David IanLightbody Old KingdomPyramids Encircling Symbolismin the Cartouche and On theOriginsof

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c A c Archaeopress Publishing Ltd Summertown Pavilion 18-24 Middle Way Summertown Oxford OX2 7LG www.archaeopress.com

ISBN 978-1-78969-657-8 ISBN 978-1-78969-658-5 (e-Pdf)

© David Ian Lightbody and Archaeopress 2020

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owners.

This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.com Frontispiece (above). Representation of a “cosmic frame” panel inscribed on a travertine/ (J\SWLDQDODEDVWHUMDUGHGLFDWHGWR3HSL,0HU\UHRQWKHRFFDVLRQRI KLVÀUVWKHEVHG (gyptian Museum Berlin, ÄM 7715). The text reads, from right column to left and from top to bottom: ´7KHEHDXWLIXOS\UDPLGRI 3HSLLVHQGXULQJWKHOLYLQJ+RUXVEHORYHGRI WKHWZRODQGVnswt-bity, 3HSLVRQRI 5H$QRIIHULQJRI QHYHUHQGLQJHQFLUFOLQJSURWHFWLRQOLIHDQGGRPLQLRQJLYHQOLIH VWDELOLW\DQGGRPLQLRQIRUHYHU2QWKHRFFDVLRQRI WKHÀUVWKHEVHGµ7KLVSDQHOGHPRQVWUDWHV the close relationship between the pharaoh’s names, cults, and architecture. The architectural aspect is manifested by the palace façade serekh and by the name of the pyramid. The symbolism of the piece alludes to the dual eternal and ephemeral nature of the pharaoh, and the vessel would have been used in the pharaoh’s cult at the new pyramid complex. It was found in his mortuary temple LQ6RXWK6DTTDUD '/LJKWERG\  Cover image.+LHURJO\SKVZLWKLQDVKHQULQJSnnt mr Hwt-nTr; stating that “[This] pyramid and temple are encircled”. The text is from Pyramid Text PT 534 §1277, found at the entrance to the pyramid of 3HSL,0HU\UHLQ6RXWK6DTTDUD '/LJKWERG\ 

Contents

Figures Page 2 Conventions Page 4 Abbreviations Page 5 Acknowledgements Page 6

Foreword Page 7 Introduction Page 9

Architectural expressions of encircling symbolism

(DUO\'\QDVWLF3HULRG G\QDVWLHV2QHDQG7ZR   3DJH 7KLUG'\QDVW\3DJH )RXUWK'\QDVW\3DJH )LIWK'\QDVW\3DJH 6L[WK'\QDVW\3DJH /DWHUNLQJGRPV3DJH Conclusions Page 67

Glossary Page 68 Catalogue Page 69 Addendum: A mathematical note Page 80 Bibliography Page 84 Index Page 90 2 Lightbody

Figures

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After the introduction, the text and chapters of this book are arranged in chronological order. The illustrations of the relevant artifacts and monuments are distributed through the text and are numbered according to the dynasty in which the piece or building was created, and then by the RUGHULQZKLFKWKHLWHPLVGLVFXVVHGLQWKHFKDSWHU)RUH[DPSOH )LJXUH UHIHUVWRLWHPLQ the chapter covering dynasty 2. The depictions, therefore, correspond rigorously to the sections covering the dynasty in which the subject matter was created. Towards the end of the book is an DGGLWLRQDOVHFWLRQLOOXVWUDWLQJDQGGLVFXVVLQJUHODWHGDUWLIDFWVIURPWKH0LGGOHDQG1HZ.LQJGRPV 7KHVHODWHUH[DPSOHVZKLFKZHUHQRWFUHDWHGGXULQJG\QDVWLHVWKDWDUHWKHIRFXVRI WKLVVWXG\ DOOKDYHDVWKHÀUVWGLJLWLQWKHELSDUWLWHÀJXUHFRGH7KDWQXPEHUGRHVQRWDFWXDOO\UHIHUWRG\QDVW\ DQGLVRQO\XVHGWRPDLQWDLQFKURQRORJLFDORUGHU7KHWDEOHRI ÀJXUHVRQWKHSUHYLRXVWZRSDJHV VHWVRXWWKHWLWOHVRI WKHLOOXVWUDWLRQVWKHRUGHULQZKLFKWKH\DSSHDUDQGWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJÀJXUH numbers. 7KHDFURQ\PV%&DQG$'DUHXVHGWKURXJKRXW7KLVLVWKHDXWKRU·VSUHIHUHQFHGXHWRWKHIRUFH of habit, and it is retained on the basis that C.E. and B.C.E. seem to lack some degree of clarity, and take up more space on the pages and in tables. The terms “pharaoh” and “pharaonic” are used extensively in this work to refer to the rulers of 8SSHUDQG/RZHU(J\SWDQGWKHLUFXOWXUHIRUWKHZKROHG\QDVWLFHUD7KH(J\SWLDQURRWVRI WKH English word pharaoh, pr-a3´JUHDWKRXVHµZHUHQRWXVHGWRUHIHUWRDSHUVRQXQWLOWKH1HZ .LQJGRPDQGVRUHIHUULQJWRWKHUXOHUDVD´SKDUDRKµRUDQ\WKLQJDV´SKDUDRQLFµPD\QRWVHHP DSSURSULDWHIRUWKH2OG.LQJGRPSHULRG7KHDOWHUQDWLYH(QJOLVKZRUG´NLQJµKRZHYHUZDVQHYHU used to refer to any Egyptian ruler during Antiquity. As will be discussed in this current work, the ancient Egyptian system of leadership was intimately tied to the landscape, history, and culture of WKHORZHU1LOH9DOOH\LQDZD\WKDWGLGQRWDSSO\LQRWKHUUHJLRQV7KHXVHRI DXQLTXHWHUPWKDW has its roots in ancient Egypt, and which alludes to the architecture of ancient Egypt as well as the Egyptian ruler, means that the word “pharaoh” is most appropriate for the current context. The ZRUG´SKDUDRQLFµUHIHUVWRWKHXQLTXHRUJDQL]DWLRQDOV\VWHPLQZKLFKWKH´SKDUDRKµH[LVWHG Encircling Symbolism 5

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AIA Archaeological Institute of America. ASAE Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte. $8& American University in Cairo. BIFAO Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale. BiOr Bibliotheca Orientalis. BMFA Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts. BSAE British School of Archaeology in Egypt. CAJ Cambridge Archaeological Journal. '( Discussions in Egyptology. EES Egypt Exploration Society. GM Göttinger Miszellen. IFAO l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale. JAEA Journal of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. -1(6 Journal of Near Eastern Studies. JSSEA Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities. 0'$,. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo. 0'2* Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, Berlin/Leipzig. OMRO Oudheidkundige mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden. PM 3RUWHU%DQG0RVV57RSRJUDSKLFDO%LEOLRJUDSK\2[IRUG*ULIÀWK,QVWLWXWH ZÄS Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde.

