration with DRS. SlXN DEWNC- in (1) the translation of several Tring bibliography on the province and would appreciate references or collections Bahau texts used in agricultural rituals; (2) the editing and enriching of for Kal-tan Barat. hban also is seeking support and assistance for a text by S. on the history of the Tring Bahau, and (3) the compiling LKNNWACE SUHENG, an Iban frcm Kapmg Kedang in Kecamtan J3qmm-g who of a dictionary of the Tring Bahau language. He bps to be back in Kaltim is now -king in the Ehpati' s Office in as an adviser on Dayak in the very near future to continue collecting traditional literature anrmg affairs, and wbwants to write on the history and culture of the Dayk the Tring Bahau and Tunjung Day&s, if adequate fcrnding is quickly mde of Kalimmtan Barat. Anyone able to contribute to either project is available. His current address is 1, rue de 1'Ancienne fiirie, 92100- encouraged to write Mr. Hoban c/o Austdian Econadc Planning Project, Wogne, France. P.O. Box 28, Pontianak, Kalbtan Barat, Monesia. RISklAN SOEDARSONO recently returned to the Wiversity of Aberdeen after ANDREAS WSLNG is planning a book on the Mahakam basin, its people, ecolo- cqleting his field crork for his doctoral dissertation on nutrient cycling gical settings and economic developnent, to be entitled. in pioneer mody vegetation in Kalimntan. He is currently contiming analy State: The Sultanate of Kutai in East Borneo. He will leave%F@=- e TAD Project tical work, and will be starting writing up sbrtly, which he bpes to finis 'in March to take a post as assistant professor at the Frobenius Institute. within a year. Fkank£urt kiversity. He will be at Purdue University for three mths beg- in April. GREU WEON, a graduate student in anthropology frcm htgers University, is -king in a village in Sarmda Kecil, Kalirrmtan, where she expects to CHRISTINE PAID3 conducted field research from mid-January until early be for approximately tw years. August, 1980, in several districts in the Krayan district of East minrmtan. Her project, sponsored by L. I .P. I. and the Elan and Biospke Program and JOSEPH WEINSTXX, a graduate student in ma1 Sociology from Cornell Lhiver- Wed by the U. S. D.A. -Forest Service, focused primarily on the agricultural sity, has spent approximstely 18 mths in East and Central Kalimantan systans of the Lam Dayeh, on their population dynamics, land tame, and stud* the Lwmgan (Iawangan) byaks. He has focused upon Kaharingan (see report), enviromnental and agricultural issues, ethnicity, and other related topics. Sabah News which has been available at MesHouse Library, Oxford, for some years. While his bibliography lists official sources and unpublished works con- JOHN W(ANSFIELD .from Kew collected rattan between mid-mch and mid-Wy, sulted, he identifies only a selection of quotations and dispenses with 1979, in Sabah, Thailand, and the Philippines. He again worked in Sabah the full apparatus of scholarship. Rajah Charles Brooke: ?+march of All from 14 August to 17 Novenber, 1979, to prepare an inventory of the He Surve ed is essentially a popular mr 'c wi meyrea of Sabah and to make recmdations on rattan cultivation. Rattan flora I m4, but it mst also be judgeb'on"":G ba:h;f 2s1acadAd of Sabah m stands at about 100 taxa of which 25 were recorded for the I ambitions, confirmed by the prestigious Oxford In Asia imprint under which first time king this survey. Cn the survey he was joined by A. J. HEPBURN it appears. (Forest Department, Sandakan) , NUWA BIN ABDUL RAHMAN (Sabah Forest Develop- ment Authority), and plat collector raKn BIN SUNDALING (Sandah). Sabah Contrary to Colin Crisswell's claim, he is not the first biographer of I Charles Brooke. In about 1907 the Second Rajah handed over his papers to now appears cdtted to plant dtivation. I I a trusted senior officer, C. A. Bempfylde, with the intenth of preparing WANKGEL and A m,W-Herbarium, Vierma, visited Sabah and Sarawak I a biography. Banpfylde's rmnuscript was later "polished" by the Rev. S. from 25 July to 11 October, 1979. Vogel filwd the pollination of I Baring-Gould, a professional writer whose son WLS also in the Sarawak Itmrdica (Cucurb.); its flow produce no nectar but oil, which is foraged Service. When the intended mblisher. Hem--~- Sotheran- ---~ & Co..