Natural Resources Management and Sustainable Agriculture with Reference to North-East India (Proceedings of the National Conference held in Arunachal University of Studies on 28- 29th January 2020)

Editors

1. Dr. Chowlani Manpoong 2. Prof. K. Vasanthakumar 3. Dr. Rani Jha

Divyanshu Goel Prof. O P Sharma Registrar Vice Chancellor

2 National Conference on Natural Resources Management and Sustainable Agriculture with Reference to North-East India

CHIEF PATRON Dr. A. L. Agarwal Chairman, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai

PATRON Prof. O. P. Sharma Vice Chancellor, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai

CHAIRPERSON Prof. K. Vasanthakumar Dean, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai

Organizing Secretary Dr. Rani Jha Director, Faculty of Science Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai

CONVENER Dr. Chowlani Manpoong Assistant Professor, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai

Organized by Faculty of Agricultural Sciences Arunachal University of Studies NH-52, Knowledge City, Namsai Arunachal Pradesh

3 National Conference on Natural Resources Management and Sustainable Agriculture With Reference to North-East India

ISBN-10 Digit 81-944507-0-5

ISBN-13 Digit 978-81-944507-0-2

DISCLAIMER

Natural Resources Management and Sustainable Agriculture with Reference to North-East India © 2020, eduworld publication All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without written permission of the publisher. The publisher and the editors are not accountable with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this publication; rather the individual authors take responsibility for their respective articles.

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4 PREFACE

North-East India comprising of eight states namely Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura has a total geographical area of 2,62,180 km2 which is about 8% of our country’s total area with a population of about 40 million. The great threats faced by NE region are (i) danger of extinction of valuable bio-resources, over exploitation of forests for fuel, timber, fodder and indiscriminate collection of natural medicinal species by allopathic and ayurvedic pharma companies (ii) larger areas being degraded due to shifting cultivation (iii) danger of losing bio-diversity due to germplasm piracy on account of international boundaries. Prospects and potentials of the NE region include bio-diversity hotspot areas, abundance of natural resources such as land and soils, minerals, other resources like forest covers, rivers, oils, indigenous crop germplasm, flowers and other ornamental plants, medicinal and aromatic plants, diverse genotypes of livestock, poultry and inland fishes. Prevalence of diverse agro-climatic conditions and natural vegetations have become a niche of a number of native germplasm of cereals, grain legumes, oil seeds, tuber crops, vegetables, spices and indigenous farming systems for sustenance of the massive rural population. Primitive agriculture like Jhuming is prevalent in NE India for food production. Besides this, some potential indigenous farming systems are practiced like alder, zambo farming, panikheti etc. in hills and pond-based farming systems in plains which were developed by local farmers using their ingenuity and skills over the centuries. These farming systems have real sustainable agriculture base and a scientific approach need to be undertaken to reform these systems for resource conservation like nutrient cycling, in-situ residue management, soil and water conservation and maintenance of forest resources. At this juncture, it was thought of by the scientific academia of the Arunachal University of Studies to bring the scientists working in various organizations of North Eastern states to a common forum so as to express their findings and views, to have panel discussions, brain-storming sessions so as to elucidate action plans aiming at the conservation of natural resources and also to adopt sustainability in the farming systems of this region. Recommendations of the Conference will be forwarded to the apex bodies of the concerned state as well as central governments for drawing action plans so as to improve the livelihood of farmers and all stakeholders in the agriculture value chain. “The financial assistance received from the Research and Development Funds of National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) towards publication of the abstract book and this proceeding of the National Conference is gratefully acknowledged”.

Namsai, A.P. January 2020

5

Contents

MESSAGE FROM THE CHIEF PATRON ...... 8

MESSAGE FROM VICE CHANCELLOR ...... 9

Forest Resources and Soil Fertility ...... 10

INFLUENCE OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT AND MOISTURE REGIMES ON NITROGEN TRANSFORMATION ...... 11 STATUS OF SOIL NUTRIENTS IN TWO MULBERRY PLANTATION SITES OF MIZORAM, NORTH EAST INDIA ...... 19 MULTI-PURPOSE TREE PLANTATIONS AFFECT SOIL QUALITY ALONG HILLY ECO-SYSTEMS IN WOKHA, NAGALAND ...... 28 STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF AVAILABLE NITROGEN AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER SOIL PROPERTIES IN DIFFERENT SOIL SOURCES OF NAMSAI DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH: A CASE STUDY...... 40 PHYTOREMEDIATION OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATED SOILS WITH BIOFUEL PLANTS: AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH ...... 48 PRELIMINARY IDENTIFICATION OF ENDOPHYTIC BACTERIA ISOLATED FROM SELECTED MEDICINAL PLANTS OF NAMSAI DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH AND ITS ROLE IN THE FIELD OF AGRICULTURE ...... 56 EFFECT OF MANAGEMENT AND ALTITUDE ON FLORAL DIVERSITY OF UNDERSTOREY VEGETATION IN Quercus leucotrichophora FORESTS OF NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA, INDIA ...... 62 IMPACT OF FOREST DISTURBANCES ON REGENERATION OF BANJ OAK AND ITS ASSOCIATES IN CENTRAL HIMALAYA ...... 75 IMPLEMENTATION OF BAMBOO INDUSTRY TO GENERATE EMPLOYMENT IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH ...... 85 EFFECTS OF PLANT EXTRACTS AGAINST MOSQUITO LARVAE ...... 92 IN-VITRO PRODUCTION (TISSUE CULTURE) OF COMMERCIAL ORCHIDS AND ITS PROSPECTS FOR EXTENSIVE CULTIVATION IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA ...... 99 BRYOPHYTES AND MOSS DIVERSITY IN NAMSAI DISTRICT OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH ...... 105 Crop Sustainability ...... 111

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT WRAPPING MATERIALS ON POST HARVEST QUALITIES OF CUT GLADIOLUS SPIKES (Gladiolus grandiflorus ANDREWS) ...... 112 DIVERSITY STUDIES OF DIFFERENT INDIAN BEAN, Lablab purpureus (L.) SWEET GENOTYPES OF NORTH EAST INDIA ...... 118 APPLICATION OF INM (INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT) AND ITS EFFECT ON KHASI MANDARIN (Citrus reticulata BLANCO) ...... 128 CHARACTERIZATION OF BRINJAL (Solanum melongena L.) GENOTYPES FOR FRUIT RELATED TRAITS DURING KHARIF SEASON ...... 134 QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF LITCHI (Litchi chinensis SONN.) CV. CHINA AS INFLUENCED BY PRE-HARVEST TREATMENTS ...... 141 TRADITIONALLY AVAILABLE CITRUS GERMPLASM IN ASSAM AND ITS IMPORTANCE ...... 148

6 COMMUNICATION INTERVENTION IN ESTABLISHING COMMUNITY SEED BANK OFRRICE ...... 163 STUDIES ON RESPONSES OF GREEN GRAM (Vigna radiata L. R. WILCZEK) TO PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM UNDER NORTH-EASTERN REGION ...... 169 VARIATIONS IN SEED SENESCENCE IN PADDY VARIETIES (Oryza sativa L.) ...... 176 EFFECT OF SEED TREATMENT IN RICE (Oryza sativa L.) VARIETIES ...... 180 IMPACT OF TERMINAL CLIPPING ON THE YIELD PERFORMANCE OF SESAME (Sesamum indicum L.) VARIETIES UNDER NAMSAI CONDITIONS ...... 184 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC MANURES ON PERFORMANCE OF POTATO (Solanum tuberosum L.) CV. KUFRI JYOTI AT NAMSAI CONDITIONS ...... 188 VARIABILITY OF QEED QUALITY PARAMETERS IN FRENCH BEANS (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) ...... 193 EVALUATION OF PEA (Pisum sativum L.) VARIETIES FOR GROWTH AND YIELD UNDER NAMSAI CONDITIONS, ARUNACHAL PRADESH ...... 197 EFFECT OF PRE-EMERGENCE HERBICIDE AND MULCHING ON WEED DENSITY AND DRY WEIGHT IN MAIZE (Zea mays L.) ...... 202 INTER RELATIONSHIPS OF YIELD AND GROWTH PARAMETERS IN RICE VARIETIES ...... 206 RESPONSE OF MAIZE (Zea mays L.) VARIETIES TO DIFFERENT PLANTING DENSITIES ...... 209 PERFORMANCE OF TORIA (Brassica campestris L.) VARIETIES UNDER NAMSAI CONDITIONS ...... 215 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC MANURES ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF MUSTARD (Brassica juncea L. ) ...... 218 PICTURE GALLERY ...... 222

7

MESSAGE FROM THE CHIEF PATRON

“A sustainable agriculture is one which depletes neither the people nor the land.”

– Wendell Berry

There is no corner of India that does not acknowledge the legendry contribution of the Northeast concerning Agriculture. The origin of the special conference started with an elementary discussion to preserve the natural essence of the Northeast. It is a sad state of truth to accept, but we humans have become so cruel with our public service demands and goods consumptions that we have set on an unrepairable path by cruelly exploiting our natural resources. As an environment enthusiast, looking around the hills of Arunachal Pradesh, I have always silently appreciated the beauty it has to offer to the world. However, I was never naive to just focus on its heavenly beauty. I was always apprehensive, yet sensitive enough to address the issue.

Soil degradation remains one of the top problems of the reason. Along with this deforestation, over-farming, faulty use of land, inaccessibility to sustain biodiversity have been the major elements of agricultural concerns. Arunachal University of Studies has always been active and a front face in conducting research, seminars, workshops, etc. to come up to an effective solution to curb these issues. The Faculty of Agricultural Sciences has previously spoken about the impact of climate change on the agricultural sector in the NE and topics equivalent to it. The faculty always considers it has its civic responsibility to creates models for sustainable use of natural resources without disturbing the bio-diversity.

By 2050 the world population is to reach over 9.6 billion. This means that the natural resource consumption is to be increased by 70%. This is a serious problem and the agricultural sector needs to guarantee that every country is prepared to meet the consumption challenges. But the question is, is it even possible? I believe the key is to seek rightful solutions to have a rightful equilibrium. This means to achieve economic stability while not destroying the environment. Different methodology and modern practices need to be thrived to manage a sustainable method in Agriculture.

AUS is honoured to organize a one-of-kind conference titled - Natural Resources Management and Sustainable Agriculture with reference to North-East India where researchers, academicians and students from all over the country offers solutions, thesis, and studies about the greater threats the region of Northeast holds. We have 12 titles addressing Soil Fertility and Forest Resources and 18 titles under Crop Sustainability.

I hope that through these studies, AUS ensures better, productive, and sustainable solutions to fix the natural damages. AUS has always believed in promoting the environment to uplift the social livelihood and economic growth of the reason for NE. All the submission made for the conference has my highest hope and expectation and that this book shall provide an effective studying material for all agricultural professionals.

Dr. A. L. Agarwal Chairman, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai

8 MESSAGE FROM VICE CHANCELLOR

A nation that destroys its soils destroys itself. Forests are the lungs of our land, purifying the air and giving fresh strength to our people. ― Franklin D. Roosevelt The Faculty of Agricultural Sciences has always ensured to protect and defend the natural resources of Arunachal Pradesh and its sister’s states with utmost integrity, authentication, with the right people and right information at the right time. Therefore, AUS's agriculture sciences department have used all the necessary resources and technology to compile together all the received studies/date as an information- related material in its definite form.

I am delighted to write the foreword for this year’s special edition on NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE WITH REFERENCE TO NORTH-EAST INDIA. I would like to thanks the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences for organizing the conference on the 28th and 29th January. I would like to especially thank and appreciate the Chairperson of the conference Prof. (Dr) K. Vasanthakumar, Dean - Faculty of Agricultural Sciences. Without his sincere dedication and enthusiasm, the conference would have not come out with 31 papers speaking solutions to the cause. Assistant Professor, Dr. Chowlani Manpoong of the department has my regards for being the convener of the event and letting this conference reach the heights it deserved.

The book reflects new study materials that are evolved in various disciplines with respect to natural resources management and sustainable agriculture with reference to Northeast India. The flow of information provided in the books shall offer multiple benefits as a form of the new formal definition of soil erosion, crop sustainability and others. Lastly, I hope that reading this book, you will find it easy to view that students, academicians, and researchers have put in their hard work to result in interpretive studies. I hope that this book will become a primer for all students, researchers, and academicians across the country to spread awareness, learn, teach, and practice the methods to sustain the environment.

Sincerely O. P. Sharma, Vice-Chancellor, Arunachal University of Studies.

9

Forest Resources and Soil Fertility

10 INFLUENCE OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT AND MOISTURE REGIMES ON NITROGEN TRANSFORMATION

W. Herojit Meetei*, N. Surbala Devi and T. Sanahanbi Devi College of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal-795 004, Manipur *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

A laboratory incubation study was conducted to investigate the transformation of different forms of nitrogen in an acid soil applied with treatments: T0- control, T1-100 % RDN of urea, T2-100% RDN of vermicompost

(VC), T3-100% Azolla (equivalent to 10 tonnes/ha),T4-75% RDN of urea + 25% RDN of VC, T5-75% RDN of urea + 25% Azolla + Azotobacter, T6-50% RDN of urea+ 50% RDN of VC, T7-50% RDN of urea + 50%

Azolla + Azotobacter, T8-25% RDN of urea + 75% RDN of VC, T9-25% RDN of urea + 75% Azolla +

Azotobacter, T10-100 % RDN of VC +100 %Azolla + Azotobacter and T11-100 % RDN of urea + 100 % RDN of VC + 100 % Azolla + Azotobacter at different moisture regimes [40%, 60% and 80% water holding capacity + (WHC)]. Results revealed that significantly higher amount of exchangeable NH4 and total hydrolysable N was found at 80% WHC throughout the experiment whereas 40% WHC gave the higher accumulation of non- hydrolysable and unidentified hydrolysable N. This showed that higher moisture content encouraged mineralization of non-hydrolysable and unidentified hydrolysable N. Significantly higher concentration of - soluble NO3 and total N were observed at 80% and 40% WHC at the end of the experiment. Irrespective of + moisture levels, significantly higher amount of exchangeable NH4 was observed in T4 followed by T11 and - T6. However, similar effects of T4 and T11 were found in soluble NO3 , total hydrolysable N and total N at the end of the experiment.

Keywords: INM, Moisture regimes, Nitrogen transformation

Introduction

Nitrogen (N) occupies a conspicuous place in plant metabolism and is one of the most imperative nutrients required by plants for growth and development. All vital processes in plants are associated with protein, of which nitrogen is an essential constituent. Nitrogen exists in two major forms: organic and inorganic. A bulk of total nitrogen is present in the organic form and only about 2% in inorganic form (Rattan, 2009). It can be applied to soil either through natural sources or fertilizers. Natural sources, whether it is from soil organic matter or added organic matter is of utmost importance with respect to maintenance of soil fertility as a whole and controlled release of nitrogen during cropping season. There is a wide scope for increasing nutrient supply through use of organic manures, bio-fertilizers and adoption of proper crop sequences and these together can contribute significantly to the required nutrient pool. The organic form of nitrogen, particularly the hydrolysable form, is slowly mineralized and is transformed to mineral nitrogen by soil

11 microbes. During the transformation nitrogen is converted from one form to another. However, nitrogen transformation processes are controlled largely by soil water status, soil type and soil temperature (Lodhi et al., 2009; Sistani et al., 2008). Among these, soil moisture content has great impact on the decomposition and transformation of nutrients (Doel et al., 1990) and is the most important factor that regulates nitrogen transformation (Chen et al., 2012; Guntinas et al., 2012; Khalil et al., 2001). With this information, the present investigation was undertaken to study the influence of integrated nutrient management and moisture regimes on Nitrogen transformation.

Material and Methods

Surface soil samples (0-20 cm) were collected from paddy field of Manipur for the laboratory incubation study. The composite soil samples were air dried in shade, crushed and sieved through 2 mm sieve and analysed its physico-chemical properties following the standard procedure of Jackson (1973). The soil was clayey in texture having pH 5.4, EC 0.28 dSm-1, OC 1.56%, CEC 14.05 cmol(p+)kg-1, available N 173.83 -1 -1 -1 mg kg , available P2O5 25.76 mg kg and available K2O 112.80 mg kg . Hundred gram of air dried soil was taken in each of a series of 100mL beakers. Different treatments: T0- control, T1-100 % RDN of urea, T2-

100% RDN of vermicompost (VC), T3-100% Azolla (equivalent to 10 tonnes/ha),T4-75% RDN of urea + 25%

RDN of VC, T5-75% RDN of urea + 25% Azolla + Azotobacter, T6-50% RDN of urea+ 50% RDN of VC, T7-

50% RDN of urea + 50% Azolla + Azotobacter, T8-25% RDN of urea + 75% RDN of VC, T9-25% RDN of urea + 75% Azolla + Azotobacter, T10-100 % RDN of VC +100 % Azolla + Azotobacter and T11-100 % RDN of urea + 100 % RDN of VC + 100 % Azolla + Azotobacter were applied at different moisture regimes [40%, 60% and 80% water holding capacity (WHC)] to the soil according to different set of treatments and kept at room temperature throughout the experiment. The loss of moisture was replenished by periodic addition of sterile distilled water on every alternate day by difference in weight. The beakers were kept covered with black polythene sheet and incubated for a period of 90 days. Separate sets of treatments were maintained for each of the sampling stages.

The experiment was carried out under Factorial randomized block design (FRBD). Altogether there were 36 treatments combinations replicated thrice.

Results and Discussion

+ Irrespective of different treatments significantly higher amount of exchangeable NH4 -N was found at 80% WHC followed by 60% and 40% WHC throughout the experiment (Table 1). This might be because of higher microbial activity resulting greater N mineralization at higher water content than at lower water content - th th (Chen et al., 2012). Significantly higher NO3 -N content was observed at 60% WHC on 30 and 60 day of - incubation and throughout the study, lower NO 3-N concentration was found at 40% as compared to 60% and 80% WHC which indicated a greater inhibition of nitrification at lower moisture levels (Table 2). Slower rate

12 of nitrification at 40% and 60% WHC on 90th day can be explained by a decline in microbial activity resulting from limited diffusion of soluble substrates to microbes and adverse physiological effects associated with cell dehydration (Stark & Firestone, 1995). Accumulation of total hydrolysable N was similar under different moisture regimes (Table 3) whereas 40% WHC gave the significantly higher concentration of total N in soil at the end of the incubation study (Table 4). Higher amount of non hydrolysable and unidentified hydrolysable organic nitrogen was accumulated in soil treated with 40% WHC showing higher moisture content encourage mineralization of both forms of organic N.

Addition of either inorganic or organic sources or their combinations had significantly higher exchangeable + - NH4 -N, soluble NO3 -N, total hydrolysable organic N and total N over untreated control throughout the study. Similar results were also reported earlier by other investigators (Das & Puste, 2001; Kumar et al., 2018;

Tabassum et al., 2010). Among the different treatments, soil treated with T4 maintained comparatively + th maximum exchangeable NH4 -N content followed by T11 showing parity with T6 on 90 day of incubation (Table 1). Comparatively higher concentration was due to decomposition of inorganic and organic substances + and accumulation of produced NH4 -N in soils. There was a significant interaction effect between treatments th th th and moisture on 30 , 60 and 90 day of incubation. However, T4 and T11 were at par in accumulating soluble - NO3 -N followed by T8 at the end of the experiment (Table 2). Higher accumulation of total hydrolysable th th th organic N and total N was observed in T11 which was at par with T4 on 30 and 90 day and T6 on 60 day of incubation, respectively in case of total hydrolysable organic N. T4 and T6 showed equal effect in accumulation of total N throughout the incubation period.

13 + -1 Table 1. Effect of INM and moisture regimes on exchangeable NH4 - N (mg kg ) content in soil

Incubation days 0 30 60 90 Treatm W1 W2 W3 Mea W1 W2 W3 Mea W1 W2 W3 Mea W1 W2 W3 Mea ent n n n n

T0 79.2 79.2 79.2 79.2 83.8 86.8 100. 90.3 80.1 83.2 97.7 87.0 70.5 80.2 88.9 79.9 8 0 8 5 1 5 50 9 2 0 8 3 6 8 0 1

T1 81.2 81.9 81.8 81.6 100. 118. 124. 114. 90.8 112. 114. 105. 74.5 91.8 98.0 88.1 8 0 6 8 62 90 90 81 5 58 21 88 6 8 0 5

T2 80.9 80.7 80.9 80.8 95.4 108. 117. 107. 84.6 104. 114. 101. 75.3 92.7 102. 90.0 0 8 6 8 2 00 68 03 9 20 50 13 0 8 00 3

T3 79.5 80.0 79.7 79.7 94.2 108. 115. 106. 84.2 101. 107. 97.7 74.8 92.1 104. 90.3 6 0 9 8 0 78 18 05 0 45 48 1 9 0 00 3

T4 82.0 81.7 82.1 81.9 98.8 114. 122. 111. 91.1 110. 121. 107. 80.6 100. 120. 100. 0 8 0 6 3 00 90 91 0 21 88 73 0 42 00 34

T5 82.2 81.5 82.5 82.0 98.4 113. 120. 110. 90.0 106. 115. 103. 76.9 94.4 113. 94.9 3 0 0 8 1 78 23 81 0 00 78 93 0 8 60 9

T6 81.9 80.5 81.9 81.4 97.1 112. 129. 112. 88.5 108. 121. 106. 78.6 97.8 113. 96.6 0 6 0 5 5 10 00 75 6 90 10 19 7 0 45 4

T7 81.5 81.9 81.7 81.7 96.9 111. 118. 108. 88.0 106. 115. 103. 77.2 96.5 109. 94.5 0 0 8 3 0 68 20 93 0 23 00 08 5 6 90 7

T8 81.0 79.6 80.7 80.4 96.2 110. 119. 108. 86.7 103. 119. 103. 78.4 97.7 110. 95.4 0 9 8 9 3 67 56 82 0 48 78 32 8 6 00 1

T9 81.2 79.6 80.6 80.5 96.1 111. 119. 108. 86.0 100. 114. 100. 77.9 94.1 109. 93.7 0 0 9 0 8 30 30 93 0 56 90 49 0 0 21 4

T10 80.8 79.3 80.5 80.2 95.3 109. 118. 107. 85.2 105. 114. 101. 75.9 93.8 104. 91.2 2 0 6 3 9 00 45 61 3 00 67 63 0 9 00 6

T11 82.1 82.1 82.7 82.3 99.5 114. 126. 113. 90.4 110. 123. 107. 80.2 98.6 115. 97.9 2 0 8 3 2 18 59 43 0 50 00 97 0 3 00 4 Mean 81.1 80.6 81.2 96.0 109. 119. 87.1 104. 115. 76.7 94.2 107. 5 9 5 6 94 37 5 36 01 7 2 34

14

SE(d) ± SE(d) CD0.05 Source CD0.05 SE(d) ± CD0.05 ± SE(d) ± CD0.05 T 0.91 1.81 1.25 2.50 1.14 2.27 1.04 2.07 W 0.45 0.91 0.63 1.25 0.57 1.13 0.52 1.03 T X W 1.57 3.14 2.17 4.32 1.97 3.92 1.79 3.58

- -1 Table 2. Effect of INM and moisture regimes on soluble NO3 - N (mg kg ) content in soil

Incubation days

0 30 60 90 Treatm W1 W2 W3 Mea W1 W2 W3 Mea W1 W2 W3 Mea W1 W2 W3 Mea ent n n n n 37. 38.4 37.1 37.6 38.1 38.6 38.0 38.2 38.3 39.8 39.1 39.0 39.9 40.3 42.0 40.7 T0 50 0 0 7 2 2 1 5 0 2 2 8 8 0 0 6 41. 41.5 40.5 41.1 44.2 49.0 48.3 47.1 50.0 52.6 52.9 51.8 52.4 53.9 54.1 53.5 T1 30 0 3 1 0 0 8 9 0 0 8 6 5 8 0 1 40. 39.8 38.7 39.6 43.9 45.6 45.0 44.8 47.0 50.9 47.4 48.4 54.0 56.0 58.1 56.0 T2 15 9 9 1 8 4 0 7 0 0 5 5 0 0 2 4 38. 39.4 38.9 38.7 43.0 46.2 45.7 44.9 47.1 51.0 47.0 48.3 54.9 56.0 58.0 56.3 T3 03 0 0 8 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 41. 41.6 39.9 40.8 45.3 51.6 47.6 48.1 52.6 56.7 53.0 54.1 59.8 62.8 62.5 61.7 T4 00 3 0 4 0 0 7 9 0 8 0 3 9 9 6 8 38. 41.1 39.6 39.8 43.7 47.6 46.7 46.0 47.9 54.1 51.7 51.3 56.7 59.0 61.0 58.9 T5 67 2 4 1 5 0 8 4 8 2 9 0 9 0 0 3 37. 40.2 39.0 39.0 42.6 46.9 47.2 45.6 46.2 56.0 50.0 50.7 55.0 58.3 62.0 58.4 T6 88 3 0 4 8 0 4 1 3 0 0 4 0 0 0 3 38. 40.5 40.1 39.7 42.0 46.5 45.9 44.8 45.0 53.0 50.1 49.3 55.1 57.7 59.2 57.3 T7 48 6 5 3 0 6 0 2 0 0 2 7 2 6 8 9 37. 38.6 37.7 38.1 42.1 47.8 47.0 45.6 44.2 53.2 50.6 49.3 58.0 59.7 60.1 59.3 T8 89 8 9 2 2 3 0 5 0 8 8 9 0 9 2 0

15

37. 38.4 37.3 37.9 41.1 46.5 46.3 44.6 44.2 54.0 49.9 49.3 55.0 56.0 61.4 57.4 T9 90 4 8 1 0 6 4 7 0 0 0 7 0 0 2 7 39. 39.9 39.9 39.9 43.1 48.1 45.4 45.5 49.8 51.8 49.0 50.2 55.6 56.3 59.0 57.0 T10 80 8 8 2 8 0 5 8 0 8 0 3 8 4 0 1 40. 40.9 40.6 40.5 44.1 48.2 47.7 46.7 48.7 54.9 53.8 52.5 58.9 60.8 64.0 61.2 T11 10 0 3 4 0 3 6 0 0 8 9 2 8 6 0 8 39. 40.0 39.1 42.7 46.9 45.9 46.7 52.3 49.5 54.6 56.4 58.4 Mean 06 6 5 9 0 4 6 6 8 5 4 7 SE(d) ± Source SE(d) ± CD0.05 SE(d) ± CD0.05 SE(d) ± CD0.05 CD0.05 T 0.44 0.88 0.50 1.00 0.54 1.08 0.64 1.28 W 0.22 0.44 0.25 0.50 0.27 0.54 0.32 0.64 T X W 0.76 1.52 0.87 1.73 0.94 1.88 1.11 2.21

16

17

Conclusion

On the basis of the results obtained from the investigations carried out, it could be concluded that higher moisture content encourage mineralization of organic forms of N. Nitrogen transformation is greatly influenced by different moisture regimes. Combined application of inorganic and organic substances resulted in smaller losses of N and building of a higher concentration of total N in soil.

References

Chen, Q. H., Feng, Y., Zhang, Y. P., Zhang, Q. C., Shambi, I. H., Ying, F., Yan-Ping, Z., Qi-Chun, Z., Zhang, Y. & Lin, X. Y. (2012). Short - Term Response of Nitrogen Mineralization and Microbial Community to Moisture Regimes in Greenhouse Vegetable Soils. Pedosphere, 22(2), 263-272. Das, D. K. & Puste, A. M. (2001). Influence of Different Organic Waste Materials on the Transformation of Nitrogen in Soils. The Sci. World, doi: 1100/tsw.2001.390. Doel, D. S., Honeycutt, C. W. & Halteman, W. A. (1990). Soil water effects on the use of heat units to predict crop residue carbon and nitrogen mineralization. Biol. Fertil. Soils, 10, 102-106. Guntinas, M. E., Leiros, M. C., Trasar-Cepada, C. & Gil-Sotres, F. (2012). Effects of moisture and temperature on net soil nitrogen mineralization: A laboratory study. Eur. J. Soil Biol., 48, 73-80. Jackson, M. L. (1973). Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Khalil, M. I., Cleemput, O. V., Boeckx, P. & Rosenani, A. B. (2001). Nitrogen transformation and emission of greenhouse gases from three acid soils of humid tropics amended with nitrogen sources and moisture regime. 1. Nitrogen transformations. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal., 32(17-18), 2893-2907. Kumar, V., Singh, H. R., Srivastava, V. K., Sharma, R., Pant, N. & Tomar, P. K. (2018). Nitrogen release pattern of different organic sources under varying levels of NPK fertilizers and their effect on yield and nutrient uptake in hybrid rice-wheat cropping system. J. Pharmacog. Phytochem., SP1, 618-623. Lodhi, A., Arshad, M., Azam, F. & Sajjad, M. H. (2009). Changes in Mineral and Mineralizable N of soil incubated at varying salinity, moisture and temperature regimes. Pak. J. Bot., 41(2), 967-980. Rattan, R. K. (2009). Fundamentals of Soil Science, Indian Society of Soil Science, National Agricultural Science Centre Complex, DevPrakashSastriMarg, Pusa, New Delhi. Sistani, K. R., Adeli, A., McGowen, S. L., Tewolde, H. & Brink, G. E. (2008). Laboratory and field evaluation of broiler litter nitrogen mineralization. Bioresour. Technol., 99, 2603-2611. Stark, J. M. & Firestone, M. K. (1995). Mechanisms for Soil Moisture Effects on Activity of Nitrifying Bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 61(1), 218–221. Tabassum, S., Reddy, K. S., Vaishya, U. K., Singh, M. & Biswas, A. K. (2010). Changes in Organic and Inorganic Forms of Nitrogen in a TypieHaplustert under Soybean-Wheat System due to Conjoint Use of Inorganic Fertilizers and Organic Manures. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 58(1), 76-85.

18 STATUS OF SOIL NUTRIENTS IN TWO MULBERRY PLANTATION SITES OF MIZORAM, NORTH EAST INDIA

Ngangbam Somen Singh, Etsoshan Y Ovung, Melody C. Vanlalruati and S.K.Tripathi* Department of Forestry, School of Earth Science and Natural Resource Management, Mizoram University, India-796004 *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The present study examined soil physico-chemical properties in two mulberry plantation (Durtlang, DTS and Rangvamual, RVS) sites of Mizoram. Soil samples were collected randomly from three permanent plots (about 15-20 m far from each plot) in three different depths (i.e., 0 – 10 cm, 10 – 20 cm and 20 – 30 cm). Majority of soil parameters shows decrease in soil nutrient concentration trends along with soil depths. Depth wise soil moisture content (%) and water holding capacity was higher in DTS compared to RVS. Soil pH ranged from 4.5 - 5.1 in both plantation sites. Soil organic carbon was higher in DTS (2.1 – 3.1) compared to

RVS (1.8 – 2.6). Total soil nitrogen and available nitrogen (NH4-N+NO3-N) followed patterns similar to total -1 organic carbon. Available P ranged from 4.1 to 4.5 mg kg while P2O2 values ranged from 9.4 to 10.5 mg kg-1. MBC ranged from 191.4 – 248.9 (mg kg-1) and MBP from 31.5 – 53.5 (mg kg-1); DTS showed riches in majority of soil nutrients as compared to RVS site. This study reveals soil physico-chemical status of two important mulberry plantations of Mizoram, which will be helpful to sericulturists for quality and quantity production of mulberry leaves. Keywords: Mulberry plantation, Soil pH, Soil physico-chemical properties, Organic carbon

Introduction Soil is the basic component for growth and development of plants. It is a highly complex entity which comprises of soil-water, organic matters other macro-micro fauna, together providing physical and chemical properties that support life process of various flora and fauna in terrestrial ecosystem (Kimmins, 1987; Manpoong & Tripathi, 2019). Soil also provides not only food and shelter for flora and fauna but also maintain ecological balance on earth (Doran and Parkin, 1994). Soil quality depends on maintenance through agriculture practices over time and influence of various macro and micro fauna (Wapongnungsang et al., 2018). Mizoram is one of the eight hilly states of northeast India covering an area of 21, 087 km2. About 85.41% of total geographical area of the state is covered with forest (ISFR, 2019). This region falls under Indo-Burma hotspot that make rich in biodiversity which the region consisting of various forest types including tropical semi-evergreen, tropical moist deciduous, sub-tropical broadleaved hill to sub-tropical pine forests (ISFR, 2019). Due to the suitable climate and topography, mainly rainfall in the region, is favorable

19 for variety of sericulture activities for the production of variety of silk (i.e mulberry, muga, eri and tasar) in the state (as per Mizoram state report march 2017). In Mizoram, more than 5,050 farmers from 176 villages were engaged in sericulture activities in 5,290 hectares of land area (as per Mizoram state report March 2017). As mulberry plant can grow in diverse climate and soil regimes (Prithivirajan et al., 2019), the state has considerable variant in topography, climate, soil types, vegetation due to undulating area and therefore, the production of quality silk varied from place to place. Therefore, there is an urgent need to understand the importance of soil nutrients for management practices in mulberry plantation sites of the region. Various literature were available on different fields like forest and agricultural soils but information on soil nutrient in mulberry plantation was limited (Krishnakumar et al., 1990; Basavanna and Bose, 1989; Bongale and Siddalingaswamy, 1996; Thimmareddy et al., 1999; Samanta et al., 2001). The productivity of silk depends on the quality and quantity of leaf, even though soil play important role on qualitative and quantitative production of mulberry leaf, there is no study so far on soil nutrients in various depths in the region. The present study investigated soil nutrient fertility of two important mulberry plantation sites in Mizoram.

Materials and Methods Study sites: Study sites were located within Aizawl district at Rangvamual, RVS (Basic Seed Farm, Mulberry) 23º45.375`N latitude and 092º41.308`E longitude with elevation of 632 m amsl and at Durtlang, DTS (Mulberry Demonstration Farm) 23 º 46.210`N latitude and 092 º 44.790`E longitude with 1184 m amsl (Figure 1).

Fig 1. Location of study sites.

20 Collection of soil samples Soil samples were collected randomly from the four sites using a soil corer (4.3 cm in diameter) at 3 different depths (i.e. 0-10cm, 10-20cm and 20-30cm) from 3 permanent plots (replications) which was 15 – 20 meters away from each plot. The samples were brought to laboratory for physico-chemical and microbial analysis. Samples were hand-sieved through a 2 mm mesh sieve where debris, stones and root were separated. Half of the samples were air dried and the other half stored at -20ºC for different analysis. Soil analysis in laboratory Soil Moisture Content (SMC%) was determined by gravimetric method and pH using digital pH meter (Mettler Toledo, Switzerland) with soil- water ratio 1:2.5 w/v based on Bandyopadhyay et al., (2012). Bulk density (BD) was determined based on Blake and Hartge, 1986 using known volume of fresh soil. Soil water holding capacity (WHC) was determined by Keen- Raczkowski box method using a fresh soil sample after removal of gravel (Coutts, 1930). Soil textures were determined using hydrometer method (Bouyoucos, 1962). The percentage of sand, silt and clay were calculated and textural classes were determined using the textural classification (USDA). Total Organic Carbon (TOC) was determined by Walkey and Black (1934) rapid oxidation and titration method. Available Phosphorus was determined by Bray and Kurtz (1945) method. Total Nitrogen (TN) content in the soil samples were determined by Kjeldahl Method of Nitrogen estimation (Baethgen & Alley, 1989). Ammoniacal nitrogen (AN) in soil sample was determined by indophenol blue method. This method involves 10g of fresh soil mixed with 100ml of distilled water and shake for proper extraction. Then 5 ml of aliquot mixed with 8ml of Rochelle’s reagent, 1 ml of sodium nitroprusside solution, 2ml of sodium phenate reagent and 0.5ml of hypochlorite solution (pure). The volumes of this content were made to 50 ml volume, and then kept in hot water bath at 40ºC for 20 minutes. After that samples were set cooled and the absorbance values were taken at 625 nm in spectrophotometer. Microbial biomass carbons (MBC) in soil were determined using chloroform fumigation extraction method suggested by Jenkinson and Powlson (1976). Microbial biomasses Phosphorus (MBP) in soil were determined by chloroform fumigation extraction method (Vance et al., 1987).

Statistical analysis Soil physical properties in all sites were statistically analyzed for Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using MS-Excel-7 followed by LSD. To determine significant relationship within soil physico-chemical properties among sites, Pearson correlations (2-tailed) were performed using SPSS ver-18.

21 Results and Discussion Soil moisture content (SMC) ranged between 33 to 37%, where DTS site shows more SMC than RVS site (Table 1). The present SMC is more than the value (17 - 24%) observed in different land use systems of Mizoram (Manpoong & Tripathi, 2019) but more or less similar result (28 – 38%) was observed in different shifting cultivation fellow of Mizoram (Singha & Tripathi, 2017). WHC ranged from 59 – 78% in both sites where the trend shows increase in value along with soil depth (Table 1). Depth wise shows soil BD was higher along with soil depth; both maximum (1.3 g cm-3 in 20 – 30 cm soil depth) and minimum (0.9 g cm-3 in 0 – 10 cm soil depth) value of BD were observed in DTS site (Table 1). For soil texture, percent sand content was ranged between 81 – 87 (Figure 3) which is higher than value (62 – 72) observed in different land use system of Mizoram (Manpoong & Tripathi, 2019), both percent silt and clay content values were lower compared to different land use system of Mizoram (Manpoong & Tripathi,

2019). High significant (p < 0.01) positive correlation were observed in SMC with PAvail (r = 0.92), MBC (r = 0.93) and MBP (r = 0.94) and also observed significant (p< 0.05) strong positive correlation with TOC (r = 0.91), TN (r = 0.86) and AN (r = 0.89). Sand content shows very strong significant (p < 0.01) positive

correlation with TOC (r = 0.97) and PAvail (r = 0.92) and also high significant (p < 0.05) with TOC (r = 0.86) and MBC (r = 0.81).

Table 1. Depth wise soil nutrients concentration from two different mulberry plantation sites (i.e. SMC= Soil moisture content, WHC=Water Holding Capacity, BD=Bulk Density, pH = soil pH, TOC = Total organic carbon, P Avail = Available phosphorus and P2O2 = Diphosphate Dioxide).

3 Sites Soil SMC% WHC% BD (g/cm ) pH TOC (%) P Avail P2O2 (kg/ha) Depth (kg/ha) (cm) DTS 0-10 36.4 ± 0.4 64.6 ± 0.3 0.99 ± 0.01 4.53 ± 0.09 3.08 ± 0.07 45.5 ± 105.5.5 ± 1.5 0.67 10‐20 34.7 ± 0.3 71.67 ± 4.1 1.01 ± 0.006 4.64 ± 0.27 2.6 ± 0.11 44.9 ± 102.9 ± 0.49 0.21 20-30 34.2 ± 0.6 77.7 ± 2.1 1.31 ± 0.015 4.79 ± 0.31 2.16 ± 0.04 42.7 ± 97.9 ± 0.51 0.22

RVS 0-10 35.9 ± 0.4 59.5 ± 3.3 1.01 ± 0.011 5.13 ± 0.28 2.58 ± 0.1 44.9 ± 103 ± 0.05 0.02 10‐20 34.8 ± 0.4 65.4 ± 0.7 1.03 ± 0.018 5.01 ± 0.3 2.16 ± 0.15 43.7 ± 100.2 ± 0.1 0.04 20-30 33.1 ± 0.3 68.88 ± 1.1 1.04 ± 0.017 5.03 ± 0.28 1.89 ± 0.01 41.3 ± 94.6 ± 0.27 0.15

LSD 0.05 3.8 14.8 0.64 0.32 1.11 7.01 16.15 #Mean + 1SE, N=3.

22 DTS RVS DTS, 0-10, 3376.8 DTS, 10‐20, RVS, 0-10, 2889.6 3082.8 DTS, 20-30, RVS, 10‐20, 2721.6

2536.8

) 1 - RVS, 20-30, 1906.8

(mg kg (mg

TN

Depths (cm)

DTS, 0-10, 8.8 RVS, 0-10, 8.4 DTS RVS

DTS, 10‐20, 7.6

RVS, 10‐20, 7.4

) DTS, 20-30, 4.6

1 -

RVS, 20-30, 4.7 AN (mg ANkg (mg

Depths (cm)

Fig 2. Depth wise soil nutrient concentration of Total nitrogen (TN) and Amonical nitrogen (AN) in both mulberry plantation sites (Mean + 1SE, N=3; LSD0.05 for TN = 1562, AN = 8.6).

Soil pH ranged from 4.5 – 5.1 (Table 1) which is slightly higher than value (3.9 – 5) observed in different land use types of Mizoram (Manpoong & Tripathi, 2019; Singha &Tripathi, 2017; Wapongnungsang & Tripathi, 2019). And similar compared to three muga sericulture sites (i.e. 4.8 - 4.9) in Assam Sarmah et al., (2013) but considerably lower compared to Chamarajanagar (8.2) of Karnataka (Shilpashree et al., 2015).

23 TOC ranged between 1.8 – 3.1(Table 1) which is also similar to recent reported value (1.8 – 3) from different parts of the state (Wapongnungsang & Tripathi, 2019; Wapongnungsang et al., 2018) but considerably higher compared to three districts of muga sericulture production sites (0.9 – 1.4% C and 0.01-0.06% N) in Assam (Sarmah et al., 2013) and mulberry garden (0.55% C) in Chamarajanagar of Karnataka (Shilpashree et al., -1 -1 2015). Available Phosphorus was ranged from 41 – 45.5 kg ha and P2O2 ranged from 94 – 105.5 kg ha .

Fig 3. Depth wise percent content of soil sand, silt and clay in both mulberry plantation sites. (Mean + 1SE, N=3; LSD0.05 = 6.62).

24

Percent total nitrogen (TN%) value was between 0.19 to 0.33 %; values decreased with depths in both sites but in average DTS observed higher value compare to RVS sites (Figure 2). The value of TN was within the ranges reported by Manpoong & Tripathi, 2019. Ammonical nitrogen (AN) values ranged between 4.6 - 8.8 g kg-1 (Figure 2), where the values decreased along with depths (Figure 2). For microbial biomass carbon (MBC mg kg-1) and phosphorus (MBP mg kg-1), Average value was higher in DTS compared to RVS site (Figure 4). MBC value ranged from 191 - 291 while MBP was 31 – 53.5 (Figure 4). TOC shows very strong significantly (p < 0.01) positive correlation with TN (r = 0.93), PAvail (r = 0.92), MBC (r = 0.98) and MBP (r = 0.95) and also highly significant (p < 0.05) positive correlation with AN (r = 0.83). TN shows very strong significantly (p < 0.01) positive correlation with PAvail (r = 0.92) and also strong significantly positive correlation was observed with MBC (r = 0.91) and MBP (r = 9.83). AN also observed significantly (p < 0.01) with PAvail (r = 0.93) and high significantly positive correlation with MBP (r = 0.86). PAvail shows significantly (p < 0.05) high positive correlation with MBC (r = 0.88) and MBP (r = 0.88). MBC showed significantly (p < 0.01) high positive correlation (r = 0.97) with MBP.

Conclusion

Soil physico-chemical properties are one of the important factors that influences growth and development of mulberry plant which is one of the primary foods of mulberry silkworm. From this study, it was concluded that majority of soil nutrients were higher in DTS site compared to RVS site. So it is recommended to sericulturists for selection of suitable location with proper fertilization and soil nutrient management in the mulberry plantation to produce quality leaves for the rearing of silkworm in the region.

25 Further analyses of soil nutrients were required from various plantation areas for better understanding in the region.

Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to Dr. Kewat Sanjay Kumar (Asst. Professor, Department of Forestry, Mizoram University), Farm Manager (Rangvamual Seed Farm) and Mulberry Demonstration Farm, Durtlang, Aizawl, Mizoram and Department of Forestry, Mizoram University for providing laboratory, equipment and their kind co-operation during the entire study.