6 Lightbody

Acknowledgements

This work could not have been completed without the help of many friends and colleagues over the last decade. They have helped me collect and understand information relating to this new study of the ancient world. In particular, I want to thank Amy Wilson, Franck Monnier, Jon Bodsworth, $QNH:HEEHU$QJHOD0F'RQDOG5R]HQQ%DLOOHXO/H6XHUWKHODWH*OHQ'DVKWKHODWH(GZLQ& %URFN(GZDUG%URYDUVNL-DQQLN.RUWH.ULVWD0R\OV$QQH6Q\GHU3D\QHDQG.HLWK3D\QH%ULDQ $OP.DWH*LQJHOO+HOHQ0F'RQDOGDQGWKH2ULHQWDO,QVWLWXWHRIWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI &KLFDJRDQG /DZUHQFH%HUPDQDQGWKH0XVHXPRI )LQH$UWV%RVWRQ0RUHJHQHUDOO\,WKDQNDOOWKRVHVFKRODUV ZKRVHGLOLJHQWUHVHDUFKDQGÀHOGZRUNLQ(J\SWSURGXFHGWKHIRXQGDWLRQRI LQIRUPDWLRQRQZKLFK this current research was built. Many of those scholars are listed in the bibliography, but I would particularly like to single out William Matthew Flinders Petrie as a great inspiration for my research DQGIRUWKLVFXUUHQWVWXG\)LQDOO\,WKDQNP\ZLIH/LQGVD\IRUKHOSLQJPHHGLWWKHGRFXPHQWDQG ÀQGWKHWLPHDQGVSDFHUHTXLUHGWRFRPSOHWHLW ,WKDVEHHQWKHJUHDWHVWSULYLOHJHRI P\LQWHOOHFWXDOOLIHWRZRUNRQWKLVIDVFLQDWLQJVXEMHFW'XHWR WKHSRWHQWLDOVLJQLÀFDQFHRI WKHFRQFOXVLRQVGUDZQ,GHFLGHGWRVKDUHWKHSXEOLFDWLRQDVZLGHO\DV possible by publishing Open Access. I hope that this treatise is an adequate tribute to the ancient monument builders, to the many people who have helped me study them, and to all you readers who have decided to learn more about them. It is my sincere hope that you take the time to carefully evaluate all of the information presented here for yourselves, and that you enjoy the experience as much as I have. 7KLVERRNLVGHGLFDWHGWR&DUODQG&DUODQQH+HU]RJ·V&KULVWLDQERRNJURXSLQ9HUPRQWZKLFKKDV been particularly supportive of my ongoing research and publication efforts. 'DYLG,DQ/LJKWERG\3K'03KLO%(QJ +RQV 3*&(9HUPRQW Encircling Symbolism 7

Foreword

The subject of this publication is encircling symbolism in pharaonic monumental tomb architecture. 7KHVWXG\IRFXVHVRQWKH(DUO\'\QDVWLF3HULRGDQGWKH2OG.LQJGRPIURPWKHÀUVWG\QDVW\ WKURXJK WKHVL[WK G\QDVW\RI  DQFLHQW(J\SWLDQKLVWRU\'XULQJ WKDWWLPHHQFLUFOLQJV\PEROLVP EHFDPH PRVW LQÁXHQWLDO DQG ZDV GHYHORSHG PRVW VLJQLÀFDQWO\7KH FDUWRXFKH DOVR EHFDPH WKH SULQFLSDOV\PERORI WKHSKDUDRKIRUWKHÀUVWWLPH7KLVZRUNGHPRQVWUDWHVKRZWKHGHYHORSPHQW of the cartouche was closely related to the monumental encircling symbolism incorporated into the DUFKLWHFWXUDOGHVLJQVRIWKH2OG.LQJGRPS\UDPLGV 7KLVSXEOLFDWLRQEXLOGVRQDORQJWHUPUHVHDUFKSURMHFWWKDW,EHJDQLQDQGZKLFKLQWXUQ built on research and knowledge assembled by other scholars who worked on the subject during the 19th and 20th centuries. Far from being resolved or settled, the subject matter was still poorly XQGHUVWRRGZKHQ,ÀUVWHQFRXQWHUHGLWLQ,Q,SXEOLVKHGDPRQRJUDSK1 setting out my preliminary thoughts on the issue, which are more fully elucidated here with corrections and additions where necessary. 7KHÀUVWREMHFWLYHRI WKHUHSRUWZDVWRFRPSLOHDQGSXEOLVKWKHEDVLFDUFKDHRORJLFDOHYLGHQFH that was available at that time, predominantly in the form of linear measurements derived from standing building surveys. The second objective of the publication was to demonstrate how the data VHWDVVHPEOHGWKHUHVXSSRUWVWKHSURSRVDOWKDWWKHDQFLHQW(J\SWLDQVXWLOL]HGVSHFLDOGLPHQVLRQV and proportions2 to build their pharaonic monuments. As described below, some of the principal dimensions and proportions of the pharaonic tombs were based on the geometric properties of circles. The third objective of the 2008 study was to investigate the symbolic context of that architectonic tradition, in order to understand what it meant in the ancient Egyptian mind. All three RI WKRVHREMHFWLYHVZHUHPHWEXWZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHWKLUGREMHFWLYHWKHDQDO\VLVZDVVXSHUÀFLDO only hinting at what subsequently proved to be a deeply important pharaonic tradition. As will be discussed below, encircling symbolism was expressed simultaneously through multiple aspects of ancient Egyptian culture. It manifested through the ancient Egyptian language, through WKHLUVFULSWVLQWKHGHFRUDWLRQRI WKHLUMHZHOU\DQGÀQHYHVVHOVLQWKHLUDUFKLWHFWXUDOGHFRUDVZHOO DVLQWKHSULQFLSDOGLPHQVLRQVRI WKHLUPRVWVLJQLÀFDQWSKDUDRQLFPRQXPHQWV It was important to revisit this subject in a new and dedicated publication because it elucidates aspects of the early development of the abstract sciences and applied engineering, including architecture and math, in ancient Egypt.3'HVSLWHLWVLPSRUWDQFHWKHVXEMHFWDUHDKDVUHPDLQHG