- balked at specialized bees of Cteno lectra. Weber studied Gesneriaceae bearing the risk, Charles a&;& to b&c th;! cost of print&: The and other forest herbs, cmenciati& on shtand inflorescence mxphology resulting vole, entitled A History of Sarawak Under-The l&White Rajahs of Mmophyllaea. They collected about 200 specimens. (Landon, 1908), in fact dealt in sane detail with the reigns of both James and Charles, seniw as the official history of Sarawak. As far as hies Sarawak News was concerned, it fgstered the idea of the "strong man" wto had saved the Raj during the dark days of the Chinese rebellion and the ''Malay Plot". At MICHAEL LEIGH, Gavenrment Department, University of Sydney, has completed a the.same time it diminished the role of Charles' older brother, Joh Brooke tlnree-year secorubmt -king with the Yayasan Ih-lh Sosial (Social Jobon (better horn as Brooke Brooke), who bore a mjor share of the adndni. Science Foundation of Indonesia). For the past year he has been the Social stration fram 1857 and seaned certain to succeed their uncle as Raiah. Science Mser/Australian Project Leader for the program for development Together with the biographies of James by Gertrude Jacob and spensk St. John of the social sciences. Previously, he taught at the Social Science Research 1 Sarawak Under The lh Wte Rajahs established the orthodox view of the first Training Stations in Jakarta and Aceh. Part of the expanded program has seventv vears of Brooke rule: a dew which was not substantiallv mdified bv- involved training programs and research supervision for staff at Universitas I the appearance of Sir Steven Runcinnn's officially wmissionededlheWhite Rajahs in 1960. Tanjungpura, Pontianak. I RIQWD SCHWENK, fonnerly missionary/rural sociologist mrking in the Upper I Colin Crisswell's writing is very rmch within the tradition of the "court" Rejang, is now CEED Director, Philippine Christian University. His complete I historians. He is a skilled stylist wb is clearlymre interested in address is Taft Avenue Corner, Pedro Gil Street. P.O. Box 907, Maxila, Philippines., charming the general reader than in offering a serious cantribtion to the 1 reinterpretation of Sarawak history comnenced by Robert F'ringle and Craig Lockard. His prose sometimes verges on the purple, as in this evocation of I the jungle: BOOK REVIEWS, ABSTRACTS j Jittle sunshine filters through the gloom of the forest & BIBLIOGRAPHY floor, where the silence is only broken by the cackle of a hornbill and the chorus of cicadas at sunset (p. 6). COliIl N. Crisswell. Rajah Charles Brooke: Monarch of All He Surveyed, The tanptation to clwell on the exotidi- of Borneo and its inhabitants has Kuala Znaqnn, Oxford University Press, 1978, pp . 253. cladyet another writer. Homwer, it can only add to the book's popularit) I One of the laws of book reviewing is not to take an auth to task for From an acadgnic point of view, Crisswell's generally uncritical attitude is failing to do things he had no intention of doing, of not writing the book exemplified in his acceptance of the ortbodox early history of the Raj. As that the reviewer would have written. The problen for the acaddc reviewer GrhSamders has pointed out, 's attairwent of the gownmat of Colin Crisswell's biography of Charles Brooke is tht in spite of the author I of Sarawak was largely ensured with the assistance of ship's cannon. And to expectations aroused, it is onlyrnarginally an acadenic work. The lllaintain that James' main asset in his subsequent efforts to secure his positi tells us at the outset that alttmgh "not a great deal of primary material was his personality is to overlook the absolutely crucial role of relating directly to hls life has survived," he has made good use of the I captains greedy for pirate-my. Wle he cites F'ringle's Rajahs and Rebels Public Record Off ice and the Sarawak keum for his sources. In fact, from time to time, Crisswsll eclmes Charles Ekooke's own account of his milita howwer. he has not consulted a vast body of original renuscript material I -62-