References Baethgen, W.E. & Alley, M.M. (1989). A manual colorimetric procedure for measuring ammonium nitrogen in soil and plant Kjeldahl digests. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 20(9-10), 961- 969. Bandyopadhyay, K., Aggarwal, P., Chakraborty, D., Pradhan, S., Garg, R. N. & Singh, R. (2012) Practical Manual on Measurement of Soil Physical Properties. Basavanna, H. M. & Bose, P.C. 1989. Characteristics of soils of mulberry farm of Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute, Mysore. Indian Journal of Sericuture. 28 (1): 1-10. Blake, G. R. & Hartge, K. H. (1986). Bulk density 1.Methods of soil analysis: part 1—physical and mineralogical methods, (methods of soil analysis), 363-375. Bongale, U. D., Mallikarjunappa, R. S., Narahari Rao, B. V., Anantharaman, M. N. & Dandin, S. B. (1997). Leaf nutritive quality associated with maturity levels in fourteen important varieties of mulberry (Morus spp.). Sericologia (France). Bouyoucos, G. J. (1962). Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analyses. Agronomy Journal, 54(5), 464-465 Bray, R. H. & Kurtz, L. T. (1945). Determination of total, organic, and available forms of phosphorus in soils. Soil science, 59(1), 39-46. Coutts, J. R. H. (1930). “Single Value” Soil Properties. A Study of the Significance of Certain Soil Constants. III. Note on the Technique of the Keen-Raczkowski Box Experiment (With Three Text-figures.). The Journal of Agricultural Science, 20(3), 407-413. Doran, J. W. & Parkin, T. B. (1994). Defining and assessing soil quality. Defining soil quality for a sustainable environment, (definingsoilqua), 1-21. ISFR. 2019. India State of Forest Report, Forest Survey of India. Jenkinson, D. S. & Powlson, D. S. (1976). The effects of biocidal treatments on metabolism in soil-V: A method for measuring soil biomass. Soil biology and Biochemistry, 8(3), 209-213.

26 Kimmins, J. P. (1987). Forest ecology. New York. Krishnakumar, A. K., Datta, B. & Potty, S. N. 1990. Moisture retention characteristics of soils under Hevea in India. Indian Journal of Natural Rubber Research, 3(1), 9-21. Manpoong, C. & Tripathi, S. K. (2019). Soil properties under different land use systems of Mizoram, North East India. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 11(1), 121-125. Mizoram state report March 2017, https://www.slideshare.net/IBEFIndia/mizoram-state-report-march-2017. Prithivirajan, R., Balasundar, P., Shyamkumar, R., Al-Harbi, N. S., Kadaikunnan, S., Ramkumar, T. & Narayanasamy, P. (2019). Characterization of cellulosic fibers from Morus alba L. stem. Journal of Natural Fibers, 16(4), 503-511. Samanta, A., Chatterjee, A. K., Kar, R. & Mandal, B. 2001. Assessment of manganese content in mulberry garden soils of West Bengal.Indian Journal of Sericulture, 40 (1): 64-70. Sarmah, M. C., Neog, K., Das, A. & Phukan, J. C. D. 2013. Impact of soil fertility and leaf nutrients status on cocoon production of muga silkworm Antheraeaassamensis (Helfer) in potential muga growing areas of Assam, India. International Journal of current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 2, 25-38. Shilpashree, K. G., Subbarayappa, C. T. & Doreswamy, S. (2015). Effect of soil application of micronutrients on quality of mulberry and cocoon production. Rese. J. Agri. Sci, 6(4), 830-833. Singha, D. & Tripathi, S. K. (2017). Variations in fine root growth during age chronosequence of moist tropical forest following shifting cultivation in Mizoram, northeast India. Trop Ecol, 58, 769-779. Thimmareddy, H., Prabhuraj, D. K., Bongale, U. D. & Dandin, S.B. 1999. Fertility status of mulberry growing soils in Mysore seed area, Karnataka. Indian Journal of Sericulture. 38 (1): 26-29. Vance, E. D., Brookes, P. C. & Jenkinson, D. S. (1987). An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C. Soil biology and Biochemistry, 19(6), 703-707. Walkley, A. & Black, I. A. (1934). An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil science, 37(1), 29-38. Wapongnungsang & Tripathi, S. K. (2019). Fine root growth and soil nutrient dynamics during shifting cultivation in tropical semi-evergreen forests of northeast India. Journal of Environmental Biology, 40(1), 45-52. Wapongnungsang, Manpoong, C. & Tripathi, S. K. (2018). Changes in soil fertility and rice productivity in three consecutive years cropping under different fallow phases following shifting cultivation. International Journal of Plant and Soil Science, 25(6), 1-10.

27 MULTI-PURPOSE TREE PLANTATIONS AFFECT SOIL QUALITY ALONG HILLY ECO-SYSTEMS IN WOKHA, NAGALAND

Etsoshan Y Ovung*, Lipenthung Ngullie, Somen Ngangbam Singh and SK Tripathi Ecosystem Analysis Laboratory, Department of Forestry, Mizoram University Tanhril, 796004, Aizawl, Mizoram, India *Corresponding E-mail:[email protected]

ABSTRACT

This study evaluated the impact of three multipurpose tree plantations (Rubber, Parkia and Alder) on soil quality in Wokha districts of Nagaland. Soil samples were collected and analysed for important soil fertility indicators including total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), available P (Pavail), Mg, Ca etc. ANOVA revealed that soil properties (TOC, TN, SOM, Pavail, MBC, Ca, Mg) were significantly affected by different plantations. The results indicated that soil under Alder (Alnus nepalensis) and Parkia timoriana plantations had significantly higher TOC, MBC, Pavail, TN and other nutrients compared to Rubber plantation indicating the significance of these tree species for incorporation in various agro-forestry and other farming practices in Nagaland. We recommend the use of A. nepalensis for rehabilitation of degraded and open areas like fallow lands for their speedy recovery. In addition, P. timoriana, a multiple uses species, is also to be planted on degraded areas in combination with Alder or as a companion tree in agro-forestry systems and other farming practices of Nagaland.

Keywords: Multipurpose tree species, soil fertility, soil rehabilitation, sustainable farming.

Introduction

Trees provide number of direct and indirect benefits and services to the humanity as well as the environment including clean air, economic and aesthetic values. Multipurpose trees are defined as woody perennials which are purposefully grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the production and/or service functions of a land-use system. In India, multipurpose trees are extensively planted to meet the increasing demand for excellent fodder, fuel wood and as a raw material in wood-based industry. Despite its multiple benefits, the role of trees in soil amelioration is considered as one of the most important and unfathomable attribute in this rapid changing environment. Majority of the rural population in Nagaland is still dependent on agriculture for their basis of livelihood and thus there are several practices of agriculture throughout the state with numerous techniques and practices varying from place to place and culture to culture. Shifting cultivation has been and is still the most dominant form of agricultural practice which is prevalent throughout the state till date. Hundreds of hectares of natural fallows are cleared each year for this purpose which necessitates the importance of refilling

28 and compensating the cleared fallows to maintain the balance in these ecosystems. Apart from its economical gains, trees provide multiple advantages to soil and land reclamation, subsistence farming, carbon sinks etc. Trees enhance efficient recycling of nutrients through their deep root systems, reduces surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil erosion. It also contributes to the improvement of micro-climate, such as lowering of soil surface temperature and reducing evapo-transpiration through a combination of mulching and shading, increment in soil nutrients through addition and decomposition of litter fall and improvement of soil structure through the constant addition of organic matter from decomposed litter. The multipurpose trees help in the improvement of soil and ecosystem services. Deep root system of trees helps in improving the ground water quality and also helps in retaining the nutrients that has been leached below the reach of other crops. In addition, nitrogen fixing trees play a vital role in improving soil fertility through the fixation of atmospheric N into the soil, which is one of the most limiting nutrients in the acidic soils of this region.

In this study, three multipurpose trees (like Alnus nepalensis, Hevea brasiliensis and Parkia roxburghii) have been studied for their effects on soil physical and bio-chemical characteristics. These three multipurpose trees are one of the most prominent tree species used in the state and has multiple economical benefits. However, the effect of these multipurpose trees on the environment and especially the degree of its impact the soil is still ambiguous and thus this study is aimed at bringing a certain measure of the impact of these multi- purpose tree plantations on soil quality.

Materials and Methods

Study area

The study was conducted at Wokha, the land of Lotha-Naga tribe is one of the twelve districts in Nagaland. The district is located in the mid-western part of Nagaland at 25° 20' - 26° 15' N of latitude and 94° 02' - 95° 01' E of longitude and the total geographical area is 1628 km2. The topography of the Wokha is, by and large, mountainous with precipitous slopes forming deep gorges culminating into several streams and rivers. The state enjoys a monsoon influenced subtropical climate. The summer temperature of Wokha ranges from 16.1°C to 32°C, the winter temperature reaches to a minimum of 2°C, and the average annual temperature in Wokha is 17.8 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1940 mm.

Description of sites Alder plantation (Alnus nepalensis D.Don.) The site is 4 km away from Wokha town and is located at 26° 4' 28'' N latitude and 94° 15' 9'' E longitude and elevation at 1240 m a.m.s.l. The plantation is composed of pure Alder trees aged 9-12 years.

Parkia plantation (Parkia timoriana)

29 The site is located near Pongitong village (26° 3' 35'' N and 94° 12' 48'' E) which is 15 km away from Wokha town at an elevation of 990 m a.m.s.l. A rough estimation of trees was carried out on each quadrat which revealed, the total number of Parkia trees recorded ranged from 12-14 individuals per quadrat (20 x 25 m). The age of the plantation was learned to be about 10 years.

Rubber plantation (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg)

The plantation site is located near Nzhu river (26° 3' 39'' N 94° 9' 27'' E) which is 42 km away from Wokha town at an elevation of 380 m above m a.m.s.l. The number of trees recorded in a quadrat of 20 x 25 m was found to be about 13-17. The age of the plantation was 11 years.

Experimental design

Three different plantations were selected as experimental site from Wokha district, Nagaland. The three plantations were similar in terms of their age, slope, aspect and topography. Three replicated plots (20 x 25 m) were established for each land use type to consider true site replicates by maintaining the minimum distance between plots with more than 15 m (Mariotte et al. 1997).

Soil sampling

Bulk soil samples were collected from all the plots of different land use systems using a simple random sampling technique. Soil samples were collected from a depth of 0-15 cm using a soil corer with inner diameter of about 5.2 cm. Within each site replicate, 3 composited soil samples were drawn with each composite sample composed of three random soil cores. A total of 27 composited soil samples were collected for the study site (3 composite samples x 3 site replicates x 3 sites). Three soil cores were collected from each quadrat for soil bulk density analysis and thus a total of 27 samples were collected (3 soil cores x 3 site replicates x 3 sites).

Laboratory analysis

Soil physico-chemical analysis Soil bulk density was estimated using the soil core of known inner volume as described by McKenzie et al. (2004). The bulk density values were reported on oven dry (105 °C) weight of the samples. Gravimetric soil moisture content (%) was estimated by oven drying the known weight of field moist soil. Soil texture was determined using the hydrometer method (Bouyoucos et al., 1962). The textural classification according to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was followed to give the nomenclature or textural class. Keens box method (Piper 1966) was followed for determination of water holding capacity (WHC) of soil samples. Soil pH was determined in a soil-water suspension (2:5 soil-water ratios) with pH analyzer. Soil organic matter (SOM) was determined by the Loss on Ignition method (LOI). Available phosphorus (P) was calculated as per Bray and Kurtz, (1945). Exchangeable K, Ca, Mg, Al and Na was extracted with 1N ammonium acetate (NH4OAc) (pH 7.0) and determined by using the Microwave

30 plasma atomic emission spectrophotometer (MPAES), Agilent’s 4200 MP-AES. Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) and Total Nitrogen (TN) were analyzed by CHNS/O Elemental Analyzer with auto sampler and TCD detector –Euro Vector, Model: EuroEA3000, LECO. Microbial Biomass Carbon (MBC) was measured by the fumigation extraction method (Vance et al., 1987).

Soil carbon and nitrogen stock Soil carbon and nitrogen stock (Mg ha−1) was calculated by for each depth was computed following the formula given by of Blanco-Canqui & Lal, (2008). SOC stock (Mg ha-1) = 104 (m2/ha)X Soil depth (m) X BD (Mg/m3) X SOC %/100 Where, BD is bulk density and SOC is soil organic carbon concentration.

Soil Fertility Index (SFI) and Soil Evaluation Factor (SEF) The following equations were used to calculate the values of Soil Fertility Index and Soil Evaluation Factor (Lu et al., 2002).

SFI = pH + organic matter (%, dry soil basis) + available P (mg kg−1, dry soil) + exch. K (ceqkg−1, dry soil) + exch. Ca (ceq kg−1, dry soil) + exch. Mg (ceq kg−1, dry soil) − exch. Al (ceq kg−1, dry soil)

SEF = [exch. K (ceq kg−1, dry soil) + exch. Ca (ceq kg−1, dry soil) + exch. Mg (ceq kg−1, dry soil) – log (1+exch. Al (ceq kg−1, dry soil)] × organic matter (%, dry soil) + 5

Statistical tools and analysis

Data obtained after soil analyses were subjected to one factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) and L.S.D, SE(d), SE(m) were calculated and analyzed using open source OPSTAT (free Online Agriculture Data Analysis Tool created by O.P. Sheoran, Computer Programmer at CCS HAU, Hisar, India). Spearman correlation was used to evaluate the co-relationship (at 0.05, and 0.01 level of significance) between soil physical, chemical and biological properties.

Results and discussion

Changes in soil physico-chemical properties in different plantations

The various soil physical characteristics of the study sites are shown in Table 1. SMC was highest (33.4 %) in RP followed by PP and least in AP. This may be attributed to the higher clay and silt content observed in RP since clay and silt is known to absorb water readily. Accordingly, higher WHC could also be observed in RP which may be attributed to the same. WHC was significantly affected by different plantations (p<0.05). Generally, higher values of WHC under tree covers (plantations) might be ascribed primarily to the continuous vegetative cover with litter fall and their subsequent decomposition along with root mortality. All the plantations had sandy loam texture. Concentrations of sand, silt and clay were significantly affected by 31 different plantations (p<0.05) indicating that management practices operated and inherent parent material contributes to the variation in the soil particle sizes. BD was also highest in RP (1.04) followed by PP (0.9) and AP (0.84) as a result of changes in organic matter content in the soil. Higher soil organic matter content lowers the bulk density and vice versa (Biswas et al., 2012; Lalnunzira & Tripathi, 2018).

The various soil exchangeable nutrients estimated are shown in Table 2. Soil pH was found to be strongly acidic in all the plantations with highest value in AP (4.4) followed by PP and lowest in RP (4.1) however, there was no significant difference among the plantations. AP recorded highest concentration of Mg, K and Ca whereas PP recorded highest values of Na and Al among the plantations. Higher values of Mg, K, Ca and

Pavail may be accorded to litter addition from Alder trees which contributed to soil nutrients (Sharma & Singh 1994; Mishra & Sharma 2001). Na, Mg and Ca were significantly affected by different plantations (p<0.05), while no significant effect was observed in case of K and Al. Generally, lower values of exchangeable nutrients in all the plantations may be a result of the leaching contributed by the higher mean annual precipitation and sloping terrains leading to leaching of base cations which can be related to the lower pH values (Table 2) in these plantations. Studies have indicated that soil pH influences availability of micronutrients by providing favourable conditions which accelerates oxidation, precipitation, and immobilization (Martens & Westermann, 1991; White & Zasoski, 1999).

Pavail was observed to be highest in AP (18.24 mg/kg) followed by PP (7.41 mg/kg) and the lowest in RP (5.45 mg/kg). Similar trend was observed in case of SOM which was in descending order: AP>PP>RP. Both Pavail and SOM were found to be significantly affected by different plantations (p<0.05) as indicated by the LSD shown below in Fig 1 a) & b). Higher values of Pavail in AP may be attributed to higher number of micro- organisms and soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC), which act as sinks and sources of available phosphorus in the biogeochemical cycle (Turner et al., 2003). Higher Pavail and SOM in AP was due to the fast growth of A. nepalensis that produces high quantity of litter in short interval of time. The addition of litter from this tree has been reported to add significantly high amount of P in the soil (Mishra & Sharma, 2001). TOC and TN were highest in AP with values 5.30 % and 0.45 % respectively followed by PP and RP. TOC and TN were significantly affected by different plantations as

Table 1. Effect of different Plantations (RP- Rubber plantation, PP- Parkia plantation & AP- Alder plantation) on soil physical properties (SMC- soil moisture content, WHC- water holding capacity, BD- soil bulk density, particle size distribution-sand, silt, clay & textural class) at soil depth 0-15 cm.

Soil Physical properties

Plantations SMC (%) WHC (%) BD (g/cm3) Clay (%) Silt (%) Sand (%) Textural Class

RP 33.4±1.5 54.53±0.59 1.04 ±0.08 18.48 ±0.81 25.72 ±1.39 55.8 ±1.29 Sandy Loam

32

PP 31.8 ±0.9 50.88±1.56 0.90 ±0.03 15.8 ±0.64 20.88 ±0.4 63.32 ±0.7 Sandy Loam

AP 30.6±0.7 48.7±0.71 0.84 ±0.02 10.48 ±0.33 20.02 ±0.92 69.5 ±0.59 Sandy Loam

LSD0.05 P= P=N/S P=3.703 P=N/S P=2.199 L=3.491 L=3.224 ---- Note: P= Plantations, LSD0.05: p<0.05, NS= Non significant.

Table 2. Effect of different Plantations (RP- Rubber plantation, PP- Parkia plantation & AP- Alder plantation) on soil pH and soil exchangeable nutrients (Soil pH, sodium-Na, magnesium-Mg, potassium- K, calcium-Ca, aluminium-Al) at soil depth 0-15 cm.

Plantations Soil pH & Exchangeable nutrients (c mol/kg) pH Na Mg K Ca Al

RP 4.1 ±0.2 0.14±2.62 0.09 ±0.02 0.31 ±0.22 0.25 ±0.07 0.13±0.03

PP 4.3 ±0.1 0.31±0.08 0.06 ±0.03 0.26 ±0.09 0.18 ±0.06 0.14±0.06

AP 4.4 ±0.2 0.24 ±0.11 0.18±0.05 0.35 ±0.3 0.37 ±0.1 0.11±0.02

LSD0.05 P= P=N/A P=0.075 P=0.068 P=N/A P=0.083 P=N/A

Note: P= Plantations, LSD0.05: p<0.05, NS= Non significant.

33

Fig 1 a) & b). Changes in a) soil available phosphorus (Pavail) and b) soil organic matter (SOM) across different plantations (Rubber plantation-RP, Parkia plantation-PP and Alder plantation-PP) at soil depth 0-15 cm. One factor ANOVA with LSD result showing significant difference between different plantations represented by P at significance level p<0.05.

Fig 2 a) & b). Variations in a) Total organic carbon (TOC %) and b) Total nitrogen (TN %) across different plantations (Rubber plantation-RP, Parkia plantation-PP and Alder plantation-PP) at soil depth 0-15 cm. One factor ANOVA with LSD result showing significant difference between different plantations represented by P at significance level p<0.05.

34

Fig 3 a) & b). Changes in a) C/N and b) Soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) across different plantations (Rubber plantation-RP, Parkia plantation-PP and Alder plantation-PP) at soil depth 0-15 cm. One factor ANOVA with LSD result showing significant difference between different plantations represented by P at significance level p<0.05.

Fig 4 a) & b). Variations in a) soil carbon stock (C stock) and b) soil nitrogen stock (N stock) across different plantations (Rubber plantation-RP, Parkia plantation-PP and Alder plantation-PP) at soil depth of 15 cm. One factor ANOVA with LSD result showing significant difference between different plantations represented by P at significance level p<0.05.

35

Fig 5 a) & b). Variations in a) soil fertility index (SFI) and b) soil evaluation factor (SEF) across different plantations (Rubber plantation-RP, Parkia plantation-PP and Alder plantation-PP) at soil depth 0-15 cm. One factor ANOVA with LSD result showing significant difference between different plantations represented by P at significance level p<0.05. shown below in Fig 2. a) and b). Higher values of TOC in AP may be ascribed to the higher organic matter as a result of the higher litter fall. Land uses with fewer disturbances favours soil SOC conservation with continuous augmentation of plant litter input (Mganga et al. 2016) and low rate loss of SOC in the form CO2. In case of TN, the highest concentration in AP can be directly related to the N-fixing ability of the tree species and thus increasing the TN concentration in the soil.

In case of C/N, lowest value could be recorded in AP (Fig 3 a) and the highest in RP with value amounting to 12.61, indicating a faster rate of decomposition in AP in comparison to the other plantations and thus the higher TOC, SOM and other nutrients. This can also be well ascribed to the higher amount of MBC in AP as shown below in Fig 3 b). However, in case of C/N there was no significant difference (p>0.05) observed among the various plantations. On the contrary, MBC was found to be significantly affected by different plantations (p<0.05). Higher MBC in AP (465.24 mg/kg) can be attributed to the higher SOM as it directly influences the population and growth of soil microbes. Further, addition of higher quantity of quality litter supporting a larger microbial biomass and activity due to the availability of above and below ground carbon sources (Nsabimana et al., 2004). In general, soil microbial biomass is higher in ecosystems that experience continuous inputs of organic residues as found in native forest or regenerated lands (Hackl et al., 2004).

36 Changes in soil carbon (TOC) and nitrogen (TN) stock in different plantations

Soil C stock and N stock varied significantly across the different plantations (p<0.05). As expected, higher stocks of C (66.48 Mg/ha) and N (5.64 Mg/ha) were observed in AP and decreased in the order PP

Changes in soil fertility index (SFI) and soil evaluation factor (SEF) among plantations

One factor ANOVA revealed significant difference in SFI and SEF among the various plantations (p<0.05). Both SFI (35.06) and SEF (15.10) were observed to be highest in AP followed by PP and lowest was recorded in RP. Similar values has been reported from acid soils of humid subtropical India where higher values of SFI and SEF was found to higher in natural forest compared to arecanut plantations and homegardens (Panwar et al., 2011). This indicates that AP somehow mimics the forest ecosystem characteristics and creates favorable conditions for storage and release of important soil quality indicators such as C, N and other nutrients.

Correlations among different soil parameters in different study sites

Significant positive correlations were observed between sand and soil attributes (i.e. TOC, TN, Pavail and SOM) indicating that adequate amount of sand concentration is necessary for sufficient retention and conservation of soil nutrients. Positive correlation between silt and clay with WHC could also be observed. BD was also observed to maintain a negative correlation with TOC, SOM and MBC. In case of TOC and TN, strong positive correlations could be observed with Pavail, MBC, SFI and SEF. In addition, SOM was found to have strong positive correlations with TOC, TN, Pavail, MBC, SFI and SEF indicating that SOM is among the most important properties of soil contributing to the soil quality. Our study showed a close and strong correlation between MBC and SOC and TN with SOM. Microorganisms are heterotrophic in nature and thus, their distribution and biological activity is directly dependent on organic matter content (Yang et al., 2010, Xiangmin et al., 2014).

Conclusion The study suggests that fast growing ability of trees coupled with higher litter production and N-fixing ability of trees along with the rhizospheric microbes regulates soil bio-chemistry which affects plant growth as in the case of Alnus nepalensis and Parkia timoriana plantations. Soil biochemical changes were more pronounced in Alnus nepalensis in comparison to the other plantations as a result of high root density and

37 exudation rates that support diverse soil microorganisms for their energy source which in turn degrades the soil organic matter to release nutrients that can be used for plant uptake. Therefore, this study recommends promotion of Alnus nepalensis for use in reclamation of degraded areas. However, the other two species like Parkia timoriana and Hevea brasiliensis may also be promoted to be used on degraded areas in combination with Alder. In addition, Alnus nepalensis could be suitably used as a fallow species for speedy recovery of Jhum fallows as well as an ideal companion tree in agro-forestry systems and other farming practices keeping in view the importance of sustainability while promoting conservation.

References

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38 Mganga, K.Z., Razavi, B.S. & Kuzyakov, Y. (2016). Land use affects soil biochemical properties in Mt. Kilimanjaro region. Catena, 141, 22-29.

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39 STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF AVAILABLE NITROGEN AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER SOIL PROPERTIES IN DIFFERENT SOIL SOURCES OF NAMSAI DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH: A CASE STUDY.

Uttam Hazarika, Puja Moran, Gunakanta Gogoi, Navamallika Gogoi* Department of Chemistry, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh-792103 * Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Soil samples were collected from 0-15 cm and 15-30cm depth from 4 different Soil system of Namsai district of Arunachal Pradesh. Available N concentrations at the various sampling sites followed the sequence AUSAF< DGTG < BMPF

Introduction Available Nitrogen is defined as the nitrogen in chemical form which is available for plant. Mineral N + - - pool influenced by this three available forms, ammonium, NH4 ; nitrite, NO2 ; nitrate, NO3 (Arunachalum & Arunachalum, 2006). Plant can utilise any of these nitrogen forms depending on the environmental condition and plant species. Ammonium and nitrate are predominate inorganic forms of nitrogen in soils. Ammonium is an important source of Available N especially in grassland and to a minor extent in forest. - - Plants can utilize small amounts of NO2 , but more utilization is toxic to most plants. NO2 is the most - important source of available nitrogen for cultivated plants. Since NO2 does not react with soil clays, the total - supply of NO2 in the root zone is available. Soil nitrogen is one of main nutrition used for vegetation growth, and also used as indicators of soil quality assessment and sustainable land use management. Several studies worldwide have concluded that Available N crucial to our terrestrial ecosystem Nitrogen availability depends on many factors like climate

40 organics stock, management practice, fertilizer application, land use pattern, physicochemical properties of soil. It was reported that Nitrogen availability is reduced in cold soils while at high temperature ammonification, as well as soil organic matter increases. Reitemeier (1946) reported that available nitrogen is closely related to the moisture tension in the soil. Crop management also effect on Nitrogen availability because non legumes may have a negative effect on available nitrogen. Soil physical characteristics such as texture, density, porosity, permeability, and WHC are important factors in the adequate N uptake by plants (Fageria & Moreira, 2011). In medium texture soil nitrification occurs rapidly while in clayey soils NO3− reduction potential is higher. Normally sandy soils are poorly structured and water holding capacity have low and also contain insufficient organic matter due to which NO3− leaching capacity of sandy soils is generally higher than in clayey soils because of its (Cameron et al., 2013). The increase in soil temperature and pH due to higher moisture content in soil promote N loss. Soil moisture naturally related to SOM dynamics and has a great influence on the N transformations (Moyano et al., 2013). Cheng et al. (2013) reported that nitrification rates tend to decline in acidic soils because of its lower activity of nitrifying bacteria (Cheng et al., 2013). + Higher conversion of NH4 to NH3, ammonia volatilization takes place in alkaline soil, it impact on net loss of Nitrogen from the soil system (Jones et al., 2013). Climate also affect on N dynamics. Higher rain fall activity causes leaching NO3- (Signor & Cerri, 2013), due to which ion can accumulate in the leaves as well as plant and becomes harmful for our environment. Denitrification occurs due to poor drainage capacity of resulting N loss as gas which can lead in emission of greenhouse gases and decrease yield production. In recent decade researcher have been given attention to analysing the dynamics of soil N availability and transformations to predict the ecosystem productivity. So, it is important to know how available N effects on other soil properties in different land use systems so that best management practice options can be recommended to better productivity. However, it is to be noted that the soil structure bears a complex relationship with the soil properties, which is poorly understood. Studies have been conducted for some kind of mechanistic and quantitative understanding of the chemical and physical factors that will be useful in evolving sound management practices of the soil health. We studied the N availability and its impact in four different soil systems such as, agricultural farm, forest area, tea garden and paddy field. Therefore, the present study aimed to (1) determine the dynamics of available Nitrogen of different soil systems of Namsai district, (2) study the status of few physicochemical properties of soil by depth (3) analysis the effect of pH, Bulk density, particle density, water holding capacity on soil available Nitrogen in different soil systems of Namsai district.

41 Materials and Methods Study area Namsai district of Arunachal Pradesh, India is a foothill district and is well known for its rich wealth of medicinal plant diversity. The major field crops in the district are paddy (winter and summer varieties), black gram, wheat, jute, summer moong, pea, mustard, sesame, etc. Horticultural crops include vegetables like tomato, potato, brinjal, all kind of cucurbits, etc. Spices grown are chillies, onion, garlic, turmeric, coriander, etc. Some of the important plantation commercially cultivated includes Ginger, Orange, Bamboo, Lemon, etc. The district receives annual rainfall of about 228mm with 75% received during the monsoon months (June to September). Both pre- and post- monsoon months have unpredictable and erratic rainfall. The mean maximum temperature varies from 33 to 16.60 ºC and the mean minimum temperature varies from 26 to 12.20 ºC. Out of the geographical area of 1587 Sq. Km in the district, 191.31 Sq. Km described as the net cultivated area (Agricultural Contingency Plan, District-Namsai, 2018).

Selection of the sampling site The field observation and soil sampling was carried out from February to March of 2019 and 2020. Four types of land use classes were considered: Agricultural field Forest land, Tea Garden and Paddy Field. A general description of the sampling sites is shown in Table 1. Soil Sampling and Processing From each site, five soil samples were collected (four diagonally opposite corner and one from the centre) up to two different depth (0-15 cm and 15-30cm) using soil cores. Soil samples were brought to the laboratory in polythene bags, air dried, lumps broken and kept spread over a white paper and were homogenized to form a composite sample .The air dried soil samples were sieved with a 2mm sieve and stored in air-tight glass containers (stock sample).

Table 1. Location of the sampling sites

Sample Name Latitude/ Dominant vegetation ID Longitude AUSAF Arunachal University of 27⁰38′50.25″N Vegetables, grains, sugarcane, banana, Studies agricultural field 95⁰52′13.75″ E pulse crop MF Manabhum Reserve Forest 27⁰45′41.90″N Common trees include in this forest are 95⁰57′13.27″ E Holong , Meka , Holok, Nahor etc. DGTG Dirak Gate tea garden 27⁰38′59.19″N 95⁰52′27.79″ E Tea

42 BMPF Bordumsa-Mahadevpur Paddy 27⁰38′11.51″N Paddy is grown throughout the year in three Field 95⁰47′39.66″ E seasons- winter (Sali crop), autumn (ahu) and summer (boro) .

Analysis of soil properties Total N was estimated by the Kjeldahl method (Bremner & Mulvaney, 1982). The bulk density (BD) of the sieved soil was obtained by repacking the oven dried soil in a cylinder of known volume and determining the weight and the volume of the sample. Particle density (PD) of soil was obtained using pyknometer method (Bashour & Sayegh, 2007). Soil Porosity (SP) was determined from the soil bulk density and particle density using the relationship: SP (%) = (1-BD/PD) x100 (Bashour & Sayegh, 2007). The water-holding capacity (WHC) was determined by filling up a PVC cylinder with known amount of soil, immersed in water with the lid tightly held, and was allowed to drain out and the WHC in percent was obtained from the difference in weight of the air dried soil and the water saturated soil (Bashour & Sayegh, 2007). Soil pH was measured in 1:5 soil-water suspensions with a digital pH meter (Elico101E).

Results and Discussion Soil Available Nitrogen and pH, BD, WHC, PD The current study shows that for both depths, available N tends to increase from Manabhum forest (MF) to Arunachal university agricultural field (AUSAF) (Table 2). Singh & Munth, (2013) reported that the available N in the forest soil of Arunachal Pradesh varied from 213.2 to 470.3 kgha-1 which indicated low to medium in available N content (Singh & Munth, 2013). While in the current study available N values in MF soils were 457.85 kgha-1 for 0-15 cm and 442.17 kgha-1 for 15-30 cm depth. From the data it was observed that available N gradually decreases with increasing depth of the soil. Similar trend was also observed for other soil samples. The difference in the result might also be due to the decline in OC concentration of the cultivated soil as a result of decrease in amount of organic materials returned to the soil (Dala & Mayer, 1986). Increase in available N in surface soil might be attributed to the direct addition of nitrogen through farmyard manure and green manure to the available pool of the soil. In many cases the management conditions can exert an important role in the soil nitrogen dynamic, especially if the pastures are fertilized. Variation of different values of available N in different sites is presented in Fig 1. As per the experimental findings, it was observed that the forest soils contained more available N than the cultivated soils. This is in line with the findings of Ellert & Gregorich (1996) who reported the forest soils contain more nitrogen than cultivated soils. The order of soil pH values were MF

43 depth was 5.26 and whereas at 15-30 cm depth the pH was 5.81. It is generally lower pH in surface layer then the subsurface layer. MF sample contained low particle density in both depth and AF sample has higher particle density in both depths. Particle density of the soil ranged from 1.76g/cm3-2.35g/cm3 for experimented samples at 0-15 cm depth and 1.99 g/cm3- 2.43 g/cm3 at 15-30 cm depth. The average particle density of 2.17 g/cm3 in forest soil and 2.64 g/cm3 in cultivated soil was reported by (Singh & Munth, 2013). With the increase in organic matter content, particle density decreases. Soils containing high amounts of organic matter will have particle density reserves around 2.4 g/cm3 (Singh & Munth, 2013). Water holding capacity of 0-15 cm depth samples was found in the following order: DGTG

Table 1. Soil properties of the different soil sample at 0-15cm and 15-30cm depth

Soil parameter Available N (Kg/ha) pH BD(g/cm3) WHC (%) PD (gm/cm3 ) 0-15cm depth MF 457.85 3.71 0.8 59.33 1.76 BMPF 432.76 5.13 1.09 48.94 2.00 DGTG 310.46 5.76 0.91 48.27 2.38 AUSAF 150.52 6.45 1.02 53.08 2.35 15-30 cm depth MF 442.17 4.68 0.82 59.28 1.99 BMPF 185.02 5.52 1.06 48.66 2.24 DGTG 260.28 6.42 0.93 39.44 2.23 AUSAF 122.30 6.62 0.85 25.46 2.43 Where AUSAF: Arunachal university of studies agricultural field; MF: Manabhum Reserve Forest; DGTG: Dirak Gate tea garden; BMPF: Bordumsa-Mahadevpur Paddy Field; BD: Bulk density; WHC: Water holding capacity; PD: Particle density.

44

Fig 1. Available N content in different sampling sites at 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm depth.

Influences of physical properties on Soil Available N In order to look at the role of soil physical properties, Pearson correlation was carried out with data of both depth to quantify the correlations between the physical properties and soil Nitrogen (Table 2 (a) and (b).

Table 2 (a). Pearson correlation among soil properties at 0-15cm depth

Variables Available N pH PD BD WHC AN 1 0.88 -0.84 -0.31 0.23 pH -0.88 1 0.94 0.62 -0.65 PD -0.84 0.94 1 0.38 -0.66 BD -0.31 0.62 0.39 1 -0.68 WHC 0.23 -0.64 -0.66 -0.68 1

Table 2 (b). Pearson correlation among soil properties at 15-30 cm depth

Variables Available N pH PD BD WHC AN 1 0.80 -0.97 -0.43 0.83 pH -0.80 1 0.90 0.07 -0.95 PD -0.96 0.89 1 0.20 -0.95 BD -0.43 0.07 0.20 1 0.08 WHC 0.83 -0.95 -0.95 0.08 1

The result relating to correlation revealed that the available N were significantly and negatively correlated with soil pH at 0-15cm (r= -0.88) and 15-30 cm(r=-79) depth. So, increase on pH, available N decreases progressively and vice-versa. The highest content of nitrogen was recorded in the Manabhum forest (457.85kg/ha) with low pH (3.71) due to high organic carbon and nitrogen amounts and low C:N ratio

45 throughout the profile. The lowest content was recorded in the Agriculture field of AUSAF (122.30kg/ha) with pH 6.62 in depth because of its large clay-silt fraction. The significant and negative correlation between soil pH and available nitrogen indicated that increase in soil pH decreases available N, which might be due to volatilization loss of nitrogen with rise pH of soil. Khokar et al. (2012) have also found significant and negative correlations between soil pH and available N. A strong negative correlation was observed between available N and PD for 0-15 cm (r=-0.84) and 15-30cm depth (r=-0.96). As there was increase in available N, particle density gradually decreases. The particle density in MF was found to be low (1.76) with increase in N (457.85 kgha-1) at surface 0-15cm and with increase in particle density at AUSAF (2.439), the N is found to be lowest (122.304 kgha-1) at the depth 15-30cm. For both depths a strong correlation was observed between available N and soil particle density. The WHC increases with the increasing level of organic carbon, nitrogen and clay (Ramesh et al., 2008). The water holding capacity of soil samples was found to be positive and significantly correlated with available N (r=0.83) at 15-30cm depth. A similar relationship was also reported by Paudel & Sah (2003). The values of WHC in MF (59.33%) increased with Available N (457.85 kgha-1) at the surface 0-15cm and with decrease in Available N in AUSAF (122.304 kgha-1) the WHC was also found decreasing (25.46%) at the depth of 15-30cm.

Conclusion Soil available N are the main nutrients used for vegetation growth, and are also used as indexes of soil quality assessment and sustainable land use management. Available N in soil can be influenced by different land use system. In the present study, the levels and spatial distributions of available N as well as the correlation with pH, BD, PD, WHC was studied. Forest ecosystem appears to be the most conductive environment for maximum accumulation of Nitrogen. The concentration of available N at the various sampling sites showed the following sequence: AUSAF< GPTG < BMPF

References Agricultural Contingency Plan, (2018). Indian council of agricultural research, Basar, Arunachal Pradesh.

Arunachalum, K. & Arunachalum, A. (2006). Nitrogen availability and N-mineralization under different land use types in the humid tropics of Arunachal Pradesh. Tropical Ecology, 47(6), 99 -107 Bashour, I.I. & Sayegh, A.H. (2007). Method of Soil Analysis for Arid and Semi-Arid Regions, FAO, Caracalla, 00153, Rome, Italy. Bremner, J. M. & Mulvaney, C. S. (1982), Methods of Soil Analysis, 2nd Ed. ASA & SSSA, Madison, pp. 595-624

46 Cameron, K.C., Di, H.J. & Moir, J.L. (2013). Nitrogen losses from the soil/plant system: a review. Ann. Appl. Biol, 162, 145-173. Cheng, Y., Wang, J., Mary, B., Zhang, J., Cai, Z., Chang, S.X. (2013). Soil pH has contrasting effects on gross and net nitrogen mineralization in adjacent forest and grassland soils in Central Alberta, Canada. Soil Biol. Biochem, 57, 848-857. Ellert, B.H. & Gregorich, E.G. (1996). Storage of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus in cultivated and adjacent forested soils of Ontario. Soil Science, 161, 587-603. Fageria, N.K. & Moreira, A. (2011), The role of mineral nutrition on root growth of crop plants, In: Sparks, D.L. (Ed.), Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press, Burlington, pp. 251-331. Jones, C., Brown, B.D., Engel, R., Horneck, D. & Olson-Rutz, K. (2013). Factors affecting nitrogen fertilizer volatilization. Nitrogen Fertilizer Volatilization. Montana State University. Extension publication, EB0208, pp. 1-6. Khokhar, Y., Rattanpal, H.S., Dhillon, W.S., Singh, G. & Gill, P.S. (2012). Soil fertility and nutritional status of Kinnow orchards grown in aridisol of Punjab, India. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(33), 4692-4697 Lal, R. & Shukla, M. K. (2014). Principles of Soil Physics, Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York, Basel, pp 484- 490. Maji, A.K., Nayak, D.C., Krishna, N.D.R, Srinivas, C.V., Kamble, K., Reddy, P.O. & Velayutham, M. (2001). Soil information system of Arunachal Pradesh in a GIS environment for land use planning. JAG, 3, 69-77. Moyano, F.E., Manzoni, S. & Chenu, C. (2013). Responses of soil heterotrophic respiration to moisture availability: an exploration of processes and models. Soil Biol. Biochem., 59, 72-85. Paudel, S. & Sah, J.P. (2003). Physiochemical characteristics of soil in tropical sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.) forests in eastern Nepal. Him J Sci, 1(2), 107-110. Reitemeier, R. F. (1946). Effect of moisture content on the dissolved and exchangeable ions of soils of arid regions. Soil Science, 61, 195-214. Singh, P.K. & Munth, H. (2013). Comparative study of physic-chemical, nutrients availability and acidic properties of Arunachal Pradesh soil under different land used system. An Asian journal of soil science, 457-462. Signor, D. & Cerri, C.E.P. (2013). Nitrous oxide emissions in agricultural soils: a review. Pesqui. Agropecu. Trop., 43, 322–338.

47 PHYTOREMEDIATION OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATED SOILS WITH BIOFUEL PLANTS: AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH

Pallabi Borah*1 and Sudip Mitra2 1Department of Environmental Science, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, A.P., 792103, India 2Centre for Rural Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, 781039, India *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Phytoremediation potential of Jatropha curcas and Pongamia pinnata–biofuel plants were studied to investigate the growth performance and uptake capacity in the soils contaminated with Iron (Fe) and Nickel (Ni) being continuously exposed by paper mill and municipal landfill wastes discharge in Assam, India. A pot experiment was conducted with varying combinations of control soil (forest soil) and contaminated soils in a w/w ratio @ 0 %, 25 %, 50 %, 75 % and 100 %. It clearly showed that the addition of contaminated soil with the control soils significantly alters the electrical conductivity, pH, bulk density, particle density, porosity, and heavy metal content of the soil. The statistical analysis showed a strong correlation between the heavy metal concentration and their correspondent concentration in both the soil combinations. The plant biochemical parameters like carotenoid, proline and nitrate reductase content also changed with different soil combination. The whole plant biomass production of both species was adversely affected by the soil treatment. Both the species showed high average concentration of Fe and Ni in roots with the maximum concentration in 25 % contaminated soil. As compared to Jatropha, Pongamia showed a greater ability to accumulate the metal in the below ground part which is preferred in order to prevent metal from entering the ecosystem Keywords: Phytoremediation, Biofuel, Heavy metals, Contamination

Introduction

Iron (Fe) which is the most abundant of all metals and also the fourth most common element in Earth’s crust by weight involved in the production of chlorophyll, electron transport in photosynthesis and is a component of hemoglobin-a protein in blood that carries oxygen to various body tissues in vertebrates. Huge scale iron and steel processing leads to iron toxicity in the environment. It can enter the food chains and affect human beings through the biomagnification process (Baldantoni et al., 2014). Another common heavy metal Nickel (Ni) is considered as an essential micronutrient for plants growth and development at lower concentration (Bauddh and Singh et al., 2015). But excess of Ni in soil mainly affects the plants by causing various physiological alterations and phytotoxicity in the plants which strongly depends on other factors like pH of soil, bioavailability of the metal, etc. It is reported to cause inhibition of seed germination, plant growth

48 and productivity if present > 50 ppm in plants (Kumar et al., 2012). However, the problem of environmental pollution is not only limited to Fe and Ni. The environmental pollution especially soil or land pollution by heavy metals has been accelerated due to the evidences of increase metal processing and smelting, fertilizer and pesticide application, factory and vehicular emissions etc (Zhang et al., 2015). As the reduction of environmental contaminations and human health risks are posing major challenges, appropriate remediation techniques are needed. There are various technologies as chemical and physical methods but phytoremediation gained broad consensus and proves to be an alternative eco-friendly green technology to the commonly used chemical and physical methods. Many edible crops have been extensively studied for their use in phytoremediation but if the edible crops are using for this purpose then there raises the question of sustainability. So in this scenario the use of non-edible biofuel plants like Jatropha curcas and Pongamia pinnata proved to be better solution. In this paper, a comparative study has been made to investigate Fe and Ni tolerance and its phytoremediation potential of two biofuel plants, Jatropha curcas and Pongamia pinnata.

Material and Methods

The seeds of both Jatropha and Pongamia were obtained from the Forest Department, Tezpur (Assam, India). The seeds were sown in pots of 3 kg capacity. Each of the pots were filled with the calculated amount of polluted soil collected from one of the two sites- paper mill (PM) and municipal landfill (MSW) in different combinations with control (forest) soil @ 0%, 25 %, 50%, 75% and 100%. After seedling emergence, the pots were irrigated by tap water at every 2-day interval. Emergence of new shoots was recorded from the very first day after germination of the seeds. Three plants were kept in a pot and plants were allowed to grow for 120 days with and without soil combination.