1 D. Lightbody, ]‹rࢼ-m$ol0u1_b|;1|†u;ĸ$_;u1_-;oѲo]b1-Ѳ -1|vo=_-u-omb1bu1†Ѳ-u"‹l0oѲbvl, vol. S1852 (Oxford: Ar- 1_-;oru;vvubঞv_u1_-;oѴo]b1-Ѵ!;rou|vm|;um-ঞom-Ѵ";ub;vķƑƏƏѶőĺ Ƒ uorouঞombvmo|v‹mom‹lo†v‰b|_u-ঞoĺruorouঞombm-u|ou-u1_b|;1|†u;u;=;uv|o|_;u;Ѵ-ঞˆ;vr-ঞ-Ѵl-]mb|†7;vo=;Ѵ;- l;m|vo=|_;1olrovbঞomĺ$_;u;Ѵ-|;7l-]mb|†7;v1-m0;;Šru;vv;7-v-m†l;ub1-Ѵu-ঞo‰_;m|_;buѴ;m]|_vķ-u;-vķouˆoѴ†l;v -u;1-Ѵ1†Ѵ-|;7oul;-v†u;7-vm†l;ub1-Ѵˆ-Ѵ†;v-m71olr-u;7ĺ$_;ruorouঞom-Ѵu;Ѵ-ঞomv_brbvmo|CŠ;7|or-uঞ1†Ѵ-ul-]mb- |†7;vou7bl;mvbomvķ-m71-m0;u;ruo7†1;7-|7b@;u;m|v1-Ѵ;vĺ 3 mou7;u|o_;Ѵr7;ˆ;Ѵor-mor;m=ou†l‰_;u;r-r;uv=o1†vbm]om-m1b;m| ]‹rঞ-m-u1_b|;1|†u;1o†Ѵ70;v†0lb‚;7ķr;;uŊ reviewed, published, and discussed, I worked with Franck Monnier to establish the o†um-Ѳo=m1b;m| ]‹rࢼ-mu1_b|;1|†u;in 2016, and we were able to do this with the help of several professional and amateur colleagues. Paul François designed a bespoke online reading interface to make the peer reviewed studies available world-wide. See: $_;o†um-Ѳo=m1b;m| ]‹rࢼ-m u1_b|;1|†u; omѴbm; -|‰‰‰ĺ ]‹rঞ-mŊ-u1_b|;1|†u;ĺ1olĺ); 1omঞm†; |o l-bm|-bm |_;‰;0vb|; -m7 -vvo1b-|;7 vo1b-ѴŊl;7b- forum and volume 4 will be published in 2020. 8 Lightbody

confused,4 and at times even contentious,5 and the technical discussions lacked clarity.6 This updated publication presents and elaborates the hypothesis put forward by Petrie and others. It is hoped WKDWE\FRPSLOLQJDQGGHYHORSLQJWKHODWHVWDYDLODEOHLQIRUPDWLRQLQWRDQRUJDQL]HGDQGXVHIXO research report that the subject can be more readily appreciated by interested readers.7

4 In the late 19th1;m|†u‹ķ|_;bvv†;o=1bu1†Ѵ-uv‹l0oѴbvlbm|_;u;-|‹u-lb7‰-v|-h;m†r0‹|_;v|uomol;u!o‹-Ѵ=ou "1o|Ѵ-m7ķ_-uѴ;vb-ŒŒb"l‹|_ĺbv|_;oub;vom|_;l-‚;u‰;u;7bv|ou|;70‹_bvu;Ѵb]bo†v-m7m-ঞom-Ѵbv|0;Ѵb;=v-m7b|‰-v mo|†mঞѴ;|ub;Ľvv†uˆ;‹0;1-l;-ˆ-bѴ-0Ѵ;bmƐѶѶƒ|_-|lov|o="l‹|_Ľvb7;-v‰;u;;@;1ঞˆ;Ѵ‹7;0†mh;7ĺ"l‹|_Ľvr†0Ѵb1-ঞomv 1omঞm†;7 |o 1om=†v; |_; l-‚;u -m7 7bv1u;7b|;7 |_; bvv†; |o vol; ;Š|;m| bm |_; r†0Ѵb1 lbm7ĺ ;|ub; 7b7 ruoˆb7; - 1Ѵ;-u ;ŠrѴ-m-ঞomo=|_;-u1_b|;1|†u-Ѵr_;mol;mom-v_;v-‰b|ķ-m7|_;bvv†;‰-vu;_-0bѴb|-|;7|ovol;;Š|;m|0‹|_;lb7ŊƑƏth 1;m|†u‹ĺĺ ĺ"ĺ 7‰-u7v‰-vom;o=|_ov; ]‹r|oѴo]bv|v‰_o0uo-7Ѵ‹-11;r|;7;|ub;Ľv1om1Ѵ†vbomvom|_;l-‚;uĺ 5 At the end of the 20th century, the issue of circular symbolism in the architecture of the pyramids became one of the core bvv†;v7bv1†vv;77†ubm]|_;7;0-|;vv†uuo†m7bm]|_;1om|ub0†ঞomo==ub1-|o|_;7;ˆ;Ѵorl;m|o=|_;v1b;m1;vĺv;ub;vo= 1om|;mঞo†v-uঞ1Ѵ;v‰;u;r†0Ѵbv_;7-vr-u|o=|_;ľѴ-1h|_;m- ;0-|;Ŀķ=o1†vvbm]om|_;_‹ro|_;vbvr†0Ѵbv_;70‹-uঞm uo-vb-ࢼ1 !oo|v o= Ѳ-vvb1-Ѳ bˆbѲbŒ-ࢼom=;_$ث-Bernal, grandson of Egyptologist Alan Gardiner. See M. Bernal, Ѳ-1h|_;m Őom7omĹ u;;vvo1b-ঞomoohvķƐƖѶƕőĺ$_;bvv†;o=1bu1†Ѵ-uv‹l0oѴbvl‰-v7u-‰mbm|o|_-|7;0-|;ķ0†||_;7bv1†vvbomv‰;u; inconclusive and remained confused as they primarily referenced philological works rather than the architectural evidence from the monuments themselves. 6 m; o= |_; lov| ‰b7;Ѵ‹ u;-7 -m7 ‰;ѴѴ 7;ˆ;Ѵor;7 7bv1†vvbomv o= |_; bvv†; o= 1bu1†Ѵ-u v‹l0oѴbvl bm |_; u;-| ‹u-lb7Ľv -u1_b|;1|†u; bm u;1;m| ‹;-uv ‰-v |_; r†0Ѵb1-ঞom 0‹ ĺ !ovvbķ u1_b|;1|†u; -m7 -|_;l-ࢼ1v bm m1b;m| ]‹r| (Cambridge: &mbˆ;uvb|‹u;vvķƑƏƏƒőĺ-77u;vv;7|_;-u]†l;m|vl-7;|_;u;bml‹ƑƏƏѶr†0Ѵb1-ঞomķ-m7|_;77;m7†lo=|_;1†uu;m| r†0Ѵb1-ঞom-77u;vv;v|_;l-|_;l-ঞ1-Ѵ;ˆb7;m1;bmlou;7;|-bѴĺ$_;1om1Ѵ†vbomvo=l‹-m-Ѵ‹vbvbm7b1-|;|_-||_;‰ub‚;m ;ˆb7;m1;=uoll-|_;l-ঞ1-Ѵr-r‹ub-m7|_;-u1_b|;1|†u-Ѵ;ˆb7;m1;=uolC;Ѵ7v†uˆ;‹v-u;bm=-1|1olrѴ;l;m|-u‹ķu-|_;u|_-m 1om|u-7b1|ou‹ķ-m77ov†rrou||_;1om1Ѵ†vbomvu;-1_;70‹;|ub;|_-||_;1bu1†Ѵ-uv‹l0oѴbvl‰-vbm|;mঞom-ѴѴ‹bm1ourou-|;7 into the designs of the monuments. 7 ˆ;u|_;1o†uv;o=|_;u;v;-u1_ruof;1|ķr†0Ѵbv_;7v_ou|;ubm|;ublru;v;m|-ঞomvo=-vr;1|vo=|_;u;v;-u1_ķbm1Ѵ†7bm] ĺ b]_|0o7‹ķľ$_; m1bu1Ѵbm]oঞ=vo=Ѵ7bm]7olˆb-m$_;l;7_-u-omb1(-v;vĿķƑƓƖŐƑƏƐѵőĸľbo]u-r_‹o=-u;-| ‹u-lb7-vbm]"|om;Ŀķ ƐŐƑƏƐѵőĸľ$_; m1bu1Ѵbm]uo|;1ঞomo=ou†vĿķbmuo1;;7bm]vo=|_;$‰;Ѳ[_mm†-Ѳ"‹lrovb†l †uu;m|!;v;-u1_;vbm ]‹r|oѲo]‹ĶƏƍƎƎĶ&mbˆ;uvb|‹o= †u_-lķ;7vĺĺ07 Ѵ-‰-7ķ;|-ѴĺŐŠ=ou7ĹŠ0o‰ķƑƏƐƑőĺ Encircling Symbolism 9

m|uo7†1ঞom

This introduction sets out the theoretical basis and background to the study, before the archaeological information is presented in chronological order in the subsequent sections. To be rigorous, research must take place within an established academic context and a rational LQWHOOHFWXDOVWUXFWXUH7KHVHSURYLGHWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQDODQGWKHRUHWLFDOIRXQGDWLRQVRI DOODGYDQFHG VWXG\ ,Q RUGHU WR FRQWH[WXDOL]H WKLV FXUUHQW VWXG\ IRU WKH UHDGHU WKHQ WKH RUJDQL]DWLRQDO DQG WKHRUHWLFDOEDFNJURXQGDJDLQVWZKLFKLWZDVFDUULHGRXWPXVWEHGHÀQHGDQGVXPPDUL]HG7KHÀUVW point of note is that the research was inherently interdisciplinary in nature. In order to understand WKHFRUHLVVXHHYHU\DYDLODEOHFODVVRI HYLGHQFHIURPWKH2OG.LQJGRPKDGWREHH[DPLQHG$OORI  the available publications relating to the period and subject in question, including scholarship from VHYHUDOGLIIHUHQWVXEÀHOGVRI VWXG\ZHUHFRQVXOWHG7KHGLIIHUHQWLVVXHVWKDWDURVHLQWKRVHVXEÀHOGV are described below. 7KHPRVWEDVLFDSSURDFKWDNHQWRZDUGVXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKH2OG.LQJGRPLVWRDGGUHVVLWDVKLVWRU\ Traditionally, the study of history began by following the “great man theory”.8 In Egyptology, the approach translates into interpreting ancient Egyptian history as a sequence of events shaped by DVHTXHQFHRI LQÁXHQWLDOSKDUDRKVDQGWKHLUG\QDVWLHV7KHFXUUHQWVWXG\GRHVIROORZDUHODWLYHO\ traditional diachronic approach, and the role of pharaohs in the ancient Egyptian culture was clearly VLJQLÀFDQWEXWOLNHPDQ\RWKHUKLVWRULDQV,KDYHTXHVWLRQHGWKHEDVLVRI WKLVDSSURDFK9 The genesis RI LQÁXHQWLDOPHQRUZRPHQGHSHQGVRQIDFWRUVVSHFLÀFWRWKHFXOWXUHVWKDWSURGXFHGWKHPDQG RQWKHVSHFLÀFFRQWH[WLQWRZKLFKWKHLQGLYLGXDOVZHUHERUQ%HIRUH´JUHDWPHQµRUZRPHQFRXOG UHPDNHVRFLHW\VRFLHW\KDGÀUVWWRPDNHWKHP/DWHUVRFLDOKLVWRULDQVYLHZHGKLVWRULFDOFKDQJHV with a much longer perspective,10DQGVRPHFRQVLGHUHGWKDWFXOWXUHVXQGHUJRVSHFLÀFSHULRGVRI  SURIRXQGFKDQJHDVDUHVXOWRI PXOWLSOHLQÁXHQFHVWKDWLQWHUVHFWGXULQJVSHFLÀFSHULRGVUDWKHUWKDQ depending on the transformative actions of any one individual. The architectural iconography studied here was developed by the pharaonic culture, and while it UHPDLQVGLIÀFXOWWRLQWHUSUHWLWZLWKUHVSHFWWRVSHFLÀFLQGLYLGXDOV11 it is possible to relate important FKDQJHVWKDWDSSHDULQDUWZRUNVWRVSHFLÀFKLVWRULFDOHYHQWVDQGFXOWXUDOFKDQJHVWDNLQJSODFHDW WKHWLPHWKH\ZHUHPDGH,QWKLVVWXG\RI SKDUDRQLF(J\SWLWDSSHDUVWKDWWKHPRVWVLJQLÀFDQW FKDQJHVZHUHLQLWLDWHGE\WKH2OG.LQJGRPFRXUWE\LWVDUWLVDQVDVZHOODVWKHPHPEHUVRI WKH administration, and perhaps at times by the pharaoh himself. The start of the third dynasty was a phase of particularly intense cultural change. In the pages that follow, I propose that many novel aspects of the third dynasty’s monumental architecture and iconography were deliberately and meaningfully developed as the result of a newly emerging political reality. We can better understand the political history of the era by understanding the changes visible in the artistic canon, but the analysis must encompass the whole of the pharaonic culture in question, rather than the lives of individual pharaohs or artisans.

8 $_;]u;-|l-m|_;ou‹bv-ƐƖ|_1;m|†u‹1om1;r|-11ou7bm]|o‰_b1__bv|ou‹1-m0;Ѵ-u];Ѵ‹;ŠrѴ-bm;70‹|_;blr-1|o=]u;-| l;mķ_;uo;vķouo|_;u_b]_Ѵ‹bmY†;mঞ-Ѵbm7bˆb7†-Ѵv‰_oķ7†;|o;b|_;u|_;bur;uvom-Ѵ1_-ubvl-ķbm|;ѴѴb];m1;ķ‰bv7olķouroѴbঞ1-Ѵ vhbѴѴķ†v;7|_;buro‰;ubm-‰-‹|_-|_-7-7;1bvbˆ;_bv|oub1-Ѵblr-1|ĺ$_;|_;ou‹‰-vror†Ѵ-ubŒ;7bm|_;ƐѶƓƏv0‹"1oমv_ ‰ub|;u$_ol-v-uѴ‹Ѵ;ĺ 9 m;o=|_;Cuv||o1ubঞt†;-uѴ‹Ѵ;Ľvruorov-Ѵ‰-v m]Ѵbv_bm|;ѴѴ;1|†-Ѵ;u0;u|"r;m1;uĺ 10 ;um-m7u-†7;ѴĽvom]†; †uߪ; is the most notable of these approaches. 11 $_bvbvl-7;r-uঞ1†Ѵ-uѴ‹7bL1†Ѵ|0‹|_;=-1||_-|-m1b;m| ]‹rঞ-m-uঞv-mv7b7mo|vb]m|_;bu‰ouhĺ 10 Lightbody

Symbolism in ancient Egyptian architecture is most conventionally considered to fall within the realm of art12DQGDUWKLVWRU\-RKQ%DLQHVFRQVLGHUHGWKDWV\PEROLVPLQ2OG.LQJGRPPDWHULDO culture is most meaningfully interpreted using concepts from the theoretical study of art and DUFKLWHFWXUH+HVWDWHGWKDWWKHIXQHUDU\PRQXPHQWVLQ2OG.LQJGRP(J\SWZHUHFRPSUHKHQVLYHO\ planned as works of art,13 and that architecture was the core genre of artistic expression for the emerging state.14 This was particularly the case in the dynasties before writing became the predominant mode of communication.15 Richard Wilkinson, on the other hand, considers that little of Egyptian artwork can be considered as “art for art’s sake”, and that most artworks were conceived within a matrix of symbolism and magic. For him, ancient Egyptian artworks cannot be fully comprehended without knowledge of the underlying concepts intrinsic in their composition.16 Research must, therefore, include approaches that can deal with concepts such as symbolism and magic in architecture. Robert Ritner, who studied Egyptian magic and religion in depth, stated that ritual activities were not felt to be supernatural, but to be quintessential parts of nature, and were thought to be used daily by the gods to maintain, not violate, the natural order.17 He also showed that encircling magic was relatively common in ancient Egypt. It was applied in contexts as simple as FDVWLQJZDWHUSXULÀFDWLRQVSHOOVIRUOLTXLGÀOOHGYHVVHOVRUDVHODERUDWHDVULWXDOFLUFXPDPEXODWLRQV performed during major festivals. By understanding these magical and ritual meanings, and by applying this understanding to the architectural and artistic contexts, the meanings being expressed by architectural design motifs can be revealed. The cXOWXUHKLVWRU\ DSSURDFK FRQVLGHUV WKH GRPDLQ RI  DUWLVWLF UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ DQG WKH VWUXJJOH over meaning as the most fruitful avenue for achieving historical understanding of a culture. In this respect it shares some common ground with anthropological approaches that consider cultures to consist of structures of meaning. According to Baines, a small number of schematic HOHPHQWVXVXDOO\FKDUDFWHUL]HDFLYLOL]DWLRQ18 One such “schema” used in ancient Egypt was the JURXSRI LQWHUUHODWHGDQGHVVHQWLDOV\PEROVWKDWEHFDPHFHQWUDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRI WKHSKDUDRQLF culture, including the anx ankh, wAs was scepter, Dd djed column, srx serekh, and Hr pharaonic falcon, which are referred to here as a “symbolic repertoire”.19 As the premier medium of artistic H[SUHVVLRQGXULQJWKH2OG.LQJGRPDUFKLWHFWXUDOGHVLJQVZHUHLQWHJUDOWRWKDWFXOWXUDOVFKHPD Baines also considers that ground plans of monuments such as temples could be representational schemas.20 That concept is adopted here and put forward to help explain the inclusion of such PRQXPHQWDOPRWLIVLQ2OG.LQJGRPSKDUDRQLFDUFKLWHFWXUH More traditional archaeological approaches also provided hard data sets for the current study in the form of linear measures from standing building surveys. Empirical information was also compiled regarding the materials used in construction and to fabricate smaller artifacts, and radiocarbon dating information was used to construct a chronology of key events.

12 ĺ-bm;vķľm|_;"|-|†v-m7†urov;vo=m1b;m| ]‹rঞ-mu|ĿķƓĹƐŐƐƖƖƓőķѵѶĺ 13 Ibid., 77. 14 Ibid., 72. 15 ĺ-bm;vķľoll†mb1-ঞom-m7 bvrѴ-‹Ĺ$_;m|;]u-ঞomo= -uѴ‹ ]‹rঞ-mu|-m7)ubঞm]Ŀķmࢼt†b|‹ѵƒŐƐƖѶƖőķƓѶƏĺ 16 !ĺĺ)bѴhbmvomķ"‹l0oѲ-m7-]b1bm ]‹rࢼ-mu|Ő;‰+ouhĹ$_-l;v-m7†7vomķƐƖƖƖőķƕĺ 17 !ĺĺ!b|m;uķ$_;;1_-mb1vo=m1b;m| ]‹rࢼ-m-]b1ķ"|†7b;vbmm1b;m|ub;m|-ѴbˆbѴbŒ-ঞomoĺƔƓŐ_b1-]oĹ$_;ub;m|-Ѵ mvঞ|†|;o=|_;&mbˆ;uvb|‹o=_b1-]oķƑƏƏѶőķѶĺ ‰;ث|]‹r ]‹rঞ-m bˆbѴbŒ-ঞomĿķ bm $_;$;lrѲ;bmm1b;m| -uঞ1br-m|v bm ĺ -bm;vķ ľ$;lrѴ;v-v "‹l0oѴvķ †-u-m|ouv -m7 18 bv1oˆ;ub;v-m7!;1;m|!;v;-u1_ķ;7ĺ"ĺ †buh;Őom7omĹubঞv_†v;†lu;vvķƐƖƖƕőķƑƐƕĺ 19 vblbѴ-u1om1;r|ķ|_;ľ1o]mbঞˆ;1omv|;ѴѴ-ঞomĿķ_-v0;;m7;v1ub0;70‹!;m=u;‰ĺ";;ĺ!;m=u;‰ķľ"‹l0oѴ0;=ou;om1;r|Ĺ -|;ub-Ѵ m]-];l;m| -m7 |_; -uѴ‹ ;ˆ;Ѵorl;m| o= "o1b;|‹Ŀķ bm u1_-;oѲo]b1-Ѳ $_;ou‹ $o7-‹Ķ ed. I. Hodder (Cambridge: -l0ub7];&mbˆ;uvb|‹u;vvķƑƏƏƐőķƐƒƕĺ;7;v1ub0;7_o‰ķbmv;7;m|-u‹vo1b;ঞ;vķv‹l0oѴv1ol;|o1omvঞ|†|;u;-Ѵb|‹bm ub|†-Ѵv-m7u;Ѵb]bomvķ-vl†1_-v|_;‹u;Y;1||_;lĺ 20 -bm;vķľ$;lrѴ;v-v"‹l0oѴvķ†-u-m|ouv-m7-uঞ1br-m|vbm ]‹rঞ-mbˆbѴbŒ-ঞomĿķƑƐƕĺ Encircling Symbolism 11

More progressive archaeological methods also proved useful. Archaeology now tries to FRQWH[WXDOL]H SHRSOH DQG WKHLU FXOWXUHV ZLWKLQ VSHFLÀF KDELWDWV DQG FXOWXUDO ODQGVFDSHV 7KLV DSSURDFKLVSDUWLFXODUO\XVHIXOIRUVWXG\LQJVLWHVSUHGDWLQJWKHIRXUWKG\QDVW\IURPWKHSURWR literate era when the performative aspects of culture predominated. Ritual was the principal PHDQVRI HOLWHFRPPXQLFDWLRQDWWKDWWLPHDQGERWKDUFKLWHFWXUHDQGDUWZRUNUHÁHFWHGWKHULWXDO activity underpinning the early pharaonic system.21 It can be anticipated that new monuments constructed during that era, such as pharaonic tombs, were designed as new places to establish and maintain traditional cults, and that they were designed with the rituals in mind. The pharaoh’s funerary monuments incorporated the symbolism of the mortuary rituals at a profound level. An understanding of the wider ritual context in which the art and architecture were constructed can, therefore, provide a way to access the meanings being expressed in those domains. 7KH PRQXPHQWDO DUFKLWHFWXUH RI  2OG .LQJGRP (J\SW LQFRUSRUDWHG UHOLHIV DQG VWDWXHV 7KHVH were carefully placed within temples and carefully designed to be experienced with respect to the surrounding architecture. The monuments as a whole were located with respect to the local cultic topography and with respect to the wider Egyptian landscape and the heavens above. The DUFKLWHFWXUHHYHQUHÁHFWHGDVSHFWVRI WKHQDWXUDOHQYLURQPHQWVWKDWVXUURXQGHGWKHWHPSOHV$VZLOO EHVHHQHYHQWKHORFDO]RRORJLFDODQGERWDQLFDOFRQWH[WVZHUHLQÁXHQWLDODQGVWUXFWXUHGV\PEROLVP UHODWLQJ WR WKHVH FDQ EH LGHQWLÀHG LQ WKH GHVLJQV RI  2OG .LQJGRP SKDUDRQLF DUFKLWHFWXUH DQG iconography. $ÀQDOUHVHDUFKDSSURDFKXVHGLQWKLVVWXG\ZDVSKLORORJ\7RZDUGVWKHHQGRI WKH2OG.LQJGRP hieroglyphic writing began to play a more prominent role in conveying ideology previously carried by monumental architecture, iconography, and ritual. The analysis of ancient texts falls within the ÀHOGRI SKLORORJ\DQGDOWKRXJKSKLORORJLVWVWHQGQRWWRLQWHUSUHWWH[WVZLWKUHVSHFWWRDUFKLWHFWXUH their studies provided important information about architectural motifs and rituals, as well as about the mathematical procedures22 used by the scribes and architects when designing the monuments. 7KHPDLQV\PEROH[DPLQHGLQWKLVWUHDWLVHLVWKHVKHQULQJLQFOXGLQJLQLWVHORQJDWHGIRUPNQRZQ as the cartouche. The textual meaning carried by the shen symbol is often reduced to “eternity”, “the whole world encircled”, or “everything encircled by the sun and the king’s dominion over it”.23 6HYHUDO LQGHSWK SKLORORJLFDO DQDO\VHV RI  WKH V\PERO KDYH DSSHDUHG LQ UHFHQW \HDUV24 and RWKHUGHÀQLWLRQVDUHDYDLODEOH25 In later dynasties, associated meanings became more varied and

21 -bm;vķľoll†mb1-ঞom-m7 bvrѴ-‹Ĺ$_;m|;]u-ঞomo= -uѴ‹ ]‹rঞ-mu|-m7)ubঞm]ĿķƓƕƖĺ 22 ";;77;m7†lĺl-|_;l-ঞ1-Ѵmo|;ķ-||_;;m7o=|_bv‰ouhķѶƏĺ 23 J.P. Allen, b77Ѳ; ]‹rࢼ-mĶ-mm|uo7†1ࢼom|o|_;-m]†-];-m7†Ѳ|†u;o=b;uo]Ѳ‹r_v (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ƑƏƏƐőķѵƔĸ"ĺ †buh;ķ$_;†Ѳ|o=!-ĸ"†m)ouv_brbmm1b;m| ]‹r|=uol|_;‹u-lb7v|oѲ;or-|u-Őom7omĹ$_-l;vş†7vom bm]-mm|uo7†1ࢼom|o|_;"|†7‹o=b;uo]Ѳ‹r_vĶƐu7!;ˆĸ (London: Oxford;ث]‹rࢼ-mu-ll-u 7ĺķƑƏƏƐőķƐƑƒĸĺ-u7bm;uķ| &mbˆ;uvb|‹u;vvķƐƖƔƕőķƕƓĺ ]‹rࢼ-m o†0Ѳ;bm ƖѶŐƐƖƕƏőĸĺĺoѴv_-hoˆķ-m-m7bv"ى,;uक़mb]vubm]-Ѵv"‹l0oѴŒ‹hѴbv1_;u)b;7;uh;_uĿķ ĺ-u|-ķľ( 24 r|;m&m7Ѳ|;v$;v|-l;m|Ő)b;v0-7;mĹ-uu-vvo‰b|Œ(;uѴ-]ķƐƖƖƕőĸĺ"†]bķľ$_;1omo]u-r_b1-Ѵ‹[ىoѲo]‹o=|_;Ѳ7bm]7olĶ;7 !;ru;v;m|-ঞomvo=|_;"†mo7bm;‰bm]7ol ]‹r|Ŀķbm ]‹r|oѲo]‹-||_; -‰mo=|_;$‰;m|‹ň buv|;m|†u‹ĸuo1;;7bm]vo= |_; b]_|_m|;um-ࢼom-Ѳom]u;vvo= ]‹r|oѲo]bv|v,-buoƏƍƍƍĸ(oѲƏĸbv|ou‹Ķ!;Ѳb]bom, eds. Z. Hawass and L.P. Brock (Cairo AUC, ƑƏƏƒőĸ!ĺĺ)bѴhbmvomķ!;-7bm] ]‹rࢼ-mu|ĸb;uo]Ѳ‹r_b1†b7;|om1b;m| ]‹rࢼ-m-bmࢼm]-m7"1†Ѳr|†u;Őom7omĹ$_-l;v -m7†7vom|7ĺķƑƏƏƒőķƐƖƑŊƖƓĸĺ"rb;v;uķľ-u|o†1_;Ŀķbm|_;& m1‹1Ѳor;7b-o= ]‹r|oѲo]‹Ő Ѵ;1|uomb1!;vo†u1;őķ;7vĺ ;lrbu |u;v†|omol;v†o†ˆ;Ѳ oll;ث_-u-om† uoo7-m7)ĺ);m7ub1_Őovm];Ѵ;vĹ&ķƑƏƐƏőĸb7;lķ;volv ĺ ;_$ثĺĺĺѴorķ;m;-|_|_;!-r|ouĻv)bm]v 7bঞomv&mbˆ;uvb|-bu;v(-m7;m_o;1hş!†ru;1_|क़মm];mķƑƏƏƏőĸ ub0o†u]Ĺ Ő ˆb-molrovbࢼomu-vrbm]|_;"‹l0oѲ=ou |;umb|‹bm ]‹r|ĺ_bѴ$_;vbvŐ"|;ѴѴ;m0ov1_Ĺ&mbˆ;uvb|‹o="|;ѴѴ;m0ov1_ķƑƏƏѶőĸĺ b-|;ѴѴoķľ Šru;vvbm]|_; |;umb|‹-v";ub-Ѵb|‹ĹmSn-v-†l0;uo=-u];-]mb|†7;Ŀķ! ƔƑŐƑƏƐѵőĺ 25 M.C. Betro, b;uo]Ѳ‹r_b1vĸ$_;)ubࢼm]vo=m1b;m| ]‹r|Ő;‰+ouhĹ00;ˆbѴѴ;u;vvķƐƖƖѵőķƐƖƔĸĺ"_-‰-m7ĺb1_oѴvomķ$_; ubࢼv_†v;†l b1ࢼom-u‹o=m1b;m| ]‹r|Őom7omĹubঞv_†v;†lu;vvķƐƖƖƔőķƑѵƕķƒƏƏķƒƏƐĸѴѴ;mķb77Ѳ; ]‹rࢼ-mĶ-mmň |uo7†1ࢼom|o|_;-m]†-];-m7†Ѳ|†u;o=b;uo]Ѳ‹r_vĶѵƕĸ †buh;ķ$_;†Ѳ|o=!-ĸ"†m)ouv_brbmm1b;m| ]‹r|=uol|_;‹u-lb7v |oѲ;or-|u-Ķ123. 12 Lightbody

WKHV\PERODSSHDUHGLQPDQ\GLIIHUHQWFRQWH[WVEXWLWVHHPVWKDWLWV2OG.LQJGRPVHQVHZDV originally derived from the word “to encircle”.26 The symbol was closely linked to architectural contexts through the ritual concept of “unending encircling protection”, most often surrounding royal tombs and enclosures. The associated shen word family supports this interpretation,27 as do the architectonic case studies outlined in the chapters that follow. $QWKHVGLVFXVVHGPHDQLQJVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHZRUGVKHQZKHQXVHGDVDYHUEZLWKLQ2OG.LQJGRP texts. They ranged from “enchant”, to “captivate”, “encircle”, “hold”, “embrace”, “capture”, ´HQFORVHµDQG´VSHOOELQGµ)RUWKH3\UDPLG7H[WVRI WKH2OG.LQJGRPKHDVVLJQHGDVSHFLDO meaning of “encircle”, “captivate”, “hold”, or “bind”. Importantly, Anthes also concluded that, as a noun, the term referred to a physical enclosure or circle.28 Many written signs in the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic script represented or resembled real objects,29 while others were abstract shapes that represented the sounds of syllables or groups of syllables. 2WKHUJO\SKVNQRZQDVGHWHUPLQDWLYHVVLJQLÀHGZRUGVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKVSHFLÀFJURXSVRI LGHDV$ fourth, intermediate, type of representation existed in iconography where a symbol did not realistically GHSLFWDQ\UHDOREMHFWEXWUHIHUHQFHGDVSHFLÀFDEVWUDFWFRQFHSWRUULWXDO7KHVHFDQEHUHIHUUHGWRDV emblems.30,WLVZLWKLQWKLVFODVVRI V\PEROWKDWWKHVKHQULQJPRVWUHDOLVWLFDOO\EHORQJHGZKHQLWZDV used in iconographic arrangements. Rituals themselves are ephemeral, and because of their special status, access to their meanings was often restricted. They were not usually depicted explicitly, but in DZD\WKDWUHÁHFWVWKHLUV\PEROLFYDOXH31 Given its prominence in scenes representing rituals in Old .LQJGRPSKDUDRQLFPRQXPHQWVWKHVKHQULQJDSSHDUVWRKDYHKHOGDVSHFLDOVWDWXVZLWKLQWKRVH rituals. The approaches outlined above led to conclusions that do not necessarily conform to traditional XQGHUVWDQGLQJVRI WKHV\PEROVDQGWKHPRQXPHQWVEHLQJVWXGLHG1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ DQGFRQWH[WXDOL]HGDSSURDFKWDNHQKHUHKDVSHUKDSVSURYHGWREHPRUHIUXLWIXOWKDQWKHUDWKHUGU\ FXOWXUHKLVWRULFDODSSURDFK32RUOHVVULJRURXVDUWKLVWRULFDODSSURDFKZKHQWKRVHSDWKVDUHWDNHQ in isolation. Older studies tended to be overly focused on tracking the use of motifs through time, back to “original” essential meanings that were assumed to be unchanging. They have not, however, provided any explanation for some of the most fundamental questions in Egyptian history, such as

26 !ĺĺ;ruo_omķ$_;u;-|-l;bmm1b;m| ]‹rࢼ-m!o‹-Ѳ$b|†Ѳ-u‹ķˆoѴĺƑƑķ)ubঞm]v=uol|_;m1b;m|)ouѴ7Ő|Ѵ-m|-Ĺ"o1b;|‹o= b0Ѵb1-Ѵb|;u-|†u;ķƑƏƐƒőķѶĺ rࢼv1_;m‹[ى;u Cmbঞomv=ouSnw include perimeter, enclosure wall, enclosure. See A. Erman and H. Grapow, )ࡴu|;u0†1_; 27 "ru-1_;ķ(oѴĺ(Ő;uѴbmĹh-7;lb;(;uѴ-]ķƐƖƕƐőķƓѶѶķƓѶƖķƓƖƐĸ!ĺĺ -†Ѵhm;uķom1bv; b1ࢼom-u‹o=b77Ѳ; ]‹rࢼ-m(Oxford: ubL|_mvঞ|†|;ķƑƏƏƑőķƑѵƕŊƑѵѶĺ †u|_;uu;v;-u1_v_o†Ѵ70;1-uub;7o†||o0;‚;u†m7;uv|-m7|_;l;-mbm]v-vvo1b-|;7‰b|_ the word ࢪmbmb77Ѵ;bm]7ol-m7;‰bm]7olv-1u;7|;Š|vķbĺ;ĺ|_;oLm$;Š|v-m7ooho=|_; ;-7ķu;vr;1ঞˆ;Ѵ‹ķ|o †m7;uv|-m7b=-m7_o‰|_;m†-m1;v1_-m];7oˆ;uঞl;ĺ$_-|‰ouhѴb;vo†|vb7;|_;v1or;o=|_;1†uu;m|v|†7‹-m70;‹om7|_; 1-r-0bѴbঞ;vo=|_;1†uu;m|-†|_ouķ-m7v_o†Ѵ70;†m7;u|-h;m0‹vr;1b-Ѵbv|vbm|_;-m1b;m| ]‹rঞ-mѴ-m]†-];ĺ ѶѵŐƐƖѵƐőķѶƖĺ"ى,‹u-lb7;m|;Š|;mĿķ;m -v(;u0†l"mbŁ&lv1_Ѵb;z;mķ-mm;mĿbm ĺm|_;vķľ! 28 29 -vঞom;7;m1Ѵov†u;v-m7r-Ѵ-1;Ŋ=-2-7;‰-ѴѴv‰;u;o[;mu;ru;v;m|;7bm;-uѴ‹_b;uo]Ѵ‹r_vķbm1Ѵ†7bm]om1;u;lomb-Ѵr-Ѵ;‚;v -m7v;-Ѵvĺ"ol;o=|_;v;‰;u;oˆob7-m7voˆbv†-ѴѴ‹u;v;l0Ѵ;|_;1-u|o†1_;|ovol;;Š|;m|ĺ$_;7b@;u;m|;m1bu1Ѵbm]v‹l0oѴv u;ru;v;mঞm]Dt estates, forts, towns, and inbw‰-ѴѴv_-ˆ;0;;m7bv1†vv;7-|vol;Ѵ;m]|_ĺ";;ĺomm;|Ŋ"-Ѵ;_ķľ ou|;u;vv;vķ .lrbu;Ķ 22 |u;v†|omol;v†o†ˆ;Ѳ oll;ث_-u-om† ѵƕŐƐƖѵƕőĸ"rb;v;uķ;volv uo|࣐]࣐;v$_bmb|;vĵĿķbѴѴ;vŊ)† 30 -bm;vķľoll†mb1-ঞom-m7 bvrѴ-‹Ĺ$_;m|;]u-ঞomo= -uѴ‹ ]‹rঞ-mu|-m7)ubঞm]ĿķƓƕƓĸb7;lķľ$;lrѴ;v-v"‹l0oѴvķ †-u-m|ouv-m7-uঞ1br-m|vbm ]‹rঞ-mbˆbѴbŒ-ঞomĿķƑƐѶĺ!;m=u;‰7;v1ub0;v-vblbѴ-u1om1;r|-vvo1b-|;7‰b|_|_;;l;u];m1; o=l-|;ub-Ѵv‹l0oѴvbmmomŊѴb|;u-|;v;7;m|-u‹vo1b;ঞ;vĺ;u;=;uv|o|_;v;-vľ1omvঞ|†ঞˆ;v‹l0oѴvĿķ‰_b1_7omo|m;1;vv-ubѴ‹ u;ru;v;m|vol;|_bm];Ѵv;ķ0†|-u;|_;lv;Ѵˆ;v-1ঞˆ;ĺ$_;‹-ѴѴo‰-m7=-1bѴb|-|;|_;;l;u];m1;o=bmvঞ|†ঞom-Ѵ=-1|vķv†1_-v v|u†1|†u;7hbmv_bru;Ѵ-ঞomvouro‰;u_b;u-u1_b;vĺ$_;;l0Ѵ;lv|_-|7;ˆ;Ѵor;7bmruo|oŊѴb|;u-|;r_-u-omb1 ]‹r|v;;l|oC| ‰b|_bm|_bv|_;ou;ঞ1-Ѵ=u-l;‰ouhĺ";;!;m=u;‰ķƐƒƏĺ 31 -bm;vķľoll†mb1-ঞom-m7 bvrѴ-‹Ĺ$_;m|;]u-ঞomo= -uѴ‹ ]‹rঞ-mu|-m7)ubঞm]ĿķƓƕѵĸb7;lķľ$;lrѴ;v-v"‹l0oѴvķ †-u-m|ouv-m7-uঞ1br-m|vbm ]‹rঞ-mbˆbѴbŒ-ঞomĿķƑƑƒĺ 32 ĺ$ub]];uķbv|ou‹o=u1_-;oѲo]b1-Ѳ$_o†]_|ŐƐƑ|_ubmঞm]őŐ-l0ub7];Ĺ-l0ub7];&mbˆ;uvb|‹u;vvķƑƏƏƓőķƑƏƏĺ Encircling Symbolism 13

why the cartouche quite suddenly became the principal symbol of the pharaoh in the third dynasty, or why the serekh was no longer used to contain the pharaoh’s name after he had died. Answers to those questions are proposed below. ,QFRQFOXVLRQWKLVVWXG\WDNHVDQLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\FRQWH[WXDOL]HGDSSURDFKWKDWDGGUHVVHVWKH encircling symbolism from several different angles. This holistic approach draws out meaning IURP WKH V\PEROLF DUUDQJHPHQWV DQG LW LV LQIRUPHG E\ WKHRU\ IURP VHYHUDO GLIIHUHQW ÀHOGV RI  VWXG\:RUNHGWRJHWKHUFRQFHSWVIURPDUWKLVWRU\DQWKURSRORJ\DUFKDHRORJ\DQGSKLORORJ\FDQ complement each other and reveal underlying meanings that existed in the ancient Egyptian mind. The following chapters present the results of the study, set out in chronological and dynastic order.