exploits in Ten Years in Sarawak. Cbarles is alldto reflect at one 1 that the limited resources of the Brooke govenm?nt deit essential to point on the loss of innocent lives at the hands of his barely controllable ~ adopt (sic) local behaviour, like the lave of war and head hunting, to his Iban forces, but for the mst part the narrative celebrates his derring-do own ends." The Brookes were praptists, it is true, but Crisswell wants witht asking too many questions about the ultimate purpose. Crisswell 1 to mke a virtue of necessity by describing than as " . . . mre ethical and certainly mre successful than the other Europeans wbtried to came writes of separating &lays from Ibans "in order to free the latter from I undue Malay influence." The reality was that the traditional alliance themselves a kFngdom in the east . . . " A mre interesting idea which he between Way leaders and Ibans in the Second Division had to be broken off deals with only fleetingly is that Charles actually eferred the values of if Brooke power was to be sustained. James himself had earlier written: "If Iban society to tbse of his om. Had it not been hsenceof both his uncle and his brother in Ehgland in 1858, he ddhave built his om left to my own resources, I wt become chief of the Lhyaks . . . " Nor does Crisswell seen to have taken account of Pringle's reinterpretation of longhouse in the %ang and lived there Iban-style with his follo=s. the '%lay Plot" and his narrative of wents is less than cleat at this point. Charles' military success, significantly enough, ws attributed by the Ibans to his conmmhn with their of war. The fascinating thing about Not only does the book not provide a critical account of Charles Brooke's Charles Brooke is that he very nearly 'htnative". public career, it does little to reveal the "inner man". Charles ' appre- ciation of comely Iban "wenches" is noted and &isswell suggests that he Colin Crisswell's celebration of Charles Brooke will be read with pleasure probably had at least one illegitirrate child by a native mistress. In fact by many people and it is a useful addition to the general literature on the Rhodes House records rweal that he had a series of sundek or native Sarawak, but it is difficult to avoid concluding that he lost an opportunity concubines while he was stationed as Resident at Sirrangang, one of whom to come to grips with by far the mst interesting of the three White Rajahs. produced a son later baptized by the local S.P.G. missionary as Isaka Brooke. (R. H. W. Reece, St. Antony's College, Oxford) When Ranee t%rgaret came to Sarawak for the first time in 1870, she diswvered Isaka (or Esca as hews later lamwn) at Shmggang and took him back to wing, D.M., W. Chin, and E. R. Lkhgley, eds. Kinabalu, Summit of Borneo, England wtElre he was fostered by the rector of Sheepstor in Dewn, the Rev. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, E.kilaysia, The Sabah Society, 1978, pp. 482. W. Y. Daykin. He was later taken to Canada and it was frcxn there in 1927 that he mde a son-mht ill-judged claim to the succession. Charles Brooke's The wwd 'Xinabalu" may nrean "Chinese widow" (or) "solitary father" (p. 31), willingness for Isaka to be whisked off to England contrasted oddly with his according to the late Tom Harrisson in an entertaining introductory chapter. published opinion a few years earlier that interunrriage between Fmopeans Following this, D. V. Jenkins slnns up "the first hundred years" after the and natives of Chinese would ultimately produce a group of people better ascent by Low in 1851: an account of 53 visits by 47 references. adapted than Europeans to develop Sarawak' s resources. Mine sediments deposited in were uplifted; what erosion left This information is offexed not to tarnish the reputation of a tnily extra- is now the Crocker Range. Under it, amass of map intruded and solidified; ordinary mn but to indicate that there is a good deal more Mornntion avail- one to tsm million years ago it began to rise 5 mn a year. This became Mt. able on the Second Rajah's personal life than Colin Crisswell has been able Kinabalu, the solitary muntain with its