Plant Growth Analysis Plant growth performance can be measured by biochemical methods which includes carotenoids, proline and nitrate reductase. Each of these parameters was recorded in the laboratory conditions. Biomass Content The plants were cleaned properly with distilled water without causing any physical harm and removed any extra soil attached to them. Plants were then immediately weighed to avoid any lose of moisture. The constant mass was obtained by oven drying at 70°C. Chlorophyll and Carotenoids Chlorophyll and Carotenoids were determined according to the procedure described by Anderson and Broadman (1964). The leaf materials (0.2 g) were extracted with 80% acetone and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant was used for chlorophyll and carotenoid estimation at 645 nm, 663 nm, 510 nm and 480 nm. The chlorophyll and carotenoids were expressed as mg g-1 fresh weight.

49 Proline Proline was determined according to the procedure described by Bates et al. (1973). Plant tissues (0.5 g) were extracted with 3% aqueous 5-sulfosalicylic acid and centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 20 min. The supernatant was used for the proline assay and measured at 520 nm. Proline content was expressed as μ moles g-1 tissue of fresh weight. Nitrate Reductase Nitrate reductase in leaf was done according to the procedure of Hageman & Hucklesby (1971). Fresh leaf tissues (2mm) were incubated with 0.05 M potassium phosphate buffer (pH-7.8) and 3.0 ml of 0.4 M

KNO3 solution and then boiled in water bath for 5 min. 0.2 ml of the aliquot from reaction mixture was extracted with 1.0 ml each of 1.0 % sulphanilamide in 1N-HCl and 0.025 % N-(1-Napthyl)-ethylene diammonium dichloride (NEDD) and observed at 540 nm. The enzyme activity was expressed as μmol NO2 g-1fwhr -1. Estimation of Fe and Ni content Iron and nickel contents in the roots, shoots and leaves of the plants were estimated after digesting the samples in conc. HNO3 and HClO4 mixture in the ratio of 9:4 by atomic absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS; Model AA240, Agilent, Malaysia). Calculation of Metal Removal Percentage of Fe and Ni Metal removal % is the ratio of final metal concentration to the initial metal concentration in soil as follows

(푪풊 − 푪풇) 푴풆풕풂풍 풓풆풎풐풗풂풍 % = × ퟏퟎퟎ 푪풊

where, Ci and Cf are the initial and final metal concentration in soil respectively.

Statistical analysis

All statistical analyses were carried out by SPSS (version 21) and followed to post hoc tests by using Duncan Multiple Range Test. Mean values of three replications were considered for various comparisons. The graphs were prepared using Microsoft Excel for Windows (version 10).

Results and Discussion Soil properties Soil used for the experiment was investigated for its physicochemical and nutritional properties before the sowing of seeds (Table 1).

50 Table 1. Physicochemical properties of soils around paper mill (PM) and municipal landfill (MSW) sites (before initiation of pot experiment)

Parameters Paper mill contaminated soil (PM) MSW soil

Sand % 70 70 Silt % 26 24 Clay % 4 6 Texture Loamy sand Loamy sand pH 6.98±0.49 6.71±0.34 Electrical conductivity (µS cm-1) 0.41±0.06 0.44±0.01 Organic carbon (g kg-1) 7.10±0.08 12.86±0.64 Available N (g kg-1) 4.80±0.34 1.86±0.06 C:N ratio 1.48±0.06 6.91±0.14 Available P (kg ha-1) 3.32±0.23 0.67±0.02 Available K (kg ha-1) 440±48.40 461.70±9.23 Bulk density (g cm-3) 0.83±0.07 1.03±0.02 Particle density (g cm-3) 2.20±0.24 1.72±0.10 Porosity (%) 62.44±7.62 40.07±1.20 -1 Microbial Biomass Carbon (μg g ) 1.44±1.33 5.05±0.61 Fe (mg kg-1) 7210.15±181.23 1607.81±31.72 Ni (mg kg-1) 663.28±4.33 175.37±0.08

Plant morphology and growth

The combination of soil- Control + paper mill contaminated soil (T0 + PM) showed less visible toxicity in Jatropha plant morphology as compared to combination of forest soil (control) and MSW soils. The exposure to control + MSW soil (T0 + MSW) induced early morphophytotoxicity symptoms as severe young leaf chlorosis and necrosis appeared on the older leaves with a subsequent leaf senescence at the highest concentrations 100 % MSW soil) in Jatropha. In contrast, such toxicity symptoms were not observed on leaves of Pongamia plants exposed to same combinations of soils, even at the highest concentrations. In general the leaves, stem and root biomass decreased significantly in both species with increasing concentrations (Fig 1a and b) but more pronounced in case of Jatropha. Table 2 showed the Fe and Ni concentration in control and other combinations before the pot experiment. Chlorosis was higher in the 100 % contaminated soil than the others and finally necrosis was observed. Moreover, some pest infestation was observed in Jatropha.

51

Fig 1. Leaves, stem, root dry weight (g) and biomass content (g) of (a) Jatopha and (b) Pongamia Biochemical parameters

Figure 2 shows the effect of contaminated soil on carotenoid in the leaves of Jatropha and Pongamia. They are the non-enzymatic system which protects the photosynthetic apparatus from the inhibitory damage caused by singlet oxygen. In the present study, the carotenoid content of Jatropha reduced in both the soil combination. This might be due to the damage of the cell membrane caused by the oxidation of carotenoids which in turn decrease the carotenoid concentration. But in Pongamia there was a considerable increase in carotenoid content in both the soil combinations. Similar results were also reported by Singh et al. (2003). This might be due to the presence of the phenolic compounds (flavonoids) in the roots, leaves and stem of Pongamia which helps in metal chelation and scavenging of free radicals (Razavizadeh et al., 2017). Also metal types and plant species can enhance or reduce carotenoid production (Singh et al., 2003).

Table 2. Fe and Ni concentration (mg kg-1) in the control and various combinations of soils (n=3, Mean ±SD) (before pot experiment)

*Treatment Fe Ni

T0 1.92±0.83 3.01±0.91

GT1 122.80±9.82 35.20±4.22

GT2 150.20±22.53 36.80±4.05

GT3 224.60±20.21 39.20±5.10

GT4 459.60±50.56 45.20±4.52

PT1 287.00±28.70 39.20±5.49

PT2 330.60±39.67 40.80±4.08

PT3 359.80±46.77 42.80±3.85

PT4 418.60±41.86 45.60±5.02

*T0: Control; GT1: 25 % MSW soil+ 75 % control; GT2: 50 % MSW soil+ 50 % control; GT3: 75 % MSW soil+ 25 % control; GT4: 100 % MSW soil; PT1: 25 % Paper mill contaminated soil+ 75 % control; PT2: 50 % Paper mill contaminated soil+ 50 % control; PT3: 75 % Paper mill contaminated + 25 % control; PT4: 100 % Paper mill contaminated soil

52 A gradual increase in proline contents was observed with increase in concentration of heavy metal contaminated soil as compared to the control (Fig. 2) in Jatropha and Pongamia. Increase in proline levels causes tolerance to heavy metals in plants. Therefore, the accumulation of proline can be considered as an indicator of tolerance to heavy metal stress. In Jatropha, increased NR activity was observed in 25% contaminated soil and decreases as the concentration increases (Fig. 2). This might be because of low nitrogen supply to the plants due to inhibition of nitrogen uptake from the soil by the metals. This led to the breakdown of leaf chloroplast in photosynthetic apparatus and reduction in NR activity. The high NR activity in Pongamia than Jatropha corroborated to the fact that it is a leguminous plant which can cope with the low nitrogen supply (Tischner et al., 2000).

Phytoextraction efficiency of the studied plants Table 3 showed the post harvest metal concentration in control and various treatments and there was a considerable decrease in the soil metal content. Jatropha showed high average concentration of Fe and Ni high average concentration was observed in roots increases.

Table 3. Fe and Ni concentration (mg kg-1) in the control and various combinations of soils (n=3, Mean ±SD) (post harvest)

*Treatment Fe Ni

JT0 0.50±0.02 2.50±0.08

PJT1 30.50±1.22 15.00±0.75 PJT2 2050.50±20.51 21.00±1.05

PJT3 656.50±32.83 21.50±1.07

PJT4 796.00±23.88 21.50±0.65

GJT1 67.50±4.05 5.00±0.05

GJT2 524.00±10.48 7.50±0.07 GJT3 642.50±19.28 9.50±0.09

GJT4 1303.00±13.03 29.50±2.95

PT0 0.41±0.04 1.76±0.06 PPT1 902.00±45.10 13.50±0.54

PPT2 1153.00±46.12 13.50±0.40

PPT3 1558.50±15.58 14.50±0.58

PPT4 1739.50±173.95 28.50±1.14

GPT1 3.50±0.04 3.50±0.14

GPT2 56.50±5.65 6.00±0.12

GPT3 720.00±28.80 9.00±0.09

GPT4 2167.50±21.68 10.50±0.10

53

Fig 3: Metal removal % of Jatropha and Pongamia growing in combination soil (Control+ Contaminated Soil)

Fig 2. Proline, Nitrate redustase and Carotenoid of Jatropha and Pongamia growing in combination soil (Control+ Contaminated soil)

54 In contrasts, Pongamia showed high average concentration of Fe and Ni in roots in both the soil combination with the maximum concentration in 25 % contaminated soil. At the end of the experiment, the metal removal % of the selected HMs follows the order: Ni > Fe and Fe > Ni (Fig. 3) for both Jatropha and Pongamia in Control + Paper mill and Control + MSW soil respectively.

In both the species, 25 % contaminated soil shows the maximum metal removal % as compared to other treatments. Ni removal was maximum from all the treatments which indicate the natural tendency of both the plant species to accumulate Ni. Since the control and different soil combinations showed large excess of Fe as compared to Ni, thus substantial amount of Fe are absorbed by the plants grown at Zn deficient supply (Tu et al., 2011). An essential pre-requisite of phytoremediation is the heavy metal accumulation and removal without disturbing the ecological balance.

Conclusion The pot study conducted with Jatropha and Pongamia species in soil indicated that Pongamia was more effective in removing Fe and Ni from the contaminated soil than Jatropha. The large biomass content of Pongamia which is about 2-fold increase might be the reason for the greater removal. Also, 25 % contaminated soils from both the sites in both the species were found to increase metal absorption from the soils by the plant. Finally, it may be concluded that Jatropha and Pongamia has the remediation and reclamation potential of metal contaminated soil system.

References Bauddh, K. & Singh, R.P. (2015). Assessment of Metal Uptake Capacity of Castor Bean and Mustard for Phytoremediation of Nickel from Contaminated Soil. Bioremediation Journal, 19(2),124–138. Kumar, H., Sharma, D. & Kumar, V. (2012). Nickel-induced oxidative stress and role of antioxidant defense in Barley roots and leaves. International Journal of Environmental Biology, 2,121–128. Razavizadeh, R., Adabavazeh, F., Rostami, F. & Teimouri, A. (2017). Comparative study of osmotic stress effects on the defense mechanisms and secondary metabolites in Carum copticum seedling and callus. Journal of Plant Process and Function, 5 (18), 24–33.

Singh, B., Bhat, T. & Singh, B. (2003). Potential therapeutic applications of some antinutritional plant secondary metabolites. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 5579–97. Tischner, R. (2000). Nitrate uptake and reduction in higher and lower plants. Plant, Cell and Environment, 23: 1005-1024. Tu, C., Teng, Y., Luo, Y., Sun, X., Shaopo, D., Li, Z., Liu, W. & Xu, Z. (2011). PCB removal, soil enzyme activities, and microbial community structures during the phytoremediation by alfalfa in field soils. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 11: 649–656. Zhang, X., Zhong, T., Liu, L., Ouyang, X. (2015). Impact of Soil Heavy Metal Pollution on Food Safety in China. PLoS ONE 10(8), e0135182.

55 PRELIMINARY IDENTIFICATION OF ENDOPHYTIC BACTERIA ISOLATED FROM SELECTED MEDICINAL PLANTS OF NAMSAI DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH AND ITS ROLE IN THE FIELD OF AGRICULTURE

Agana Moyong, Rimjim Boruah, Sumpi Thakur and Anwesha Gohain* Department of Botany, Faculty of Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, 792103, Arunachal Pradesh *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Microbial diversity is an unseen international resource that deserves greater attention. North-Eastern India is best known for its rich biodiversity and its un-tapped bioresources have been identified as the Indo-Burma Mega Hot Spot. Arunachal Pradesh, Namsai district is an untouched resource for isolation of this microbial community. Endophytic bacteria are one of the major microbial communities that share symbiotic relationships with medicinal plants and are key reservoir of biologically active compounds and play a key role for sustainable crop production. The study selected five important medicinal plants from Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh viz. Emblica officinalis, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia arjuna, Catharanthus roseus, Azadirachta indica and accordingly isolated 30 endophytic bacteria. These endophytic bacteria were characterized using morphological and biochemical parameters and accessed for their plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) traits like Indole -acetic acid (IAA) production, hydrogen cyanide (HCN) production and screened for their antimicrobial activity. However, among these 30 endophytic bacteria, 11 isolates showed the inhibitory activity against Pseudomonas syringae, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacilus subtilis and subsequently good producers of Indole-Acetic Acid (IAA). Thus, the study clearly suggests the possibility of using endophytic bacteria as bioinoculant for plant growth promotion, nutrient mobilization or as biocontrol agent against bacterial phytopathogens for sustainable agriculture.

Keywords: Endophytic bacteria, HCN, Indole-Acetic Acid

Introduction Arunachal Pradesh, Namsai district is an untouched resource for isolation of the microbial community. Traditional medicinal plants are used for the treatment of disease as they are sources of biologically active compounds. Endophytic microbes associated with these medicinal plants play an important role by producing analogous or novel bioactive compounds. Endophytic bacteria live in plant tissues without doing substantive harm or gaining benefit other than residency (Kobayashi & Palumbo, 2000). Hallmann et al. (1997) defined an endophyte as any micro-organism that resides inside the plant without regard to the specific tissue colonized and these bacterial endophytes can be isolated from surface disinfected plant tissue or extracted from internal plant tissue. Endophytic bacteria seem to be distributed in most plant species and have been isolated from roots, leaves, and stems, and a few from flowers, fruits, and seeds (Lodewyckx et al., 2002). Endophytic

56 bacteria with certain metabolic properties, such as promoting plant growth, controlling soil-borne pathogens, or helping host plant to defeat stress responses to environmental abuse (Mastretta et al., 2006; Taghavi et al., 2007; Ryan et al., 2008). Endophytic bacteria cover around 80% of total antibiotic production (Bacon et al., 2000). Recently, many known as well as new endophytic bioactive metabolites, possessing a wide variety of biological activities as antibiotic, antiviral, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, etc., have been identified (Strobel & Daisy, 2003). Endophytes existing in plants have a wide range of antimicrobial strains, which are the important potential sources of anti-microbial substances (Strobel, 2003). Some endophytes could excrete antimicrobial compounds that may be involved in a symbiotic association with a host plant (Yang et al., 1994; Strobel, 2003). Many biologically active substances that endophytes excrete were relatively new to us (Schulz et al., 1995). In addition, the antibiotics made by endophytes may reduce cell toxicity toward higher organisms because the plant itself serves as a natural selection system (Strobel, 2003). Therefore, it is a huge potential to screen novel, highly active, and low toxicity antimicrobial substances from endophytes. The production of potential secondary metabolite takes place due to the by PKS & NRPS genes.

Materials and Methods Site selection Three sites of Namsai district were selected for the collection of the samples. Sample collection Based on the local ethno botanical properties and economic utilities five medicinal plants have been selected. Surface sterilization of the samples & plating Plant samples were collected during the month of October 2019 and brought to the laboratory in sterilized pp bags. The plant parts were washed thoroughly in runningtap water and then with distilled water, 70%alcohol,again distilled water,sodiumhypochlorite and finally with distilled water for stems, leaves, and roots.This process was repeated for three times.After that plant parts were dried on sterile paper and dissectedinto 1 cm pieces and then pressed onto nutrient agar plates. The plates were examined for growth after incubation at 28±1ºC for 2-3 days. After incubation, growth of the bacterial colonies has been observed. Then purification of the colonies has been done by using streaking plate methods. After that the purified cultures were transferred to the sterilized slants.The purified cultures were grouped on the basis of morphological characteristics,e.g., colony morphology, colony color, pigmentation and Gram reaction. Total 30 isolates were collected and selected for further identification and for PGPR activity.

Biochemical characterization It was done by using IAA, Amylase, Catalyse and HCN.

57 Bioasaay The bioassay or antimicrobial activity were done by using three pathogens, one plant pathogen and two human pathogen. Results and Discussion

The study isolated 30 endophytic bacteria from the plant parts i.e. root, stem and leaves from the selected medicinal plants. Thus, medicinal plants are good reservoir of endophytic bacteria. The morphological identification of the bacteria was done in accordance with Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, (1994).

The highest number of isolates recovered from roots followed by stem and leaves which belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae, Rhizobiaceae, Azotobacteraceae, Actinomycetaceae, Xanthomonadaceae.

I. Morphological characterization of Endophytic bacteria The 30 isolates of the endophytic bacteria that are collected from the root,stem and leaves of the five seclected medicinal plants shows different colony morphology, colony color,pigmentation and Gram reaction. This morphological difference of bacterias helps in the identification which was done by following Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, (1994). Among the 30 isolates of endophytic bacteria maximum i.e., 22 isolates were collected from the roots of the medicinal plants. This shows that the roots of medicinal plants are good reservoir of endophytic bacteria.

I. Biochemical Characterization It was done by using IAA, Amylase, Catalyse and HCN. The Streptomyces species shows positive activity for amylase, HCN and IAA but negative for catalase.While the Actinomyces spp. shows only positive activity but the Agrobacterium spp. shows negative activity for both amylase and catalase but positive for both HCN and IAA. Thus, from table 2 the study got 11 endophytic bacteria which shows good activity for Amylase, Catalase, HCN and IAA. Endophytic bacteria shows activity for HCN and IAA may suggest that they have a good impact on crop production. II. Antimicrobial activity Bacterial endophytes have been recognized as repository of novel secondary metabolites for potential therapeutic use (Tan & Zou, 2001). Further, Strobel & Daisy, (2003) pointed that medicinal and endemic plants should use for endophytic studies as they are expected to rare and interesting endophytes with novel bioactive metabolites. This has lead to the discovery of several bioactive compounds from fungal and bacterial endophytes and wealth of literature on antimicrobial activity of endophytic bacteria and fungi isolated from medicinal plants (Li et al., 2006; Raviraja et al., 2006; Tayung & Jha, 2006). Here antimicrobial activity was done by following agar well diffusion method (Hugo & Russell). One plant pathogen P. syringae and two human pathogen S. aureus and B.subtilis were used to evaluate the antimicrobial 58 activity of the endophytic isolates. The bacterial strain was inoculated in both broth and solid medium. The broth medium incubated in a rotary shaker at 150rpm for 48hr and then the supernatant was obtained by centrifugation. Then the agar plate surface is inoculated by spreading the supernatant over the entire agar surface with the help of a spreader. Then a hole is punched aseptically

Table 1. The total number of isolates recovered from different parts of the selected medicinal plants along with their morphological characters.

Selected Medicinal Identified as Root Stem Leaf Total Root Stem Leaf plants (Morphology)

C. roseus Rhizobium spp., 5 2 0 7 Colony Colony soft Colonyslimy Enterobacter spp., soft,slimy,shin and shiny,no Xanthomonas spp. y and creamy. pigment. and soft,no pigment.

E.officinalis Azotobacter spp., 4 0 1 5 Colony softColony slimy Colony soft,slimy, Salmonella spp. and shiny,noand soft,no shiny and creamy. pigment. pigment.

T. chebula Streptomyces 6 2 0 8 Colony slimyColony Colony shiny and spp.,Actinomyces and soft,nosoft,slimy, slimy,green pigment. spp.,Enterobacter pigment. shiny and spp.,Rhizobium creamy. spp.

A. indica Salmonella 3 1 1 5 Colony shiny,Colony soft, Colony soft and spp.,Rhizobium light brownslimy, brown shiny, no pigment. spp. pigment. pigment.

T. arjuna Enterobacter 4 0 1 5 Colony soft, Colony slimy, Colonyshiny, spp.,Streptomyces creamy,light green spp.,Kilebsiella 30 pigment. spp shiny,brown shiny and pigment. creamy.

59 Table 2. Endophytic bacteria showing Biochemical tests

. Strains Identified as Amylase Catalase HCN IAA

(Morphology)

EB01 Streptomyces spp. Positive Negative Positive Positive

EB03 Actinomyces spp. Positive Positive Positive Positive

EB06 Agrobacterium spp. Negative Negative Positive Positive

EB09 Azotobacter spp. Negative Positive Positive Positive

EB11 Rhizobium spp. Positive Negative Positive Positive

Table 3. Antimicrobial activity of the isolates against some pathogens.

Strains Identified as P.syringae S.aureus B.subtilis (Morphology)

EB01 Streptomyces spp. 16 mm 16 mm 18 mm

EB03 Actinomyces spp. 15 mm 16 mm 20 mm

EB06 Agrobacterium spp. 22 mm 12 mm 14 mm

EB09 Azotobacter spp. 11mm -- --

EB11 Rhizobium spp. 12 mm -- --

with a sterile cork borer and a volume of the antimicrobial agent at desired concentration is added into the well. Then the agar plates were incubated 28±1ºc for 2- 3days.

After 2-3 days the agar plates were taken out from the incubator and then observed the zone of inhibition. Among the 11 endophytic isolates the Agrobacterium spp. showed maximum zone inhibition against the test pathogen P. syringae i.e., 22 mm.

Conclusion Endophytic bacteria associated with medicinal plants may produce some specific secondary metabolite which in turn indicates that medicinal plants are rich reservoir of potentially endophytic

60 bacteria along with other microbes. The bioactivity of these strains is an indication of commercial value of the endophytic bacteria.

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61 EFFECT OF MANAGEMENT AND ALTITUDE ON FLORAL DIVERSITY OF UNDERSTOREY VEGETATION IN Quercus leucotrichophora FORESTS OF NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA, INDIA

Pradeepen Rai1*, Bhupender Gupta1 and Karma Gyalpo Bhutia2 1Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Rain Forest Research Institute, Jorhat – 785001, Assam, India 2Department of Forest Products, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni - 173230, Himachal Pradesh, India *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The study was conducted in Rajgarh Forest Division of Himachal Pradesh in four differently managed Quercus leucotrichophora forests. Overall, 33 plant species belonging to 22 families in 32 genera were recorded constituting 10 forbs, 5 grasses, 2 sedges, 2 ferns and 14 shrubs species. 23 plant species was recorded in Reserved Forest, 19 in Protected Forest, 20 in Unclassified and 17 in Musterqua Forest. However, there was no definite pattern of species richness along the altitudinal gradient. Shannon Wiener index values varied from 1.25-1.81 for shrubs and 1.31-2.08 for herbs vegetation. Simpson’s diversity index for shrubs varied from 0.66-0.82 while for herbs it varied from 0.72-0.87. Margalef’s index of richness varied from 0.79-1.72 for shrubs and 0.84-3.88 for herbs. These indices did not show any regular trend along the elevation gradient. Comparatively vegetation indices of shrubs and herbs components of Reserved Forest exhibited maximum values subsequently followed by Protected Forest, Unclassified Forest and Musterqua Forest signifying the diverse attributes of first two managed forests.Thus, such variations in floral composition and diversity indices among these forests were largely due to environmental heterogeneity in the form of patchy light availability, soil spatial heterogeneity and the different management practices being adopted in the area. Thus, more area can be brought to either Reserved Forest or Protected Forest to have better diversity and floral spectrum.

Keywords: Musterqua Forest, Protected Forest, Quercus leucotrichophora, Reserved Forest, Unclassified Forest, Vegetation indices.

Introduction

Oak species assume considerable significance in the Himalayan region as they are providers of numerous ecosystem services and serve as a lifeline for the local communities (Saxena & Singh, 1982; Upreti & Singh, 1985). There are 16 oaks species growing in India, ten in the eastern Himalaya and six in the western Himalaya. Thus, the oak species particularly Quercus leucotrichophora, commonly known as ban oak, belonging to the family Fagaceae, occupy sizeable area in the Western Himalaya and is intricately associated not only with agro-ecosystem but also with the life support systems of the inhabitants of the hills of the Himalaya. It is a stable climax community of its zone, thus grows in pure stands with small number of broad-

62 leaved and conifers associates that changes with elevations, stage of succession and biotic interferences (Champion & Seth, 1968).

Forest composition, species richness, diversity pattern, and spatial or temporal distribution are important ecological attributes significantly correlated with prevailing environmental as well as anthropogenic variables (Gairola & Todaria, 2008). Elevation influences the species richness and composition and floristic diversity of any community is a function of severity, variability and predictability of the environment in which it develops that provides information on spatial pattern in plant diversity and composition (Slobodkin & Sanders, 1969). Investigations into floristic composition and structure of forests are essential for providing information on plant species richness and the changes that they undergo can be potentially useful for most management principles besides opening vistas of knowledge on ecosystem functions. Latitudinal and altitudinal gradients are also seen as two important factors that bring conspicuous patterns of diversity. However, altitudinal patterns of diversity are poorly understood (Sanchez & Lopez, 2005). Altitude itself represents a complex combination of related climatic variables closely correlated with numerous other environmental properties i.e., soil texture, nutrients, substrate stability etc. (Ramsay & Oxley, 1997). Within one altitude the co-factors like topography, aspect, inclination of slope and soil types further affect the forest composition (Holland & Steyn, 1975).

Many vegetation analysesalong altitudinal gradients have been conducted in Indiaparticularly in western Himalaya (Sharma et al., 2009; Majila & Kala, 2010) all reported that vegetation types differ with change in altitude. No information on understorey vegetation cover under different management practices in Quercus leucotrichophora forests along the altitude is available. Hence, the present investigation was carried out to study effect of management and altitude on understory vegetation in Quercus leucotrichophora forests.

Materials and methods Site Description

The study was conducted in Rajgarh Forest Division in Sirmour district of Himachal Pradesh which lies between longitude 77°-1’-5” to 77°-26’-13” East and latitude 30°-38’-40” to 31°-1’-14” North in the northwest Himalaya, India (Fig.1). The area is mostly mountainous lying in inner and outer middle Himalaya with little south west portion in Shiwalik. The tract lies in the subtropical to sub temperate zone where the temperature in the area ranges from as low as 0°C to as high as 42°C. The average annual rainfall is about 1500 mm out of which about 60 % i.e. 900 mm of precipitation is received during monsoon months. The slopes are generally moderate to steep but precipitous along the ridges.

63

Fig 1. Map showing the study location of Rajgarh Forest Division (H.P).

Experiment design and analysis

In Rajgarh Forest Division, Quercus leucotrichophora forests are managed as: 1) Reserved Forests (RF) – there is no biotic or anthropogenic interference 2) Protected Forests (PF) – there is limited biotic or anthropogenic interference 3) Unclassified Forests (UF) - there is moderate biotic or anthropogenic interference and 4) Musterqua Forests (MF) – there is unlimited biotic or anthropogenic interference as per the requirements of local inhabitants. Since these forests have different elevation ranges (Table 1). Therefore, comparative analysis of these four differently managed Q. leucotrichophora forests was done by delineating three elevations ranges as; E1< 1650 m,E2 = 1651 to 1900 mE3 >1900 m in each of them and sampling was done during peak season of growth during the months of July to September. In each differently managed Q. leucotrichophora forests at each elevation, four replicated sample plots of size 36.12m x 36.12m (0.1ha) were laid down randomly within which two nested sub-plots of size 5m×5m and 3 nested quadrats of 50cm × 50cm

64 were enumerated to study shrubs and herbs characteristics respectively. A minimum consecutive distance of 500m was maintained between sample plots. Species wise densities for both vegetation layers wererecorded manually by counting it whileits diameter was recorded using digital Verniercaliper.The plants were identified with the help of local floras by (Collet, 1902; Chowdhery & Wadhwa, 1984). Besides, University’s herbarium was also consulted. For nomenclature of the taxa, plant databases like TROPICOS and PLANT LIST was consulted. Species diversity was determined by using Shannon Wiener index (H’): H'= - ∑(Ni/N) × ln (Ni/N), Where, H'=Shannon Wiener index, Ni=Total no. of individuals of all the species, ni=Total no. of individuals of ith species (Shannon & Weiner, 1963). Simpson’s diversity index (Simpson, 1949) was calculated as: D: 1- Cd, Where, Cd = Simpson’s concentration of dominance = (Σni/n)2. Margalef’s index of richness (Magurran,

1988) to calculate the Species richness as: Dmg= (S-1)/ln N, Where, S= Total number of species, N= Total number of individual. For data analysis, MS-Excel was used.

Results and Discussion

Floristic composition of differently managed Q. Leucotrichophora forests along the elevation gradient

Understory flora of all Q. leucotrichophora forests belonged to 22 families, 32 genera and 33 species (Table 2). Among them, 14 species of shrubs were from 10 families and 14 genera. Forbs had 10 species from 07 families and 10 genera. There were only 05 species of grasses from 05 genera and 02 species of sedges from 01 genus. Two species of fern from 02 families representing 02 genera were also recorded. In Reserved Forest, 23 plant species with 02 grasses, 01sedge, 08 forbs and 12 shrubs species (Table 2). Protected Forest had 19 plant species with 02 grasses, 1sedge, 07 forbs, 01 fern and 08 shrubs. UnclassifiedForest had 20 plant species with04 grasses, 02 sedges, 05 forbs, 01 fern and 08 shrubs while, in Musterqua Forest had 17 plant species with03 grasses, 02 sedges, 04 forbs and 08 shrubs.

The occurrences of particular shrubs and herbs species differed among four differently managed forests and also along the altitudinal gradientas represented in Tables 3 and 4. In shrubs, among different forest types at first elevation (E1), Protected Forest had the highest number of shrubs species (07) followed byUnclassified forests (05) species and the Reserved and Musterqua Forest (04) species, while at second elevation (E2), Reserved Forest with (07) shrubs species outnumbered the other three forests i.e. Musterqua Forest (06)

Unclassified Forest (05) and Protected Forest (04) respectively. At third elevation (E3), highest shrubs species were found in Reserved Forest (07) and Unclassified Forest(06), Musterqua Forest (05)and Protected Forest

(04).With respect to herbs species at first elevation (E1), Reserved Forest and Unclassified Forest had 09 herbs species each while Protected Forest and Musterqua Forest both had 06 species each. At second elevation (E2), Reserved Forest had 08 species of herbs while the other three forests had 07 species each in it. At third elevation (E3), a total of 09 species of herbs were found in Protected Forest followed by Reserved Forest (08), Unclassified Forest (06) and Musterqua Forest (04).

65 Most of the shrubs species belonged to the plant families like, Rutaceae, Berberidaceae, Myrsinaceae and Rosaceae whereas; herbaceous flora belonged to Asteraceae, Poaceae and Cyperaceae. Similar dominance of the plant families in forests of Himalayan region had been reported (Gairola et al., 2009; Suyal et al., 2010). Quantum of plant species recorded in these oak forests was low as compared to the reports from other workers (Chawla et al., 2008; Kharkwal & Rawat, 2010; Bharali et al., 2011; Ratauri, 2012; Thakur, et al., 2012) for similar forests of Himalaya. However, higher than the report of 28 plant species for Shimla Quercus forests in northwest Himalaya (Kapoor & Singh, 1990). The dense canopy of trees in oak forests curtails light penetration to the forest floor which may have reduced the understory plant diversity. Also, such differences in floristic composition can be ascribed to resource availability and environmental conditions as opined by (Alaback & Herman, 1988; Thomas et al., 1999; Vockenhuber et al., 2011). Though, the differently managed Q. leucotrichophora forests varied in plant species composition yet 9 species viz., Digitariastricta, Cyperusniveus, Ainsliaeapteropoda, Erigeron annus, Viola odorata, Boenninghauseniaalbiflora, Daphne cannabina, Myrsine africana and Rubus ellipticus were common to all forest typesas they were able to survive in varying intensity of biotic interference. The range of niches available and area occupied by these species in turn suggests their long biotic range. Forest composition, community structure and diversity patterns are important ecological attributes correlated with prevailing environmental as well anthropogenic variables (Ahmadet al., 2010; Bisht & Bhat, 2011). Species richness is a measure of the congenial microclimatic and edaphic conditions of any area to nurture different types of plant species. Thus, in the present study more numbers of herb and shrub species in Reserved Forest and the least in Musterqua Forest is the measure of above mentioned ecosystem conditions. In Reserved Forests, biotic interference in any forms is restricted to the possible limit but in Musterqua Forests livestock grazing and human interference is linked to the requirements of the local inhabitants. Protected and Unclassified Forests subsists intermediate biotic interference. Also, the species richness was more in Reserved and Protected Forests revealing similarity in microclimatic and edaphic conditions under these combinations. The shrubs and herb species composition in understory of Quercus forest is mainly influenced by canopy openness, stand structure and density, therefore the most important factors seem to be related to light and humidity conditions (Ádámet al.,2013). It was evident from that among differently managed forests; there was no definite pattern of distribution of species (shrubs and herbs) along the altitudinal gradient. These differences in distribution pattern in species with respect to elevation among these different forests could be related to environmental heterogeneity in the form of patchy light availability, spatial heterogeneity in soil resources (Bormann et al., 1995).

66 Table 1. Study location of Q. leucotrichophora forests in Rajgarh Forest Division.

Management Forests Range of Forest Location of study site Elevation practices Division where the (as per Rajgarh Forest range study site lie Working Plan) (m) Reserved Forests Quercus Rajgarh Range RF 33- RajgarhPab 1400-2800 (RF) leucotrichophora RF 24 -Sanhot Protected Forests -do- Rajgarh Range PF 11 - Churwa 1500-2322 (PF) Unclassified Forests -do- Narag Range UF 24 Bhajana 1200-1950 (UF) Musterqua Forests -do- Narag range MF 97 Madesh 1500-2000 (MF) MF 96 Kuftu Source: Rajgarh Working Plan 2014-2024

Table 2. Floral spectrum (+ present and – absent) in differently managed Quercus leucotrichophora forests.

Sl. No. Name of the species Family RF PF UF MF 1 Digitaria stricta Roem & Schult. Poaceae + + + + 2 Echninochloa colona (Linn) Link Poaceae - - + - 3 Heteropogon contortus Linn. Poaceae + - - - 4 Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) P. Beauv Poaceae - - + + Oplismenus compositus (Linn.) P. 5 Poaceae - + + Beauv. Total 2 2 4 3 SEDGES 6 Cyperus niveusLinn. Cyperaceae + + + + 7 Cyperus esculentus Linn. Cyperaceae - - + + Total 1 1 2 2 FORBS 8 Ainsliaea pteropoda Dc. Asteraceae + + + + 9 Ageratum conyzoides Mill. Asteraceae - - + - 10 Bidens pilosa Linn. Asteraceae - - + + 11 Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken Crassulaceae + - - - 12 Commelina paludosa Blume Commelinaceae + + - - 13 Erigeron annuus (Linn.)Pers. Asteracae + + + + 14 Hedera helix Linn. Araliaceae + + - - 15 Rumex nepalensis Linn. Polygonaceae + + - - 16 Malaxis acuminate D.Don Orchidaceae + + - - 17 Viola odorata Linn. Violaceae + + + + Total 8 7 5 4 FERNS 18 Pteriscretica Linn. Pteridaceae - - + - 19 Polystichum squarrosum (Linn.) Kuhn Dennstaedticeae - + - - Total 0 1 1 0 SHRUBS 20 Berberis aristata Dc. Berberidaceae - + + + Boenninghausenia albiflora (Hook.) 21 Rutaceae + + + + Reichb. Ex Meisn. 22 Caryopteris divaricata Bunge Lamiaceae + + - -

67 23 Carissa carandas Linn. Hook.f. Apocynaceae + - - - 24 Daphne cannabina Linn. Thymelaeaceae + + + + 25 Lantana camara Linn. Verbenaceae + - - - 26 Myrsinea fricana Linn. Myrsinaceae + + + + 27 Prinsepia utilis Royle. Rosaceae + - - + 28 Randia tetrasperma (Wall.ex Roxb) Rubiaceae - - + + 29 Rosa moschata Herrm. Rosaceae + - + + 30 Rubus ellipticus Smith. Rosaceae + + + + Sarcococca saligna (D.Don) Muell.- 31 Arg. Buxaceae + + - - 32 Strobilanthes dalhousianus C.B. Clarke Acanthaceae + + - - 33 Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. Rutaceae + - + - Total 12 8 8 8 Grand Total 23 19 20 17 RF: Reserved Forest, PF: Protected Forest, UF: Unclassified Forest, MF: MusterquaForest

Table 3. Distribution of shrubs species along the elevation in differently managed Quercus leucotrichophora forests.

Elevation Sl. Shrub species (E1) < 1650 (m) (E2)1650-1900 (m) (E3) > 1900 (m) No RF PF UF MF RF PF UF MF RF PF UF MF 1 Berberis aristata - - + - - + - + - - + + 2 Boenninghausenia albiflora - + + + + + + + + + + + 3. Caryopteris divaricata - + ------+ - - - 4. Carissa carandas ------5. Daphne cannabina + + - + + - + + + + + + 6. Lantana camara - - - - + ------7. Myrsine africana + + + - - + - - - - - + 8. Prinsepia utilis - - - + - - - + + - - + 9. Randia tetrasperma - - - + - - + - - - + - 10. Rosa moschata + ------+ - - + - 11. Rubus ellipticus - + - - + - + + + + + - 12. Sarcococca saligna + + ------+ - - 13. Strobilanthes dalhousianus - + + - + + - - + - - - 14. Zanthoxylum alatum - - - - + - + - - - - - Total 4 7 4 4 6 4 5 6 6 4 6 5 (+) denotes presence of species and (-) denotes absence of species. RF: Reserved Forest, PF: Protected Forest, UF: Unclassified Forest, MF: Musterqua Forest

68 Table 4. Distribution of herb species along the elevation in differently managed Quercus leucotrichophora forests.

Elevation Sl. Herbs species (E1) < 1650 (m) (E2)1650-1900 (m) (E3) > 1900 (m) No RF PF UF MF RF PF UF MF RF PF UF MF GRASSES 1. Digitaria stricta + - + + + + + + + + + + 2. Echninochloa colona - - + ------3. Heteropogon contortus + ------4. Imperata cylindrica - - + - - - - + - - - - 5. Oplismenus compositus - + + + - - + + - - + + Total 2 1 4 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 2 SEDGES 1. Cyperus niveus + + + + + + + + + + + + 2. Cyperus obistifolia - - - + - - + - - - + - Total 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 FORBS 1. Ainsliaea pteropoda. + + - - - + + - + + - - 2. Ageratum conyzoides - - + + ------3. Bidens pillosa - - + + - - + + - - - - 4. Bryophyllum pinnatum - - - - + - - - + - - - 5. Commelina paludosa - - - - + + - - + + - - 6. Erigeron annuus + - + - + + - + - - + + 7. Hedera helix + ------+ + - - 8. Rumex nepalensis + + - - - + - - - + - - 9. Malaxis acuminata + + - - + + - - + + - - 10. Viola odorata + + + - + + - + + + + - Total 6 4 4 2 5 6 2 3 6 6 2 1 FERNS 1. Pteris cretica ------+ - - - - - Polystichum 2. ------+ - - squarrosum Total 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 Grand Total 9 6 9 6 7 8 7 7 8 9 6 4 (+) denotes presence of species and (-) denotes absence of species. RF: Reserved Forest, PF: Protected Forest, UF: Unclassified Forest, MF: Musterqua Forest

Table 5. Vegetation indices of understory components in differently managed Quercus leucotrichophora forests along the elevation.

Vegetation Indices Margalef’s index Managed Forests Plant categories Elevation Shannon Simpson’s of species Weiner diversity richness E1 2.08 0.86 3.05 Herbs E2 1.81 0.81 2.69 E3 1.94 0.84 3.88 E1 1.25 0.68 0.79

FOREST Shrubs E2 1.71 0.79 1.68 RESERVED RESERVED

E3 1.81 0.82 1.65

E1 1.63 0.77 2.28

T Herbs E2 2.05 0.87 3.19

CTED CTED FORES FORES

PROTE PROTE E3 2.04 0.85 3.61

69 E1 1.67 0.78 1.72 Shrubs E2 1.28 0.7 0.92 E3 1.32 0.72 0.97 E1 2.08 0.86 2.75 Herbs E2 1.63 0.77 1.82 E3 1.35 0.71 1.35 E1 1.55 0.78 1.12

FOREST Shrubs E2 1.27 0.66 1.19 E

UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED 3 1.46 0.72 1.57

E1 1.62 0.78 1.54 Herbs E2 1.91 0.85 2.02 E3 1.31 0.72 0.84 E1 1.3 0.71 0.95

FOREST Shrubs E2 1.51 0.76 1.55

MUSTERQUA MUSTERQUA E3 1.39 0.71 1.10

Vegetation indices of understory vegetation

Indices of understory vegetation among different Quercus forest along its elevation is given in detail (Table 5). Shannon Wiener and Simpson index of any vegetation are the calculated values based on number of constituent species; however, they can be used for comparing vegetation types. Data revealed that indices of shrubs and herbs at different elevation (E1, E2 and E3) did not follow different pattern. However, in general, higher values were observed in Reserved and Protected Forest as compared to other managed forests. In the present study in Quercus forests, Shannon Wiener index values (1.31-2.08) recorded for herbaceous vegetation are in the range (1.44-3.00) reported (Pande et al., 2001; Mishra et al., 2013) for forests of Himalayan region. However, these values are quiet low to the findings of Farooq (2008) and Kumar & Thakur, (2008). Such changes in diversity index of herbaceous vegetation can be related to varied climates along with soil differentiation that promote the diversification of plants species (Brown, 2001). Simpson’s diversity index for shrubs varied from 0.66 - 0.79 and for herbs from 0.77- 0.87 for shrubs. Similar findings for forests in north-west Himalaya H.P. (Farooq, 2008) was recorded in Simpson’s diversity index for herbs as 0.85-0.94 and for shrubs as 0.52-0.81. Furthermore, Shaheen et al., (2011) reported Simpson’s diversity ranging from 0.85 to 1.96 for subtropical broadleaved forests dominated by Chir pine and Oaks in Kashmir. Whereas, comparatively lesser values of Simpson’s diversity index for shrubs (0.270 to 0.407) in Chir pine forests of Solan (H.P) were reportedwere reported Kumar and Thakur (2008).Species richness in the present Quercus forests varied from 0.84 to 3.88 for herbs and 0.79 to 1.72 for shrubs which is comparative to the findings i.e. 3.33 to 4.85 for herbs and 0.52 to 0.82 for shrubs in forests of north-west Himalaya in H.P. (Farooq, 2008). In the study area, species richness of herbs and shrubs generally changed with elevations and forest types. Forest canopy condition also played an important role in shaping long-term understorey structure and dynamics (Taylor et al., 2004) as it influence forest under-storey conditions such as light, temperature and moisture (Wang et al., 2009). In stands where trees are sparse and shrub layer is scarce, more light reaches

70 the forest floor, which increases the diversity of the understory (Von & Hardtle, 2009). With the closing of the canopy, diversity and species richness of the understory decrease, cover and frequency of light demanding species diminish, while the ratio of shade tolerant and generalist species increases (Rogers et al., 2008). Hence, the differences in species diversity among different Quercus forests in the present study can be attributed to differences in abiotic and biotic variables among them.Further, more disturbed forests have low species diversity compared to the less-disturbed forests (Murthyet al., 2016).

Conclusion

The present study highlights that lower elevations (E1 and E2) had comparatively higher number of

species richness than lower number of species at higher elevation (E3) which implies that higher altitudinal forests should be conserved with necessary implementation. Among differently managed forests, Reserved Forest have maximum floral composition and diversity of under-storey vegetation which is a direct reflection of having no biotic or anthropogenic interference while, Musterqua Forest is the least diverse because of its unlimited biotic or anthropogenic interference as per the requirements of local inhabitants. Anthropogenic disturbances can alter ecosystem functioning, change plant structure, density, diversity, composition and regeneration driving the species to become threatened and on the verge of extinction. Our findings, suggests that the distribution and species richness pattern of different species are not only regulated largely by altitude and climatic factors but also through management practices followed in the area.

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74 IMPACT OF FOREST DISTURBANCES ON REGENERATION OF BANJ OAK AND ITS ASSOCIATES IN CENTRAL HIMALAYA

Shijagurumayum Baleshwor Sharma*1, Vivek Diwedi2 Neena Kumari3 and Suresh Kumar1 1Department of Forestry, Mizoram University, Tanhril-796004, Aizawl,Mizoram 2Centre for Ecology Development and Research (Himalaya), Dehradun 3Department of Forest Products, YSP UHF Nauni, Solan (HP) *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The Oak forests have been subjected to degradation due to biotic and abiotic disturbances. Many species of oaks are under threat of extinction in the wild due to lack of regeneration. The present study aims to assess the impact of forest disturbance on the regeneration of major forest forming species in oak zone regions of Central Himalaya. Field studies were conducted in the intensive study areas inside the established plots to know the impact of forest degradation on regeneration. Forests have been categorized into four different disturbance regimes, (i.e. undisturbed, moderately disturbed A, moderately disturbed B and degraded). Plants were categorised into seedling, established seedling, coppice, sapling and pole classes. Out of the four disturbed categories, the moderately disturbed site A with moderate disturbance appears to benefit regeneration of plant communities as compared to other disturbance categories.

Keywords: Forest degradation, Quercus, Regeneration, Coppice

Introduction

Oaks (Quercus spp.) are the dominant, climax tree species of the moist temperate forests of the Indian Himalayan region (Troup, 1921) where about 35 species were extensively distributed, and grow from the sea level up to 4000 m in the Himalayan Mountains (Menitsky, 2005). The genus has approximately 400 to 500 species (Valencia, 2004) which spread worldwide. The genus has differentiated in numerous species adapted to extremely variable habitats. Oaks exhibit a very wide diversity of forms from shrubs to massive trees. The oak tree is also well known for its reproductive fruit, a nut called as an acorn. Himalayan broad-leaved forests are mainly dominated by oak (Quercus spp.) Lower elevations in this range are occupied by oak-pine mixed forests. In Kumaun and Garhwal Himalaya, this type of forest is represented by Quercus leucotricophora and Pinus roxburghii. Other species of oak are found in different altitudinal zones of Garhwal Himalaya above the oak-pine mixed forest (Osmaston, 1922). Oak species with other tree species provide numerous ecosystem services and serve as a lifeline for local inhabitants. One oak species mix frequently with other oak species, or conifers, the single-species dominance is quite common. Coppicing after cutting is well developed in all

75 oak species and helps them in regeneration. However, because of severe biotic pressure oaks are failing to regenerate in forest stands (Singh & Singh, 1986).

Forest degradation is of great concern to the people of Himalayan states in India. The rapid socio- economic development, expansion of agriculture, overgrazing, increased demand for fodder, timber and the firewood, excessive resin tapping and recurrent forest fires have led to the forest degradation in Himalaya (Negi, 1982; Somanathan, 1991; Awasthi et al., 2003) and have negatively impacted the landscapes significantly (Sharma et al., 1999). The oak forests has been subjected to maximum change through reduction in density after heavy biotic influence. The extreme of this degradation reaches the stage of scrub/shrubby vegetation. The habitation has mostly been expanded in oak forests. The oak forests have also been converted into agriculture lands to an extent greater than other forest types (Pant et al., 2000). Almost all encroachments were observed at the fringe of oak forests. These forests have been burnt from time to time by the local inhabitants to encourage the growth of grasses and to increase the preponderance of the fire-resistant commercial species (e.g., Chir pine), at the expense of oak species. All the gentle and accessible meadows in the temperate, alpine and sub-alpine regions have undergone extensive habitat degradation, with over 70% of the natural vegetation reported to have been lost (Singh & Singh, 1991).

Oak forests in many parts of the Western Himalayas and the rest of the World are dwindling due to lack of regeneration, habitat changes and biological invasions. The causes of failure in regeneration include lack of viable seeds due to insects and animal predation, unfavourable micro-sites and overgrazing by domestic livestock. Other reasons for dwindling of oak forests are erratic seed production, defoliation, acorn predation and increased incidence of fire. The present study aims to assess the impact of forest disturbance on the regeneration of oak and its associates in Central Himalaya. The study was carried out in four regimes of the disturbances.

Materials and Methods

Field studies were conducted in the twelve intensive study areas (100x12 m2), inside the twelve established plots (400x12 m2), to know the impact of forest disturbance on the regeneration of major forest forming species in oak zone region of Central Himalaya.

Study area

The study was conducted in the Mukteshwar, Nainital district of Uttarakhand (Central Himalaya), India, with an altitude of 2286 m amsl. Geographically, Mukteshwar is located at 29°28' N - 29°29' N Latitude and 79°37' E - 79°38' E Longitude. The study area has a subtropical highland climate (Koppen climate classification Cwb). Summers are warm with moderate rainfall, while the monsoon season is slightly cooler and features much heavier rain. Winters can be quite cool, and temperatures below freezing are not unusual. Mukteswar has an average 1301 mm of rainfall per year or 108.4 mm per month. The driest weather is in 76 November when an average of 10 mm of rainfall occurs. The wettest weather is in July when an average of 313mm of rainfall occurs.

Methods

Categorization of Disturbance Regime

The studied forest area was categorized into four different disturbance categories, (i.e. undisturbed, moderately disturbed A, moderately disturbed B and degraded) (Table 1). The disturbance categories were made according to the canopy structure, understory vegetation, litter removal and grazing trials. Fuel wood, litter and fodder collection, and grazing were the major cause of disturbance in the study area.

Fig 1. Maps showing the study area

77 Table 1. Different disturbance category of the oak forest in the study area.

Disturbance Oak canopy Understory Litter removal Grazing trails category

- No apparent - No apparent litter Undisturbed - Undisturbed - No grazing trails lopping removal - Low levels of Moderately lopping but - Grazing trails disturbed tree - Undisturbed - Moderate to High visible (A) morphology intact

- Considerable - Ground swept bare. Moderately lopping - Grazed / bushy Over 70% of - Grazing trails disturbed (B) - Large branches appearance litter visible intact removed

- Heavy lopping - The ground covered - Heavy grazing - Low availability of Degraded - pole-like tree, or cut with apparent litter down to grazing stump height trails

Categorization of Seedling- Sapling

In each study plot, the name of the species and numbers were recorded. Plants were also classified into five categories, i.e. seedlings, established seedlings, coppice, saplings and poles. They were classified according to the height, diameter and presence or absence of multiple stems (Table 2).

Table 2. Different size class categorization of plants in the study area.

Category Juvenile size Classes Seedling 0-30 cm, <5 mm from collar Established Seedling 0-30 cm, >5 mm from collar Sapling 30 cm to 2 m, <7.85 cm GBH Pole Between 7.85cm to 31.4cm GBH Coppice 30cm to 2 m, multiple stems (=>3) Results Impact of forest disturbance on the regeneration status of four species viz., Quercus leucotricophora, Rhododendron arboretum, Pinus roxburghii and Myrica esculenta was studied.

Species wise regeneration status

Quercus leucitricophora

78 In the degraded site, there were no seedlings and poles whereas established seedlings, coppice and saplings were found (Fig. 2). Due to the high disturbance on this site, the numbers of established seedlings were lesser i.e., 20% whereas a higher percentage of coppice was found with 69% and the number of the sapling is much lesser than established seedlings and coppice. In moderately disturbed site A, there were no poles and saplings. However, the presence of seedlings was only 7% but the established seedlings were higher with 87% and coppice with only 6% (Fig 2).

In moderately disturbed site B there were no seedlings and poles whereas the percentage of established seedlings was 38%. The number of coppices was found higher on this site with 61% however the percentage of saplings were very low i.e. only 1% (Fig 2). In undisturbed site, seedlings, established seedlings, coppice, saplings, and poles were found to be 22%, 59%, 4%, 12% and 3% respectively.

Fig 2. Regeneration status of Q. leucotricophora in degraded site, moderate disturbed site A, moderately disturbed site B and undisturbed site.

Rhododendron arboreum

In the degraded site, there were no seedlings and poles (Fig. 3). The established seedlings were higher in number with 93% than coppice with 3% and saplings with 4% (Fig. 3). In moderately disturbed site A, there were no seedlings but established seedlings and poles were found in a higher percentage of 35% and 25%, than coppice 21% and saplings 19% (Fig. 3).

79

Fig 3. Regeneration status of R. arboretum in degraded site, moderate disturbed site A, moderately disturbed site B and undisturbed site.

The moderately disturbed site B has no seedlings (Fig 3). The established seedlings and coppice were also found in less number (13% each). Thirty-three per cent saplings were found and dominated by poles with 41% (Fig 3c). In the undisturbed site, there were no seedlings however 43% established seedlings were found. In this site due to fewer disturbances coppice were found in less percentage whereas 38% of saplings and 10 % poles were also observed (Fig 3).

Pinus roxburghii

In degraded site, no seedlings were found but 31% of established seedlings were recorded. Besides, Coppice (36%) was observed and the number of saplings and poles were found to be 23% and 10% respectively (Fig. 4).

Fig 4. Regeneration status of P. roxburghii in degraded site, moderate disturbed site A, moderately disturbed site B and undisturbed site. 80 In moderately disturbed site A, 3% seedlings were recorded, but 39% established seedlings were also found (Fig. 4). Coppices of P. roxburghii were found in this site with 17%. A higher percentage of saplings (34%) was also observed on this site and fewer poles (7%) were recorded (Fig. 4). The moderately disturbed site B had 14% seedlings but also observed 44% established seedlings (Fig. 4). In this site, 7% coppices were found which showed that there were fewer disturbances on pine. Saplings and poles were also found with 19% and 16% respectively (Fig. 4). In the undisturbed site, lower presence of P. roxburghii has been observed. In this site, P. roxburghii had 50% each of established seedlings and coppice respectively (Fig 4).

Myrica esculenta

M. esculenta is not found in the degraded site. In moderately disturbed A there were no seedlings recorded and established seedlings were found in less percentage with only 8%. The numberof Coppices found were 8% which also showed fewer disturbances; also 36% saplings and 48% of poles were found which indicated good growth (Fig 5).

In moderately disturbed site B, only 5% seedlings were found but a higher number of established seedlings (65%) were observed which showed good regeneration of M. esculenta. In this site, 10% of coppices were found whereas 5% and 15% of saplings and poles were observed (Fig 5).

In the undisturbed site, there were no seedlings, established seedlings and coppice (Fig 5). Only saplings (86%) and poles (14%) were found. This clearly showed that there is poor regeneration of M. esculenta in this site.

Fig 5. Regeneration status of M. esculenta in moderate disturbed site A, moderately disturbed site B and undisturbed site.

81 Site wise regeneration status Seedlings

In degraded site, there were no seedlings; however, the undisturbed site had higher number of seedlings (27). In moderately disturbed site A, a total of 9 seedlings were found whereas in moderately disturbed site B only 7 seedlings were observed (Fig. 3).

Established seedlings

The number of established seedlings were higher in moderately disturbed site A (173), the moderately disturbed site B and the undisturbed site has almost the same number of seedlings i.e., 94 and 100 seedlings respectively. The degraded site had lesser number of established seedlings (36) (Fig. 3).

Saplings The number of saplings was higher in moderately disturbed site A (62) followed by moderately disturbed site B (45) and undisturbed site (43) (Fig. 3). The degraded site had the lowest number of saplings (34).

Fig 3. Number of plants found in different disturbance regime.

82 Poles

The numbers of poles were found higher in moderately disturbed site A (45) followed by the undisturbed site (41) and moderately disturbed site B (36). There were a lesser number of poles in the degraded site (16) (Fig 3).

Coppice

The numbers of coppices were found higher in the degraded site (301) and least in the undisturbed site (9). The moderately disturbed site A had 54 coppices, and moderately disturbed site B had 79 coppices (Fig. 8). The presence of a higher number of coppices showed that the site was under disturbance. Coppice took 7 to 10 years to become a mature tree if there was no disturbance.

Conclusion

The present study showed overall higher regeneration status in the moderately disturbed site A as compared to the other sites studied. However, Q. leucotricophora was found to be having a good regeneration in the undisturbed site. Hence, it was concluded that moderately disturbed site A with moderate disturbances appeared to benefit regeneration of plant communities as compared with degraded, undisturbed and moderately disturbed sites B especially in oak zone region of Central Himalaya.

Acknowledgement

The first author likes to express special gratitude to Coordinator, CEDAR for granting permission to work in the organization. The author also thanks Professor A.K. Negi (Department of Forestry, H.N.B.G.U) for his support during the study. Further, the author expresses thanks to CEDAR for logistic and financial support during the field visits.

References

Awasthi, A., Uniyal, S.K., Rawat, G.S. & Rajvanshi, A. (2003). Forest resource availability and its use by the migratory villages of Uttarkashi, Garhwal Himalaya (India). Forest Ecology and Management, 174, 13-24.

Menitsky, Y.L. (2005). Oaks of Asia. Science Publishers, Enfield (NH) USA, 549 pages (original book in Russian, 1984)

Negi, S.S. (1982). Environmental Problems in the Himalaya. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, pp 188.

Osmaston, A.E. (1922). Notes on the forest communities of the Garhwal Himalaya. Journal of Ecology, 10, 129-187.

83 Pant, D.N., Groten, S.M.E. & Roy, P.S. (2000). Forest Vegetation/Landuse change Detection and Impact Assessment in Part of Western Himalaya. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 33, 950-957.

Sharma, A., Prasad, R., Saksena, S. & Joshi, V. (1999). Micro-level sustainable biomass system development in central Himalayas: stress computation and biomass planning. Journal of Sustainable Development, 7(3), 132-139.

Singh, S.P. & Singh, J.S. (1986). Structure and function of the Central Himalayan oak forests, Springer India. Proceedings: Plant Sciences, 96(3),159-189.

Singh, S.P. & Singh, J.S. (1991). Analytical and conceptual plan to reforest central Himalayan for sustainable development. Environmental Management, 15, 369–379.

Somanathan, E. (1991). Deforestation, property rights, and incentives in Central Him. Economic and Political Weekly, 26, 37–46.

Troup, R.S. (1921). The Silviculture of Indian Trees, Vol. 3. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp. 913-923.

Valencia, S.A. (2004). Diversidad del genero Quercus (Fagaceae) en Mexico. Boletin de la Sociedad Botanica de Mexico, 75, 33-54.

84 IMPLEMENTATION OF BAMBOO INDUSTRY TO GENERATE EMPLOYMENT IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Avinash Sharma*, Boppa Linggi, S. Romio Singh and Mayanglambam Sanjit Singh Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh-792103 Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Bamboo is green gold, poor’s man timber, evergreen perennial trees, belongs to grass family Poaceae, develop from phloem parenchyma/phloem fibre/bast fibre and does not requires chemical fertilizers and irrigation. The bamboo production was estimated 30 million tonnes in the world and 3.23 million tonnes in India ranking second largest producer of bamboo. It has 1000 species in the world of which 20 species are the best in the world. The commercial species of India are Bambusa pallida, B. polymorpha, B. taluda, B. nutans, Dendrocalamus brandisii, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, D. strictus, Melocanna baccifera, Phyllostachys bambusoides. The objective of this paper was to discuss the comprehensive establishment of bamboo industry and employment opportunities for Arunachal Pradesh. The current population of the state is estimated to about 1.73 millions. The unemployment rate of 7.62% was recorded in India. 5.3% unemployment rate and 31.4% under below poverty line were reported in Arunachal Pradesh. The bamboo industry promotes successive development of people, weaker sections, technology and environment. It manufactures classical products during ancient period but after advancement of research, innovation and technology it develops modern products. It provides direct and indirect employment of farming, pre processing, secondary processing and in associated activities. It will promote farmers for bamboo cultivation, improve standard of living, per capita income, mitigate plastic applications, environmental pollution and over deforestation, generate income and rise share of state GDP. The establishment of industry may also promote rural, urban and education development, forbids violence and miscreant and forms harmony and peace in the society.

Keywords: Establishment, Bamboo industry, employment, people

Introduction

Bamboo is a woody evergreen perennial plant that consists of complex permanent tissue of phloem parenchyma, phloem fibre, bast fibre (Science daily, 2018). It is called green gold and poor man timber, belongs to grass family Poaceae. It has 1000 species in the world in that 20 species are the best in the world (Wikipedia, 2019). It does not require chemical fertilizers and irrigation. The common species Arundinaria, Bambusatra, Bambusa heterostachya, Bambusa nutaus, Bambusa oldhamii, Bambusa pervariabilis, Lingania chungii, Dendrocalamus hookeri, Dendrocalamus membranaceous, Gigantochloa balui, Gigantochloa hasskarliana, Oxytenanthera, Lingania, Phyllostachys glauca, Schizostavhyum and Dendrocalamus brandisii are grown in the world (Stephane, 2019). The commercial species of India are Bambusa pallida, B. polymorpha, B. taluda, B. nutans, Dendrocalamus brandisii, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, D. strictus,

85 Melocanna baccifera, Phyllostachys bambusoides (Tripathi, 2018) (Fig 1 & 2). The production of bamboo is 30 million tonnes in the world (Plantation International, 2018). The bamboo producing countries are china, brazil, Australia, Mexico, USA, Venezuela, India, Colombia, Panama, Japan, Vietnam, Thailand, France, United kingdom etc (Canavan et al., 2016). The production of bamboo has been estimated 3.23 million tonnes in India and the highest bamboo cultivated states are Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim Tripura and arunachal Pradesh. India is the second largest producer of bamboo after china (Rajesh et al., 2014; Samir, 2018). The parts of bamboo are trap carbon, produces fibre, build roads & bridges, prepare clothes, medicinal purposes, jewellery design, fuel consumption, textiles, utensils, table wares and furnitures (Econation, 2018).

The objective of study was to highlight comphrensive establishment of bamboo industry and employment opportunity for regional people. The bamboo industry promotes successive development of People, weaker sections, technology and environment. Arunachal Pradesh is the bamboo producing state in Northeastern region. The current populations of 1.73632 millions were estimated in Arunachal Pradesh (India populations, 2019). The unemployment rate of 7.62% was obtained in India and of 5.3% was reported in Arunachal Pradesh (CMIE, 2019). The percent population of 31.4% was reported under below poverty line in Arunachal Pradesh (RBI, 2018). The bamboo industries are available only in Bhalukpong, West Kameng District, Basar, Along, West Siang District and Puma, Papum Pare District. Bamboo industry is green technology that overcome unemployment rate, below poverty line and progress industry. The implementation of industry will improve human growth and resources. Earlier it was prepare limited goods like cup, baskets, nets, bags, mats, hats, lantern, pencils, match box, lampshades and fences in conventional period. In the modern period, it manufactures various high quality goods like edible shoots, raw shoots, furnitures, crafts, woolen threads, clothes, bridges, jewellery, sheet, paper nappies, bone medicine, fibre, table wares, utensils, kidney disease, panel, floors etc after advancement of research, formulas, development and technology (Fig. 3). The advancement of research and technology of bamboo industry will improve goods quality; mitigate plastic utilization, over deforestation, and environmental pollution. It will maintain ecology and ecosystem, encourage farmers for bamboo cultivation, will useful for landless and marginal farmers, promote doubling of farmers income, improve standard of living of farmers, generate direct and indirect employment for regional people, generate income and thrive share of State GDP.

Sarmistha (2014) explained about bamboo industry of North-east India and stated the total area of bamboo is estimated 39% in North eastern region. The bamboo industry of North eastern region produces paper, hand crafts and incense sticks, It has given 12 lakhs peoples direct and indirect employment in North east India. Later, the ministry of agriculture and cooperation initiated National Bamboo Mission programmes for bamboo plantation in that 50.4 million man were employed for nursery raising.

86 Archarya & Moumita (2015) stated in the chapters that bamboo industry produces numerous products like construction materials, furniture, fences, handicrafts, pulp, paper, edible shoots and animal fodder. The Indian revenue of bamboo industry was 26000 crores in 2015 year. They mentioned that it is a profitable business that generate employment and assist to below poverty line people.

Chikkaranga (2011) studied bamboo resources generates employment for communities and explained bamboo resources generates manpower in bamboo plantations, harvesting, transport, handling, weaving, into usable products, industrial labours and cottage industries.

John and Nigel (2017) studied bamboo industry potential in Mekong countries. Bamboo industry manufactures several products for economic value. They stated that the market potential of bamboo industry is USD 16.8 billion in 2017. It generates full time equivalent (FTE) jobs in farming, pre processing, secondary processing and in associated activities and directly provide benefit to people and farmers.

Tripathi (2018) studied bamboo entrepreneurship is a rural opportunities and stated that earlier it prepares agarbatti, pencils, bed spreads, match box and miscellaneous products like chopsticks, tooth picks, barbecue sticks, ice cream sticks, kites, lathis, fishing rods but in modern generations, it prepares housing materials, building materials, doors, windows, interiors design, furnitures, bridges, ladder, fences poles, supports, aqueducts, rafts, columns, roof trusses, purloins, scaffolding, corrugated sheets, laminated window farmes, laminated window flooring tiles, artificial boards- woven plywood, particle board, floor boards,

Fig 1. Distribution of Bamboo species in India

87

Fig 2. Cultivation of Bamboo species in India

Fig 3. Overview of Bamboo Industry

88

Fig 4. Classical value added products of Bamboo

Fig 5. Modern value added products of Bamboo

laminated boards, FRP door frames, FRP ace sheets, powdered activated charcoal, granular activated charcoal, fabrics- textile production- sweaters, bath suits, mats, blankets, towels, nappies (diapers), underwear, lingeries, all type of clothing, linen, sanitary products- bndage, mask, surgical clothes, nurses wear, food- bamboo raw

89 shoots, bamboo canned shoots, fodders and fertilizers (Fig. 4 & 5). It provides employment to rural as well as urban peoples. The small industries of bamboo generate 300 crores of income India

The center for bamboo development explained in the blog that bamboo industry secures 8000 ha of natural forests. It generates employment for poor rural people, rural people and urban people (IPIRTI, 2019).

The private bamboo manufacturing factory, is located in Agartala. It employs 100 workforces for direct and 500 for indirect employment. The Bangalore private industry prepares bamboo products and generates employment (Bamboo house India, 2019). The world best bamboo manufacturers companies Moso International B.V., Shanghai Tenbro Bamboo Textile Co. Ltd., Bamboo Village Company Limited, EcoPlanet Bamboo, Smith and Fong Co Inc., Jiangxi Kangda Bamboo Ware Group Co., Ltd., Fujian Jianou Huayu Bamboo Industry Co., Ltd., Jiangxi Shanyou Industry Co. Ltd., Tengda Bamboo-Wood Co., Ltd that provides direct and indirect employment (Ajay, 2019).

Conclusion

Bamboo industry is profitable agribusiness sector. It prepares conventional and modern products for human welfare. It mitigates plastic consumption, environmental pollution, and over deforestation. It generates employment in farming, pre processing, secondary processing and in associated activities for peoples. It will encourage landless and marginal farmers for bamboo cultivation and promote doubling of farmer’s income. It would mitigate below poverty line and unemployment rate of Arunachal Pradesh. It improves standard of living, per capita income and GDP and Arunachal Pradesh. The establishment of industry promotes rural, urban and education development, forbids violence & miscreant and forms harmony & peace in the society.

References

Acharya, S. K., Moumita, G., Mishra, G. C. & Biswas, A. (2015). Bamboo: The Economy-Ecology-Sociology. Chapters-Bamboo in north-east India: the ecology, economy and culture, pp. 24-60.

Ajay, M. (2019). Bamboos Market: Top Leading Countries, Companies, Consumption, Drivers, Trends, Forces Analysis, Revenue, Challenges and Global Forecast 2025. The Express wire, pp.1-12.

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Chikkaranga, S. (2011). Employment Generation by Bamboo Resource Development and its impact on rural Communities. International Journal of Rural Studies, 18, 1, 1-6.

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90 Econation, (2018). Bamboo, Bamboo uses and benefits, Bamboo sustainability. https://econation.co.nz/bamboo.

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John, M. & Nigel, S. (2017) New Bamboo Industries and Pro-Poor Impact – Lessons from China and Potential for Mekong Countries. Collaborative project between OHK and IFC-MPDF, pp. 1-21.

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Rajesh, S. K., Binu, N. K., Nity, N., Suneesh, B. & Sinha, G. N. (2014). A review of bamboo based agroforestry models developed in different parts of India, productivity and marketing aspects. Conference on Bamboo Productivity in Forest and Non – Forest Areas, pp. 45-52.

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91 EFFECTS OF PLANT EXTRACTS AGAINST MOSQUITO LARVAE

Pori Buragohain*1 and Janmoni Moran2 1Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Tanhril-796004, Aizawl, Mizoram 2Faculty of Science, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, 792103, Arunachal Pradesh *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Mosquitoes are one of the main vectors that carry different disease causing parasites such as Malaria, Chicken guinea, Yellow fever, Dengue etc. Nowadays it is a very dangerous problem for us and need to control the mosquito population. There are so many mosquito repellent products are available in the market, but all of these products are full of harmful effects. To get rid of these problems the natural commodities are more effective then the synthetic ones. The plant products are not so harmful to human beings and the environment. Bihlangoni, Tulsi and Posatia are the most easily available ancient medicinal plants. They are also good mosquito repellents. The leaf extract of these 3 medicinal plants are used to control the mosquito population. This solution is prepared without any chemicals or any other harmful products. Only the desired proportion of leaf extracts and distilled water are used in various ratio. The mixture is applied to the different stages of mosquito larvae. Based on the observation of the experiment the effectiveness of the plants was confirmed. And it has been found that the effectiveness of the Posatia (Vitex pentaphylla) is more than the others. Keywords: Leaf extract, Mosquito repellent, Mosquito larvae, Natural commodities.

Introduction In Arunachal Pradesh because of the abundance of water and the warm and temperate climate, mosquitoes are active throughout the year. All over the world, people are at risk from mosquito-borne diseases. Personal protection from mosquito bites is currently the most important way to prevent transmission of these diseases (Fradin, 1998).The use of mosquito repellents makes a person unattractive for feeding and therefore repels the mosquito (Maibach et al., 1996). In recent years, new synthetic mosquito repellents have been used. However, continuous and indiscriminate use of these synthetic repellents causes adverse effects on the user (Mandal, 2011). Plant products have been used traditionally to kill or repel mosquitoes in many parts of the world. Thousands of plants have been tested as a repellent of mosquito. Mosquito repellent properties are reported in plants viz., Eucalyptus maculate citriodon against Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus (Trigg, 1996). Mosquito can transmit more diseases than other groups of arthropods and affect millions of people throughout the world. Mosquito acts as a vector for most of the life threatening diseases like Malaria, Yellow fever, Dengue fever, Chikungunya fever, Filariasis, Encephalitis, West Nile virus etc. In Arunachal Pradesh

92 Namsai area of Namsai district is a rich treasure house of many promising medicinal and aromatic plants. The total area of Namsai district is 1587 km2, 50% of the total land is comprised of forest area. Namsai district of Arunachal is a Malaria prone area.

Plant species: Vitex negundo (Posatia) – It is commonly known as posatia, it is an erect shrub. Its leaves are digitate, with five lanceolate leaflets, sometimes three. The leaf edges are toothed or serrated and the bottom surface is covered by hair. It is widely cultivated and naturalised elsewhere. The plants are commonly found near water bodies, grassland and mixed open forests. It is used in different ways in different regions. In Philippines it is used as a cough remedy. In Malaysia, it is used in traditional herbal medicine for women’s health, including treatments for regulating menstrual cycle. Ocimum sanctum (tulsi) – It is a herb, commonly known as holy basil, tulsi. Tulsi is cultivated for religious and traditional medicine purposes and for its essential oil. It is commonly used in Ayurveda, widely used as herbal tea and has a great place in the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism. Christella parasitica (bihlangoni) – Christella is a genus of around 50 species of ferns named after Konrad H. Christ, a Swiss botanist. Christella parasitica is commonly known as bihlangoni, bihdhekia. Its rhizomes are very thin and creeping, stipes hairy at apex, lamina broadly ovate, simple pinnate, pinnae numerous, alternate or sub opposite sessile. Leaves are commonly used in chanting incantations by traditional healers and in eczema; rhizomes used in cold and asthma.

Materials and methods Study area The present study was carried out in Namsai district of Arunachal Pradesh. The name Namsai in khampti means Water and Sand (Nam –water, Sai –Sand). It is a foothill district, situated at north eastern most part of the country and lies between 95.45 to 96.20 E longitudes/ 27.30 to 27.55 N latitudes with a geographical area of about 1587 sq km. The district is surrounded by Tinsukia district of Assam in the West and South West, Changlang district in the South and South East, Anjaw and Lohit in the North. Namsai’s climate is classified as warm and temperate, compared with winter, the summers have much more rainfall. In Namsai, the average annual temperature is 22.80C, precipitation here averages 2728 mm. The least amount of rainfall occurs in December. In July, the precipitation reaches its peak, with an average of 551mm. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 27.60C. At 15.40C on average January is the coldest month of the year. The present study was made during February, 2019 to April, 2019. Survey of mosquito larvae: The immature mosquito population (larvae) commonly encountered a mixed population of Anopheles, Culex and Aedes were collected from different resource like water stagnation and un-planned drainage with poor

93 management of garbage and planned drainages in different breeding sites including the campus of Arunachal University of Studies.

Larval characters used in identification Head: Inner, outer and posterior clypeal hairs, they may be placed closed together or with their bases widely separated, these hairs may be simple, very finely frayed or may bear conspicuous lateral branches. Antenna: Presence of antenna; size of the antenna is as long as or longer than the proximal part. Thorax: Pleural area of thorax speculate or non speculate; hairs in pro, meso and meta thoracic pleural hairs simple or pectinate. Abdomen: Size of the anterior tergal plates; presence and absence of palmate hairs; number and rows of comb scales; presence or absence of sclerotized comb plate; size and shape of individual comb scales. Siphon: Presence or absence of siphon and pectin teeth; siphon valves simple or modified. Saddle: Ventral brush single or with many pairs.

Fig 1. Basic anatomy of mosquito larvae (vectorbio.rutgers.edu)

Materials Beakers, funnel, dropper, mortar and pestles, electronic balance, filter paper, spatula, and glass rod.

Preparation of aqueous extract of different plants Three plants such as Tulsi, Bihlangoni and Posatia are collected for aqueous extract from different areas. These three plants are selected for aqueous extract.

94 Table 1. List of different plant species and part which are used in plant extracts

Sl. No. Scientific name Family Common name Parts 1 Vitex negundo Lamiaceae Posatia Leaves 2 Christella parasitica Thelypteridaceae Bihlangoni Leaves 3 Ocimum sanctum Lamiaceae Tulsi Leaves

The middle leaves are collected and separated according to different plants. Aqueous extracts are prepared by mixing 10 gm of leaves with 10ml of distilled water. These different plant extracts are filtered through filter paper which is taken as stock solutions and preserved in different beakers namely ‘A’ stock solution (Posatia), ‘B’ stock solution (Bihlangoni) and ‘C’ stock solution (tulsi). Desired concentration 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3 were made by these stock solutions with distilled water. Each concentrated working solutions are added to 10 mosquito larvae. The mortality of larvae is determined after 24 hours.

Results and Discussion Mortality % of mosquitoes, maximum Mortality% of mosquitoes and average Mortality% of mosquitoes are shown in table no. 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

Table 2. % of mortality in Vitex negundo

Sl. No. Water-extract ratio % of mortality Max. Rate (%) Average mortality (%) 1 1:1 100 100 100 2 1:2 100 3 1:3 100

Table 3. % of mortality in Christella parasitica Sl. No. Water-extract ratio % of mortality Max. Rate (%) Average mortality (%) 1 1:1 100 100 83.33 2 1:2 80 3 1:3 70

Table 4. % of mortality in Ocimum sanctum Sl. No. Water-extract ratio % of mortality Max. Rate (%) Average mortality (%) 1 1:1 30 40 30 2 1:2 40 3 1:3 20

95 As the current experiment were performed in three different plant extracts in three steps, each step was experimented by ratio of plant extract and distilled water. The three ratios are 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3. With Vitex negundo plant extract and distilled water in the ratio of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3 the mortality % of mosquito is 100% in 24 hours. In the combination of Christella parasitica plant extract and distilled water the average mortality was 83.3% and maximum mortality rate was 100% .In the combination of Ocimum sanctum plant extract and distilled water the mortality % of larvae are 30%, 40% and 20%. Order of mortality % in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3 ratio of plant extract and distilled water Ocimum sanctum

Fig 2. Mortality of mosquito larvae

The effectiveness of Vitex negundo is more against mosquito larvae then the other two plants.

Pesticides play significant roles in agriculture and public health programs. However increased use of pesticides has caused great environmental and public health concerns. Many plant extracts are known to be toxic to different species of mosquitoes and could be used to control the diseases they transmit (Willcox et al., 2004). According to Bowers et al. (1995) the screening of locally available medicinal plants for mosquito control would generate local efforts enhance public health.

Now adays more research is needed to develop new extracts of natural commodities that can offer effective mosquito management to reduce the indiscriminate use of harmful chemical insecticides. Many plant chemicals produce larvicidal effects. The chemicals derived from plants have been projected as weapons in future mosquito control program as they are in function as general toxicant , growth , and repellant. The

96 effectiveness of the different plant extracts was tested by this study and it was found that the natural commodities are useful in case of mosquito larvae control.

Conclusion Mosquito borne diseases continue to be a major problem. Natural commodities possessing larvicidal properties are very much useful to control immature mosquitoes in their breeding sites. Plant based repellents are still extensively used in traditional way. In total high mosquitoes, was recorded in Namsai district which may be due to insufficient drainages system and human population density. As the North eastern region of India is considered to be a major biodiversity hotspots. Hence now a days attempt has been made to evaluate mosquito larvicidal efficiency of whole plants, the part of leaves of the plants against of mosquitoes. Medicinal and aromatic plants can also be used for the preparation of many medicines and will have scope for other value addition products for Indian markets. Techniques for extraction is very easy therefore it is certainly very much techno economically viable.

References Bowen, M.F. (1991). The sensory physiology of host-seeking behaviour in mosquitoes. Annu Rev Entomol, 139-352. Effiom, et al. (2012). Mosquito repellent activity of phytochemical extracts from peels of Citrus fruit species. Global journal interdisciplinary. Fradin, M.S. (1998). Mosquitoes and mosquito repellents: A Clinician’s guide. Annals of internal medicine, 931-940. Hag, E.L., Hg, E.A., Nadif, A.H. & Zaltoon, A.A. (1999). Toxica and grown regarding effect of three plant extract on Culex pipiens larvae (Diptera –culicidae). Phytother Res 13, 388-392.

97 Maibach, H., et al. (1966). Factors that attract and repel mosquitoes in human skin. JAMA, 263-266. Mandal, S. (2011). Mosquito vector management with botanicals – the most effective weapons in controlling mosquito borne diseases. Rani, N., Wany, A., Vidyarthi, A.S. & Pandey, D.M. (2013). Study of Citronella leaf based herbal mosquito repellents using natural binders. Current research in Microbiology and biotechnology, 1, 98-103. Schmutter, H. (1990). Properties and potential of natural pesticides from the neem tree Azadirachta indica. Annals Rev Entomol., 35, 271-297. Sukumar et al. (1991). Botanical derivatives in mosquito control: a review. J Am Mosq Control Assoc, 210- 237. Thomas, T.G., Sharma, S.K., Jales, S. & Rahman, S.J. (1994). Insecticidal properties of an indigenous plant, Yucca aloifolia Linn. against mosquito larvae. Journal of basic appl biomed, 2, 53-59. Trigg, J.K. & Hill, N. (1996). Laboratory evaluation of a Eucalyptus based repellent against four biting arthropods. Phytotherapy research.

98 IN-VITRO PRODUCTION (TISSUE CULTURE) OF COMMERCIAL ORCHIDS AND ITS PROSPECTS FOR EXTENSIVE CULTIVATION IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA

Ona Apang* Orchid Research Centre, Tippi, West Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Arunachal Pradesh is agro-climatically suitable for growing all type of orchids which the farmers of the state can take up. However, farmers are not only lacking viable markets but also facing inadequate quality planting materials. This state of non-starter in agro- based entrepreneurship is being studied in some circle of research institutions over last 40 years. The research was taken up to develop a suitable technology so that farmers can adopt farming of orchids as an alternative source of income. In this paper, MS, MKc, V&W media etc., culture medium have been used in the tissue culture of all hybrids of Cymbidium, Dendrobium, and Phalaenopsis etc. This is to produce seedlings in large scale through in vitro culture. Among the commercially important orchids, the genera Dendrobium and Cymbidium accounts for about 80% and 50% respectively of the total micro-propagated tropical orchids. These orchids grow in humid and warm climate areas (200-800 m altitude) with temperature ranging from 300 - 350C in summer and 200 - 250C in winter. Flourishing orchid cut-flower industries will augment mountain economy of the state and create new employment opportunity, generate high income, alleviate poverty and develop self reliance in weaker sections of the society and women in particular; as the sector also has potential to develop as cottage industry too in the region. According to recent survey there are 9 private commercial orchid nurseries coming up in some parts of Arunachal Pradesh in small scale. However, it is an encouraging development toward floriculture industry.

Keywords: Tissue culture, Temperature, Orchids, Farmers, Arunachal Pradesh.

Introduction

Although Arunachal Pradesh is agro-climatically suitable for growing all type of orchids which the farmers of the state can take up, however, farmers are not only lacking markets but also facing inadequate quality planting materials. This state of non-starter in agro-based entrepreneurship is being studied in some circle of research institutions over last 40 years under externally funded projects ‘extension programme’. The research is on to develop a suitable technology so that farmers can adopt farming of orchids as an alternative source of income. In continuation of this, the present paper deals.

In this paper, MS culture medium in the tissue culture of Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Pleione etc. have been used. The approach of tissue cloning is to produce seedlings in large scale through in vitro 99 culture. Tissue culture using explants can be done for commercialization of orchids in order to maintain identical genotypes. For a long time, the major means for propagating orchids/plant clones was the division of plants. The first horticultural plant to be cloned by tissue culture methods on a commercial scale are the orchids. Among the commercially important orchids, the genera Dendrobium and Cymbidium account for about 80% and 50% respectively of the total micro-propagated tropical orchids.

Materials and Methods

Shoots of 2-7 cm long were excised from Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Pleione were collected. The surface of shoot was cleaned by removing scales with surgical blade. The tissue was sized according to the nature of form and washed thrice with detol soap under running tap water. Then it was dipped into cool distilled water in 100 ml beaker. Further the tissue was air dried on petridish under laminar flow and inoculated the tissue in (Murashige & Skoog, 1962) media under aseptic condition.

Observations

Tissue culture through cloning of a tissue of a variety of plant species under in vitro culture experiences uneven growth of tissue in the same temperature controlled room. Physio-chemicals factors of plant tissue culture are provided on observing the response of tissue in Table 1.

The growth orientation of tissue depended on various conditions like tissue position to agar medium, concentration of chemicals, agar, light etc. The condition for dead of tissue is high temperature especially for subtropical orchids like Cymbidium and there is a different exhibition of dead to survival of tissue among species of the same genus (Cymbidium).

Cymbidium Hybrid-1

The tissue bent toward ventral side. Duration for proto-corm formation is equal to that stage of tissue developed from explants. Proto-corm formation is possible from tissue developed from auxillary meristem which was discarded. Temperature of growth room is maintained as a pre requisite of tissue growth.

Table 1. Physio-chemicals factors of plant tissue culture

Sl. No. Name of plant Growth time Observations Mediu (in week) till m used first division 1 Pleione maculata 23 weeks Protocorm and seedlings MS 2 Cymbidium Hybrid 1 6 weeks First division into 2 half MS longitudinally.

100 3 Cymbidium Hybrid 2 1 week Second division into 2 half to MS each tissue longitudinally. 4 Dendrobium Hybrid 20 weeks & Protocorm was visible on lateral MS 16 side of tissue days 5 Cymbidium Hybrid 3 2 weeks Last traverse division. MS Tissue inoculated in Ferric tartarate & Calcium phosphate 6 Cymbidium Hybrid 4 4 days Last traverse division MS 7 Cymbidium Hybrid (2) 8 weeks First division MS 5 8 Cymbidium Hybrid 4 week First division MS 9 Phalaenopsis Hybrid Nodal culture, response is MS visible 10 Cymbidium Hybrid (3) Good response MS 6

Dendrobium Hybrid

Dendrobium tissue is so small to divide, however, it was divided gently and carefully. Response in MS media is good although it took 4 to 5 months for tissue development. Leaf stalk was also able to develop into a tissue for transfer to fresh medium.

Phalaenopsis Hybrid

It is a nodal culture. Node tissue appears white distinct when response. Medium around inflorescence stalk cut turn black.

Temperature requirement in tropical zone

These orchids grow in humid and warm climate areas (200-800 m altitude) with temperature ranges from 300-350C in summer and 200-250C in winter. Example genera like Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Cymbidium etc. The seedlings will be transplanted in farms.

Temperature requirement in subtropical zone

Land of society/farmers’ will be selected for orchid cultivation site which is located in subtropical zone. The site will be having humid and intermediate climate (800-1850 m altitude) with temperature ranging from 20- 30 0C in summer; and 15-20 0C in winter. Example genera like Cymbidium.

101 Commercial prospects

Flourishing orchid cut-flower industries will augment mountain economy create new employment opportunity, generate high income, alleviate poverty and develop self reliance in weaker sections of the society and women in particular; as the sector also has potential to develop as cottage industry too in the region. The industry will also help in conserving bio-diversity for generation to come. Today orchids are grown not only because they are mysterious, but mainly due to the fact that they are highly priced and occupy 8% share of the global floricultural trade. Single quality stem of that may fetch anything from Rs. 130 to 1500 in Japan or US market due to be-wildering colours, shapes and sizes of these flowers, persistence of bloom upto perfection and their ability to travel long distances made them one of the top ten cut flowers in international market. Thailand alone exports around US $ 26 million worth of orchids. Commercial orchid farms have been established in Chennai, Kochi, Bangalore, Thiruvananthapuram and Guwahati. Orchid farms in the country are solely dependent on the hybrids imported from countries like Singapore, Malaysia, Bangkok, Brazil, Australia and New Zealand. Most of the farms also started off with tie-ups with Singaporean or Malaysian companies for technical know-how. However, presently most of these farms are propagating planting materials by themselves. The potential of North-East as a crucial commercial orchid growing area is yet to be exploited.

International status

Japan produces Dendrobium and Phalaenopsis flowers for its own consumption and depends near by other Asian neighbours like Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. Japan also imports orchid flowers from Netherland, Australia and New Zealand. The Netherlands exports to other European neighbouring countries to meet their domestic demand. Germany is the major importer for Dutch orchids (Phalaenopsis) followed by Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, France and United Kingdom.

The United States of America is one of the major destinations for the orchids produced world wide. It imports nearly 16.4 million stems of tropical orchids. Dendrobium from Thailand followed by Singapore, New Zealand, Jamica and Costa Rica. Beside these USA also imports non-Dendrobiums mostly from Thailand, Holland, New Zealand, Australia and Costa Rica.

National status

In India, the commercial cultivation of tropical orchids is concentrated in Kerala from where the flowers exported to the Middle East countries. The companies that entered this lucrative segment include Natural Synergies (Chennai), Kairali orchids, A. V. Thomas (Cochin), Nath seeds, Aurangabad and De orchids (Bombay) etc. by growing Dendrobium. Shikherpur Kamala Nursery deals with decorative plants and flowers 102 in West Bengal, The Blue Orchids deals in growing and exporting in Kathambari of Jalpaiguri district, West Bengal, India.

The recent world market trends of orchid indicates that the demand for orchids (both for tropical and temperate) is fast expanding and there is a great scope for new enterants like India which has all the suitable agro-climatic conditions in many parts of the country to produce tropical orchids.

Status of North-East Region (Arunachal Pradesh)

The N. E. region of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Manipur and Sikkim have 900 species from 142 genera with special reference to Arunachal Pradesh due to its varied agro-climatic conditions. According to recent survey there are 9 private commercial orchid nurseries are coming up in Arunachal Pradesh in a small scale. However, it is an encouraging development toward floriculture industry. The floriculture activities (orchids) of N. E. states are rapidly expanding in recent time visualizing the prospects by developing nurseries and establishment of commercial unit by importing orchids from other countries. In Assam orchid trade is in advance stage in compare to other N. E. states through private nurseries like Export group of orchid of N. E. region in Chenikuthi, Guwahati-3, Assam; ICL Flora Exotica, Noonmati, GHY-20, Tropical orchid nursery, Nagaon, Silchang, Assam a growers of quality hybrid cut-flowers. There are several others nurseries in N. E. region.

Established private farms

About 30 years of extension works (since 1995), the centre has the expertise to carry out the extension works in different parts and is actively engaged under external funded project by (i) conducting training programme in orchid cultivation to interested local tribal farmers, outsiders, students etc (ii) producing seedlings of cut-flower quality and ornamental orchid by tissue culture and distributing to farmers, (iii) helping the local farmers in establishing small scale orchid commercial nurseries in various districts of Arunachal Pradesh, (iv) participating in exhibitions and orchid shows and (v) Publishing literature on orchid identification and cultivation. A week long training programme is organized. The orchid/farm was established at Potin, Hapoli, Sinchung, Jamiri etc. for self sustenance for long run.

Production unit established at Itanagar

In addition to Orchid Research Centre, Tippi, tissue culture of orchids both species and hybrids have been initiated at SHRDI, Itanagar, Department of Horticulture during early part of 2017 under Collaborative Research Initiative (CRI) between SFRI and SHRDI. Various stages under in vitro culture are Hybrids of Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Pleione maculata etc. Hence, activities of orchids are being extended and there is a scope for further expansion.

103 PHOTOPLATES

Protocorms & seedlings of Cymbidium protocorms Pleione maculata seedlings

Protocorm of Phalaenopsis Hybrid Tissue of Dendrobium Hybrid

Training & participating in construction & plantation of seedlings in Pvt. Nursery

References Apang, O. (2017). Tissue culture of high altitude medicinal, rare and endangered orchids-Cremastra appendiculata (D.Don) Makino, Pleione maculata (Lindl.) Lindl. and Dienia muscifera Lindl. of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Bulletin of Arunachal Forest Research. Vol. 30 & 31 (1&2), p. 58-60. Joseph, A. (1977). Clonal propagation of orchids by means of tissue culture-A manual. Orchid biology reviews and perspectives, 1, 203-293. Hajong, S., Kumaria, S. & Tandon P. (2010). In vitro propagation of the medicinal orchid. Dendrobium chrysanthum, Proceeding Indian Nat. Science Acad., 76(1), 1-6. Hegde, S.N. (1979). Orchid conservation & commercialization strategies in Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal Forest News 2(8), 14-19.

104 BRYOPHYTES AND MOSS DIVERSITY IN NAMSAI DISTRICT OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Bhitalee Dutta, Nang Elachi Pangyok and Kongkona Borborah* Department of Botany, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, 781203, Arunachal Pradesh *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper includes a brief study and exploration of diversity of some economically significant lower plants, the Bryophytes and Moss found in different places of Namsai district of the state Arunachal Pradesh. Altogether 4 species of Liverworts and 1 species of Moss are found to occur in four different location of Namsai district. Although the number of plants were found less but it was observed that these lower plants plays a significant role in maintenance of ecological balance in the forest and land ecosystems of the region. It was observed that the climate and soil type of Arunachal Pradesh is suitable for the growth of moisture loving plants like Bryophytes, Moss, Algae, and Fungi etc. Observing the suitable habitat for their growth and abundance of these moisture loving lower plants in this region, a short survey was carried out during rainy season. Descriptive illustrations for each and every species are prepared here after detailed morphological and anatomical studies. Keywords: Bryophytes, Moss, Diversity, Moist, Namsai

Introduction The term bryophyta is derived from two Greek words; Bryon meaning moss and phyton meaning a plant. It was first introduced by Robert brown in 1864 which included the algae, fungi, lichens and mosses. However, now with the advanced classification and studies is restricted to simple, terrestrial non-vascular cryptogams. Bryophytes are the second largestgroup of land plants after the flowering plants. They grow in wide variety of habitats ranging from forests to wetlands and their surviving capacity is enormous as they survive under wide variety of environmental condition. Most often they are termed as amphibians among plant kingdom. There are a few aquatic forms such as Riccia fluitans, Riccia carpusnatans and Riella sp. Crypothallus and Buxbaumia are saprophytic genera of liverworts and mosses. Bryophytes include 3 distinct phylogenic groups viz. liverworts, hornworts and mosses. Liverworts comprise of thalloid body and mostly grow in moist, shady habitats. Mosses often form cluster with easily visible tufts or green carpets in shady, moist places or lining the cracks in rocks and walls. The hornworts are least familiar, rare and inconspicuous because they lack lignified stiffening, remains small. Although less familiar, the hornworts also are quite common and can be found in many places. Mosses and liverworts, however seldom grow alone. Around 30,000 species of bryophytes are distributed worldwide, out of which around 4,500 species are reported from India and about 82 species of mosses from Arunachal Pradesh.The soil is generally loamy and brownish in color. Thus, the area is much favorable for growth of

105 bryophytes and mosses. The district Namsai is an administrative district in the state of Arunachal Pradesh in north-east India. The Namsai district is situated at north eastern most part of the country and lies in between 95°45ʹ to 96°20ʹ East longitudes and 27°30ʹ to 27°55ʹ North latitude with a geographical area of about 1587 sq km. The area experiences tropical climatic zone. The temperature of this region varies from 10°C to 25°C during the winter and at times from 28°C to 40°C during hot summer.The Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, with varied topography, temperature and rainfall regimes, provides ideal conditions for the luxuriant growth of liverworts in different habitat. Bryophytic reports have been unfolded until 1982 when Singh for the first time reported Blasia pusilla L., along with a few hornworts. Bryo-floristic information of the area was totally unknown till Vohra & Kar (1996) published an account of 82 species of mosses in Arunachal Pradesh. During the study the plant samples were collected from Tengapani Reserve Forest, Mahadevpur, Namsai and Arunachal University campus.

Materials and Methods Study area and location The study area, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh is situated in between 95.45 to 96.20 East longitude and 27.30 to 27.55 North latitude covering an area of 1587 sq. km. The field work involving collection and documentation of bryophytes of Namsai district of Arunachal Pradesh was carried during the season July to December, 2019. The field exploration has been undertaken at Namsai district and included three neighboring areas. The plant samples were collected from the periphery of Tengapani reserve forest, Mahadevpur, Namsai and Arunachal university campus. Being a region under one of the two biodiversity hotspot in India, Arunachal Pradesh is very rich in biodiversity.

Methods Thorough field exploration was done duringthe month from extensive rain and hot temperate zones, collection of mosses and liverworts covering diverse habitats and localities were made randomly and are brought to the laboratory in blotting paper envelope. The collected specimen are cleaned, preserve and stored in 70% alcohol or formaldehyde and were labeled properly.They were worked out in the laboratory and identified consulting with the standard literature and repositories based on some standard herbarium.

Results and Discussion In the present investigation, a total of 5 species have been recorded. Among liverworts, Marchantia linearis (Fig 1), Marchantia polymorpha (Fig 2 A-D) have been frequently found in this area. The taxa are further described below.

106 Enumeration of Taxa

A. MARCHANTIOPHYTA (Liverworts)

Family: Marchantiaceae

1. Marchantia linearis Lehm. & Lindenb.

Plant thalloid, thallus small, thin, dorsiventral, dark-green in color; 8-15 mm long, 3-5 mm wide, dichotomously branched. Midrib prominent with black appearance; margin entire, apex concave-rounded. Epidermal cells 2-5 angled, thin walled, angles not thickened. Dorsal surface with air chambers, single layered, with barrel shaped air pores, ventral surface with scales and rhizoids. Scales in 2 rows on each side. Rhizoids hyaline both smooth walled and tuberculate. Gemma-cups present on dorsal surface, soft, globose, abundant above the midrib and near the apex. Reproductive structures are antheridiophore and archegoniophore borne on separate thallus.

Habitat: Terrestrial, growing in shady or exposed places on the retaining wall along the road side.

Distribution: India, in North-eastern part including Darjeeling, Bengal, Assam, Eastern Himalayas of Sikkim, Khasi Hills and Western Ghats (Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu).The genus is also reported from Srilanka, Nepal and Malacca.

Type: Distinct mid-dorsal line present on the thalluans, oblong-ovate, apiculate appendages of ventral scales with 2-3 cells uniseriate towards apex, margins strongly toothed

2. Marchantia polymorpha L.

Plant body thalloid, thallus15-20 mm, prostarte, dorsiventral, light green in color, dichotomous branching at the apex. Midrib prominent, light brown in color in dorsal surface while in ventral surface it is dark brown and much prominent bearing rhizoides and scales. The thallus also bears at its apex the asexual reproductive organs gemma cups. The V.S. of the thallus clearly shows a complex three-layered structure: the upper assimilatory region, forming ‘air chambers’, the middle storage region with parenchymal cells, and the ventral epidermis with ‘scales’and ‘rhizoids’. The sexual reproductive organs at that time were not observed in the plant body.

Habitat: On land cuttings and on rocky patch with continuous rainfall or abundance of water.

Distribution: Cosmopolitan species found worldwide from tropical to arctic climate.

3. Dumortiera hirsuta (Sw.)

Plant body thalloid, thallus dark-green, in a number of overlapping patches, 5-12 cm x 1-1.5 cm, branching dichotomous, margin undulate, midrib prominent and broad hyaline.The T.S. of the thallus shows

107 epidermal cells 4-6 angled, thin. Ventral surface light-green, scales simple, hyaline, midrib more prominent ventrally.

Habitat: Mostly seen in damp pockets of forests of high altitudes, on rock near water courses, on submerged rocks, on exposed roots of higher plants, etc.

Distribution: Widely distributed in the high altitude areas. It has wide distribution in South India (Madras, Kotagiri, Kerala), North India (Shimla,Mussoorie, Kumaon, Pachmahri). Also reported from Nepal, Japan, Brazil, Mexico, Jamaica, North &South America, Europe, New Zealand, Hawaii and Africa.

Family: Ricciaceae

4. Riccia L.

Plant body simple thallus, thallus shows dichotomy at the tips i.e. forked, forms a resette or patches, prostrate and dorsiventral, terrestrial, midrib absent. Dorsal surface green or sometimes yellow-green with deep median groove, ventral surface with root like structures thrhizoides. Thallus 10-20 mm in diameter.

Habitat: On damp soil near water bodies.

Distribution: It is a widely distributed species usually growing in low altitude areas, in places of human habitation or in shady places of disturbed areas.

Family: Polytrichaceae

5. Polytrichum Hedw.

Plant body differentiated into root like structure, stem and leaves, Plants 0.5-1.5 cm long, leaves small, lanceolate, light-green in color, 6-8 mm in size. Stem erect, forming tufts, rhizome prostrate. Roots absent instead rhizoides are present, pale-brown, capsule borne on tufts of branches, stalk 10-15 mm, capsule 2-5 mm in length. Male and female reproductive organs are borne on separate plants.

Habitat: Sunny areas, with little to no shade and can withstand exposure to the sunlight provided that the soil remains moist.

Distribution: Canada, the northern half of the united states, Greenland, Iceland, Northern Europe and Asia as well as Antarctica and southern half of South America.

108

Fig 1. Marchantia linearis Lehm. & Lindenb; A. Habitat; B. Thallus with gemma cups; C. A single gemma cup showing gemmae; D. T.S. pf Gemma cup; E. T.S. of Thallus

Fig 2. A-D. M. polymorpha L.; A. Habitat; B. Venytral surface of thallus; C. T.S. of of thallus; D. V.S. of gemma cup; E-H. Polytrichum sp. E. Habitat; F. Portion of stem with leaves; G. V.S. of a single capsule; H. A single leaf

109 Conclusion Bryophytes can be found in any habitat globally where photosynthesis is possible. Today they have increasing importance as a source of valuable substances for biochemical application. They are often considered to be one of the most significant and excellent sources of antibiotics and biologically active compound in nature. However, presently only about 5% of the total bryophytes have been studied chemically. Hence, there is insightful call for the proper assessment of bryophytes regarding their useful chemical constituent and incredibly interesting health beneficiary activities.

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to the Arunachal University of Studies for providing all kind of support during the study period. Author is very thankful to the head of the department and other faculty for their valuable suggestions and support.

References

Asthana, A.K., Sahu, V. (2013). Bryophyte diversity in Mukteshwar (Uttarakhand): an overview. Archive for Bryology, 154, 1-11.

Chopra, R.S. (1960). Mosses of Nainital (Himalayas, India). Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory, 23, 80-84.

Chopra, R.S. (1975). Taxonomy of Indian Mosses (An introduction). New Delhi: Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR.

Dandotiya, D., Govindapyari, H., Suman, S. & Uniyal, P.L. (2011). Checklist of the bryophytes of India. Archive for Bryology, 88.

Frahm, J.P. (2013). Mosses and liverworts of the Western Ghats, India – a picture book. Archive for Bryology, special volume 14.

Nair, M.C., Rajesh, K.P. & Madhusoodanan, P.V. (2008). Checklist of the bryophytes of Kerala, India. Trop. Bryol. Res. Rep., 7, 1-24.

Singh, D. & Singh, D.K. (2012). An appraisal of the genus Marchantia in India with a note on Marchantia emarginata subspecies emarginata in Indian Himalayan Region. Proc. Natl. Sci., India, Sect. B Biol. Sci., 12.

110

Crop Sustainability

111 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT WRAPPING MATERIALS ON POST HARVEST QUALITIES OF CUT GLADIOLUS SPIKES (Gladiolus grandiflorus ANDREWS)

Jonah Dakho* and Rokolhuii Keditsu Department of Horticulture, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Nagaland University *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The ‘Queen of bulbous flowers’ gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus Andrews) also known as sword lily owing to its sword like foliage shape is an important cut flower in both domestic and international market. Present experiment was carried out in the postharvest laboratory, department of Horticulture, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Medziphema, Nagaland University during 2016-2017 and 2017-2018. The results of the study showed that among different treatment, T5 (Shrink wrap) gave the best result with respect to days to opening of 5th florets, changes in fresh weight of spikes on 9th day, length of spikes on 9th day, length of rachis on 9th day, diameter of 3rd floret expressed in cm, days to opening of 50 per cent florets, longevity of 5th florets and vase life. Whereas T4 (non-perforated plastic) gave the maximum number of florets opened at a time. Also T4 and T5 gave equal results in days to opening of 3rd florets, changes in fresh weight of spikes on 3rd day and longevity of 3rd floret. However the results of T4 and T5 are statistically at par for most of the parameters which were studied. The result for T1 which is control gave the minimum in all the parameters under studied. Therefore from this experiment, it can be concluded that shrink wrap and non- perforated plastic can be used for wrapping cut gladiolus spikes to enhance posh harvest qualities.

Keywords: gladiolus, wrapping, florets, spikes, postharvest qualities and vase life.

Introduction

The ‘Queen of bulbous flowers’ Gladiolus, also known as Sword lily owing to its sword like foliage shape is an important cut flower in both domestic and international market. Cut flowers, in general are highly perishable and gladiolus is no exception to it. The high perishability render them vulnerable to considerable post harvest losses and due to this, there is frequent market gluts and price crush in the country in general and the state in particular. The vase life of cut flowers is influenced by many factors like, climate, variety, harvesting time, post harvest handling etc. Appropriate packaging of gladiolus for optimum duration offers potential advantage of extending their vase life and maintaining flower quality.

112 Materials and Methods

Present experiment was carried out in the postharvest laboratory, department of Horticulture, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Medziphema, Nagaland University, which is located at an elevation of 305 m above MSL. Gladiolus primulinus cv. Candyman was grown in the month of April for the year 2016-2017 and 2017-2018 following recommended practices of cultivation and the spikes were harvested in the month of June when the basal floret starts unfurling. The harvested spikes were trimmed to uniform length of 70 cm and treated as per the treatment details and kept for 48 hours followed by postharvest quality studies. Design of the experiment was laid out in Complete Randomized Design with seven different wrapping materials as treatments and replicated thrice. Treatment details were T1; Control, T2; Newspaper, T3; Perforated plastic, T4; Non-perforated plastic, T5; Shrink wrap, T6; Butter paper and T7; Brown paper. Observations were recorded for the parameters like; days to opening of 3rd and 5th florets, changes in fresh weight of spikes on 3rd and 9thday, length of spikes on 3rd and 9th day, length of rachis on 3rd and 9th day, diameter of 3rd floret expressed in cm, days to opening of 50 per cent florets, longevity of 3rd and 5th florets, number of florets opened at a time and vase life.

Results and Discussion

From the experimental findings presented in the following tables, it is clearly evident that significant differences existed among treatments in cut gladiolus spikes response to effect of wrapping on post harvest qualities. The results of the study showed that among different treatment, T5 which is ‘shrink wrap’ gives the best result with respect to days to opening of 5th florets (3.00 days), changes in fresh weight of spikes on 3rd and 9th day (57.83g and 53.17g), length of spikes on 9th day (76.08cm), length of rachis on 9th day (33.08cm), diameter of 3rd floret (8.33cm) which are in close conformity with the findings of Shalini and Dhatt, (2017) and days to opening of 50 per cent florets (3.33 days), longevity of 5th florets (6.00 days) and vase

113 Table 1. Effect of wrapping on days to opening of florets and weight of florets in cut gladiolus

Days to opening of 3rd Days to opening of 5th Changes in the fresh Changes in the fresh florets florets weight of spike (g) on 3rd weight of spike (g) on day 9th day Treatment 2017 2016- 2017- 2016- Poole 2016- 2017- 2016- 2017- Pooled - Pooled Pooled 2017 2018 2017 d 2017 2018 2017 2018 2018

T1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 47.33 47.00 47.17 37.33 36.33 36.83

T2 1.33 1.33 1.33 2.33 2.00 2.17 53.33 53.67 53.50 49.67 49.00 49.33

T3 1.67 1.67 1.67 2.33 2.33 2.33 56.00 55.33 55.67 52.00 52.67 52.33

T4 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.67 2.67 2.67 57.00 55.67 56.33 53.00 51.00 52.00

T5 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 57.67 58.00 57.83 54.00 52.33 53.17

T6 1.67 1.67 1.67 2.67 2.33 2.50 52.00 52.33 52.17 47.67 48.67 48.17

T7 1.33 1.33 1.33 2.33 2.00 2.17 52.67 51.00 51.83 48.33 48.67 48.50

Sem± 0.25 0.25 0.18 0.28 0.22 0.18 0.88 0.45 0.50 0.80 0.60 0.50

CD at 5% 0.76 0.76 0.52 0.85 0.66 0.52 2.68 1.38 1.44 2.42 1.83 1.45

Table 2. Effect of wrapping on length of spikes and rachis length of cut gladiolus

Length of spike Length of spike Length of rachis Length of rachis (cm) on 3rd day (cm) on 9th day (cm) on 3rd day (cm) on 9th day

Treatm 201 201 201 201 201 201 2016 2016 ent 6- 7- Pool 7- Pool 7- Pool 6- 7- Pool - - 201 201 ed 201 ed 201 ed 201 201 ed 2017 2017 7 8 8 8 7 8 74.8 74.8 74.0 34.1 34.3 29.8 29.1 29.5 T 1 3 3 74.83 74.67 0 74.33 7 3 34.25 3 7 0 75.8 76.6 75.3 35.8 36.1 32.0 31.8 31.9 T 2 3 7 76.25 74.83 3 75.08 3 7 36.00 0 3 2

76.3 76.8 75.8 35.8 36.0 32.8 32.1 32.5 T 3 3 3 76.58 75.50 3 75.67 3 0 35.92 3 7 0 76.1 76.8 75.8 35.8 36.0 33.1 32.5 32.8 T 4 7 3 76.50 75.67 3 75.75 3 0 35.92 7 0 3 75.5 76.5 76.1 34.8 36.1 33.3 32.8 33.0 T 5 0 0 76.00 76.00 7 76.08 3 7 35.50 3 3 8

114 75.8 75.8 75.5 35.5 34.8 32.8 32.5 32.6 T 6 3 3 75.83 75.67 0 75.58 0 3 35.17 3 0 7

75.8 76.5 75.1 35.0 35.1 32.6 32.1 32.4 T 7 3 0 76.17 74.83 7 75.00 0 7 35.08 7 7 2

Sem± 0.36 0.21 0.21 0.24 0.14 0.14 0.21 0.21 0.15 0.27 0.30 0.20

CD at 5% 1.10 0.63 0.61 0.71 0.43 0.40 0.63 0.63 0.43 0.81 0.92 0.58

Table 3. Effect of wrapping on days to 50 per cent flowering and diameter of florets

Days to opening of 50% Diameter of 3rd floret Diameter of 5th floret Longevity of 3rd florets florets (days)

Treatment

2016- 2017- 2016- 2017- 2016- 2017- 2016- 2017- Poole Pooled Pooled Pooled 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018 d

T1 1.67 1.67 1.67 7.90 7.87 7.88 7.43 7.37 7.40 2.00 2.00 2.00

T2 2.67 2.33 2.50 8.07 8.13 8.10 7.87 7.87 7.87 4.00 4.00 4.00

T3 3.00 3.00 3.00 8.17 8.07 8.12 7.83 7.93 7.88 4.67 4.67 4.67

T4 3.00 3.00 3.00 8.30 8.07 8.18 8.03 7.93 7.98 5.67 5.67 5.67

T5 3.33 3.33 3.33 8.37 8.30 8.33 8.17 8.10 8.13 5.67 5.67 5.67

T6 2.67 2.67 2.67 8.20 8.07 8.13 7.93 7.90 7.92 4.33 4.67 4.50

T7 2.33 2.33 2.33 8.13 8.03 8.08 7.90 7.83 7.87 4.00 4.33 4.17

Sem± 0.28 0.28 0.20 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.25 0.28 0.19

CD at 5% 0.85 0.85 0.58 0.14 0.13 0.09 0.09 0.14 0.08 0.76 0.85 0.55

115 Table 1. Effect of wrapping on vase life of cut gladiolus

Longevity of 5th florets Number of florets Vase life (days) (days) opened at a time Treatment 2016- 2017- 2016- 2017- 2016- 2017- Pooled Pooled Pooled 2017 2018 2017 2018 2017 2018

T1 3.67 3.67 3.67 3.33 3.33 3.33 8.33 7.67 8.00

T2 5.00 5.33 5.17 4.33 4.00 4.17 9.67 9.33 9.50

T3 5.33 5.67 5.50 4.67 4.33 4.50 10.67 10.33 10.50

T4 5.67 5.67 5.67 5.67 5.67 5.67 11.67 11.67 11.67

T5 6.00 6.00 6.00 5.33 5.33 5.33 12.00 11.67 11.83

T6 5.33 5.33 5.33 4.33 4.33 4.33 10.67 10.33 10.50

T7 5.00 5.33 5.17 4.33 4.00 4.17 10.00 9.67 9.83

Sem± 0.25 0.31 0.20 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.28 0.33 0.22

CD at 5% 0.76 0.94 0.58 1.01 0.85 0.63 0.85 1.01 0.63 life (11.83 days). Similar findings were also reported by Alka et al. (2007), Sharma et al. (2010) and Munsi et al. (2011).

Whereas T4 which is non-perforated plastic gives the maximum number of florets opened at a time (5.67). Also T4 and T5 gave equal results in days to opening of 3rd florets (2.00 days) and longevity of 3rd floret (5.67 days). These findings are in conformity with Varu & Barad (2008); Mahawar et al. (2015). However the results of T4 and T5 are statistically at par for most of the parameters under studied. The result for T1 which is control gives the minimum in all the parameters under studied. Similar observations were also reported by Sharma & Srivastava (2014), Mahawar et al. (2015); Varu & Barad (2008).

All these attributes are indicative of a good quality cut flower in vase life studies. During post harvest studies of cut flowers, moisture has to play the biggest factor. The better quality of treated spikes when compared to controlled (unwrapped) could be due to modified internal atmosphere created by wrapping materials with high relative humidity and CO2 and low O2 within the packages as a consequences of respiration and low permeability of wrapping materials to gases. This would minimize the transpiration loss of moisture during storage and also respirational loss of stored carbohydrates which will help in retaining its quality with longer vase life (Jhanji & Dhatt, 2017; Zencirkiranm & Menguc, 2003) this is in accordance with our findings where spikes wrapped have expressed and retained desirable quality attributes.

116 Conclusion

Therefore from this experiment it was concluded that the shrink wrap and non-perforated plastic can be used for wrapping cut gladiolus spikes to enhance posh harvest qualities. From the practical applicability, shrink wrap been more tedious during unpacking and liable to flower damage if not handled with utmost care and also was unable to re-use again, this aspect make it a poor choice as compared to non-perforated plastic which can be easily unwrapped and re-used again over time which is also equally efficient in keeping the spikes in good quality. It would be a logical conclusion to recommend non-perforated plastic for commercial purposes.

Acknowledgement

The Author is grateful to Ministry of Tribal Affairs, New Delhi for financial support through National Fellowship for Higher Education during the course of investigation.

References

Sharma, G. & Srivastava, R. (2014). Postharvest Life of Cut Chrysanthemum Cultivars in Relation to Chemicals, Wrapping Material and Storage Conditions. Tropical Agricultural Research. 26(1), 195 – 201. Mahawar, T.C., Mahawer, L.N. & Bairwa, H.L. (2015). Response of storage duration, harvest stages and polymeric packaging films on post harvest life of gladiolus cut spikes cv. White Prosperity. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 72(1), 100-106. Munsi, P., Chakrabarty, S. & Roychowdhury, N. (2011). Effect of storage conditions and packaging supplemented with different solutions (wet packing) on vase life of gladiolus. Acta Hort. (ISHS), 886, 351- 357. Jhanji, S. & Dhatt, K. (2017). Effect of modified atmosphere packaging and storage duration on keeping quality of gladiolus spikes. Indian J. Hort., 74 (4), 596-600. Sharma, B.P. Beshir, H.M. Chaudhary, S.V.S. & Dilta, B.S. (2010). Effect of various wrapping materials and storage durations on post harvest life of Asiatic hybrid lily cv. Apeldoor. Annals of Horticulture, 3(1), 69-74. Singh, A., Kumar, P., Kumar, J. (2007). Effect of packaging films for modified atmosphere storage at low temperature on petal senescence in gladiolus cut spikes. Indian Journal of Crop Science, 2(1), 215-219. Varu, D. K. & Barad, A.V. (2008). Effect of different packing methods on vase life and quality of cut flowers in tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.) cv. Double. Asian J. of Bio Sci., 3(1), 159-162. Zencirkiranm, M. & Menguc, A. (2003). Cold storage of Alstroemeria pelegrina Ostara. New Zealand J. Crop Hort. Sci., 31, 255-59.

117 DIVERSITY STUDIES OF DIFFERENT INDIAN BEAN, Lablab purpureus (L.) SWEET GENOTYPES OF NORTH EAST INDIA

Shulee Ariina M.M*, Yabi Gadi and Johnson Naorem Department of Horticulture, SASRD, Medziphema Campus, Nagaland University, Medziphema-797106 *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The present investigation was conducted for 20 diverse genotypes of Indian bean collected from different regions of North east India. Data were analyzed statistically for phenotypic and genotypic variance, coefficient of variation, heritability, genetic advance, genetic gain, correlation coefficient, path coefficient, genetic divergence and seed protein banding pattern. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences among the genotypes for all the characters studied. High PCV and GCV, heritability and genetic gain were observed for plant height and pod yield per hectare. Correlation studies indicated that pod yield per plant was positively and significantly correlated which indicated the importance of these traits in selection for yield. Path analysis revealed that maximum positive direct effect on pod yield per plant was induced by pod weight and pod width at genotypic level. It is an indication that these characters are really independent and have maximum contribution towards increase in pod yield per plant. Divergence study revealed that pod yield per plant contributed maximum per cent to the diversity followed by number of branches per plant and plant height. Maximum inter cluster distance was observed between cluster II and V which indicated that the genotypes within these clusters were highly divergent. SDS-PAGE analysis showed considerable variation in band number of protein which ranged from 20-35. Protein banding profile showed that the 2 genotypes are distantly related. Hence, it was recommended that these two genotypes could be utilized for crossing programme to create more genetic diversity. SDS-PAGE marker data provided more sub groupings and revealed higher amount of diversity as compared to morphological data in present study.

Keywords: Indian bean, Correlation, Divergence, Genotypes, Heritability, SDS-PAGE.

Introduction Indian bean is one of the most ancient among the cultivated plants. It is widely distributed in many tropical and subtropical countries where it has become naturalised (Purseglove, 1968). In India it is grown in North East India, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and West Bengal. Indian bean has chromosome number 2n=2x=22, 24. The botanical name of Indian bean is Lablab purpureus L. (Sweet). It is member of the family Fabaceae, although the plant is a perennial herbaceous plant but often it is grown as an annual crop (Thapa & Tripathy, 2014) with bushy, erect or climbing races. Fresh pods are highly nutritive and contain carbohydrates (6.7 g), protein (3.8 g), fat (0.7 g), minerals (0.9 g), magnesium (34.0 mg), calcium (210 mg), phosphorus (68.0 mg), sodium (55.4 mg), iron (1.7 mg), potassium (74.0 mg), sulphur (40.0 mg), vitamin A (312 I.U.),

118 riboflavin (0.06 mg) and vitamin C (9.0 mg), nicotinic acid (0.7 mg) and fiber (1.8 g) per 100 g of edible portion (Bose et al., 2000).

Although this crop has originated in India and large number of indigenous strains are available, very little work has been done for genetic improvement of yield and quality Hence, comprehensive germplasm collection and evaluation, identification of suitable genotypes and investigation of its value are essential followed by selection among diverse types and analysis of segregating generations.

Materials and Methods The present investigation was carried out at Vegetable Research Farm, Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture and Forestry, Central Agricultural University, Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications. A spacing of 1.5m (plant to plant) and trellies for support were given.

Results Mahalanobis generalized distance (D2) The genetic diversity among 22 genotypes was measured by employing D2 statistics. Out of 17 characters studied, yield per plant contributed maximum percent to the diversity (58.87%) followed by number of branches per plant (20.78%), plant height (15.15%), number of clusters per plant (2.16%), green pod crude protein (1.73%), days to 50% flowering, number of flowers per cluster and number of pods per cluster (0.43%). (Table 1 and Figure 1). Tocher method (Rao, 1952) was used to group the genotypes into different clusters based on D2 values (Figure 4.4). The correlated un-standardized mean value (X) was transferred to the uncorrelated standardized value Y by pivotal condensation method. The D2 value which being the sum of square for each Y values was calculated for all combinations. Based on D2 value, 22 genotypes were grouped in to 5 clusters. Out of the 5 clusters, cluster I was largest group comprising of 13 genotypes, followed by cluster II with 5 genotypes, cluster V with 2 genotypes, cluster III and IV were solitary containing single genotype each (Table 2). D2 value ranged from 6,915.81 to 74,427.9 among genotypes (Table 3).

Inter cluster distance

Inter cluster D2 values are given in the (Table 4 and Figure 3). The inter cluster D2 value was maximum (74,427.9) between cluster II and V. The minimum (6,915.81) distance was observed between cluster I and III which indicated close relationship among the genotypes included in these two clusters.

119 Intra cluster distance

Intra cluster distance was observed only in cluster I, II and V as the remaining two clusters contained only one constituent genotype. Intra cluster distance was highest in the cluster V (8628.45), followed by cluster II (6789.03) and cluster I (2482.56). Intra cluster D2 values.

Table 1. Percentage contribution of seventeen characters towards diversity in Indian bean genotypes

Character Contribution (%) Plant Height (cm) 15.15% Number of branches / plant 20.78% Days to 50% flowering 0.43% Days to maturity 0.00% Number of flowers per cluster 0.43% Number of cluster per plant 2.16% Pod set % 0.00% Pod length (cm) 0.00% Pod width (cm) 0.00% Pod weight (gm) 0.00% Number of pods per cluster 0.43% Number of pods per plant 0.00% Number of seeds per pod 0.00% Green pod crude protein 1.73% Green pod crude fiber 0.00% Yield per plant (Kg) 58.87% Yield per hectare (q) 0.00%

120

Fig 1. Contribution % towards genetic divergence

Cluster mean analysis Cluster means were computed in all 5 clusters for 17 characters studied and presented in Table 4.13. From the present data, it is evident that mean value of plant height was maximum in cluster V (375.50) and minimum in cluster II (210.60). Minimum number of branches per plant was recorded in cluster I (4.51) while maximum plant height was recorded in cluster V (8.37). The genotypes in cluster II exhibited minimum days to 50% flowering (80.53) while those in cluster V exhibited maximum days to 50% flowering (121.00). Days to maturity was recorded highest in cluster V (148.00) while minimum was recorded in cluster II (107.07). With regards to number of flowers per cluster, cluster II showed the minimum mean value (12.07), while cluster V showed the maximum (21.58). Number of clusters per plant was minimum in cluster II (7.53) and maximum in cluster IV (15.90). Cluster IV exhibited minimum to pod set (43.21) while cluster IV exhibited maximum to pod set (48.07). Pod length was lowest in cluster IV (9.53) while it was highest in cluster III (14.37). Pod width was observed highest in cluster III (3.97) while it was observed lowest in cluster II (2.08). The genotypes in cluster III exhibited maximum pod weight (12.30) while genotypes in cluster II exhibited minimum pod weight (5.75). The genotypes of cluster V had maximum number of pods per cluster (9.97) while genotypes of cluster II had minimum number of pods per cluster (5.18). Number of pods per plant was recorded maximum in cluster V (156.04) and minimum in cluster II (43.88). Number of seeds per pod was

121 found maximum in cluster III (5.33) and minimum in cluster I (4.71). The genotypes in cluster IV exhibited maximum green pod crude protein (19.15) while that in cluster IV exhibited minimum green pod crude protein (15.47). Green pod crude fiber was recorded maximum in cluster V (0.32) and minimum in cluster IV (0.15). Highest pod yield per plant was found in cluster V (1882.33) while it was lowest in cluster II (226.60). Pod yield per hectare was recorded highest in cluster V (5.38) and lowest in cluster II (0.65).

Table 2. Clustering pattern of 22 Indian bean genotypes by Tocher’s method

Cluster Number of genotypes Genotypes

Cluster I 13 CHF-13, CHF-14, CHF-16, CHF-5, CHF-7, CHF-12, CHF-19, CHF-1, CHF-16, CHF-17, CHF-4, CHF-18, CHF-15 Cluster II 5 CHF-11, CHF-21, CHF-3, CHF-2, CHF-20 Cluster III 1 CHF-22 Cluster IV 1 CHF-10 Cluster V 2 CHF-8, CHF-9

Fig 2. Tree diagram of 22 genotypes of Indian bean for seventeen studied characters using hierarchical cluster analysis (Tocher’s method) 122

Fig 3 Cluster diagram with inter and intra cluster distance (not to scale)

Table 3. Nearest and farthest cluster from each cluster based on D2 value in Indian bean

Nearest cluster Farthest cluster Cluster with D2 value with D2 value

Cluster I III (6,915.81) V (52,635.36)

Cluster II I (8,626.89) V (74,427.9)

Cluster III I (6,915.81) V (28,071.79)

Cluster IV III (7,202.97) V (27,337.43)

Cluster V IV (27,337.43) II (74,427.9)

123

Table 4. Average Inter and Intra Cluster distances (D2) for 22 genotypes

Cluster number Cluster I Cluster II Cluster III Cluster IV Cluster V

Cluster I 2482.56 8626.89 6915.81 8761.30 52635.36

Cluster II 6789.03 15123.90 24504.91 74427.90

Cluster III 0.00 7202.97 28071.79

Cluster IV 0.00 27337.43

Cluster V 8628.45

124 Table 5. Mean values of clusters for seventeen characters studied in Indian bean

Cluster 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Number

Cluster 311 4.5 107 135 16. 12. 44. 10. 2.4 7.1 7.1 87. 4.7 17. 0.2 607 1.7 I .28 1 .31 .21 23 22 13 26 6 5 0 44 1 85 9 .53 4

Cluster 210 4.9 80. 107 12. 7.5 43. 9.9 2.0 5.7 5.1 43. 4.7 15. 0.2 226 0.6 II .60 6 53 .07 07 3 21 3 8 5 8 88 2 79 1 .60 5

Cluster 344 6.3 119 146 16. 12. 45. 14. 3.9 12. 5.5 69. 5.3 15. 0.2 854 2.4 III .33 2 .67 .33 17 63 83 37 7 30 0 49 3 63 9 .42 4

118 Cluster 318 4.6 105 132 19. 15. 48. 9.5 2.6 8.1 9.1 145 4.8 15. 0.1 3.3 0.8 IV .33 4 .33 .67 77 90 07 3 3 3 3 .22 3 47 5 7 7

188 Cluster 375 8.3 121 148 21. 15. 46. 11. 3.1 12. 9.9 156 4.7 19. 0.3 5.3 2.3 V .50 7 .00 .00 58 62 19 00 5 02 7 .04 5 15 2 8 3

1-Plant height (cm); 2-Number of branches per plant; 3-Days to 50% flowering; 4-Days to maturity; 5- Number of flowers per cluster; 6-Number of clusters per plant; 7-Pod Set (%); 8-Pod length (cm); 9-Pod width (cm); 10-Pod weight (g); 11-Number of pods per cluster; 12-Number of pods per plant; 13-Number of seeds per pod; 14-Green pod crude protein (mg/100g); 15-Green pod crude fiber (%); 16-Pod yield per plant (kg); 17-Pod yield per ha (q)

Discussions Mahalanobis generalized distance Mahalanobis D2 statistics of multi-variates analysis is recognized as a powerful tool in quantifying the degree of genetic divergence among the populations. More diverse the parents within a reasonable range, better are the chances of improving economic characters under consideration in the offspring. Being a numerical estimate, it has added advantage over other criteria permitting precise comparison among all possible pairs of population in any group. When considering data on genotype divergence derived with use of Mahalanobis D2 statistics revealed that 22 genotypes included in the present study, varied significantly for all the characters under evaluation. The results of the present study pointed out a positive contribution of genetic

125 divergence and yield components; this can be of considerable help in selection of yield and other economic traits.

Based on D2 value, 22 genotypes were grouped in to 5 clusters which indicated a large genetic diversity. Out of the 5 clusters, maximum number of genotypes were accommodated in cluster I with 13 genotypes, followed by cluster II with 5 genotypes, cluster V with 2 genotypes, cluster III and IV were solitary containing single genotype each namely CHF-22 and CHF-10 respectively. Different genotypes with their respective clusters are presented in Table 4.10. This clearly showed that the genotypes did not cluster according to geographical distributions. These results were in concurrence with Singh et al. (2011), Chaudhari et al. (2013), Verma (2013) and Vivek (2014). The absence of relationship between genetic diversity and geographical distance indicated that forces other than geographical origin, such as exchange of genetic stocks, genetic drift, variation, natural and artificial selection were responsible for genetic diversity.

In present investigation, pod yield per plant contributed maximum to the divergence followed by number of branches per plant, plant height, number of cluster per plant and green pod crude protein. Similar contributions towards diversity have also been reported by Chaudhari et al. (2013) and Verma (2013). 22 genotypes were grouped into 5 clusters which showed inter cluster D2 values ranging between 6,915.81 and 74,427.9. The inter cluster distance between cluster I and III (6,915.81) indicated that genotypes (CHF-13, CHF-14, CHF-16, CHF-5, CHF-7, CHF-12, CHF-19, CHF-1, CHF-16, CHF-17, CHF-4, CHF-18 and CHF- 15) and (CHF-22) were genetically close to each other. Maximum inter cluster distance was observed between cluster II and V (74,427.9) and indicated that genotypes (CHF-11, CHF-21, CHF-3, CHF-2 and CHF-20) and (CHF-8 and CHF-9) are highly divergent. These two clusters revealed highly divergent parents with desirable traits and may be recommended for future breeding programmes. Inter-crossing the genotypes from these two clusters may generate wider variability and is expected to throw high yielding transgressive segregants in a population improvement programme.

Cluster mean analysis The mean values obtained for varying number of genotypes in each cluster, although, cannot be compared statistically, but to get a relative idea of diversity among the clusters they are compared. Based on the range of means for each character, it became possible to know the characters influencing the divergence. It also helps to categorize the cluster under high pod yield per plant bearing groups or according to their average performance for a particular character viz., clusters I, II, III, IV and V. Cluster V (CHF-8 and CHF- 9) recorded highest pod yield per plant. While cluster II (CHF-11, CHF-21, CHF-3, CHF-2 and CHF-20) formed the lowest performing group for pod yield per plant.

Genetic divergence among 22 genotypes revealed that cluster V with genotypes CHF-8 and CHF-9 were more divergent for improving plant height, number of branches per plant, days to 50% flowering, days

126 to maturity, number of flowers per cluster, number of pods per cluster, number of pods per plant, green pod crude protein, green pod crude fiber, pod yield per plant and pod yield per hectare. Cluster III with single genotype (CHF-22) is found to be promising for improving pod length, pod width, pod weight and number of seeds per pod. Cluster IV with single genotype (CHF-10) is found to be promising for improving number of cluster per plant and pod set. Hence, genotypes in these clusters can be utilized in Indian bean improvement programme as donor parents for improving all these characters.

Hence, apart from selecting genotypes from these clusters which have high inter-cluster distance for hybridization, one can also think of selecting parents based on extent of genetic divergence in respect to a particular character of interest. This is to mean that, if breeder’s intention is to improve fruit yield, they can select parents which are highly divergent with respect to these characters.

References Bose, T.K., Kabir, J., Das, P. & Joy, P.P. (2000). Tropical horticulture, Volume 2, Naya Prokash, Calcutta, India, pp.167. Chaudhari, P.P., Patel, A.I., Kadam, Y.R. & Patel, J.M. (2013). Variability, correlation and path analysis study in vegetable Indian bean [Lablab purpureus (L.) sweet]. Crop Res., 45(1,2,3), 229-236. Purseglove, J.W. (1968). Tropical Crops. Dicotyledons. Longmans, London, UK, 1: 332. Singh, P.K., Rai, N., Lal, H., Bhardwaj, D.R., Singh, R. & Singh, A.P. (2011). Correlation, path and cluster analysis in Hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus L. Sweet). J. Agric. Tech., 7(4), 1117-1124. Thapa, U. & Tripathy, P. (2014). Pod/leguminous vegetables. In: Production technology of tropical and sub tropical vegetable crops. Agrotech Publishing Academy, Udaipur, pp. 223-224. Verma, A. (2013). Genetic variability, heritability, correlation and path coeffecient analysis in Dolichos bean [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet] genotypes. M.Sc. (Hort.) Thesis, submitted to Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Andhra Pradesh. Vivek, D.D. (2014). Genetic diversity analysis in Indian bean [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet]. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, submitted to Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat.

127 APPLICATION OF INM (INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT) AND ITS EFFECT ON KHASI MANDARIN (Citrus reticulata BLANCO)

Arunima Gogoi*, A. C. Barbora and R. K. Kakoti Citrus Research Station, Assam Agricultural University, Tinsukia, Assam, India *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The experiment was carried out in twelve years old Khasi mandarin plot in Tinsukia district of Assam, India during 2005-2015 to find out the effect of integrated nutrient management (INM) on yield, quality and nutrient content of Khasi mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) in acidic soil of Assam. The experiment was laid out with 5m5m spacing along with 5 treatments, 4 replications and designed with RBD. Existing technology for application of nutrients in Khasi mandarin is split application of the recommended doses of N, P2O5 and

K2O i.e., 600:300:600 g N, P2O5 and K2O pl/yr along with 7.5 kg mustard oil cake /pl/yr in two splits. The results revealed that application of 75% RDF + VAM (500 g/plant) + PSB (100 g/plant) + Azospirillum, (100 g/plant) + T. harzianum (100 g/plant) were found effective in improving the yield, soil nutrient status and quality of Khasi mandarin with B:C ratio (4.75). The fruits obtained under this treatment were found significantly superior in quality as evident from highest juice content i.e., 48.95 %; TSS i.e., 13.77 %; Ascorbic acid i.e., 48.93 %; total sugar, i.e., 7.47 % and lowest acidity, i.e., 0.37 %. The time taken for maturity was lowest (244 days) while shelf life was the highest (18 days) though not significant. Significantly higher soil fertility status and superior N, P, K content on leaf were observed under this treatment.

Keywords: INM, Khasi mandarin, Recommended doses, Fertilizer, Azospirillum

Introduction Khasi Mandarin is the most important citrus fruit cultivated in India. The Khasi mandarin(Citrus reticulata Blanco), commonly known as Orange, produced in this region is famous in India for its superior quality in respect of its flavour, juice content, soluble sugar and acidity ratio. The soil and climatic conditions of this region are most suitable for its production and it has the potentiality to generate livelihood in the rural areas substantially. Citrus is one of the largest fruit industries in the world having nutraceutical properties. In India, citrus holds a prominent place among the major commercial fruits covering an area of about 985 thousands ha with an annual production of 11,419 thousands metric tonnes and productivity of 11.59 t/ha (National Horticulture Board, 2016-17). Among the Citrus fruits, Khasi mandarin covering an area 17.55 thousand ha, and production 236.01 thousands metric tons in Assam and an area of 117.89 thousand ha with 672.78 thousands metric tons Production in N E India (Horticultural Statistics at a glance, 2017) whereas Khasi mandarin occupies 1.77

128 thousand ha area, 27.97 thousands metric tons production in Tinsukia with highest productivity of 15.8 tons/ha (Horticultural Statistics at a glance, 2017) Application of N, P and K through inorganic fertilizers can enhance the growth and yield to a considerable extent. Bio-fertilizers provide a variety of plant nutrients and improve soil structure by providing binding effect to soil aggregates. It increases cation exchange capacity of the soil, water holding capacity and phosphate availability. The fertilizer use efficiency and microbial quality of the soil is also improved through Bio-fertilizers. It is rich in organic matter and can be supplemented with NPK fertilizers. Bio-fertilizers play an important role in increasing availability of nutrients and productivity in sustainable manner. Azospirillum is free living bacteria which may add 25-30 kg N ha-1 year-1 in a field of non-legume crop under favourable condition and also secretes some growth promoting substances. Application of PSB increases nodulation, crop growth, nitrogenase activity, nutrient uptake and crop yield. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers and other agrochemicals has resulted in the depletion of beneficial micro-organism from the soil and has caused infertile and unproductive soil. In this respect bio-fertilizers play multifaceted role by not only enriching the soil micro- organism but also as nutrients, stabilizers, hormones and insulators (Bihari et al., 2009). The advantages of integrated nutrient management are generally superior over use of each component separately. Integration of chemical fertilizers with organic manures and bio-fertilizers had maintained long term fertility and sustains higher productivity (Pillai et al., 1985). The nutritional requirement of Khasi mandarin varied widely owing to its perennial in nature (Bhargava, 2002). Mandarins, being a commercially important fruit crop, proper and correct dose of organic, inclusive of bio-fertilizers in an integrated way with inorganic fertilizers need to be evaluated to ensure high economic productivity and sustaining the nutrition of the plant at a desirable level. Moreover, the quantification of most of the bio-fertilizers to substitute an unit quantity of chemical fertilizer are yet to be established in most of the fruit crops. Keeping all these aspects in view, the present study aims to find an economically viable INM practice in Khasi mandarin based on nutrient content of plant as well as in the soil and also find out the effect of INM on yield, quality and nutrient content of citrus. Material and Methods

The present investigation was carried out on twelve years old Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco) of uniform growth and vigour in Barekuri areas of Tinsukia district of Assam in India during 2005 to 2015 with five different treatments viz., T1 : Recommended dose of NPK-RDF (Control), T2 = RDF + VAM (500 g/plant) + PSB (100 g/plant) + Azospirillum (50 g/plant), T3 = 100% RDF + VAM (500 g/plant) + PSB (100 g/plant) + Azospirillum (100 g/plant) + T. harzianum (100 g/plant), T4 = 75% RDF + VAM (500 g/plant) + PSB (100 g/plant) + Azospirillum (100 g/plant) + T. harzianum (100 g/plant) and T5 = 50% RDF + VAM (500 g/plant) + PSB - (100 g/plant) + Azospirillum (100 g/plant) + T. harzianum (100 g/plant). The treatments were applied in randomized block design with four replications having four plants each.

The sources of N, P2O5 and K2O were urea, rock phosphate and muriate of potash, respectively. All the 129 inorganic components with rock phosphate and MOC except bio-fertilizers were applied in two equal split doses during March and September. Bio-fertilizers were applied as single dose with required quantities of mustard oil cake (MOC) during the month of March. Soil physico-chemical properties over the years were determined as per the method outlined by Jackson, 1979. Number of fruits and other quality parameters were estimated by adopting the standard techniques. Leaf samples were collected following the technique of Kohli et al. (1998) for determination of total N, P and K contents. Benefit: Cost ratio was determined after pooling the data over the years of experiment. The data generated in three consecutive years viz. 2005 to 2015 were pooled and used to prepare analysis of variance table and accordingly C.D. was computed as described by Panse and Sukhatme (1954).

Results and Discussion Soil characteristics

Initial soil characteristics (Table 1) showed that soils were acidic in nature (pH 4.7) and high organic carbon contents. Initial available N, P2O5 and K2O content in soils were found to be low. After application of treatments higher organic carbon contents and maximum available N, P2O5 and K2O content in soils were observed in T4 treatment involving application of 75% RDF + VAM (500 g/plant) + PSB (100 g/plant) + Azospirillum, (100 g/plant) + T. harzianum (100 g/plant) followed by T3 treatment with having100% RDF + VAM (500 g/plant) + PSB (100 g/plant) + Azospirillum (100 g/plant) + T. harzianum (100 g/plant). Statistical analysis revealed that significant differences was found in soil parameters i.e., organic carbon content, available N, P2O5 and K2O content in soil with having critical difference CD at 5% i.e., 0.11; 18.9; 5.4; 7.8 respectively.

Leaf Nutrient content After application of treatments, leaf nutrient content were observed at flowering (F) and harvesting (H) of Khasi mandarin. Leaf nutrient content of N, P and K were found maximum in T4 treatment both flowering (F) and harvesting (H) of Khasi mandarin (Table 2). Significant differences (CD at 5%) were observed in Leaf nutrient content of N, P and K.

Growth Maximum plant height (6.46 m) and canopy volume (45.62 m3) was observed under the treatment (T4) involving with 75% recommended dose of NPK (of 450g N, 225g P2O5, 450g K2O and 5.625 kg Neem Oil Cake) + VAM (500 g/plant) + PSB (100 g/plant) + Azospirillum, (100 g/plant) + T. harzianum (100 g/plant) ( Table 3). This could be explained by the activities of the bio-fertilizers viz. nitrogen fixation, release and solubilize the Pi from insoluble phosphate, mobilize the phosphate, production of phytohormones etc. with simultaneous uptake of nutrients. Increase cell elongation and cell multiplication due to enhanced nutrient uptake following application of Azospirillum and PSB might have caused plant height (Preethi et al., 1999).

130 Growth after this application of 75% recommended dose of NPK along with Azospirillum might increase the nitrogen content. Nitrogen is a constituent of protein which helps in division and enlargement of cell, thereby, enhancing plant growth. The above results are in accordance with the finding of Chandha et al. (1999) and Acharya & Dashora (2004). Yield The higher yield (39.60 t/ha) was found in T4 treatment followed by T3 treatment (Table 3). Statistical analysis revealed that significant differences (CD at 5% i.e., 2.79) were observed in yield of Khasi mandarin. Improved yield might be due to application of bio-fertilizers as a result of availability of major and minor nutrients at all the essential stages of growth and development as well as improvement of physio-chemical properties of soil; increase in enzymatic activity, microbial population and also increase in plant growth hormones and it also helps to increase the biological nitrogen fixation, and availability of phosphorus which is required for strong vegetative growth & upon decomposition-release nitrogen and phosphorus contents and allele-chemicals leading to disease suppression Table 1. Effect of bio-fertilizers on soil fertility status

Soil Properties

Treatments pH OC % Av. N Av.P2O5 Av.K2O

-1 kg ha

T1 4.7 1.09 298 26.9 132.5

T2 4.9 1.13 318 28.6 158.4

T3 5.1 1.28 327 32.8 155.1

T4 5.4 1.41 360 33.9 175.3

T5 5.0 1.28 302 24.3 134.2 Initial 4.7 0.95 234 19.05 131.9 CD at 5% NS 0.11 18.9 5.4 7.8

Table 2. Effect of bio-fertilizers on leaf N, P and K at flowering (F) and harvest (H) of mandarin

Treatments Leaf nutrient concentration (%) N P K F H F F H

T1 2.48 2.24 0.19 0.16 1.21 1.17

T2 2.40 2.26 0.29 0.22 1.26 1.20

T3 2.67 2.51 0.28 0.27 1.38 1.32

131 T4 2.94 2.64 0.31 0.30 1.56 1.49

T5 2.50 1.99 0.23 0.17 1.12 1.07 CD at 5% 0.40 0.25 0.08 0.17 1.18 1.14

Table 3. Effect of bio-fertilizers on quality attributes of mandarin

Treatments Plant Cano Fruit Juice Acidity TSS Ascorbic TSS/ Shelf height py yield acid Acid life (%) (%) (0Brix) (m) volu (mg/100 ratio (t/ha) (days) me ml) (m3)

T1 6.27 38.02 32.34 43.02 0.46 10.60 43.43 23.04 14

T2 6.28 38.27 29.58 43.33 0.45 11.43 45.83 25.4 15

T3 6.31 44.78 32.63 46.58 0.42 11.60 46.23 27.61 17

T4 6.46 45.62 39.60 48.95 0.37 13.77 48.93 37.21 18

T5 6.11 40.15 30.55 41.01 0.45 10.25 45.88 22.77 16 CD at 5% 0.23 5.81 NS 2.79 6.34 NS 1.98 2.89 9.08

Table 4. B: C ratio

Treatment B:C ratio

T1 3.08

T2 3.24

T3 4.05

T4 4.75

T5 2.89

Quality attributes of mandarin

The fruit obtained under the treatment T4, having 75% recommended dose of NPK (of 450g N, 225g

P2O5, 450g K2O and 5.625kg Neem Oil Cake) + VAM (500 g/plant) + PSB (100 g/plant) + Azospirillum,(100 g/plant) + T. harzianum (100 g/plant) was also found significantly superior in quality as evident from highest juice content, 48.95%; TSS, 13.77%; Ascorbic acid, 48.93%; total sugar, 7.47% and lowest acidity, 0.37% ( Table 3). The time taken for maturity was the lowest (244 days) while shelf life was the highest (18 days) 132 though not significant. Such an increase in total sugars, TSS and juice percentage might be due to synergistic effect of nitrogen from Azospirillum and potassium from PSB. The synergistic effect by using of these nutrients as well as other in the sugar metabolism of strawberry fruits were also reported by El-Hamid et al.

(2006). Maximum B: C ratio (4.7) was also observed under this treatment (T4).

Conclusion

The treatment involving application of 75% RDF + VAM (500 g/plant) + PSB (100 g/plant) + Azospirillum, (100 g/plant) + T. harzianum (100 g/plant) was found to be effective in improving the yield and quality of mandarin compared to the rest of the treatments including application of recommended doses of fertilizer control. The maximum B:C ratio (4.75) was found under this treatment.

Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge the receipt of all kind of help and support rendered by Assam Agricultural University and the AICRP on Fruits for regular and time-to-time suggestion in making the assignment successful.

References Acharya, M. M. & Dashora, L. K. (2004). Response of graded levels of Nitrogen and Phosphorus on vegetative growth and flowering in African marigold (Tegets erecta L.). Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 7(2), 179- 183. Ahmed, F. F. et al. (1988). Annals Agric. Sci. (Cairo), 33, 1249-1298. Bhargava, B. S. (2002). J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 50, 352-373. Bihari, M., Narayan, S. & Singh, A.K. (2009). Effect of pruning levels and bio-fertilizers on production of Rose cut flowers. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 12(1), 48-53. Chandha, A.P.S., Rathore, S.V.S. & Ganesh, R. K. (1999). Influence of Nitrogen and Phosphorus and ascorbic acid on yield and flowering of African marigold cv. Double giant. Journal of South Indian Horticulture, 47(1-6), 342-344. El-Hamid, Aza A. S., Abbou, A. A., Mansour, S. A. A. & El-Sayed, A. A. A. (2006). Effect of some biofertilizers on yield and fruit quality of strawberry. Annals of Agriculture Sciences, 44(10), 251–64. Horticultural Statistics at a glance, (2017). Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers welfare, Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare. Horticulture Statistics Division. Jackson, M. L. (1979). Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Kohli, R. R. et al. (1998). Trop. Agric. Res. Ext., Sri Lanka, 1, 5-15. National Horticulture Board, (2016-17). Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India Panse, V. G. & Sukhatme, P. V. (1954). Statistical Methods for Agriculture Workers. Indian Coun. Agric. Res., New Delhi. Pillail, K. G., Devi, S. I., & Setty, T. K. D. (1985). Research achievement of All India Co-ordinated Agro- nomical Research Project. Fertilizer News, 30, 26-34. Preethi, T. L., Pappiah, C. M. & Anbu, S. (1999). Studies on the effect of Azospirillum sp., Nitrogen and Ascorbic acid on growth and flowering of Edward Rose (Rosa bourbonians). Journal of South Indian Horticulture, 47(1-6), 106-110.

133 CHARACTERIZATION OF BRINJAL (Solanum melongena L.) GENOTYPES FOR FRUIT RELATED TRAITS DURING KHARIF SEASON

Jamini Saikia1*, D. B. Phookan1, N. S. Barua2 and L. Saikia1 1Department of Horticulture, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, 785013, Assam 2Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, 785013, Assam *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

An experiment entitled “Characterization of brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) genotypes for fruit related traits during kharif season” was carried out at Experimental Farm, Department of Horticulture, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat during kharif season, 2016-2017 with the objectives to evaluate thirty brinjal genotypes for seven fruit related traits viz., fruit pedicel length (cm), fruit length (cm), fruit circumference (cm), number of fruits per plant, fruit weight (g), fruit yield per plant (kg) and fruit yield (t/ha). The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with three replications. Mean performance of brinjal revealed significant variation among the genotypes. This variation may be due to the effect of genotype, environment or their interaction. Among the thirty genotypes, eighteen genotypes viz., Kuchia, Brinjal-3, Khoruah-1, Brinjal-6, Brinjal-8, Brinjal-4, Seujia Bengena, Brinjal-1, Brinjal-9, Brinjal-2, Brinjal Long, Green Long, Boga Bengena, Kajala, Sagolishingia, Long Khoruah, Brinjal-7 and Koni Bengena were recorded the superior performers for number of fruits/plant, fruit yield/plant (kg) and fruit yield/ha (t/ha) during kharif season.

Keywords: Brinjal, Characterization, Genotypes, Kharif, Traits

Introduction

Brinjal (Solanum melongena L., 2n = 2x = 24) belongs to the family Solanaceae, is one of the most popular and important vegetable crop grown throughout the year in India and other parts of the world. The cultivated brinjal is presumed to be of Indian origin with China as secondary centre of origin. In India, it is grown in an area of 733 (‘000 hectare) with a total production of 12510 (‘000 MT) and the productivity of 17.07 MT/ha. In Assam, it is cultivated in an area of 17.67 (‘000 hectare), production 286.43 (‘000 MT) and the productivity of 16.21 MT/ha (Horticulture Statistics at a Glance, 2015). The major brinjal producing states in India are West Bengal, Odisha, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. Brinjal can play a vital role in achieving the nutritional security. Being an important source of plant nutrients and consumer preference it is necessary to increase the brinjal production throughout the year. Brinjal has very low calories and fats but rich in soluble fiber content. 100 g provides 24 Kcal of energy, 5.7 g carbohydrate, 1 g protein, 0.19 g total fat, 3.40 g dietary fiber, 22 µg folates, 0.649 mg niacin, 0.281 mg pantothenic acid, 0.084 mg pyridoxine, 0.037 mg riboflavin,

134 0.039 mg thiamin, 27 IU vitamin A, 2.2 mg vitamin C, 0.30 mg vitamin E and 3.5 µg vitamin K. The vegetable is also an excellent source of minerals like manganese, copper, iron, and potassium (USDA, National Nutrient Database, 2008).

India has wide range of variability in brinjal crop. In spite of a large number of varieties, only a few have yield potentiality during kharif season. Although, India has developed many hybrids of brinjal cultivars which gives better quality and yield during rabi season, but these characters were not found in kharif season. However, in the face of increasing population, there is a need for increased production and productivity of brinjal for both the seasons. This fact draws the attention of plant breeders to identify and/or superior varieties with higher yield and better quality during kharif season to mitigate the needs of the people and also to maximize the yield of the brinjal crop. To overcome the problem of low performance during kharif, there remains a need to explore or collect different brinjal genotypes from various places and to evaluate brinjal genotypes for superiority over existing cultivars and for their direct use as varieties or as parents in development of superior hybrids for the kharif season.

Materials and Methods

The present experiment was carried out in the Department of Horticulture, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat during Kharif, 2017. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with three replications. The row to row and plant to plant spacing were maintained at 75 cm x 60 cm, respectively. Thirty brinjal genotypes were collected from various places of India. All the recommended package of practices was followed to raise a healthy crop. The observations were recorded on five randomly selected plants of each genotype in each replication for plant height, plant spread, number of primary branches per plant, days to first flowering, days to 50% flowering, fruit pedicel length, fruit length, fruit circumference, number of fruits per plant, fruit weight, fruit yield per plant and fruit yield per hectare.

Results and Discussion

Plant height

Data presented in Table 1 revealed that there was significant different among the genotypes for plant height. Among the genotypes, Seujia Bengena (65.13 cm) exhibited the highest plant height which was at par with Khoruah-1 (64.53 cm), Kuchia (64.40 cm) and Brinjal-3 (63.00 cm). Green Round (30.33 cm) recorded the shortest plant height which was statistically at par with Gulabi (32.67 cm). These results are consonance with the findings of Pujer et al, (2017) and they observed highest plant height of 82.00 cm to lowest by 40.40 cm. Dhaka, (2012) and Kumar et al. (2012) also found wide range of variation in plant height of brinjal.

135 Plant spread

Plant spread of genotypes was presented in Table 1. Among the genotypes, Seujia Bengena (77.63 cm) recorded the highest plant spread which was at par with Khoruah-1 (76.23 cm), Brinjal-3 (75.60 cm), Brinjal- 2 (75.43 cm), Long Khoruah (74.33 cm) and Brinjal-4 (73.87 cm). Green Round (42.13 cm) recorded the lowest plant spread which was statistically at par with Brinjal (45.00 cm). The present results are also in line with the findings of Uddin et al. (2014).

Number of primary branches

The mean value of number of primary branches per plant was presented in Table 1. The genotype Seujia Bengena (7.24) recorded highest number of primary branches per plant which was statistically at par with Koni Bengena (7.22), Khoruah-1 (7.20), Brinjal-3 (7.15), Brinjal-9 (6.91), Brinjal-4 (6.61), Brinjal-10 (6.44), Brinjal-6 (6.19) and Long Khoruah (6.07), respectively. The lowest number of primary branches per plant was recorded for Green Round (2.94) which was at par with Brinjal-5 (3.15), Brinjal (3.29), Longai (3.38), JC-1 (3.44) and Bor Bengena (3.47). Similar range of primary branches per plant has also been reported by Ahmed et al. (2014); Sanas et al. (2014). This character ultimately results yield. More the branches more will be the number of flower and ultimately more will be the fruit yield per plant. These results were in confirmation with the findings of Singh, (2013); Kumar et al. (2011) and Mohanty, (2001).

Table 1. Mean performance of brinjal genotypes for fruit related traits (kharif, 2017)

Genotypes Plant height Plant spread Number of Days to first Days to 50% (cm) (cm) primary flowering flowering branches Khoruah-1 64.53 76.23 7.20 58.37 68.33 Khoruah-2 39.93 70.53 4.26 62.53 71.67 Khoruah-3 60.33 68.50 4.57 65.77 75.00 Koni Bengena 49.57 55.97 7.22 58.97 69.00 Seujia Bengena 65.13 77.63 7.24 58.67 69.33 Sagolishingia 46.50 58.67 5.98 68.10 78.33 Long Khoruah 51.33 74.33 6.07 64.50 74.67 Boga Bengena 43.43 60.77 4.81 61.30 71.33 HRS-4 49.33 63.40 4.23 73.33 83.33 Kuchia 64.40 65.67 5.91 59.27 70.00 Pusa Purple Long 57.27 62.00 4.46 60.90 71.33 JC-1 57.73 71.57 3.44 66.73 77.00 Kajala 38.67 55.57 4.22 60.67 71.67 Brinjal Long 43.00 65.30 5.43 63.23 75.00 Gulabi 32.67 53.00 4.87 68.73 78.33 Longai 47.33 57.57 3.38 62.30 72.00 Green Round 30.33 42.13 2.94 65.40 76.33

136 Brinjal 34.33 45.00 3.29 61.43 71.00 Green Long 53.33 64.00 5.79 65.67 76.00 Bor Bengena 54.67 66.57 3.47 66.93 77.00 Brinjal-1 56.40 73.20 5.63 61.70 73.00 Brinjal-2 38.03 75.43 5.93 59.60 70.00 Brinjal-3 63.00 75.60 7.15 58.27 68.33 Brinjal-4 60.83 73.87 6.61 60.50 71.00 Brinjal-5 51.27 65.80 3.15 64.67 75.67 Brinjal-6 52.53 65.97 6.19 60.73 70.33 Brinjal-7 56.43 73.10 5.52 68.70 78.00 Brinjal-8 40.70 64.03 5.55 59.77 71.00 Brinjal-9 58.97 64.30 6.91 59.90 70.33 Brinjal-10 51.50 66.50 6.44 59.97 70.00 Grand Mean 50.45 65.07 5.26 62.89 73.14 S. Ed (±) 1.79 2.12 0.60 2.55 2.56 CD (5%) 3.59 4.24 1.19 5.09 5.11 CV (%) 4.35 3.99 13.87 4.96 4.28

Table 2. Mean performance of brinjal genotypes for fruit related quantitative traits (kharif, 2017)

Genotypes Fruit Fruit Fruit Number Fruit Fruit Fruit pedicel length circumference of fruits/ weight yield/plant yield length (cm) (cm) (cm) plant (g) (kg) (t/ha) Khoruah-1 5.70 8.97 18.32 68.10 68.81 3.94 79.81 Khoruah-2 5.20 8.20 13.11 14.86 29.82 0.79 13.85 Khoruah-3 6.23 9.83 17.77 10.07 32.64 0.71 7.41 Koni Bengena 4.47 8.30 9.29 70.77 18.28 1.40 24.89 Seujia Bengena 6.20 15.97 7.65 81.36 21.48 2.41 54.67 Sagolishingia 6.00 12.33 5.03 68.25 22.14 1.30 28.82 Long Khoruah 7.33 15.33 6.15 70.33 19.27 1.21 26.96 Boga Bengena 6.10 7.77 12.43 63.38 22.09 1.38 30.67 HRS-4 6.40 13.97 16.34 3.95 102.16 0.46 10.29 Kuchia 6.67 20.40 10.42 86.92 66.85 4.93 82.99 Pusa Purple Long 6.00 22.70 9.66 3.85 75.24 0.24 5.33 JC-1 7.37 25.73 12.53 4.19 135.75 0.48 10.59 Kajala 5.57 18.70 7.56 24.29 53.13 1.38 29.11 Brinjal Long 6.90 19.63 10.30 38.39 57.19 2.06 45.70 Gulabi 5.67 14.00 7.72 31.03 19.78 0.59 13.11 Longai 3.67 13.57 17.29 5.67 89.22 0.49 10.81 Green Round 4.33 7.33 13.15 5.44 33.88 0.18 4.00 Brinjal 4.47 10.80 16.82 4.60 61.66 0.24 5.24 Green Long 6.33 13.00 9.40 32.00 55.35 1.59 35.40 Bor Bengena 6.57 21.23 18.18 3.85 138.66 0.69 15.41 Brinjal-1 5.27 15.27 7.49 75.67 36.32 2.35 52.22 Brinjal-2 5.67 11.47 8.46 60.52 37.08 2.18 48.37 Brinjal-3 4.60 7.47 14.67 88.93 45.25 4.19 80.26 Brinjal-4 4.53 7.67 10.63 59.52 52.74 2.86 55.18 Brinjal-5 5.47 21.27 7.62 4.18 53.45 0.20 4.37 Brinjal-6 4.63 9.97 11.45 83.40 49.46 4.34 68.52 Brinjal-7 5.70 21.10 10.36 23.38 50.34 1.15 25.48 Brinjal-8 3.70 10.37 17.47 72.33 57.71 4.13 64.44 Brinjal-9 5.63 16.63 7.58 53.26 37.11 2.20 49.02

137 Brinjal-10 5.50 19.00 8.26 82.74 39.05 2.87 51.70 Grand Mean 5.60 14.27 11.44 43.23 52.73 1.76 34.48 S. Ed (±) 0.24 0.35 0.26 20.87 14.08 1.04 16.81 CD (5%) 0.47 0.69 0.53 41.75 28.16 2.08 33.62 CV (%) 5.20 2.98 2.83 59.21 32.70 72.02 59.71

Fig 1. Promising brinjal genotypes for kharif season Days to first flowering

The mean performance of brinjal genotypes for days to first flowering revealed significant variation among the genotypes. Brinjal-3 recorded the lowest estimate for days to first flowering (58.27) which was at par with Khoruah-1 (58.37), Seujia Bengena (58.67), Koni Bengena (58.97), Kuchia (59.27), Brinjal-2 (59.60), Brinjal-8 (59.77), Brinjal-9 (59.90), Brinjal-10 (59.97), Brinjal-4 (60.50), Kajala (60.67), Brinjal-6 (60.73), PPL (60.90), Boga Bengena (61.30), Brinjal (61.43), Brinjal-1 (61.70), Longai (62.30), Khoruah-2 (62.53) and Brinjal Long (63.23), respectively. A maximum day taken for first flowering was observed for HRS-4 (73.33).

138 Days to 50% flowering

Data on days taken to 50% flowering presented in Table 1 revealed significant difference among the genotypes. The shortest duration of (68.33) days for 50 per cent flowering was exhibited by Brinjal-3 and Khoruah-1. The longest duration (83.33) day for 50% flowering was exhibited by HRS-4.

Fruit pedicel length

As revealed from the data presented in Table 2, there was significant difference among the genotypes in respect of fruit pedicel length. Among the entries, highest fruit pedicel length of 7.37 cm was recorded for the genotype JC-1 and lowest fruit pedicel length of 3.67 cm was exhibited by Longai.

Fruit length

The genotypes showed significant difference on fruit length. It was evident from the data that JC-1 exhibited the highest fruit length (25.73 cm) which was followed by PPL (22.70 cm), Brinjal-5 (21.27) and Bor Bengena (21.23 cm). Green Round (7.33 cm) recorded the lowest fruit length which was at par with Brinjal-3 (7.47 cm), Brinjal-4 (7.67 cm) and Boga Bengena (7.77 cm), respectively.

Fruit circumference

Among the entries, the mean fruit circumference ranged from 18.32 cm (Khoruah-1) to 5.03 cm (Sagolishingia).

Fruit number per plant

The highest number of fruits per plant (88.93) was recorded in Brinjal-3 which was statistically at par with Kuchia (86.92), Brinjal-6 (83.40), Seujia Bengena (81.36), Brinjal-1 (75.67), Brinjal-8 (72.33), Koni Bengena (70.77), Long Khoruah (70.33), Sagolishingia (68.25), Khoruah-1 (68.10), Boga Bengena (63.38), Brinjal-2 (60.52), Brinjal-4 (59.52) and Brinjal-9 (53.26), respectively. The lowest fruit per plant (3.85) was recorded for Bor Bengena and PPL.

Fruit weight

The mean value for fruit weight of genotypes was presented in Table 2. Among the thirty entries fruit weight varied from 138.66g (Bor Bengena) to 18.28g (Koni Bengena).

Fruit yield per plant

Among the genotypes, Kuchia (4.93 kg) recorded the highest fruit yield per plant which was at par with Brinjal-6 (4.34 kg), Brinjal-3 (4.19 kg), Brinjal-8 (4.13 kg), Khoruah-1 (3.94 kg), Brinjal-10 (2.87 kg) and Brinjal-4 (2.86 kg), respectively. Lowest fruit yield per plant was recorded for the genotype Green Round (0.18 kg).

Fruit yield per hectare

139 Fruit yield per hectare revealed significant difference among the genotypes as presented in Table 2. The highest fruit yield per hectare was recorded for Kuchia (82.99 t/ha) which was statistically at par with Brinjal-3 (80.26 t/ha), Khoruah-1 (79.81 t/ha), Brinjal-6 (68.52 t/ha), Brinjal-8 (64.44 t/ha), Brinjal-4 (55.18 t/ha), Seujia Bengena (54.67 t/ha), Brinjal-1 (52.22 t/ha) and Brinjal-10 (51.70 t/ha), respectively. The lowest fruit yield per hectare was recorded for the genotype Green round (40.00 t/ha). This result was in close agreement with the findings of (Sanas et al., 2014). Lower yield of genotypes was may be due to environmental effect.

Conclusions

The study revealed wide variability among the genotypes with respect to quantitative traits. Among the thirty entries, eighteen entries viz., Kuchia, Brinjal-3, Khoruah-1, Brinjal-6, Brinjal-8, Brinjal-4, Seujia Bengena, Brinjal-1, Brinjal-9, Brinjal-2, Brinjal Long, Green Long, Boga Bengena, Kajala, Sagolishingia, Long Khoruah, Brinjal-7 and Koni Bengena were found to be promising for kharif season.

References

Ahmed, N., Singh, S. R., Lal, S., Mir, K. A., Asima, A., Habib, K. & Salmani, M. (2014). Assessment of genetic diversity in brinjal genotypes using multivariate analysis. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 71(4), 494-498. Dhaka, S. K. (2012). Genetic variability in brinjal (Solanum melongena L.). The Asian Journal of Horticulture, 7(2) 537-540. Horticulture Statistics at a Glance, (2015). National Horticulture Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. Kumar, S. R., Arumugam, T., Anandakumar, C.R. & Rajavel, D. S. (2012). Estimation of heterosis and specific combining ability for yield, quality, pest and disease incidence in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). Bulletin of Environmental and Pharmacology and Life Sciences, 2(1), 03-15. Kumar, S., Sirohi, H. S. & Singh, Y. V. (2011). Studies on genetic variability components in brinjal (Solanum melongena L.). Pantnagar Journal of Research, 9(2), 241-248. Mohanty, B. K. (2001). Genetic variability, correlation and path coefficient studies in brinjal. Annals of Agricultural Research, 22(1), 59-63. Pujer, P., Jagadeesha, R. C. & Cholin, S. (2017). Genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance for yield, yield related components of brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) genotypes. International Journal of Pure & Applied Bioscience, 5(5), 872-878. Sanas, P. M., Shinde, M. S. Sanas, P. A. & Haldavanekar, C. P. (2014). Performance of different types of brinjal for their growth and yield characters. National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 32, 3-4. Singh, O. (2013). Studies on genetic variability in brinjal (Solanum melongena L.). Annals of Horticulture, 6(2), 279-283. Uddin, M. S., Rahman, M. M., Hossain, M. M. & Mian, M. A. K. (2014). Genetic diversity in egg plant genotypes for heat tolerance. SAARC Journal of Agriculture, 12(2), 25. USDA. National Nutrient Database, http://www.nal.usda.gov/fn ic/foodcomp/cgi-bin/list_nut_edit.pl 2008.

140 QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF LITCHI (LITCHI CHINENSIS SONN.) CV. CHINA AS INFLUENCED BY PRE- HARVEST TREATMENTS

Mary Sumi* and Animesh Sarkar Department of Horticulture, SASRD, Medziphema campus, Nagaland University, Medziphema-797106 *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted to study the effects of plant growth regulators and polyamine on yield and quality of litchi cv. China at the Experimental Farm-1 of Department of Horticulture, Nagaland Unuversity, SASRD, Medziphema Campus, Nagaland during the year 2017-2018. The trees were sprayed with Gibberellic

Acid @ 40 ppm (T1), Naphthalene Acetic Acid @ 40 ppm (T2), Putrescine @ 1.0 mM/L (T3), Gibberellic Acid

@ 40 ppm + Putrescine @ 1.0 mM/L (T4), Naphthalene Acetic Acid @ 40 ppm + Putrescine @ 1.0 mM/L

(T5) at pea stage and marble stage using Randomized Block Design with 4 replications. Among the various treatments, T4 proved to be effective in minimizing fruit cracking (1 %) with highest leaf water content (81.77%) while maximum fruit cracking (5.75 %) and lowest leaf water content (71.81 %) was found in control. T2 was found to be effective in increasing the fruit retention (48.93%) and anthocyanin content (59.76 mg/100 g peel) whereas minimum fruit retention (37.19 %) and anthocyanin content (40.74 mg/100 g peel) was recorded in control. In terms of fruit weight, aril recovery and yield, GA3 @ 40 ppm (T1) showed the maximum values with 21.10 g, 65.40 %, 78.04 kg/plant respectively, whereas control recorded lowest values with 16.10 g, 55.16 %, 52.25 kg/ plant respectively. It was also recorded highest TSS (18.42 ºB), total sugar

(10.56 %) and lowest acidity (0.46 %) by spraying of GA3 @ 40 ppm.

Keywords: Litchi, Plant growth regulators, Polyamine, Yield, Quality Introduction Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is an important sub-tropical evergreen fruit crop belonging to family Sapindaceae, and believed to have originated in China, where it has been grown in Southern Guangdong state for thousands of years. It is highly specific to climatic requirements and probably due to this reason its cultivation is restricted to few countries in the world. India is the second largest producer of litchi in the world after China. In India 585,300 metric tonnes of litchi is produced annually from 84,200 hectres area (Anonymous, 2015). In India, litchi ranks 7th in area and 9th in production among fruit crops but in value terms, it ranks 6th.

Plant growth regulators or phyto-hormones are organic substances produced naturally in higher plants, controlling growth or other physiological functions at a site remote from its place of production and active in minute amounts. The use of plant growth regulators has assumed an integral part of modern crop husbandry for increasing production of quality fruits. The plant hormones or regulators are the organic chemical 141 compounds, which modify or regulate physiological processes in an appreciable measure in the plant when used in small concentration. They are readily absorbed and move rapidly through the tissues, when applied to different plant parts. These chemicals are specific in their action. Thus the use of plant growth regulators has resulted in some outstanding achievements in several fruit crops with respect to growth, yield and quality.

Polyamines are aliphatic amines of low molecular weight, derived from the decarboxylation of the amino acids arginine and ornithine. In plants the main polyamines are putrescine, spermidine, and spermine. Polyamines are mainly found in meristematic and growing tissues. On the contrary, senescent tissues possess low concentrations of these compounds. Polyamines are involved in several growth processes, including cell division and normal morphologies, the development of flowers and fruits, and the differentiation of leaves, flowers and roots. The polyamines are also implicated in the regulation of abiotic and biotic stresses, development, and morphogenesis of plants. They have an important role during fruit set, early development and fruit ripening, as well as in the regulation of quality attributes of fruits. During ripening the content of polyamine diminishes in climateric and non climateric fruits. These natural poly-cations are used to control ripening and postharvest decay, as well as to improve fruit quality.

During the last 50 years, considerable research work has been done in the country on various aspects such as varieties, propagation, irrigation, training and pruning etc. to increase the yield and quality of guava fruits. The production of poor quality fruits is a matter of common experience. It would be therefore worthwhile to improve the yield and quality of fruit crops by foliar application of plant growth regulators. In recent years, litchi cultivation has gained popularity due to increasing international trade, nutritional contents of fruit and the demand for different value added products. In many orchards the yield and quality of fruits are not very good and farmers are not getting a good return. The use of plant growth regulators and polyamines could improve the quality and yield of fruits (Dutta & Banik, 2006; Cronje et al., (2009). The disturbance in the endogenous hormonal level is one of the major contributing factors responsible for fruit drop (Awasthi et al., 1975). Reduction in fruit drop with the application of growth substances was reported by many workers (Khan et al., 1976). Beneficial effect of growth substances and minor elements in reducing fruit drop in litchi cv Purbi was reported by Verma et al. (1980). To assess this, an investigation was carried out to study the effect of PGRs and polyamine on physico-chemical qualities yield of litchi cv. China grown in Medziphema, Nagaland.

Materials and Methods

The experiment was carried out during the year 2017-2018 on 25 year old litchi plants at the Horticulture Experimental Farm, Department of Horticulture, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Medziphema Campus, Nagaland University. The experimental site was located in the foothill of Nagaland at the altitude of 305 meters above mean sea level (MSL) with geographical location of 25o45’43”

142 N latitude and 93o53’04” E. The experimental plot was situated at the subtropical and sub-humid climatic condition in foothills of Nagaland. A nutrient mixture of 100 kg FYM +1000g N2 + 700g P2O5 + 1000g K2O per plant per year were applied in two split doses.Full amount of FYM + P2O5 and half of N2 and K2O were given just after harvesting of fruit (End of June). Rest N2 and K2O were applied 15 days after fruit set during March followed by irrigation with ring and basin method.The trees were selected randomly and death twigs and unnecessary shoot were pruned before carrying out the experiment. Just after pruning operation, copper oxychloride paint was applied to the cut portions to avoid infestation.The experiment was laid out in

Randomized Block Design with four replications and five treatments viz., GA3 @ 50ppm(T1), NAA @ 50ppm

(T2), Putrescine @ 1.0 mM/L (T3), GA3@ 50 ppm + Putrescine @ 1.0mM/L (T4), NAA @ 50ppm + Putrescine

@ 1.0 mM/L (T5) and control (T6). The different concentrations of growth regulators and polyamine were prepared and sprayed with the help of a foot sprayer, uniformly all over the leaves and fruits to the point of running off. All the chemicals were sprayed twice, first spray at 15 days after fruit set (pea stage) and second spray was given at 30 days after fruit set (marble stage) using foot sprayer. The fruits were harvested at fully matured and ripen stage since they do not ripen after harvest. Harvesting was done manually by picking the fruits. Observations on various growth and yield characters were recorded as per the standard procedures.Pulp TSS of the fruit was determined by EMRA hand refractometer (0-32B). Titratable acidity of the fruit and anthocyanin content of the peel was determined by standard procedure as described by Raganna (2001). Total sugar was estimated by adopting the standard methods of AOAC (2000). The data was statistically analyzed employing randomized block design in accordance with the procedure outlined by Gomez and Gomez (2012). Results and Discussion

Percent of cracked fruit The data presented in Table 1 revealed that application of PGRs and PA at different concentrations showed a significant influence to minimize the fruit cracking in litchi. The results of the investigation showed that treatments with GA3, NAA and putrescine markedly reduced fruit cracking. Foliar application of GA3 @ 50 ppm + Putrescine @ 1.0mM/L (T4) was most effective in controlling fruit cracking with 1.00 % followed by

Putrescine @ 1.0 mM/L (T3) with 1.20 % whereas the highest fruit cracking was found in control (T6) with 4.03 %. Due to hot winds at the time of crop maturity fruit cracking is a serious problem in litchi. The findings are in close conformity with Tewari et al. (2017) who concluded that GA3 @ 50 ppm had minimum fruit cracking.

Relative water content (RWC) of leaf

The data summarized in Table 1 revealed that the RWC of leaf differed significantly due to spraying of PGRs and PA. Maximum water content was noted in GA3@ 50 ppm + Putrescine @ 1.0mM/L(T4) with 81.77 % followed by NAA @ 50ppm + Putrescine @ 1.0 mM/L (T5) with 76.42 % compared with 71.81 % in control

143 (T6). Polyamines (PAs) can regulate the size of pores in the plasma membrane of guard cells, thereby strongly regulating pore opening and closing. In this way, PAs can control water loss in plants (Liu et al., 2007). Many studies have shown that foliar application of putrescine at an appropriate level can trigger physiological processes and induce the biosynthesis of osmotic adjustment substances, such as free amino acids, soluble sugars, and proline. Table 1. Effect of Plant Growth Regulators and Polyamine on Fruit cracking, RWC, Fruit retention, Yield, Fruit weight and Aril recovery percentage of litchi cv. China

Fruit Fruit Aril Fruit cracking RWC Yield Treatments retention weight recovery (%) (%) (kg/plant) (%) (g) (%

T1 (GA3 @ 50ppm) 1.64 74.95 47.15 78.04 21.10 65.40

T2 (NAA @ 50ppm) 3.32 74.21 48.93 75.62 20.15 63.77

T3 (Putrescine @1.0 1.20 78.44 43.09 61.93 18.70 59.36 mM/L)

T4 (GA3 @ 50 ppm + 1.00 81.77 46.35 65.76 18.55 60.64 Putrescine @1.0 mM/L)

T5 (NAA @ 50 ppm + 2.25 80.19 44.27 61.30 17.95 59.89 Putrescine @1.0 mM/L)

T6 (Control) 4.03 71.81 37.19 52.25 16.10 55.16

Sem± 0.11 1.49 0.90 4.06 0.56 1.13

CD at 5% 0,33 4.48 2.72 12.25 1.70 3.39

Table 2. Effect of Plant Growth Regulators and Polyamine on TSS, Total sugar, Titratable acidity and Anthocyanin content of litchi cv. China

Anthocyanin TSS Total Sugar Titratable Treatments content in peel (ºB) (%) acidity (%) (mg/100g) 18.42 10.56 0.46 56.67 T1 (GA3 @ 50ppm)

T2 (NAA @ 50ppm) 17.08 10.03 0.48 59.86

T3 (Putrescine @1.0 mM/L) 13.40 8.97 0.63 42.52

T4 (GA3 @ 50 ppm + Putrescine @1.0 mM/L) 15.51 9.80 0.51 51.66

T5 (NAA @ 50 ppm+Putrescine @1.0 mM/L) 14.21 9.44 0.54 48.71

144 T6 (Control) 13.33 7.69 0.69 40.74

Sem± 0.37 0.41 0.03 0.55

CD at 5% 1.11 1.22 0.08 1.67

Fruit retention

The plants sprayed with NAA @ 50 ppm (T2) caused to enhance fruit retention of 48.93 % followed by 47.15 % in GA3 @ 50 ppm (T1) and with 46.35 % in T4compared with 37.19 % in control (T6).The findings of Tewari et al. (2017) also confirmed that the maximum fruit retention was observed in NAA @ 50 ppm and

GA3 @ 50 ppm which were statistically at par with each other. Yield

The yield varied between 52.25 kg and 78.04 kg per plant. T1(GA3 @ 50 ppm) gave maximum yield of 78.04 kg per plant followed by 75.62 kg in T2(NAA @ 50 ppm) compared with 52.25 kg per plant in control

(T6).The improvement in yield due to GA3 application may be ascribed to better photosynthesis and less fruit drop. These results are in close conformity with the findings of Rajput et al. (2015) who reported that 150 ppm @ GA3 increased the yield in guava cv. L-49. Application of PGRs and PA, maintaining the optimum soil moisture regimes during fruit growth and development resulted increased fruit yields mainly due to increased fruit size and fruit weight. Fruit weight and aril recovery

The data presented in Table 1 showed the significant variation among the treatments. Maximum fruit weight (21.10 g) of fruit were recorded by application of GA3 @ 50 ppm (T1) followed by NAA @ 50 ppm

(T2) with 20.15 g fruit weight. Lowest fruit weight (16.10 g) recorded in control. The aril recovery of the fruit was also recorded higher in the plants treated with GA3 @ 50 ppm (T1) showing highest recovery percentage

(65.40 %) followed by 63.77 % in plants treated with NAA @ 50 ppm (T2).The role of GA in improving fruit quantity may also be due its role in increasing long elongation (Eman et al., 2007). The results are in agreement with the findings of Rani & Brahmachari (2001) who concluded that GA3 @ 100 ppm produced maximum fruit weight and highest aril percentage in litchi cv. China.

Chemical composition of fruits

The different treatments used in this investigation also influenced the quality of fruit. An inquisition of data presented in Table 2 revealed that T1 (GA3 @ 50 ppm) recorded the highest TSS, total sugar and lowest acidity with 18.42 ºB, 10.56 % and 0.46 % respectively.The anthocyanin content of fruit peel was increased progressively by spraying of NAA @ 50 ppm (T2).Gibberellins primarily affect growth by controlling cell elongation and division, which is reflected on yield and its components and fruit quality of various grape cultivars (Pires et al., 2000). The increase in TSS and sugar percentage may be caused due to starch hydrolysis. 145 Increase in content of TSS and total sugar may also be due to quick transformation of starch into soluble solids and rapid mobilization of photosynthetic metabolites and minerals from other parts of the plant to developing fruit. The reason for decrease in acidity may be due to increased translocation of carbohydrates and increased metabolism due to conversion of acid to sugar during fruit ripening. These results are in agreement with El-

Othmani et al. (2004) who indicated that spraying GA3 ppm significantly reduced acidity percentage. Dutta et al. (2011) reported that the anthocyanin content of litchi cv. Bombai was highest in fruits sprayed with 50 ppm NAA.

Conclusion

From the present investigation we can conclude that PGRs and PA treatments given at pea and marble stages were effective in checking fruit cracking, relative water content of leaf, fruit retention and improving

the morphological and quality parameters of fruits. We can also conclude that GA3 @ 50 ppm was most effective in improving the fruit weight, aril recovery percentage and physico-chemical properties of fruits,

NAA @ 50 ppm in increasing fruit retention and anthocyanin content and GA3 @ 50 ppm + putrescine @ 1.0 mM/L in minimizing fruit cracking and checking relative water content of the leaf.

References

Anonymous. (2015). Indian Horticulture Database-2015. National Horticulture Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, Gurgaon.

A.O.A.C. (20000. Official Methods of Analysis (17th Edition). Association of Official of Analytical Chemists. P.O. Box 540, Washington, D.C., USA.

Awasthi, R. P, Tripathi, B. R. & Singh, A. (1975). Effect of foliar sprays of zinc on fruit drop and quality of litchi (Litchi chinensisSonn.). Punjab Horticulture Journal, 15 (1-2), 14-16.

Cronje, R. B., Sivakumar, D., Mostert, P. G. & Karsten, L. (2009). Effect of different preharvest treatment regimes on fruit quality of litchi cultivar ‘Maritius’. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 32, 19-29.

Dutta, P. & Banik, A.K. (2006). Influence of plant growth regulators on yield, physico-chemical qualities and leaf mineral composition of Sardar guava grown in red and laterite tract of West Bengal. The Horticultural Journal, 19, 356- 357.

Dutta, P., Chakraborti, K., Teixeira da Silva, J. A., Roy, S. K. & Samanta, A. (2011). Effect of plant growth regulators on fruit quality and leaf mineral composition of litchi cv. Bombai grown in new alluvial zone of West Bengal. Fruit, Vegetable and Cereal Science and Biotechnology. pp 93-95.

146 El-Othmani, M., Ait-Oubahou, A., Lovatt, C. J., El-Hassainate, F. & Kaanane, A. (2004). Effect of gibberellic

acid, urea and KNO3 on yield and on composition and nutritional quality of clementine mandarin fruit juice. ActaHorticulturae, 632 (19), 149-157.

Eman, A. A., El-Moniem, A., Abd El-Migeed, M. M. M., Omayma, A. & Ismail, M. M. (2007). GA3 and zinc sprays for improving yield and fruit quality of Washington navel orange trees grown under sandy soil conditions. Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 3 (5), 498-503.

Gomez, K. A. & Gomez, A. A. (2012). Statistical procedure for Agricultural Research. 2nd Ed. Ar. Emm. International, Delhi. ISBN: 978-81-265-2395-5.

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147 TRADITIONALLY AVAILABLE CITRUS GERMPLASM IN ASSAM AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Minti Gogoi*, Arunima Gogoi and A. C. Borbora Citrus Research Station, Assam Agricultural University, Tinsukia, Assam

*Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Citrus fruit belonging to the family of Rutaceae is one of the most prominent nutritive fruit. Assam is a major citrus producing state of north east India and out of 27 numbers of citrus species still reported 23 belong to Assam. Innumerable citrus fruits such as lime, lemon, grapefruit, mandarin, sweet orange, pummelo etc. are indigenous fruits of Assam. All these citrus fruits are known for their tangy flavors and a combination of sweet-sour aromas. Usually the citrus fruit juice contains the main acidic component with characteristic sharp flavor and has great potential in improvement of human health. Among varieties of citrus, most popular and worldwide accepted fruit khasi mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) locally known as orange is the power package of vitamin C and anthocyanins. Assam lemon (Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck) a seedless fruit with unique flavour has great market value. Pummelo (Citrus maxima Merr.) is also a rich source of nutrients and fibers. Varieties of Grape fruits (Citrus x paradisi Macf.) are produced in the state to meet the requirement of citrus fruits for sugar patients. Besides these hati nemu, jara tega, bor tenga, rabab tenga, kazi nemu, gul nemu, bira jora, bonjora, holong tenga, gandharaj, mitha chakala, galgal etc. are traditionally available in Assam. Varieties of citrus diversified products such as pickles, squash, fruit juice, orange peel powder, candy, concentrated juice, essential ingredients for beverages, confectioneries, cosmetics, aromas and fragrances, aromatic oils and food essences etc. can be prepared from those varieties. The Citrus Research Station, Tinsukia, Assam Agricultural University has been providing opportunity to its stakeholders to reflect the sustainable use of citrus resources and ensure livelihood security of citrus growers of Assam. Considering the importance of citrus fruits for healthy life it was planned to study the quality analysis of different traditional citrus fruit available in Assam. Importance was also given on value addition of these seasonal fruits in order to make it commercially available for every customer and for the whole year.

Keywords: Khasi mandarin, medicinal value, bioactive compounds, nutritional importance

Introduction Citrus (Citrus L.) is a most economically important exotic fruit crops, distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Randhwa & Srivastava, 1986). They are grouped under the family Rutaceae and subfamily Aurantioideae (Singh, 1981, Gogoi et al., 2003). Citrus is the third most important fruit crop in India (Ghosh, 1999) and Assam is center of origin and rich in diversity of Citrus (L.) species representing

148 several wild and cultivated species. It covers almost 30,200 ha land area and produces an annual production of 7,91,000 metric tons (Govt. of Assam report, 2012–13) which are considered to be a major citrus growing zone (Singh, 1999). Out of 27 numbers of citrus species still reported 23 number belong to Assam (Sharma et al., 2004).

There are number of citrus fruits such as mandarin, lime, lemon, grapefruit, sweet orange pummelo etc. are indigenous to Assam. All those citrus fruits are known for their tangy flavors and combination of sweet-sour aromas. Usually they are juicy and the juice contains the main acidic component with characteristic sharp flavor and has great potential in improvement of human health. Among various types of citrus grown in Assam the most commercially important fruits are mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco), sweet orange (Citrus sinensis Osbeck) and Assam lemon (Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck), lime (Citrus aurantifolia Christm.) Besides these different indigenous sub-varieties of citrus such as hati nemu, jara tega, bor tenga, rabab tenga, kazi nemu, gul nemu, bira jora, bonjora, holong tenga, gandharaj, mitha chakala etc are available in the region. Many value added diversified products such as pickles, squash, fruit juice, orange peel powder, candy, concentrated juice, essential ingredients for beverages, confectioneries, cosmetics, aromas and fragrances, aromatic oils and food essences etc. can be prepared from those citrus fruits.

Considering the importance of valuable citrus wealth for human health the study was conducted with the following objectives: 1) to collect traditional citrus fruit scattered in the state and nearby states through Citrus Research Station, AAU, Tinsukia. 2) Quality analysis of collected citrus fruits. 3) Value addition of citrus fruits.

Materials and Methods

The team of investigators collected different traditional citrus fruits from various places in the state of Assam and out of the state. They were maintained carefully for quality fruits in the germplasm block of Citrus Research Station. All those fresh fruit samples were collected from plants and subjected to quality analysis through the laboratory methods. Secondary data regarding the usefulness of citrus fruits were also collected from different sources. Most of that information were documented and reviewed in the paper.

Results and Discussion

From the survey on traditionally available citrus fruits of Rutaceae family of Assam seven different varieties were considered as indigenous fruits of the state. Those available fruit bearing plants species of Citrus of Rutaceae family are:-

➢ Khasi Mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco)

➢ Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck)

149 ➢ Grape fruit (Citrus paradisi Macf.)

➢ Pummelo (Citrus maxima Merr.)

➢ Lemon (Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck)

➢ Lime (Citrus aurantiifolia Christm.)

➢ Citron (Citrus medica L.),

Review of plant profile available in Assam (Citrus Research Station)

1. Khasi mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco): Mandarin locally known as orange is the most important citrus fruit of north east India as well as Assam. The fruit occupy 117.96 thousand ha land with production of thousand metric ton and productivity 5.86 ton/ha (Horticultural Statistics at a glance, 2017). Mandarin is known for its colour, quality, sugar contents, acid blend, self life and its commercial value.

Tinsukia district of Assam is known as Mandarin growing area whereas the four districts of BTD, Kokrajhar, Dhubri district in South, Bongaigaon and Chirang districts has a suitable agro-climatic condition for large-scale citrus cultivation. In upper Assam, Tinsukia district is the main citrus growing are and the Citrus Research Station, Tinsukia, Assam Agricultural University developed eight varieties of Mandarin known as CRS-1,CRS-2,CRS-3,CRS-4.CRS-5,CRS-6,CRS-7,CRS-8.Among them CRS-4 is found to be the best type of mandarin in respect of its growth, yield attributes and quality parameters.

Fig 1. Khasi mandarin

Fruit depressed globe, 5-8 cm diameter, contain tengerin, sweet and juicy, orange in colour, seed poly- embryonic. It contains vitamin C, glucoside, hesperidin mostly (75-80%) present in the rind, rag and pulp.

The health benefits of oranges are well known for centuries. Oranges are not just known for its high vitamin C content; these are also a good source of beta-carotene, a powerful antioxidant to check free radical damage, magnesium for blood pressure, potassium for cardio vascular health and thiamin for converting food

150 to energy (Anonymous, 2009). It is also rich in dietary fiber and contains foliates, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, riboflavin, vitamins A, E and K, and phyto-nutrients.

Medicinal uses of Mandarin

➢ The dried peel is used for abdominal swelling, to increase digestion, to reduce phlegm, and its various parts are used to cure cutaneous problem, hemiplegia, snake bite, fever, loss of taste, chronic rheumatism, stomach ache, menorrhagia, spleenomegaly, edema and cardiac diseases, bronchitis and asthma. ➢ Seeds are traditionally used for the treatment of infectious diseases, frequent. urination, a major symptom of urinary tract infection, as well as inflammation of the breast and scrotum (Loi, 1999, 2000). ➢ Pectin found in oranges is a dietary fiber reported to reduce the serum cholesterol, hyper- cholesterolemia and promote the excretion of fats, bile acid, cholesterol (Baker, 1994) and posseses growth suppression of prostate cancer cell. ➢ Aruoma et al. (2012) reported that citrus fruit extracts represent an excellent candidate for nutraceuticals and functional foods geared towards the management of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. ➢ The infusion of immature fruit is used for the treatment of stomach and intestinal problems.

Undoubtedly, in present context, the Khasi mandarin has enormous potential for its commercialization and there is good scope of value addition of this seasonal fruit.

2. Assam lemon (Assam limon): Assam lemon regionally known as ‘Kazi Nemu’ is one of the most important seedless fruit with unique flavor. The lemon, extensively grown in the north-eastern parts of India. It is a dwarf cultivar suitable for high density planting. This is a popular variety of lemon and is resistant to vagaries of climate and it can be grown commercially in subtropical humid climate of NE states. Period of fruiting is June to November .The fruits of variety are oblong, medium large in size, highly juicy and can be used commercially for preparation of juice, cordial etc. Assam lemon produces two distinct flowering flush in a year viz. Spring (Feb- March) and autumn (Sept-Oct) besides sparse flowering round the year. Fruits should be harvested when they attain full size, develop attractive green to little yellow colour. Fruits are ready for harvesting during the month of June to July and December to January from 3rd year-old tree about 40-50 fruits may be harvested.

The physiochemical characteristics of fruits of Assam Lemon, grown in Assam are given below: Quality Parameters (Avarage) • Fruit weight 120 g • Fruit size 9.5 cm x 5.8 cm

151 • Peel weight 50 g • Juice content/fruit 39 ml • T.S.S. 6.5o Brix

Fig 2. Assam lemon Medicinal uses of Assam lemon

Lemon juice in hot water has been widely advocated as a daily laxative and preventive of the common cold, but daily doses have been found to erode the enamel of the teeth. Prolonged use will reduce the teeth to the level of the gums. Lemon juice and honey, or lemon juice with salt or ginger, is taken as a cold remedy. It is used for culinary, beverages, industrial and medicinal uses.

Citrus Research Station, Tinsukia, Assam Agricultural University developed four other varieties of lemon known as CRS-AL-1, CRS-AL-2,CRS-AL-3,CRS-AL-4.Due to its seedless quality and good flavor the unique product of Assam has great demand in National and International markets. As an outstanding NGO of Tinsukia district with the help of AAU has applied for Geographical Indication (GI) for this particular fruit available only in Assam which is hope to get GI by the year, 2020.

Grape fruit (Citrus paradisi)

It is a traditional variety of citrus fruit available in Assam. The fruit is round in shape, bigger than mandarin and other lime and locally known as Rabab tenga. It requires shorter day and cooler temperature in winter for production of fruits. The tree bear fruit in cluster form 3-4 numbers in the same branch. Grape fruits produced to meet the requirement of citrus fruits for sugar patients. Another form of grape fruit known as tula tenga is also popular in Assam.

Fig 3. Fig 4.

152 Quality parameters of Grape fruit

Juice (%) Rind thickness Acidity (%) L / B ratio Segment /fruit 16.00 1.75 0.47 1.45 11

Uses of grape fruits

• It is often eaten as a dessert, either raw or sprinkled with sugar • The peel is used to make marmalade, may be candied, or dipped in chocolate • Peel is also used as insect repellent • Fruit juice can be used to lower blood pressure

4. Pummelo (Citrus grandis): Pummelo is the largest citrus fruit and very much similar in appearance to a large grapefruit. It is progenitor of the grapefruit the tangelo among other modern citrus hybrids. North-eastern Himalayan region and foothills of the central and western Himalayan tracts in India are considered to be one of the important centers of origin for pummelo. The fruit is like a large globe or pear shape.10-30 cm in diameter. Different sub-varieties of pummelo with large red, pink flash or white flash fruit are available in Assam. Juice vesicle pink coloured variety callwd jumbura are also found in some districts of Assam.

Fig 5. Pummelo (white, pink, red)

Sour pummelo (Citrus megaloxycarpa) Sour pummelo locally known as Bartenga used as fresh fruit and sometimes used as souring agent for pickles.

Quality parameter of sour pummelo are:

Juice (%) Rind thickness Acidity (%) L / B ratio Segment /fruit

153 29.15 2.40 0.37 1.09 15

The fruit Pummelo is also a rich source of nutrients and fibers. Used for making marmalade and other citrus products like fruit juice. It reported to show distinct functionality as antioxidant and anti-obesity (Kang et al., 2012).

5. Holong tenga (Citrus medica)

It is a unique variety of citrus found in Assam. The size is big and outer covering of the fruit is very rough because of which fruit is known as Honolg tenga.

Fig 6. Holong tenga

Uses of Holong Tenga

The fruit is used for pickle preparation. Peel is used in cakes, puddings, biscuits and candy and also can eaten as raw fruit.Dried fruits act as moth repellents.

6. Sweet Orange (Citrus sinensis Osbeck)

Sweet orange locally known as mousumbi is a hybrid between pommelo and mandarin. Fruits ripen in the month of November; seeds varies from 20-25 per fruit. The colour of rind at ripening turns light yellow. The flavor is sweet and mild when drink fresh in juice, The juice is acidless. Sweet Oranges are good for distance transportation. Among 14 varieties of sweet oranges tested, Soh-niang riang has been found highest yielder of fruits (450 Nos/plant)

Fig 7. Sweet Orange

154 Quality parameters of Sweet orange:

Juice (%) Rind Acidity (%) L / B ratio Segment thickness /fruit 27.20 1.2 0.92 1.01 11

Uses of Sweet orange: The fruit is used as table purpose, juice, squash etc.It is an appetizer and blood purifier.The fruit rind is carminative and act as tonic. The dried peel is used in the treatment of anorexia, colds, coughs etc.

7. Mitha chakala (Citrus sinensis)

Tree is spreading with light green foliage. Stout thorns are present on twigs. Fruit is medium globose to ellipsoid. Skin smooth with distinct aroma. Juice is abundant, non-acidic and insipid. Seed 5-6 per fruit. Skin smooth with distinct aroma. Juice abundantly .The fruit is appetizer and blood purifier. Fruits ripen in the month of September.

Fig 8. Mitha chakala

Quality parameters of Mitha chakala:

Juice (%) Rind Acidity (%) L / B ratio Segment /fruit thickness 50.65 0.70 0.56 0.8 12 The fruit rind is carminative .The dried peel is used in the treatment of anorexia, colds, coughs etc.

8. Ada jamir (Citrus assamensis): It is another round fruit variety of citrus traditionally available in Kokrajarh district of Assam; possess similar quality of other citrus fruits.

155

Fig 9. Ada jamir

Quality parameters of Ada jamir

Juice (%) Rind thickness Acidity (%) L / B ratio Segment /fruit 17.15 1.58 0.68 0.82 10

9. Gul Nemu/Rough lemon (Citrus jambhiri)

Fig 10. Rough lemon

Rough lemon or gul nemu is the traditional fruit of Assam. Trees of rough lemon turn out to be high yielder, but having poor fruit quality though the flavor is unique and very popular among Assamese people. It is tolerant to tristeza and fairly tolerant to saline and calcareous soils, but susceptible to foot rot and blight. It is hardy and used as rootstock.

Quality parameters of rough lemon

Juice (%) Rind thickness Acidity (%) L / B ratio Segment /fruit 36.70 0.25 1.47 0.93 9

Uses of Rough Lemon

Juice is used as an ingredient in a variety of dishes. The peel is used as a facial cleanser. Daily consumption of lemonade decreases the rate of kidney stone formation. Citrus essential oils were obtained from the citrus fruits peel’s sacks. They were used by the food industry to give flavor to drinks and foods.

156 They were also used in the pharmaceutical industry for the preparation of drugs, soaps, perfumes and other cosmetics as well as for home cleaning products.

10. Hati nemu (Citrus jambhiri Lush)

Hati nemu is a big size of lemon indigenous to Assam.Juice is used as an ingredient in a variety of dishes.The peel is used as a facial cleanser. Daily consumption of lamonade decreases the rate of kidney stone formation.It is hardy and used as rootstock.

Fig 12. Hati nemu

Quality parameters of Hati nemu

Juice (%) Rind thickness Acidity (%) L / B ratio Segment /fruit 17..80 0.50 1.08 1.26 12

11. Sinduri lemon (Citrus jambhiri)

Sinduri lemon is an indigenous Assamese lemon with red coloured flash. Average height of a plant is 3.89 m and weight of a lemon is 133 g. It contains Vitamin C.

Fig 13. Sinduri lemon

157 Quality parameters of Sinduri lemon:

Juice (%) Rind Acidity (%) L / B ratio Segment thickness /fruit

26.50 1.80 0.91 2.80 9

12. King orange/ Jeneru tenga (Citrus nobilis Lorn ):

Semi-domesticated variety of citrus locally called jeneru tenga (king orange). Constant research is going on this particular fruit in Citrus Research Station Assam

Fig 14. King orange/ Jeneru tenga

King orange fruit is used for culinary purpose and the peel is used in cosmetics industry.

13. Citrus limon (Elachi nemu)

It is indigenous fruit of Assam .A small plant or a shrub, 8-10 ft high drooping habit, moderately branched, foliage open, throny, fruiting season mainly from July-September. Vitamin C content of the fruit can more easily retained by the body than from other citrus fruits. Lemon oil is used in the perfume industry and as insect repellent. Fruits have distinct cardamom flavour and mainly found in Karimgang district of Assam. The plant is available in Citrus Research Center Tinsukia of Assam Agricultural University.

Fig 15. Elachi nemu

158 14. Gandharaj (Citrus medica)

A huge size of lemon with the fragrance of sublime never yield much juice but overpowering scent that travel to other room and invite one to the dinning table. Gandhraj had the maximum fruit weight (1316 g) and size, while lowest fruit weight (16.2 g) and size (2.26 x 3.4 cm)

Fig 16. Gandharaj

Uses of Ghandharaj: Fruit is used for pickle preparation. Peel is used in cakes, puddings, biscuits and candy. The peel is also eaten raw. Dried fruits act as moth repellents.Fruits have a unique flavour.

15. Jara tega (Citrus medica)

There are three different types of Jara tenga in Assam they are, Bira jara, pati jara, bonjara . Fruit jacket is thick, soft and edible. These fruit is used for pickle preparation ,Peel is used in cakes, puddings, biscuits and candy, The peel is also eaten raw , Dried fruits act as moth repellents.

Fig 17. Bon jara Fig 18. Pati jara Fig 19. Bira jara

Quality parameter of Jara tenga or Citron Juice (%) Rind thickness Acidity (%) L / B ratio Segment /fruit

46.20 1.85 1.21 1.42 10

In traditional medicine, ripe fruits were used in sore throat, cough, asthma, thirst, hi-cough, ear ache, nausea, vomiting, anti scorbutic, stomachic, tonic, stimulant, expellant of poison, correct fetid breath; distilled water of the fruit was sedative, fruits and seeds were cardiac tonic and used in palpitation, fruit decoction is analgesic. Roots, flowers, seeds, peels and leaves were used in many ailments. The fruit wrapped in cloth was

159 used to protect clothes from moths indicating its insect repellent activity. In ancient literature, citron was mentioned as an antidote for various kinds of poison.

Uses of this fruit variety

Fruit is used for pickle preparation.Peel is used in cakes, puddings, biscuits and candy. The peel is also eaten raw. Dried fruits act as moth repellents

16. Galgal (Citrus pseudolimon)

Fruit is medium is size and oval in shape. Peel yellow smooth and glossy. According to Singh (1981), NEH region and parts of north western India is considered as the best locations for collecting primitive germplasm of citrus (Singh, 1981).

Fig 19. Galgal Quality parameters of galgal

Juice (%) Rind Acidity (%) L / B ratio Segment thickness /fruit

27.50 2.00 0.66 3.54 10

Juice is very acidic (5-6 percent acidity), with 5-8 seeds per fruit. It ripens in November-December.Galgal or Citron is a large fragrant citrus fruit, widely used in Indian cuisine as well as traditional medicines.

Importance of Citrus fruits

Citrus contained nutrients and phyto-chemicals that were beneficial for health. Citrus fruits and juices contain a wide range of substances including carbohydrates, fibre, vitamin C, potassium, folate, calcium, thiamine, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin A, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, riboflavin, pantothenic acid and a variety of phytochemicals. These substances are necessary for proper functioning of the body but some confer additional protection against chronic disease over and basic nutrition. Citrus fruits are also low in fat and in overall dietary energy – a major consideration given the increasing rate of obesity in both adults and children.

Citrus fruits also contain many phytochemicals including essential oils, alkaloids, flavonoids, coumarins, psoralens and carotenoids. The previous pharmacological studies revealed that citrus fruits 160

possessed antimicrobial, anthelmintic, insect repellent, antioxidant, anticancer, cardiovascular, central nervous, antiinflammatory, analgesic, anti-diabetic, reproductive, gastrointestinal, immunological, respiratory and many other pharmacological effects. Citrus aurantifolia juice destroyed human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Ten percent of Citrus aurantifolia juice produced a 1000-fold reduction in HIV activity in a laboratory sample (Amandeep et al., 2009)

Diversified products prepared from different Citrus fruits includes pickles, squash, fruit juice, orange peel powder, candy, concentrated juice, essential ingredients for beverages, confectioneries, cosmetics, aromas & fragrances, aromatic oils and food essences.

Conclusion Among the citrus crops available in northeastern region, Khasi mandarin is the most economically important one and plays a vital role in the socio-economic development of the people in this region. Khasi mandarin is well known for its quality, fruit colour, unique sugar-acid blend and shelf life which make it the most popular citrus cultivar in north-eastern region of the country. , Assam lemon is now becoming a very marketable product due to its unique quality and attractive flavour which is now going achieve Geographical Indication (GI). Rare varieties like Citrus nobilis (Jeneru tenga) and Citrus limon (Elachi lebu) are required to be conserved immediately by adopting adequate strategies. Considering the importance of valuable citrus wealth of the region the emphasis has been laid on the collection and maintenance of the traditional citrus species scattered in the state and nearby states through Citrus Research Station, AAU, Tinsukia. The centre also provides opportunity to its stakeholders to reflect the sustainable use of citrus resources and ensure livelihood security of citrus grower of Assam.

References

Anonymous, (2014). Geographical Indications Journal No.63, Government of India, Ministry of commerce and Industry, Geographical Indications Registry, Chennai

Amandeep, S., Bilal, A.R. & Bevguni, A. (2009). In vitro antibiotic activity of isolated volatile oil of Citrus Sinensis. IJPRD, 7, 1-4.

Aruoma, O.I., Landes, B., Ramful-Baboolall, D., Bourdon, E., Neergheen-Bhujun, V., Karl-Heinz, W. & Bahorun, T. (2012). Functional benefits of citrus fruits in the management of diabetes. Preventive Medicine.

Bhattacharya, S.C. & Dutta, S. (1951). Citrus varieties in Assam. Indian Journal of Genetic & Plant Breeding, 2(1), 57‒62.

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Bhattacharya, S.C. & Dutta, S. (1956). Classification of Citrus fruits of Assam, In: Scientific Monograph No. 20. ICAR, New Delhi.

Esmail, A. et al. (2016). Nutritional value and pharmacological importance of citrus species grown in Iraq. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy, 6(8), 76-108.

Gogoi, M., Singh, B., Rethy, P., Mishra, A.K. & Kalita, S. (2003). Citrus species in Arunachal Pradesh: Diversity and Economic Prospect. Indian Journal of Citriculture, 2(1), 1‒9.

Loi, D.T. (2000). Glossary of Vietnamese medicinal plants and drugs. Publishing House for Science and Technics, Hanoi.

Randhawa, G.S. & Srivastava, K.C. (1986). Citriculture in India. Hindustan Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.

Singh, B. (1981). Establishment of First Gene sanctuary in India for Citrus in Garo Hills,. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.

Singh, I.P. & Singh, S. (2006). Exploration, Collection and Characterization of Citrus Germplasm - a Review. National Research Centre for Citrus, Shankarnagar, Amravati Road, Nagpur (MS) - 440 010, India.

Webber, H.J. (1943). Cultivated varieties of Citrus. In: Webber HJ & Batchelor LD (eds) The Citrus Industry, 1st edition. Vol. I. University of California, USA, pp. 475–642.

162

COMMUNICATION INTERVENTION IN ESTABLISHING COMMUNITY SEED BANK OF RRICE

Sangeeta Sharma*1 and Sharmila Dutta Deka2 1Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai-792103, Arunachal Pradesh 2Department of Seed Technology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013, Assam *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Extension is an intervention. Communication is a powerful instrument of extension intervention. It plays a vital role to bring about more effective positive behaviour and social changes. Communication intervention was attempted in improving storage behaviour of farmers of two districts of Assam with regards to rice crop. Being the single major source of agricultural GDP, rice plays a significant role in the state economy. The important traditional varieties of rice produced in Assam are unique to the state and not found in any other part of India or in any part of the world. So a thoughtful intervention was attempted through a project of Assam Agricultural University aiming awareness of farmers about the prospects of commercialization of rice cultivation since November 2012 till date. The study was conducted in two districts of Assam namely Golaghat and Jorhat where a cluster of fourteen villages were surveyed for the presence of local germplasm. It was followed by organization of awareness camp for conservation of traditional varieties. Then a couple of trainings and a workshop was conducted followed by distribution of information brochures. The present study reveals the impact and effectiveness of awareness camp, information brochures and training conducted by the project in the last two years. Structured schedule was constructed with the help of questionnaire made by a team of Scientists, Researchers and Extension Experts which was later translated into local language. It was found that eighty five percent (85%) of farmers perceived the trainings were effective with the help of information brochures made in Assamese (local language) which were distributed to them for quick understanding are having good readability and also helpful for maintaining Community seed bank established under the project.

Keywords: Seed Bank, Community, Golaghat, Jorhat

Introduction Communication is as much a science as an art, as much a process as it is about outcomes. Extension is itself an intervention (Roling,1982). Communication is a good act of extension intervention. It plays a vital role to bring about more effective positive behaviour and social changes. Communication intervention was attempted in improving storage behaviour of farmers of two districts of Assam in regards to Rice crop. Assam is traditionally a rice growing area. Rice plays a pivotal role in the socio-cultural life of the people of the state. At present, rice occupies about two-third of the total cropped area in the state. Being the single major source of agricultural GDP, rice plays a significant role in the state economy. Further, its importance in the consumption basket (the average monthly consumption per capita is about 13 kg) also speaks volumes on the 163 rice orientation of the state. The crop has enormous diversity in the region, which has resulted due to highly variable rice growing ecosystems. Unknowingly people have selected many useful cultivars, which have commercial value in the present day world in which people prefer to have a variety of tastes. Some of the special classes of rice in the state include joha or aromatic rice, Bora or waxy rice and chokuwa or soft rice. The important traditional varieties produced in Assam are unique to the State and not found in any other part of India or in any part of the world. Government of India, although a little late, has finally proposed to apply registration of aromatic rice (Joha) and soft rice (Chokowa or Komal saul) of Assam as a Geographical Indication (GI). More over there is a growing demand for the specialty rice traditionally produced in Assam for export as well as in domestic market. Now it was time to make the farmers aware about the prospects of commercialisation of rice cultivation. So a thoughtful intervention was attempted in Jorhat and Golaghat districts of Assam through a project of Assam agricultural university.

The present study reveals the impact and effectiveness of awareness camp, information brochures and training conducted by the project in the last two years with the following objectives: 1) to record the effectiveness of awareness camp perceived by the farmers on conservation of germplasm. 2) to study the impact of training perceived by the farmers on commercialisation of seed respectively. 3) to study the readability of information brochures given by the project to the farmers.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted in two districts of Assam namely Golaghat and Jorhat where a cluster of fourteen villages were surveyed for the presence of local germplasm. It was followed by organisation of awareness camp for conservation of traditional variety. Then a couple of trainings and a workshop was conducted followed by distribution of information brochures. A detailed questionnaire was developed which was reviewed by scientists, extension experts and research officials to measure effectiveness of awareness camps, trainings, workshop and brochures. The questionnaire was then translated into Assamese (local language) and distributed among the farmers by organising camps on the aforesaid districts.

Results Awareness camps: Awareness camps were conducted in two districts of Assam. About hundreds of farmers participated in the awareness camps on the following topics:

➢ Conservation of local genetic resources in which the participant farmers were made aware about importance of local resources including agriculture, importance of seed conservation and its prospects. ➢ Conservation of local rice genetic resources where the participants were told about importance of traditional rice varieties, need of conservation practices and commercial prospects of seed

164

conservation.

Effectiveness of awareness camp as perceived by the farmers was assessed. A Questionnaire was developed to measure the perception of farmers regarding awareness camps.

Parameter No of farmers that perceived Percentage (%) well Usefulness of the content 80 80 Speed of delivery 75 75 Use of projected aids 65 65 Responses to Feedback from 85 85 audience

During the investigation, it was found that eighty five percent (85%) of the farmers perceived that the responses for their queries (feedback) was empathetic, eighty percent (80%) farmers found the content of awareness camp as useful while only 65% of the farmers could be comfortable with the use of projected aids although the speed of delivery was perceived well by majority (75%) of the farmers.

Trainings:

Training, an extension intervention, was given to share knowledge to the farmers in both the districts. Trainings were conducted on the following topics:

I. Post harvest seed technology and seed storage II. Seed production and storage III. Importance of Seed and Seed business

A number of resource persons delivered lectures during the training. Impact of training was measured with regards to the perception level of the trainees. Reaction evaluation was thought as good to follow in short period of time available to assess the in situ impact of training.

In the reaction evaluation, the following perceptions were availed for their corresponding dimensions which are mentioned in the following table:

Dimensions No. of farmers perceived well Percentage (%)

Feasibility of content 80 80 Need perceived by the trainees. 87 87

165

Audio visual aid preparation 90 90 Situational environment 83 83 Refreshment arrangement 95 95 Quality of handouts and brochures 85 85

Management 89 89 Feed back. 82 82

After analysis it was found that eighty percent (80%) of the farmers perceived that the content of training was feasible as per their need (87%) with high quality of audio visuals (90%), and conjunctive situational environment (83%), fine refreshment arrangement (95%), expressive and quality handouts (85%), effective management (89%) and positive feedback (82%).

Brochures:

Information brochures were prepared keeping in mind the needs of the farmers and technology that we wanted to disseminate for the help of farming community. Eleven numbers of brochures were provided to the target groups in the two districts on different occasion like awareness camp, training, workshop as well as through some informal farm visits. Following are the topics on which the hand outs and brochures were prepared in local language:

1. Conservations of local genetic resources 2. Introduction to seed storage 3. Post harvest seed technology and value addition. 4. Seed production technology of rice 5. Importance of Seed storage 6. Importance of seed business 7. Scientific storage structure 8. Commercial prospect of traditional rice 9. Varietal characterisation of traditional rice cultivars and its importance 10. Importance of traditional rice varieties 11. Importance of quality seed.

Readability of brochures was assessed as an attempt to measure its effectiveness. Readability means the ease of reading (Sharma, 2011) perceived while reading the articles on brochures.

The dimensions of readability are-lay-out, clarity, font size, timeliness of the topic, style of writing, attractiveness of the farm page, newness of the contents, use of simple words by the authors, use of technical words by authors, sufficiency of picture, attractiveness of picture, relevancy of picture, use of local phrase and idioms, length of sentence and relevance to situation. (Sharma, 2011) 166

Sl. No. Dimensions Categories Score 1. Lay out a) Very attractive 3 b) Attractive 2 c) Not at all attractive 1 2. Clarity a) Very distinct 3 b) Distinct 2 c) Not so distinct 1 3. Font size a) Be the same 2 b) Should be increased 1 c) Should be decreased 1 4. Timeliness of topic a) Always timely 3 b) Sometimes 2 c) Not timely 1 5. Style of writing a) Very good 3 b) Good 2 c) Not good 1 6. Attractiveness of the a) Very attractive 3 farm page b) Attractive 2 c) Not attractive 1 7. Newness of contents a) Always there 3 b) Sometimes there 2 c) Not at all 1 8. Use of simple words a) All 4 by the authors b) Majority 3 c) Some 2 d) Not used 1 9. Use of technical a) Not used 3 words by the authors b) Some 2 c) Majority 1 10. Sufficiency of picture a) Sufficient/ 1 b) Not sufficient 0 11. Attractiveness of a)Attractive 1 picture b)Not attractive 0

12. Relevancy of picture a)relevant 1 b)not relevant 0 13. Use of local phrases a) Always 3 and idioms b) Sometimes 2 c) Never 1 14. Length of sentence a) Very long 0

167

b) Optimum 2 c) Short 1 d) Very short 0 15. Relevance to situation a) Very much related 2 b) Related 1 c) Not related 0

Using the readability scale it was found that seventy five percent (75%) of farmers perceived the brochures having medium level of readability while eighty five percent (85%) opined that information brochures helped them a lot to understand and remember lessons that were given through trainings, workshops and awareness camps by the scientists.

Conclusion

The study, which is comprised of recording the effectiveness of awareness camp, impact of training and readability of brochures, was found to be competent in determining the most prominent form of extension intervention through which the project could assist the farming community in the long term. After analysis it was found that eighty five percent (85%) of the farmers perceived that the responses for their queries (feedback) was empathetic, eighty percent (80%) farmers found the content of awareness camp as useful while only 65% of the farmers could be comfortable with the use of projected aids although the speed of delivery was perceived well by majority (75%) of the farmers. The impact of training was perceived well by the farmers as all of the dimensions showed more than eighty percent (80%) in the in situ reaction evaluation after each training. It was found that eighty five percent (85%) of farmers perceived the trainings were effective with the help of information brochures made in Assamese (local language) which were distributed to them for quick understanding. Using the readability scale it was found that seventy five percent (75%) of farmers perceived the brochures having medium level of readability while eighty five percent (85%) opined that information brochures helped them a lot to understand and remember lessons that were given through trainings, workshops and awareness camps by the scientists. Moreover, this was found to be helpful for maintaining and effective utilization of Community seed bank established under the project and retention of knowledge acquired through various trainings, workshops and awareness camps in the long run.

References

Roling, N. (1982). Alternative Approaches to Extension, In Progress in Rural Extension and Community Development (ed) Jones and Rolls. Cited in Misra, D.C. (1990) Defining Agricultural Extension for 1990. Directorate of Extension, Govt of India, New Delhi.

Sharma, S. (2011). A Study on Content Analysis and Readability of Farm Page of Dainik Janambhumi in Golaghat and Sivasagar Districts of Assam.(unpublished thesis, A.A.U. Jorhat). 168

STUDIES ON RESPONSES OF GREEN GRAM (Vigna radiata L. R. WILCZEK) TO PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM UNDER NORTH-EASTERN REGION

Yabi Gadi*, M.M. Shulee Ariina and Avini-e Nakhro Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, SASRD, Nagaland University, Medziphema, Nagaland *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT A field experiment was conducted in randomized block design with three levels of phosphorus (0, 30, 60 kg -1 -1 -1 P2O5 ha ) and three levels of potassium (0, 30, 60 kg K2O ha ). It was observed that 60 kg P2O5 ha resulted significantly higher plant height, number of branches per plant, number of pods per plant, grain yield, stover yield, nutrient content and nutrient uptake as compared to other levels of phosphorus. Application of potassium also significantly enhanced the growth, yield attributes, yield, nutrient content and uptake by green gram. -1 Application of 60 kg P2O5 ha increased the seed yield by 19.1% and stover yield by 46.1% over control. -1 Application of 60 kg K2O ha increased the seed yield to the extent of 18.3% and stover yield upto 14.5% over control. Phosphorus application resulted significant increase in protein content. Application of 60 kg

P2O5 increased protein yield to the extent of 10.7% over control and application of potassium also had significant effect on protein content of green gram. With phosphorus application, available nitrogen of the soil increased from 315.0 to 363.2 kg ha-1, available phosphorus increased from 10.6 to 22.2 kg ha-1. Available potassium status of the soil increased markedly with potassium application. The pH, organic carbon, CEC and base saturation were not affected significantly with phosphorus and potassium application.

Keywords: Randomized Block Design, Stover, Phosphorous, Potassium, Nitrogen.

Introduction

Legumes are the important source of protein for human nutrition. Green gram, originated in Indian sub-continent is one of the most widely cultivated pulse crops in the country and is grown on about 3.44 m ha with the annual production of 1.4 mt along with the productivity of 406.98 kg/ha (Anonymous, 2011). The average productivity of pulses in the NER is 848 kg ha-1 is higher than the national average 746 kg ha-1 indicating the potential production of pulses production yield in this area.

The communities in NER are predominately agrarian and practice subsistence agriculture. Development of sustainable farming systems is the key to prosperity of this region and requires crop diversification by involving pulses. In NER, fertilizer consumption (<12 kg/ ha, excluding valleys of Asom, Manipur, Sikkim and Tripura) is the lowest in the country, and soils are rich in organic matter. The region has more than 80% area under acid soils and hence, the importance of legumes is better understood than in other parts of the country. Green gram is one of the most important pulse crop grown in almost all parts of the 169 country. India is the largest producer and consumer of green gram and it alone accounts for about 65 percent of the world’s acreage and 54 percent of the world’s production.

Pulses are important food crops because of their high protein (20 to 25 %), carbohydrates (55 to 60 %) contents and richness in calcium and iron. Pulses play a key role in improving of soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation with the help of Rhizobium bacteria in their root nodules. Thus, they play an important role to enhance soil fertility which benefits component and subsequent crops. Increase in yield of subsequent crops raised after pulses to the tune of about 20-40% has been reported (Joshi, 1998). Cultivation of pulses are also an effective means of rehabilitating degraded soils and can contribute significantly to achieving the twin objectives of increasing productivity as well as improving the sustainability of cereal-based cropping systems (Yadav et al., 1998). While the traditional cropping pattern almost always included a pulse crop either as a mixed crop or in rotation, the commercialization of agriculture has encouraged the practice of sole cropping.

The area and production of pulses in Nagaland stretches to 34430 hectare and 36460 tons, respectively where green gram contributes 330 hectare of the total pulse area and 510 tons of the total pulse production in Nagaland (Anonymous, 2013-14). There are various reasons for low yield of green gram and balanced nutrient application is one of them. Phosphorus and potassium fertilization to legumes is more important than that of nitrogen. Phosphorus nutrient simulates a greater attention in enhancing the productivity of legumes. Phosphorus plays a vital role in photosynthesis, respiration, energy storage, energy transfer, cell division, cell elongation and several other processes within plant system (Tisdale et al., 1997).

Materials and Methods

A field experiment was conducted at research farm of the Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, SASRD, Nagaland University, Medziphema, Nagaland with green gram (cv. Samrat) as the test crop. The experiment was carried out in RBD with three levels of phosphorus viz. control, 30 and 60 kg P2O5 -1 -1 ha and three levels of potassium viz. control, 30 and 60 kg K2O ha and replicated thrice. Recommended doses of nitrogen @ 20 kg ha-1 was applied through urea, phosphorus and potassium levels through single superphosphate and muriate of potash. Fertilizers were added into the experimental plots two days prior to sowing of the crop. Seed was also treated with Rhizobium culture @ 20g per kg of seed.The experimental soil contain sandy clay loam texture with pH 5.52, organic carbon 14.8 g kg-1, CEC 10.1[cmol (p+) kg⁻¹], base saturation 30.05% and available N, P and K status 301.0, 10.5 and 130.0 kg ha-1, respectively.

Meanwhile hand weeding was conducted frequently at the regular interval to keep the growth of weeds under control. Biological parameters were recorded after certain intervals. Plant samples were analyzed for N by Kjeldahl method. Phosphorus and potassium in plant samples were determined in diacid (HNO3,

HClO4) extract by advocating standard procedure (Jackson, 1973). Post crop harvest soil samples were

170 collected and analyzed for pH, organic carbon, CEC, base saturation and available N and K using standard procedures (Jackson, 1973). For estimation of available P, soil samples were extracted with NH4F (Bray & Kurtz, 1945). The data were analyzed statistically to compare the treatment effects (Panse & Sukhatme, 1961).

Results and Discussion

Growth and yield

A per the data shown in (Table 1) indicates that significantly taller plants were recorded with phosphorus and potassium application over control and maximum plant height was observed with 60 kg P2O5 -1 -1 -1 ha and 60 kg K2O ha which was at par with 30 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O5 ha . Plant growth also increased -1 significantly over control with the application of 30 kg P2O5 ha . Furthermore, phosphorus also helps in better root growth which resulted more nutrient and moisture uptake by plants from deeper soil layer leading to better growth and development. These results are in accordance with those of Kanwar et al. (2013). Number of pods per plant was also affected significantly with phosphorus and potassium application. Maximum pods -1 -1 per plant were recorded at 60 kg P2O5 ha and 60 kg K2O ha . It might be due to involvement of phosphorus in flowering and fruiting including seed development. Also it was observed that application of phosphorus and potassium significantly improved the yield of green gram and increased the seed and stover yield as well. -1 -1 Maximum seed, stover and protein yield was recorded at 60 kg P2O5 ha and 60 kg K2O ha .

-1 -1 However, 30 kg ha level of P2O5 and K2O was at par to 60 level kg ha level of P2O5 and K2O with -1 regard to seed and protein yields. The 30 kg ha level of P2O5 and K2O increased seed, stover and protein yield to the extent of 13.3 and 16.9, 44.8 and 5.1 and 21.1 and 28.5 percent, respectively over control. While - the 60 kg ha 1 level of P2O5 and K2O increased seed, stover and protein yield by 19.2 and 18.4, 46.2 and 14.6 and 27.8 and 39.7 percent, respectively over control. Variation in the yield of green gram with different treatments might be due to variations in the yield attributes. Phosphorus application improved the root growth resulted plant absorbed more nutrients from soil for effective dry matter production and translocation of photosynthates from leaves to reproductive parts for better development of seeds (Patel et al., 2013; Singh et al., 2017).

Nutrients content and their uptake

With the application of phosphorus and potassium application, nitrogen content in grain and stover of green gram increased significantly (Table 2). The nitrogen content ranged from 3.14 to 3.74 percent in seed and 1.23 to 1.43 percent in stover. Maximum N content in seed and stover was recorded at 60 kg ha-1 level of P2O5 and K2O. Total N uptake by green gram enhanced significantly with increasing levels of phosphorus -1 and potassium. Nitrogen uptake by green gram with 30 and 60 kg P2O5 ha increased by 36.6 and 47.0%, respectively over control whereas potassium level increased N uptake by 14.8 and 24.3% over control. Higher N uptake with phosphorus and potassium application could be attributed to enhanced crop growth with

171 increased N translocation and utilization into the plant system resulting in the enhancement of yield. Phosphorus content of seed and stover improved significantly with phosphorus application. The P content in seed and stover ranged from 0.21 to 0.31% and 0.12 to 0.19%, respectively.

Table 1. Effect of phosphorus and potassium on growth and yield of green gram

Treatment Plant height Pods Yield (kg ha-1) (cm) plant-1 seed stover protein Phosphorus (kg ha-1) 0 44.6 14.1 945.8 1209.4 199.4 30 46.7 16.1 1071.2 1750.9 241.4 60 48.2 16.2 1127.3 1768.0 254.9 0.51 0.11 34.6 33.2 6.7

SEM± CD(P=0.05) 1.81 0.39 120.5 116.2 23.7 Potassium (kg ha-1) 0 45.2 14.4 937.8 1479.2 188.9 30 46.7 15.9 1096.6 1554.4 242.8 60 47.3 16.0 1109.9 1694.7 263.9 SEM± 0.51 0.11 34.4 33.2 6.7 CD(P=0.05) 1.81 0.39 120.5 116.2 23.7

Table 2. Effect of phosphorus and potassium on nutrient content and nutrient uptake of green gram

Treatment Nutrient content (%) Total nutrient uptake(kg ha-1) N P K Protein N P K Phosphorus(kg Seed Stover Seed Stover Seed Stover Seed ha-1)

0 3.32 1.29 0.21 0.12 1.22 1.39 20.7 46.2 3.4 28.5 30 3.53 1.35 0.27 0.13 1.32 1.45 22.0 63.1 5.7 39.9 60 3.67 1.41 0.31 0.19 1.35 1.53 22.9 67.9 6.9 42.0 SEM± 0.07 0.02 0.010 0.009 0.04 0.01 0.4 2.5 0.21 0.78

172 CD(P=0.05) 0.25 0.09 0.034 0.031 NS 0.06 1.6 8.9 0.74 2.73 Potassium(kg ha-1) 0 3.14 1.23 0.25 0.12 1.20 1.40 19.6 51.9 4.5 32.5 30 3.62 1.38 0.27 0.15 1.32 1.45 22.6 59.5 5.4 36.8 60 3.74 1.43 0.27 0.17 1.37 1.50 23.4 64.5 5.9 41.0 SEM± 0.07 0.02 0.010 0.009 0.04 0.01 0.4 2.5 0.21 0.78 CD(P=0.05) 0.25 0.09 NS NS 0.13 0.06 1.6 8.9 0.74 2.73

Phosphorus content in seed and stover was not affected significantly with potassium application whereas the P uptake by green gram significantly increased with P and K application. Phosphorus uptake by green gram -1 -1 -1 enhanced from 3.4 kg ha in control to 6.9 kg ha at 60 kg P2O5 ha . Potassium application enhanced P uptake from 4.5 kg ha-1 to 5.9 kg ha-1. Phosphorus uptake enhanced by 67.6% and 102.9% over control with -1 30 and 60 kg P2O5 ha , respectively. The P uptake increased by 20.0% and 31.1%, respectively over control -1 with the application at 30 and 60 kg K2O ha . The K content in seed and stover of green gram improved remarkably with phosphorus and potassium application. Potassium content in seed was not affected significantly by phosphorus application. The K content in seed and stover varied from 1.20 % to 1.37 % and 1.39 % to 1.53 %, respectively. The K uptake by green gram increased significantly with phosphorus and -1 -1 potassium. Maximum K uptake was recorded at 60 kg P2O5 ha and 60 kg K2O ha . Increase in potassium -1 uptake by green gram due to application of 30 and 60 kg P2O5 ha were 40.0% and 47.4%, respectively over control. Highest level of potassium increased K uptake by 26.2% over control. Similar results were reported by Singh (2017).

Soil properties

The pH of the post crop harvest soil ranged from 5.30 to 5.40 (Table 3). The pH of the soil was not affected significantly with the application of phosphorus and potassium. Organic carbon content, CEC of soil was not affected significantly with phosphorus and potassium application. Irrespective of treatments, the available N status ranged from 317.7 to 363.2 kg ha -1. Available N enhanced remarkably with P application. The increase in available nitrogen in the soil under phosphorus treated plot as compared to control indicated that phosphorus fertilization enhanced nitrogen fixation as well as nitrogen secretion by green gram which improved nitrogen status of the soil. These effects are in concordance with those of Yakubu et al. (2010). -1 Available P in post harvest soil ranged from 10.6 to 22.2 kg P2O5 ha . A significant increase in available P status was reported with phosphorus application over control. Low available P in control plots might be due to no addition of any external input and its mining from the soil by crop. However, potassium application

173 could not produce significantly effect on available nitrogen and phosphorus status of the soil. Available K content of the soil was not affected significantly by phosphorus application. But it increased significantly with potassium application. Hence, P and potassium application may be helpful in improving the soil health in terms of available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Similar findings have been also reported by Nyekha (2015).

Table 3. Effect of phosphorus and potassium on soil properties

Treatment pH CEC[cmol(p+)kg- Organic Available nutrients 1] carbon (kg ha-1) N P K Phosphorus(kg ha-1) 0 5.3 11.40 14.9 317.7 10.6 136.1 30 5.2 11.34 15.4 353.3 15.4 143.5 60 5.3 11.74 16.3 363.2 22.2 147.4 SEM± 0.32 0.49 0.34 11.2 0.4 3.0 CD(P=0.05) NS NS NS 39.4 1.5 NS Potassium(kg ha-1) 0 5.4 10.58 14.9 321.1 15.4 131.4 30 5.1 11.46 15.6 355.5 16.0 143.6 60 5.3 12.42 15.9 357.6 16.8 152.0 SEM± 0.32 0.49 0.34 11.2 0.45 3.0 CD(P=0.05) NS NS NS NS NS 9.7

Conclusion

-1 The results of the present study lead to a conclusion that application of 60 kg P2O5 ha and 60 kg K2O ha-1 produced higher plant height, branches per plant, pods per plant, seed, stover and protein yield of green gram. The N, P and K contents and their uptake improved remarkably by phosphorus and potassium application. Available N, P and K status of the post harvest soil also improved with the use of phosphorus and -1 potassium. Therefore 60 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O ha are recommended for the North Eastern Region.

174 References

Anonymous, (2013-2014). Statistical Handbook of Nagaland. Directorate of Economic Statistics, Government of Nagaland, Kohima. Anonymous, (2015). Pulses Handbook. Commodity India.com. Bray, R.H. and Kurtz, L.T. (1945). Determination of total, organic and available forms of phosphorus in soils. Soil Science, 59, 3945. Jackson, M.L. (1973). Soil Chemical Analysis, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. Joshi, P.K. (1998). Performance of grain legume in the Indo gangatic plain. (In) Residual Effect of Legume in Rice–Wheat Cropping System of Indo Gangetic Plains. Kumar Rao, J.V.D.K. and Johansen, C. (Eds). International Crop Research Institutes for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. Kanwar, P., Singh, P., Singh, P. & Singh, P. (2013). Effect of Rhizobium, PSB and phosphorus on yield and economics of mungbean. Annals of Plant and soil Research, 15, 164-166. Nyekha, Nusakho, Sharma, Y.K., Sharma, S.K. & Gupta, R.C. (2015). Influence of phosphorus and phosphorus solubilising bacteria on performance of green gram and soil properties. Annals of Plant and Soil Research, 17 (3), 323-325. Panse, V.G. & Sukhatme, P.V. (1961). Statistical Methods for Agricultural Workers. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Patel, H.R., Patel, H.F., Maheriya, V.D. & Dodia, I.N. (2013). Response of kharif green gram (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) to sulphur and phosphorus fertilization with and without biofertilizer application. The Bioscan, 8, 149-152. Singh, D.P. (2017). Effect of potassium and sulphur on performance of green gram (Vigna radiata) in alluvial soils. Annals of Plant and Soil Research, 19(2), 223-226. Singh, D., Khare, A. & Singh, S. (2017). Effect of phosphorus and molybdenum nutrition on yield and nutrient uptake in lentil (Lens culinaris L). Annals of Plant and Soil Research, 19(1), 37-41. Tisdale, S.L., Nelson, W.L., Beaton, J.D. & Havlin, J.L. (1997). Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi. Yadav, R.L., Dwivedi, B.S., Gangwar, K.S., & Prasad, K. (1998). Over view and prospects for enhancing residual benefits of legumes in rice and wheat cropping systems in India” (In) Residual Effects of Legumes in Rice and Wheat Cropping systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, pp. 207-226, Kumar Rao, J.V.D.K. and Johansen, C. (Eds). International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISTAT), Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. Yakubu, H., Kwari, J.D. & Sandabe, M.K. (2010). Effect of phosphorus fertilizer on nitrogen fixation by some grain legume varieties in Sudano – Sahelian zone of North Eastern Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Science, 18, 19-26.

175 VARIATIONS IN SEED SENESCENCE IN PADDY VARIETIES (Oryza sativa L.)

Lenmem Yosung* and V. S. Devadas Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai-792103, Arunachal Pradesh *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Senescence pattern of five different rice varieties viz. Sali, Thailand Lahi, MTU – 7029, MTU – 1010 and Khamti Lahi was studied during February 2019 at the Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai. Germination and vigour parameters of five varieties were evaluated under four accelerated ageing conditions involving two temperatures (450C and 600C) and two durations (24 hours and 36 hours) along with an untreated control. Various seed quality parameters such as germination percentage, speed of germination, vigour index, seedling dry weight and seedling length were explored. The study concluded that artificial ageing treatments involving a temperature of 450 C was found to have a significant positive effect on the seed quality parameters, while temp of 600 C adversely affected the seed quality parameters. With increase in duration of artificial ageing the seed quality parameters deteriorated. Among the five varieties tested, Thailand Lahi was found as the most superior variety for seed quality parameters and was found tolerant to accelerated ageing treatments followed by MTU–1010 and Sali, which were at par with each other. Khamti Lahi seeds were found to be the inferior and sensitive to accelerated ageing. The study indicated superiority of Thailand Lahi, MTU–1010 and Sali for better storage life of seeds, having comparatively slow ageing process.

Keywords: Seed Senescence, Paddy, Khamti Lahi, Thailand Lahi, Vigour

Introduction

Seed senescence is a natural process occurring due to ageing of seeds during storage and is expressed by loss of viability, and vigor parameters. It is an irreversible degenerative process that occurs during storage. The rate of deterioration is influenced by the seed moisture content and the temperature of the storage, an increase in either leading to more rapid deterioration (Ellis et al., 1992). The ageing or senescence process can be aggravated or accelerated artificially by providing high temperature and high humidity. These types of artificial aging techniques are adopted to assess the storability of varieties and seed lots under laboratory conditions. The present investigations were conducted to study the varietal variations in seed senescence of selected paddy varieties (Oryza sativa L.).

Materials and Methods

Freshly harvested seeds of five varieties of paddy namely, MTU – 1010 (Mutant), MTU – 7029 (Mutant), Khamti Lahi (local variety), Sali (local variety) and Thailand Lahi (Exotic variety) were subjected

176 to artificial aging in a desiccator – hot air oven method for two durations (24 and 36 hours) and at two temperatures (450C and 600C) in comparison to untreated fresh seeds.

Thus a total of 25 treatment combinations involving the five varieties and five aging treatments , (T1 - aging at 450C for 24 hours, T2 - aging at 450C for 36 hours, T3 - aging at 600C for 24 hours, T4 - aging at 600C for 36 hours and T5 – untreated control) were evaluated in three replications in a factorial CRD. Observations on germination and vigour parameters were tested and the data were analysed using standard procedures.

Results and Discussion

Statistical analysis showed significant variations for seed germination among the treatments (Table 1). Germination per cent among the treatments varied from 0 % to 93.4 %. The overall germination of varieties varied from 4.47 % in KhamtiLahi to 53.57 % in Thailand Lahi and MTU–7029. The overall varietal mean for Khamti Lahi being 4.47% was found to be significantly lower and distinctly different from other varieties. While germination percentage of the other varieties were significantly superior to Khamti Lahi and were at par with each other (Sali 45.8 %, Thailand Lahi 53.57%, MTU 7029 - 53.57% and MTU 1010 - 52.47 %).

The overall mean germination of seeds under different artificial ageing treatments also varied significantly and it ranged from 0.89% at T4 (ageing @ 600C for 36 hours) to 73.4 % at T1 (ageing @ 450C for 24 hours). It was observed that T3 (ageing @ 600C for 24 hours - 3.34%) and T4 (ageing @ 600C for 36 hours - 0.89%) were at par, while all other treatments having comparatively higher mean were at par with each other.

It was further observed that the varietal X treatment interactions were also significantly different with respect to germination and it ranged from 0 % under T3 (ageing @ 600C for 24 hours ) and T4 (ageing @ 600C for 36 hours) in case of Sali, Thailand Lahi, MTU -7029 and Khamti Lahi. However, some germination under MTU -1010 was observed under T3 (ageing @ 600C for 24 hours - 16.67%) and T4 (ageing @ 600C for 36 hours - 4.47%).

The overall germination percentage of T1 (ageing @ 450C for 24 hours – 7.84%), T2 (ageing @ 450C for 36 hours – 7.8%), T5 (control – 6.7%) for Khamti Lahi and T3 (ageing @ 600C for 24 hours – 16.67%) and T4 (ageing @ 600C for 36 hours – 4.47%) for MTU -1010 were at par and other treatments with germination percentage more than 45.15 % were at par.

Similar trends in artificial ageing of seeds were observed in germination percentage by Rao et al. (1994), Sung &Jeng, (1994) in peanut, Khan et al. (1998) in cotton, Singh et al. (2003) in urd bean and mung bean, and Senaratna et al. (1988) in soyabean. This variation could be attributed to the inherent genetic differences between the varieties. Rice requires higher temperature to the tune of 200C - 350C for its

177 germination; and the germination tests were carried out during the month March – April when the temperature (15.3 0C min. and 26.5 0C max.) and relative humidity (85%) were lower.

Table 1. Mean germination percentage of paddy varieties under artificial ageing.

Artificial treatments Sali Thailand MTU MTU - Khamti Over all Lahi - 7029 1010 Lahi treatment mean T1 - 450C for 24 hrs 87.80 90.00 91.14 90.04 7.84 73.40 T2 - 450C for 36 hrs 74.50 93.40 87.40 87.84 7.80 70.19 T3 - 600C for 24 hrs 0.00 0.00 0.00 16.67 0.00 3.33 T4 - 600C for 36 hrs 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.47 0.00 0.89 T5 – control 66.70 84.50 88.90 63.40 6.70 62.04 Over all variety 45.80 53.57 53.57 52.47 4.47 mean CD for varietal means (P = 0.01) : 21.58 CD for ageing treatment means (P = 0.01) : 21.58 CD for Interactions (P = 0.01 ) : 48.25

Conclusion

From the present investigations it can be concluded that seed aging of rice seeds at higher temperatures of 600C adversely affect the germination. Among the five varieties tested, Thailand Lahi recorded the highest values for seed quality parameters and was found tolerant to accelerated ageing treatments followed by MTU – 1010 and Sali, which were at par with each other. Khamti Lahi seeds were found to be sensitive to accelerated ageing. The study indicated superiority of Thailand Lahi, MTU – 1010 and Sali for better storage life of seeds, having comparatively slow ageing process.

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to the Arunachal University of Studies for providing the facilities to conduct the study.

References

Khan, A.Z., Mehmood, T., Ahmad, N. & Shah, P. (1998). Determination of cotton seed vigour: accelerated ageing test. Sarhad J. Agric., 14, 187-192. Rao, S., Raut, N.D., Lakhani, J.P. & Khare, D. (1994). Accelerated aging on growth and yield of Soybean. Bangladesh J. Bot., 37(1), 21 – 26.

178 Senaratna, T., Gusse, J.F. & McKersie, B.D. (1988). Ageing induced in cellular membranes of imbibed soybean seed axes. Physiol. Plant., 73, 85-91. Singh, B., Singh, C.B. & Gupta, P.C. (2003). Influence of seed ageing in Vigna species. Farm Sci. J. 12 (1), 4-7. Sung, J.M. & Jeng, T.L. (1994). Lipid peroxidation and peroxide-scavenging enzymes associated with accelerated ageing of peanut seed. Physiol. Plant. 91, 51-55.

179 EFFECT OF SEED TREATMENT IN RICE (Oryza sativa L.) VARIETIES

Netan Dorjee Khrimey, V. S. Devadas and Sheelawati Monlai* Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai- 792103, Arunachal Pradesh *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Investigations were carried out in the laboratory of Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai during year 2019 to determine the best seed treatment for rice. Five different organic seed treatment formulations viz., Panchagavya, Amritpani, Hydro- priming, Trichoderma viride, Beejamrit, and an untreated control were tested in five varieties of rice (Khamti Lahi, Thailand Lahi, MTU-1010, MTU-7029 and Sali) in a factorial CRD. Pre-soaking treatment for 12 hours with these formulations were given for all the varieties and the seeds were evaluated for various germination parameters. Results indicated that all the treatments resulted in vigor enhancement of seedlings. Maximum enhancement of growth parameters were shown by Amritpani treatment which recorded the highest germination (73.66 %), maximum root length (18.03 cm) and shoot length (15.43 cm) were observed in seeds of Thailand Lahi. The highest dry weight of seedlings (4.19 g) and vigour Index 1 (2474.73) were also recorded by Amritpani treatment. Maximum speed of germination of 47.19 was observed by hydro-priming in the variety MTU-7029. The studies concluded that seed treatment with Amritpani is effective for improving germination and vigour parameters in rice, and can be recommended as a tool in organic rice farming.

Keywords: Rice varieties, Seed treatment, Amritpani, Khamti Lahi, Thailand Lahi.

Introduction

Rice is the main agriculture crop of Arunachal Pradesh and it occupies an area of 49500 ha, and with a production of 1155 million tonnes and an average productivity of 2.33 t/ha during 2016-17 in the state. Most of the farmers follow organic farming practices and use of fertilizers and chemicals are very low. It is well established that seed treatment significantly improves the general performance and productivity of crops. Identification of suitable organic materials or formulation for effective seed treatment will be an added advantage for organic farming. Under these backgrounds, an experiment was taken up in the Agriculture Laboratory of Arunachal University of Studies Namsai during March 2019 to determine the best organic seed treatment to improve the germination and growth of rice; and to study the response of different rice varieties to different seed treatments.

180 Materials and Methods

The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with six seed treatments (hydro- priming, Panchagavya, Trichodermaviride, Amritpani, Beejamrit and untreated control) and five different rice varieties (Thailand Lahi, KhamtiLahi, MTU-7029, MTU-1010 and Sali). Thus, the experiment consisted of 30 treatment combinations with three replications. Seeds of each variety were pre-soaked in different treatments/ formulations for 12 hrs and the treated seeds were sown in sand medium. Germination percentage of seeds was recorded up to 11 days of germination and statistically analysed as per standard procedure, and the results are presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Results and Discussion

The results indicated that there was no significant difference between the varieties. Overall germination percentage of varieties ranged from 44.05 % in Sali to 56.33 % in Thailand Lahi. But the overall effect of different organic seed treatments significantly influenced germination percentage. The overall germination ranged from 38.26 % in Panchagavya to 60.33 % in Amritpani. Overall mean effect of seed treatments on germination indicted the highest mean for germination in Amritpani (60.33 %) followed by Trichoderma (59.53 %), Control (53.53 %), Beejamrit (46.06 %), Hydro-priming (41.40 %) and Panchagavya (38.26 %). The effect of Amritpani, Trichoderma and Control and Beejamrit were at par with each other, whereas hydro-priming (41.40 %) and Panchagavya (38.26 %) treatments had some adverse effects, and they were at par with each other. Seed treatments with Aamritpani resulted in maximum germination (60.33%), speed of germination (31.26%), and vigour index I (1436), followed by Trichoderma (germination 59.53%, speed of germinatin 30.62 % and Vigour index I (1555) and maximum of vigour index II (120.83). Overall performance of varieties was not statistically significant. However, Thailand Lahi had maximum germination and vigour parameters than other varieties.

181 Table 1. Overall effect of bio formulations on seed treatment of rice varieties

Germination (%) Treatment Speed of Vigour Vigour Formulation germination index- I index II

AmritPani 60.33 31.26 1596 115.56

BeejAmrit 46.06 22.71 1047 50.05

Hydro 41.40 27.85 1013 37.96 priming

PanchaGavya 38.26 19.57 1177 43.02

Trichodderma 59.53 30.62 1555 120.83

Control 53.53 19.70 1352 86.80

CD (P= 0.01) 15.30 8.15 454 86.80

Table 2. Overall effect of rice varieties on seed treatments

Variety Germination % Speed of Vigour Vigour germination index- I index II

Thailand Lahi 56.33 30.54 1436 67.68

MTU 7029 50.22 25.22 1316 80.58

MTU 1010 44.05 26.32 1217 79.56

KhamtiLahi 49.61 23.05 1279 105.76

Sali 44.05 21.31 1139 44.94

CD (P= 0.01) NS NS NS 37.22

The present findings are in conformity with those reported by Gavit (2018) on Khirni, where the highest germination percentage was found in Amritpani pre-soaking treatment. Similar results were also reported by Kaberi et al. (2017) for in vitro cloning of banana with Amritpani media which resulted in mass production of banana.

182 Conclusion

The present investigation conforms that Amritpani can be successfully used for the seed treatment of rice.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to extend their sincere gratitude and acknowledge thanks to the Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai for providing the facilities required for the study.

References

Gavit, R.R. (2018). Effect of pre-sowing seed treatment on germination and growth of khirni (Manilkarahexandra L.) (Thesis). Dr. BalasaheebsawantKonkanKrishiVidyapeeth.

Kaberi, M., Sashika, B., and Partha, S.M. (2017). A fast protocol for in vitro cloning of banana (Musa acuminate). International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Science, 6(10), 586-594.

183 IMPACT OF TERMINAL CLIPPING ON THE YIELD PERFORMANCE OF SESAME (Sesamum indicum L.) VARIETIES UNDER NAMSAI CONDITIONS

Bamang Siro*, V. S. Devadas and G. N. Hazarika Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai-792103, Arunachal Pradesh *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Performance of four sesame varieties (V1- Gujarat til -10, V2- Roing Local, V3- Thilothama and V4- Lathao Local) under two nipping treatments (N1- nipping at 30 days after sowing and N2- Control without nipping) were evaluated in a factorial randomised design with three replications during August- December 2019 season at the Agriculture Research Farm of the Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai. Observations on growth and yield parameters revealed significant difference among the treatments with respect to plant height, number of primary branches, days to 50% flowering and yield. Among the varieties V1- Gujarat til -10, V2- Roing Local and V4- Lathao Local were the high yielders and they were at par (355.00 g/plot, 378.33 g/plot and 313.33 g/plot respectively) with each other, whereas V3 (Thilothama) was found to be a low yielder (123.33 g/plot of 6 m2). Nipping of terminal bud of plants at 30 days after sowing significantly produced a higher yield (349.16 g/plot) when compared to un nipped control plants (235.83 g/plot). Varieties Roing Local and Gujarat til-10 with nipping of terminal bud at 30 days after sowing resulted in maximum yield (446.00 g and 436.67 g/plot of 6 m2 respectively) among all the treatments studied confirming the advantages of nipping.

Keywords: Sesame, Nipping, Namsai

Introduction

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), known as the “Queen of oil seed crops” is one of the oldest oil seed crops cultivated in India. Its oil is excellent in quality and has medicinal qualities too. Sesame is drought- tolerant and hence it is called a survivor crop, with an ability to grow where most crops fail. It is popularly known as gingelly, til, benni, ajanjoli, ellu, goma and simsim in different languages. Sesame ranks first for having oil content of 46-64 per cent and 6355 K cal kg-1 dietary energy in seeds (Sanjay Kumar and Goel, 1994). Seed of sesame is also rich source of protein (20-28%), sugar (14-16%) and minerals (5-7%). This oil has 85 per cent highly stable unsaturated fatty acids and has washing effect on cholesterol and prevents coronary heart disease. Sesame is cultivated as a minor crop in Arunachal Pradesh for food and seasoning purposes along with rice cultivation. It is used in various sweet and side dish preparations. Oil extraction of sesame is not done in the state, but it has good prospects. The crop therefore presents a bright scope for large scale cultivation and oil extraction.

184 Clipping of terminal bud which activates the dormant lateral buds to produce more branches is an important operation for increasing the sesame yield (Ramanthan & Chandrashekharan, 1998). Increased number of primary branches/plant of sesame was found by Singh et al. (2013) when the plants were detopped at different stages. Kokilavani et al. (2007) noticed that terminal clipping done at 35 days after sowing recorded higher N (36.20 kg/ha), P (4.98 kg/ha), K (33.8 kg/ha) uptake by the varieties SVPR 1 and TMV 4. Under these backgrounds, a trial was conducted to study the effect of clippings on performance of sesame varieties under Namsai conditions of Arunachal Pradesh.

Materials and Methods The experiment was conducted at the Agriculture Research Farm of the Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai during August-December 2019. The experiment was laid out in factorial randomized block design with three replications involving eight treatments combinations of four varieties (V1- Gujarat til -10, V2- Roing Local ,V3- Thilothama and V4- Lathao Local) and two nipping treatments (N1- nipping at 30 days after sowing and N2- Control without nipping). Plot size was 3x2 meter. The seeds were sown on 19th August 2019. Thinning and gap filling were done one week, and nipping was done on 30 days after sowing. Uniform cultural operations were done.

Results and Discussion Results of statistical analysis indicating the mean effect of varieties, nipping treatments and interactions are furnished in Table 1. The maximum plant height was observed in Lathao Local (68.26 cm), minimum in Gujarat til -10 (46.40 cm) and they differed statistically. Mean plant height of Thilothama (59.80 cm) and Roing Local (58.40 cm) were at par with each other. However, there was no significant difference between varieties with respect to branches per plant. Significant difference in days to 50% flowering was seen Table 1. Effect of nipping and variety on yield attributes of sesame

Treatment Mean Number of Days to 50% Mean Yield / plot (g / 6 combinations plant Primary flowering sq m) /Interactions height branches / (AxB) (cm) plant T1 – V1 with 39.86 6.40 53.0 436.67 Nipping T2 – V1 no Nipping 52.93 8.80 52.0 273.30 T3 – V2 with 54.60 8.00 51.3 446.60 Nipping T4 –V2 no Nipping 62.20 8.70 51.6 310.00

185 T5 –V3 with 53.00 7.73 52.0 136.60 nipping T6 – V3 No nipping 66.60 9.46 50.6 110.00 T7 – V4 with 54.20 6.66 51.6 376.60 nipping T8 – V4 No nipping 82.33 10.4 44.3 250.00 CD (P = 0.01) 9.51 1.27 1.18 194.57 SE(+) 4.39 0.59 0.54 65.3 Factor A- Varieties V1Gujarat til -10 46.40 7.63 52.50 355.00 V2 Roing Local 58.40 8.36 51.50 378.33 V3Thilothama 59.80 8.60 51.33 123.33 V4Lathao Local 68.26 8.53 48.00 313.33 CD 6.72 NS 0.83 100.08 SE (+) 3.10 0.41 0.38 46.21 Factor B - Nipping N1 50.41 7.20 52.00 349.16 N2 66.17 9.36 49.66 235.83 CD 4.75 0.63 0.59 70.77 SE (±) 2.19 0.29 0.27 32.68 among varieties. Lathao local was the fastest to achieve 50% flowering (48 days) and maximum period was seen in Gujarat til-10 (52.50 days), whereas that of Thilothama (51.33) and Roing local (51.50) were at par with each other. The yield of varieties varied significantly. Maximum yield of 378.33 g / plot was recorded by the variety Roing Local and it was at par with Guajarat til-10 (355.00 g/ plot) and Lathao local (313.33 g/ plot). The statistical data on the overall effect of terminal clipping was found significant. Plants which received terminal clipping or nipping at 30 days after sowing had low plant height and branches, but had significantly higher yield (349.16g/ plot for nipping and 235.83g for control plot). Nipping or clipping of terminal growth at 30 days after sowing significantly delayed the days to 50% flowering also (49.66 for un nipped controlled plants and 52.00 days for nipped plants). Interaction effects of sesame varieties and terminal clippings on growth and yield parameters were statistically significant. The variety Lathao Local with no nipping recorded maximum plant height (82.33cm) and the variety Gujarat til 10 with nipping had the shortest plants (39.86 cm) among all other treatments. Lathao Local with no clipping had the maximum branches (10.4) and the lowest branches were noticed in

186 Gujrat til -10 with nipping. However Varieties Roing Local and Gujarat til-10 with nipping operation at 30 days after sowing resulted in maximum yield (446.00 g and 436.67 g/ plot of 6 sq m respectively) among all the treatments studied. Variety Thilothama without and with nipping had significantly the lowest yields of 110 and 136 g/plot. Korhale et al. (2012) reported higher seed yield when crop was nipped at 30 days after sowing. Kharbade et al. (2017) noticed that topping at 30 days after sowing resulted in the best yield and yield contributing parameters. However nipped plants produced shorter plant height when compared to un- nipped plants. Duary & Ghosh (2009) from their study also concluded that significant increase in seed yield of sesame could be obtained with nipping at 25 days after sowing.

Conclusion The present investigations showed that the sesame Roing Local with nipping operation at 30 days after sowing resulted in maximum yield among all the varieties studied. Superiority of local varieties and nipping treatments were also confirmed in enhancing the yield.

Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge the facilities provided by the Arunachal University of Studies to take up this study.

References Duary, B. & Ghosh, A.K. (2009). Effect of nipping on productivity and economics of summer sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) under varying levels of plant density. Madras Agric. J., 96 (7-12), 386-388. Kharbade, S. B., Kulkarni, K. V. & Shinde, G. S. (2017). Effect of different topping management on yield contributing characters in summer sesamum. Trends in Biosciences, 10(27), 5856. Kokilavani. S., Jagannathan, R. & Natarajan, S. K. (2007). Manual terminal clipping on yield and nutrient uptake of sesame varieties. Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 3(6), 987-989 Korhale, J. J., Shaikh, A. A., Hankare, R. H. & Salke, S. R. (2012). Influence of topping on growth and yield of summer sesame varieties. J. Agric. Res. Technol., 37(2), 205-207. Ramanathan, S. P. & Chandrasekharan, B. (1998). Effect of nipping, plant geometry and fertilizer on summer sesame (Sesamum indicum). Ind. J. Agron., 43, 329-332. Kumar, S. & Goel, P.D. (1994). A great ancient oil seed sesame. Farmer and Parliament, 12, 6-7. Singh, B., Singh, S., Kumar, V. & Kumar, Y. (2013). Nitrogen and nipping schedule for higher productivity of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) on aridisols of South - Western Haryana. Haryana J. Agron., 29, 1- 5.

187 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC MANURES ON PERFORMANCE OF POTATO (Solanum tuberosum L.) CV. KUFRI JYOTI AT NAMSAI CONDITIONS

Vijay Saroh1, Janbo Libang1, V. S. Devadas2* and Sheelawati Monlai1 1Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, 792103 2College of Horticulture, Central Agricultural University, Thenzawl, Mizoram *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT An experiment was conducted at the Arunachal University of Studies during Rabi season of 2018-19 to study the effect of different organic manures on growth and yield of potato cv. Kufri Jyoti under Namsai conditions in Arunachal Pradesh. Planting was done in the month of November 2018 in a randomized block design -1 involving seven treatments in three replications. The treatments were T1 ( Farm Yard Manure @ 15 t ha ), T2 -1 -1 -1 (Poultry manure @ 5 t ha ), T3 (Vermicompost @ 6 t ha ), T4 ( FYM + Poultry manure @ 7.5 t ha FYM + -1 -1 -1 2.5 t ha Poultry manure ), T5 ( FYM + Vermicompost @ 7.5 t ha FYM + 3 t ha Vermicompost ), T6 ( -1 -1 Poultry manure + Vermicompost @ 2.5 t ha poultry manure + 3 t ha vermicompost) and T7 (Control). Growth and yield parameters were observed and tested for significance. Most of the yield and yield attributing characters viz., mean tuber weight with top (141.14 g), mean tuber weight without top (95.86 g), mean tuber -1 length (9.75 cm), and marketable tuber yield (5.71 t ha ) were significantly higher with the application of T5 -1 -1 (FYM + Vermicompost @ 7.5 t ha FYM + 3 t ha vermicompost) followed by T2 (poultry manure @ 5 t ha-1). Therefore, the combination of organic manure sources in the proportion of (FYM + Vermicompost @ 7.5 t ha-1 FYM + 3 t ha-1 vermicompost or a combination of FYM + Poultry Manure @ 7.5 t ha-1 FYM + 2.5 t ha-1 Poultry manure) are found to be the most appropriate treatment for cultivation of potato cv. Kufri Jyoti under Namsai conditions.

Keywords: Kufri Jyoti, Potato, Organic manures

Introduction Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is an important vegetable crop of India, though it is used as a food in most parts of the world. Potato is grown in Arunachal Pradesh during winter season. It fits well in various multiple cropping systems of tropical and subtropical climatic conditions. It has been realized that indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers has affected the soil quality adversely and also deteriorates the produce quality (Naik & Khurana, 2003). Organic farming has potential for reducing some of the negative impacts of intensive agriculture on environment to restore the productivity of degraded soils (Ghosh et al., 1998). Under these situations, field investigations were initiated to evaluate the effect of different organic

188 manures individually and in different combinations on growth and yield of potato cv. Kufri Jyoti at Namsai conditions.

Materials and Methods

The experiment was carried out in the Agricultural Research Farm of Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai during Rabi season 2018-2019. The trial was laid out in a randomized complete block design with -1 seven treatments replicated three times. The treatments were: T1 -FYM @ 15 t ha , T2- Poultry manure (PM) -1 -1 -1 - @ 5 t ha , T3-Vermicompost (VC) @ 6 t ha , T4 - FYM + Poultry manure (@ 7.5 t ha FYM + 2.5 t ha 1 -1 -1 VC), T5- FYM + Vermicompost (@ 7.5 t ha FYM + 3 t ha VC), T6 - Poultry manure + Vermicompost (@ -1 -1 2.5 t ha PM+ 3 t ha VC), and T7– Control. Observations on various growth and yield parameters were recorded and analysed as per standard procedures and the details are presented in table 1.

Results and Discussion Growth parameters

Among the treatments significantly higher plant height was observed in T5 (FYM + Vermicompost @ -1 -1 -1 7.5 t ha FYM + 3 t ha VC) (24.45 cm) and it was on par with T3 (Vermicompost @ 6t ha ) (23.82 cm) and -1 -1 followed by T6 (Poultry manure + Vermicompost@ 2.5 t ha PM + 3 t ha VC) (22.4 cm). The lowest plant height at 90 DAP was observed in T7 control (17.53 cm). It was observed that the treatments having vermicompost, in general, had better growth (T5, T3 and T6 at 90 DAP).

-1 -1 The treatment T5 (FYM + Vermicompost @ 7.5 t ha FYM + 3 t ha vermicompost) recorded the highest number of leaves (30.89) at 90 days after planting followed by T6 (Poultry manure + vermicompost @ 2.5 t ha-1 poultry manure + 3 t ha-1 vermicompost) (29.26) at 90 days after planting. This increase in number of leaves might be due to increased uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in these treatments. This increase in height

189 Table 1. Growth and yield parameters of potato as influenced by different organic manures

Growth parameters Yield parameters

Plant Number- Leaf Mean Total Market height r of area tuber biologi- able Treatments (cm) at 90 leaves at index at yield/p cal yieldt/h DAP 90 DAP 90 DAP lant(g) a Yield%

-1 T1-FYM @15 t ha 20.43 27.04 1.99 78.67 72.91 4.65

-1 T2- Poultry manure (PM) @ 5 t ha 21.48 28.17 1.79 70.78 83.77 4.85

-1 T3- Vermicompost (VC) @ 6 t ha 23.82 29.00 2.42 75.86 75.35 4.31

-1 T4- FYM + Poultry manure @ (7.5 t ha 22.05 28.22 1.87 81.38 88.65 4.88 FYM + 2.5 t ha-1PM)

-1 T5- FYM + Vermicompost @ (7.5 t ha 24.45 30.89 2.59 95.68 91.67 5.71 FYM + 3 t ha-1 VC

T6- Poultry manure + Vermicompost @ 22.44 29.26 2.30 72.61 76.55 4.18 ( 2.5 t ha-1 PM + 3 t ha-1 VC

T7- Control 17.53 26.17 1.79 55.25 64.74 3.35

SEm (±) 0.59 0.49 0.08 2.85 0.80 0.28 CD ( P= 0.05) 1.83 NS 0.25 8.77 2.45 0.85 CV (%) 4.72 2.99 6.66 6.51 1.74 10.50

might be due to increase in uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Sharma et al. (1980) indicated that a heavy dressing of farmyard manure (30 t ha-1 per annum) could supply potatoes with enough P and K. Similar trends were observed by Anchal et al. (2008) in tomato and Suja (2009) in tannia. Naidu et al. (1999) also indicated the same trend in okra. Leaf area index at 90 DAP also shown significant difference among the treatments. The highest leaf -1 -1 area index was observed in T5 (FYM + Vermicompost @ 7.5 t ha FYM+ 3 t ha VC) (2.59) and it was on -1 par with T3 (Vermicompost @ 6 t ha ) (2.42).The lowest leaf area index was observed in T2 (Poultry manure -1 @ 5 t ha ) (1.79) and T7 -Control (1.79).

Yield parameters The mean tuber yield per plant as influenced by different organic manures varied significantly. The -1 -1 highest yield (95.68 g) was recorded in T5 (FYM + Vermicompost @ 7.5 t ha + 3 t ha ) followed by T4 -1 -1 (FYM + Poultry manure @ 7.5 t ha + 2.5 t ha ) (81.38 g). The lowest yield was recorded by T7- control (55.25 g).

190 The relative proportion of tuber yield to total biological yield (%) per treatment also varied -1 -1 significantly. The highest percent (91.67%) was recorded in T5 (FYM + Vermicompost @ 7.5 t ha + 3 tha )

and it was distinctly superior with other treatments. The lowest value was recorded in the treatment T7- control -1 -1 (64.74 %), followed by T1 (FYM @ 15 t ha ) (72.91 %) and T3-Vermicompost @ 6 t ha (75.35%).

The data on total tuber yield per hectare as influenced by organic manures showed significant difference. Since there was a high proportion of weevil infested undersized tubers in all plots, yield of - marketable tubers only is presented in the table. The maximum marketable tuber yield per hectare (5.71 t ha 1 -1 -1 ) was recorded with T5 (FYM + Vermicompost @ 7.5 t ha + 3 t ha ) and it was on par with T4 (FYM +

1 -1 -1 -1 -1 Poultry manure @ 7.5 t ha + 2.5 t ha ) (4.88 t ha ), followed by T2 (Poultry manure @ 5 t ha ) (4.85 t ha ). -1 The lowest yield was recorded with treatment T7– control (3.35 t ha ) and it was on par with T6 (Poultry -1 -1 1 -1 manure + Vermicompost @ 2.5 t ha + 3 t ha ) (4.18 t ha ) and followed by T3 (Vermicompost @ 6 t ha ) (4.31 t ha-1). Opena & Porter (1999) observed similar trend in potato. The desirable effect obtained in potato -1 -1 crop with the application of T5 (FYM + Vermicompost @ 7.5 t ha FYM + 3 t ha vermicompost) and with -1 -1 the application of T4 ( FYM + Poultry Manure @ 7.5 t ha + 2.5 t ha ) could be due to the availability of balanced trace elements along with the major elements, which favor the uptake of nutrients.

Conclusion Investigations were carried out during Rabi season (Nov 2018 – February 2019) in the field of Arunachal University of Studies campus, Namsai District to evaluate the ‟Effect of different organic manures on performance of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) Cv. Kufri jyoti at namsai conditions. It may be concluded from the findings of the present study that among the combination of different organic manure sources, the proportion of FYM + Vermicompost @ 7.5 t ha-1FYM + 3 t ha-1 vermicompost or a combination of FYM + Poultry Manure @ 7.5 t ha-1 FYM + 2.5 t ha-1 Poultry manure are found to be the most appropriate treatment options for cultivation of potato cv. Kufri Jyoti in Namsai area of Arunachal Pradesh.

Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge the Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai for providing them the required facilities to undertake the studies.

References Anchal, D., Lenka, N. K., Sudhishri, S. & Patnaik, U. S. (2008). Influence of integrated nutrient management on production, economics and soil properties in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) under on –farm condition in easternghats of Orissa. Indian J.Agri. Sci., 78(1), 40-43.

191 Naidu, A. K., Kushwah, S. S. & Dwivedi, Y. C. (1999). Performance of organic manures, bio and chemical fertilizers and their combinations on microbial population of soil and growth of okra. Jawaharalal Neheru Krish iVishwa Vidhyalaya Res. J., 33(1-2), 34-38. Opena, G. B. & Porter, G. A.(1999). Soil management and supplemental irrigation effects on potato : II. Root growth. Agron. J., 91(3), 426-431.

Sharma, R. C., Grewal, J. S. & Singh, M. (1980). Effects of annual and biennial application of phosphorus and potassium fertilizer and farmyard manure on yields of potato tubers, on nutrient uptake and on soil properties. J. Agric. Sci., Camb., 94, 533-538.

192 VARIABILITY OF QEED QUALITY PARAMETERS IN FRENCH BEANS (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Jalingko Chaumoung, Rimi Deuri, V. S. Devadas*, and Sheelawati Monlai Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, 792103 Corresponding E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT A study on seed quality parameters of ten varieties of french beans viz., 2018-ILYA, Anupama, Anushka, Florence, Katrina, Komal, Phalgun, Royal, Selection-9 and Shilbea was carried out during March, 2019 at the Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai. The seed quality parameters of each variety consisting of 100 seed weight, seed colour, germination percentage, speed of germination, vigour index-I, vigour index-II, shoot length, root length, total seedling length and seedling dry weight were analysed. Among all the varieties, Selection-9 was found to be the most superior with respect to 100 seed weight, germination percentage, vigour index-II, root length and seedling dry weight. Katrina had the highest germination and speed of germination, while the highest shoot length and total seedling length was observed in Shilbea. The 100 seed weight, root length and the seedling dry weight were all found positively and significantly correlated. Highly positive correlations were also observed between germination percentage and speed of germination, and between shoot length and total seedling length. Keywords: Variability, French bean, Seed quality

Introduction

French beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are an important vegetable crop of India. It is well established that the performance of a crop variety, particularly the phenotypic expression of various plant characteristics, is a combined product of genetic constituents of the plant and the environmental interactions. Among other factors, quality of seeds influences 20-30% of productivity of any crop. Seed quality, particularly germination and vigour shows the potential performance of a seed lot. A large variability exists among seeds of french bean varieties with respect to seed size, colour and seed weight. Variation in quality parameters of french bean seeds need to be studied. Under this background, the present investigations were undertaken at the Agriculture Research Laboratory of Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai to study the variability of seeds and seed quality parameters in french beans, and to identify the french bean variety(ies) with good seed quality parameters.

Materials and Methods Seeds of ten varieties of french beans viz., 2018-ILYA, Anupama, Anushka, Florence, Katrina, Komal, Phalgun, Royal, