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The Cold War, Human Rights, and Ethnicity in US-Turkish Relations

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The Cold War, Human Rights, and Ethnicity in US-Turkish Relations "Armed Minorities": The Cold War, Human Rights, and Ethnicity in U.S.-Turkish Relations Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By James C. Helicke, B.S., M.A. Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2015 Dissertation Committee: Professor Peter L. Hahn, Advisor Professor Jane Hathaway Professor Jennifer Siegel Copyright by James C. Helicke 2015 All Rights Reserved. ii Abstract This dissertation examines international and domestic debates about minorities in Turkey—Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and Kurds—during the first decade of the Cold War, 1945-1955. It argues that lingering problems of ethnic identity and minorities formed an important backdrop to the emergence of the Cold War in the Middle East in a way that American officials sometimes failed to understand fully. International Cold War political intrigues also added urgency and complexity to Turkish official and public attitudes toward minorities, related views of human rights, and formulations of security. As the Kemalist regime consolidated power in Turkey in the interwar period, U.S. official attitudes gradually perceived minority problems as potentially disruptive of American business and strategic interests. As U.S. policymakers stressed the growing threat of global communism and the importance of the Straits after the Second World War, many Turks saw an existential threat in Soviet territorial claims on Turkey that were backed by foreign Armenians and Kurds at the new United Nations. Minority questions were also drawn into the postwar debates over the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Genocide Convention. The fact that the term “genocide” first came into currency in the immediate postwar period reinforced Turkey’s association of the Armenian Genocide with Soviet territorial claims. U.S. diplomats dismissed international criticism of Turkey and emphasized Turkey’s national unity as essential to American interests. ii Turkey’s government also advanced a new vision of minorities that synthesized Turkish nationalism, international human rights discourse, and the fight against communism. The election of an American citizen, Athenagoras I, as Ecumenical Patriarch embodied that new, but problematic synthesis. Athenagoras’ efforts to insert himself into global Cold War politics by vying for influence over Orthodox churches in the Middle East and Eastern Europe also drew criticism from Turkish nationalists and some American officials who thought his pro-Americanism went too far. Simultaneous with its decision to send troops to Korea and its bid for NATO membership, Turkey was forced to deal with the mass influx of ethnic Turks expelled from Bulgaria. A growing Turkish nationalist emphasis on the plight of ethnic Turks abroad infused Turkish conceptualizations of human rights and its position toward self- determination for Cyprus. Tensions between Greece and Turkey over Cyprus spilled over into a devastating 1955 anti-minority riot and signaled the endurance of minority problems for the U.S.-Turkish partnership. iii For Melisa, Nurcan, Mary, and Jeanne. iv Acknowledgments Many people deserve credit for the completion of this dissertation. Foremost, I thank Profs. Peter L. Hahn, Robert J. McMahon, Jane Hathaway and Jennifer Siegel, all of whom enriched this project and my understanding of history. Not only did they all inspire my intellectual formation and provide invaluable feedback on this dissertation, each helped me to overcome obstacles that I encountered throughout my graduate school career. Funding from the Mershon Center for International Security Studies and the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation enabled research trips that were essential to this dissertation. The views and limitations of this study belong to the author alone. Special thanks are due to colleagues at Skidmore College, especially Ruth Copans, Lori Acee, Sandra Brown, Andy Krzystyniak, Kevin Giampa, and Barbara Norelli in the Scribner Library. William Mellon helped me with the preparation of my bibliography and citations. Carol Goody, Susan Matrazzo, Michael Marx, Mehmet Odekon, Pushkala Prasad, Paty Rubio, and Erica Bastress-Dukehart also helped me along the way. Atilla Aydın helped me to navigate the archives in Ankara and Paula Nicolella helped to solve a last minute technical glitch. Many friends and family members in Turkey and the United States have offered support and made this endeavor easier to handle. They include Ekrem Atalan, Nuriye v Atalan, Yusuf Atalan, Nurdan Çayırezmez, Mehmet Çayırezmez, Nicolas Cheviron, Nilgün Tutal, Nedra Stimpfle, Amy Frappier, Brian Frappier, Levent Sayan, and Emine Kuzutürk. Catalina Hunt and Garrett Hunt deserve much more than a line of their own, not only for intellectual stimulation, valuable suggestions, and encouragement, but also for occasionally housing and feeding me. My parents, James A. Helicke and Mary E. Helicke, not only fostered my interest in international affairs, but have encouraged me to kindle the curiosity of my daughter, Melisa. Above all, I would like to thank Melisa and Nurcan for their enduring patience, inspiration, and love. Melisa’s inquisitiveness and Nurcan’s intellect not only motivated me as I wrote this study, but their flexibility and endurance are also the reason that I could finish it. vi Vita 1998...........................................B.S. Foreign Service, Georgetown University 2001...........................................M.A. International Relations, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey 2001-2005 .................................Reporter, Associated Press, Istanbul, Turkey 2006-2007.................................Public Diplomacy Officer, U.S. Department of State, Iraq 2008-2014................................ Teaching Associate, Department of History, The Ohio State University 2011-present............................Lecturer, Skidmore College Publications "Turkey’s Accession to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 1945-52: A Qualified Success?" in Melissa Yeager and Charles Carter (eds.), Pacts and Alliances in History: Diplomatic Strategies and the Politics of Coalitions, London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2012. "Turks in Germany: Muslim Identity 'Between' States." in Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Jane I. Smith (eds.), Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible. Oxford: Altamira Press, 2002. Fields of Study Major Field: History vii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v Vita .................................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………….x Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: “An Unhealed Wound Both Painful and Exposed to Infection”: The United States and Minorities in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey through the Second World War ............................................................................................................ 17 Chapter 2: “Triangle of Intrigue”: Turkey, the United States, and Soviet, Armenian, and Kurdish Territorial Claims, 1945-1946............................................................................. 76 Chapter 3: “Who still talks nowadays of the extermination of the Armenians?” The Truman Doctrine, Turkish Nationalism, Human Rights, and Genocide, 1946-1950 ..... 130 Chapter 4: “Byzantine Intrigues," "Legitimate U.S. Interests," and the "Nylon Patriarch": Cold War Politics and the Ecumenical Patriarchate, 1945-1955 .................................... 189 viii Chapter 5: “A Flagrant Violation of the United Nations’ Declaration of Human Rights”: The Plight of Ethnic Turks Abroad, Communism, and Minorities in Turkey, 1950-1955 ......................................................................................................................................... 242 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 305 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………312 A ix List of Figures Figure 1: Administrative Map of Turkey and Contemporary Neighbors......................28 x Introduction The Sèvres Syndrome, Minorities and the Cold War In Turkish eyes, the Patriarchate is at best an anomaly—an unwelcome reminder of both the historic enmity with Greece and of the capitulations; at worst, a pro- Greek conspiracy supported in its evil machinations by Moscow and Western Christendom. – Fletcher Warren, U.S. Ambassador to Turkey, April 10, 1958. 1 In December 2004, I was assigned to write a news story as a reporter for the Associated Press. The story was about a minor diplomatic imbroglio between Turkey and the United States that revolved around the arcane question of whether Istanbul-based Orthodox Patriarch Bartholomew I was “Ecumenical Patriarch” or not. For those not so familiar with Turkey, the question might seem an inconsequential matter left to churchmen, not diplomats. Yet, for many Turks, it was an international scandal: The Turkish government
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