broad, jagged mmmit, its highest to consult. RMes House's collection of his correspondence could have been point 4175 m. Ibing the Pleistocene, 5 sq. km. of the scmnit was under ice, used to answer soroe of the meinteresting questions posed about his career. except the steepest peaks which protruded as 'hunataks". The ice left a For qle,his relationship with his brother and his uncle is crucial to an mraine at 3100 m, not far from Pakka Cave. The Pksuk Plateau lower dotn understanding of kw he became Rajah. His own parents accused him of disloyalty was overrun by mixed gravels. The rock of the lwel sMmit plateau is still and Crisswell does not produce any evidence that Charles interceded on his peeling off in flakes; this is tbught to be an after-effect of the stress brother's behalf. Charles was the happy beneficiary of his brother's drawtic inside the rock during the uplift. The wt-ole process is neatly explained falling out with their uncle and a biography sbuld clarL£y what appears to have by L. C. Myers, altbugh his timing is much at variance with the one supplied been a case of personal opportunism. Perbps this explains the coolness which by geologist C. Jacobson on p. 104. The original crystalline basenat, tsm Baroness Burdett-Coutts and Spenser St. John shdtowards him. kleswas , main crops of ultra-basic rock and some porphyry are beside the big dome of aman of action, no doubt, and possessed ranarkable physical courage, but his hornblende adamellite. isolated up-country life helpfully isolated him fran the court politics of I Kuching and his brother's agonized efforts to prevent James from selling off E. J. H. Comer' s paper on Plant Life covers pages 112-178. He led the Sarawk to the highest bidder. Bmoke Brooke's own correspondence ddalso ! Ibyal Society Expedition in 1961, and revisited the n-rnmtain three years offer a useful corrective to the ortbdox version of wents. I later. Sure enough, he established 78 species of Ficus for the rmuntain, 13 of than endemic, out of 135 for the wt-ole of Bo5. The genus reaches The one line of critical argment which can be detected in what is a predomi- I its altitudinal record here at 10,600 feet (3200 m). In an animated manner nantly descriptive narrative has to do with the name of Brooke rule and it he discusses this group, and myotks, viz. herbs (16 items), Nepenthes, is hwe that academic readers will take mst heed. Colin Crisswell's belief parasitic f1mi.t-g plants (4 items), Rubus, cormvm trees and shrubs (13 is that Charles responded to circlnnstances " . . . wtere he had little option items), and other plants of particular interest (22 iteus). but to dormgenerally with traditional practice . . . " Charles ". . realized Niwlaisen, Johannes, "Penan Death-names," The Sarawak Fbseum Journal, P. F. Cockburn in a paper on the flora (pp. 179-190) briefly discusses Vol. 26, No. 47, July/Dec. 1978, pp. 29-41. the zones, one of than ultrabasic, as if this were an altitudinal feature. Some typical plants are named; mst noticeable are the fine pen drawings The author studied the Penan of the 7th Division in 1973 and 1975. Death by Ms. ChFn Pak Hau. R. E..Holttum's paper on ferns (pp. 199-210) expertly names are, as defined by &hey New: "terms which are applied to 9 categories in popular terms; it is somaJf7at raniniscent of his chapter dvingrelatives of adeceased person and which divide these into a 13 in Verdoom's bnml of Pteridology (1938). In a paper by A. Lamb and herof categories according to their relationship to that person." They C. L. Ckn on orchids @p. 219-252), some fantastic ideas about vegetation are given to the relatives of the deceased imnediately on his death and history are set forth, together with chatty notes on genera and species; thse who get death names rmst be referred to and addressed only by their there may be in Kinabalu Park "a th;xlsand species, if mt mre." death names during the mxrrning period. The auth gives an imrentory of 'the 43 death names he found, and he gives short descriptions and an analysis The zoological part seans particular1 infonmtive as it contains a of the Penan's burial customs and taboos durkg the mumhg period. He Checklist of the Wltterflies (345 sp.7, of Fishes (32 sp.), of Frogs and also attempts to explain the reason for the use of the death names, in Toads (43 sp. , none endmic, with ecological notes). As for the birds, connection with the atteupt to keep away evil spirits. %hies eives notes to some 80 soecies. rnrmbered in accordance with his ~&dsof &ma; also a systemti; annofated checklist has been given of Nyandoh, R., "~ida~uhGawai Mpijog Rantau Festival for the First Clearing 289 species in 44 families, 254 are resident, 30 are migrants. For the Sarawak too, of the Padi Fields," The M.seran Joumal, Vol. 26, No. 47, July/Dec. -11 mmmls, there is a checklist: 101 sp. , with indication of 1978, pp. 43-56. altitude and preference (113 on the ground, 213 in the canopy). There is only one big cat, Felis aalensis. A chief purpose of this festival, which lasted three days in July 1977 ws to bmc the spirit, Pulang Gana, I&D is the creator of the lands and the Kimbalu National Park, gazetted in 1964, now occupies 301 sq. mi. (c. 750 rivers, and to ask from him permission to mike use of part of the land for sq. h.),me than the land area of Singapore Island, and now receives the current year's rice fields. Other purposes surmised by the author are about 10,000 visitors annually. In 1972, an addition was made of 26 sq. mi. the placating of other spirits and various blessings. He also described around Mt. Templer (1200 m) in the little-- North, but 25 sq. mi. were the process, with detailed descriptions of the kind and mount of offerings, excised in the Southeast to mrk a deposit of 77 million tons of copper ore. and the different procedures and on each day and night. A dam was mde at 1% Irm from the mine to keep the tailings produced by the flotation mrks at bt. The lifetime of the mine has been estirrated at Rousseau, J&&, 'Xayan Stratification," E, Vol. 14, No. 2, June 1979, 15 years, "and problans could arise if there is no alternative employment pp. 215-236. for those people wtm have changed their traditional way of life" (p. 83). In the 1950s, vegetable cultivation was introduced at Panau (1300 m) ; this It is generally asdthat simple societies with subsistence ecdes cut into the forest in various places. In 1972, the road connection between cannot have social classes, but only status levels. Contrary to that view, Kota Kinabalu, Ranau (pop. 2000) and Sandakan ws completed. an analysis of Kayan social organization denrmstrates that this group of central Borneo shifting cultivators is differentiated not only into three The book ends with biographical notes on the 18 collaborators, a list of classes but, since the intermediate class is split, into four status levels, publications not mentioned in the foregoing papers (103 titles), a list of or strata. These four hereditary strata establish the basis of the political prices for visitors (address of the Warden: Box 626, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. structure and of the deof production. Mwbers of one stram (the marens) Malaysia), and an index. (reprinted by kind pamission of Dr. M. Jacobs, have a mpoly wer chieftainship. They receive curvees frcm mmmners Editor, Flora Malesiana Bulletin, Number 33, July 1980, pp. 3448-3449). (hipuys and pnyins), and control the surplus labor of slaves (dipens). Classes and status levels are thus not mtually exclusive. Ch the contrary, Nababan, P. W. J. '," IN Papers on Southeast Asian the presence of fmllydefined strata is an important elenent of some class bnguages: An Introduction to the Languages of Indonesia, Wilaysia, the structures. For instance, the differentiation of cnrmmers into tm strata Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, Teodoro A. Z;Lamzon, ed., Singapore, is a hmdmmtal feature of the Kayan systm, which contributes to maintaining University Press, 1919. its stability. This article is based on research carried out in 1970-72 and 1974 in the Baluy area of Sarawak, and particularly in the village of Una Bawar This paper attgnpts to give an averview of the language situation in Indo- nesia. It provides a brief survey of the rnrmericallymre important languages, Rubenstein, Carol, The Honey Tree Song: Poems, Cbants, and Epics of Sarawak indudkg population figures, and some ramrks on language relationships and Dayaks, Athens, Ohio, Ohio University Press, 1981. dti-lingualism. The paper dmtes three pages totla discussion of the "chzacteristic structures of Indonesian languages, confined largely to an The original work was done during 1971-74 while Ms. Rubenstein was sponsored ernnneration of Malay-Mimngkabau phonological correspondences. In a concluding by the Ford Foundation. Songs, chants, song-cycles and epics, secular and section, the author discusses the "socioculttral context" of Indonesian religious, all previously unrecorded or transcribed, were collected and languages, with special wphasis on language contact and interference. A table is included listing 32 larfuafes in use in Indonesia together with approhte populations according to t e 971 census. translated in a life-cycle fomt within each of the seven major groups: research on which this account of the pelian bejereki is based was rrade Iban, Bidayuh, Fklanau, Kelabit, Kenyah, Kayan, and Penan. possible though the assistance of the Mthsonian Institution Urgent Anthro- pology Small Grants Program. The pelian text recorded here was collected The airnuas to find out the real and often complex meanings of the pens from a senior, fully consecrated shaman (mananq mansau). The paper contains in the song-language of ~achgroup, which was usually vastly different from the full text with wlish translation. the colloquial speech of each group, or that generally used in folktales, and to present the poems in an version, line by line as Sather, Clifford. "Iban Folk Mycology," The SarawakK~~emJournal. Vol. 26, mch as possible, which was faithful to the original in image, rhetoric, No. 47, July/Dec. 1978, pp. 81-102. voice, intent, mod, and nuance. It was additionally necessary to contex- tualize the poem, identify and explain obscure hges and mds, and docu- This paper concerns lban ethnomywlogy , i.e. , the way in which the Iban mt background. classify and deal with the locally occurring fungi, or kulat. It is based on research carried out in three field sessions in 1977-78 in the Second Divisio~ The content ranges from lullabies to dirges, including chants of initiation, of Sarawak. The vernacular names applied to the fimga varieties are tbse of songs of courtship, battle, laeadtnmting, journeying, working, hunting, the Saribas Iban, altbugh alternative names are given where these are hm. farming, sichess, healing, and the hereafter, as well as several song-cycles As far as possible, the author has tried to give scientific identifications o: and epics in complete form. Iban fungal taxa. The auth gives descriptions of the 65 specific varieties of firngi that are distinguished by name locally, followed by an acmt of th~ The first result of the research was the tm-volune Special Kmograph No. 2, practical value and mre abstract cultural associations of the fungi general11 Poems of Indigenous Peoples of Saramk: Same of the Songs and Chants, Parts BIBLIOGRAPHY and 2, Sarakak H.~seum Journal, Vol. 21, No. 42, appearing-in 1Y/5, pub- I lishedby the Sarawak hseum with a grant additionally pronded by the Ford A. J.U., 1977. "Sago and Nutrition in Sarawak," Sarawak Pbsem Foundation. Both the indigenous-language and the English-language versions Anderson, are included. Journal, No. 25, pp. 71-80. Annual Report, Sinaut Agricultural Training Centre, 1980, Tutong, Brunei, The second result of the research is the revised vession, published by Sinaut-- ~- Amicultural~- Traih- Centre. Ohio University Press in 1981, entitled The Honey Tree Song: Poans, Chants, Reemn, ~ereL,1979. "Severed Gads that Germinate," Dl R. H. Hook, ed. , and Epics of Sarawak Dayaks. Wch new exposition is included. Only thft Fantasy and Symbol, Acaddc Press, pp. 233-246. ish language versions are given, a large selection reorganized witha Elrtaao, J. I., lY/Y. "The Status and Future of the Tropical %ist Forest 2e-cycle fomt (excepting the long sng-cycles and epics, which comprise in Southeast Asia," IN Colin &cAndrews and L. S. Chia, eds., Developing a separate section: The Renong song-cycle of the Iban; the Brayun song-cycle Economics-..-- and The- Envirmt: The Southeast Asian Experience, McGraw- of the Bidayuh, and three Kelabit epics--8alang Qpanq, Adi, Song of dqan, fill, pp. 13-LLU. ad the Sang of Tukad Rini.) Jacobs, M. , 1978. "Forests for People . . . mce?" Tiger Paper 5(4), pp. 25-! Kalkman, C. , 1979. "The Rijksherbarim, In Past and Present," Blm25, Each section is introduced by an explanatory article, relating the songs pp. 13-26. within to their Dayak contexts. The Introduction, in fourteen sections, Kiew, Ruth, 1979. "New Species and Records of Iguanura (Palme) from Saramk including a brid Bibliography, describes the &mt and translation and Thailand." Kew Bulletin 34. m. 143-5. process, along with the background and events leading up to the project and King, Victor T., 1979. "Research & kmt+ds in West Kaljnnntan (Westen the years following its completion. Seven individual articles describe each Indonesian Borneo)," Billetin of the International Ccrrmit of the original expeditions and groups in detail. Photos and a map are also Anthropological and Ethlogical Research, Vienna, Fb. 21 provided. The book is introduced by tm Prefaces: Preface 1 by Jerome Cognatic Societies: Scme Rothenberg relates to Ethmpoetics, the study of oral literature in and out of its natural setting; Preface 2 by Vinson Sutlive relates to Anthropology Kinabalu," Sabah National Parks and the real Dayak wrld, as dfested in song and celebrations he has Publication No. 2, pp. 1-80. experienced. The cover is an original Kayan painting in traditional style Larsen, K.. and S. S. Larsen. 1978. "huhinia dewitii, A New Bornean Species by Jok Bato. The book is approxiuntely 700 pages. Gkrd.'Bull. S' . 31, pp. 1-3. Laubenfels, D. J. dy1979. "The Species of Agathis (kaucariaceae) of Borneo," Blumea 25, pp. 531-541. sandin, Benedict,'The~eiianBejereki: Iban rite of fencing bcAndrews. Colin and L. S. Chis, 1979. Developing Economics and the Fsnriwn- an expectant rother," The Sarawak hem Journal, Vol. 26, No. 47, JulyfDec. ment: The Southeast Asian erience, &GrawW 1978. pp. 57-80 &habale, T. S., 19/8. "The Or3ot tk Cocomt,'?ke'Palwbtanist 25. pp. 238-246. The pelian bejereki is a rite traditionally conducted by the Iban mananq, or sm,to protect an expectant mmm from possible miscarriage. The &her-Hmii. V. M.. 1979. "Distribution of the Diuterocaruaceae: Some and so forth. Research Notes differ from other contributions in that ~h~&~k~ra~h&Considerations on India, " ~h;tocoenilo~ia6, pp . 65-93. the material cwered should be based on original research or the use Pbldenke. H. N.. 1979. "Mtes on New and Notmrthv Plants." CXXIV. of judgment, experience and personal knowledge on the part of the ~hytolo~ia.43,p. 222. author in the preparation of the material so that an original conclu- , 1979. "Sane Navelties sion is reached. Mmre. H. E.. Jr.. 1979. 'mmt -. &I P&," Fknci es 23, ppT 47-64. Brief Gmmmications: These differ from the foregoing in that no Dransfield, 1979. 'The mi£ication of Wnnsean conclusions are drawn nor anv data included based on original Palms." Taxon 28. DD. 59-70. resW&rch. They also differ in consisting primarily of a statanen: of Rousseau, J&&, 1980." "Iban Inequality," Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- research intentions or a sumtry of news, either derived frm private en Volkenkunde, pp. 52-63. sources or surrmarized from itam appearing in other places that may Smith, J. M. B. , 19/9. "Vegetation Recovery frm Drought on Mt. Kinabalu, not be readily accessible to the readers of the Bulletin but which (North Borneo)," Mal. Nat. J. 32, pp. 341-2. have an interest and relevance for them. They mil~cludedwith the contributor's name in parentheses following the iten to indicate THE BORNEO RESEARCH COWIL (contd. from p . 2) the source. Smmries of news longer than one or tm paragraphs will appear with the contributor's name under the title and prefaced by of the Council also include providing counsel and assistance to research "From'". endeavors, conservation activities, and the practical application of research results. 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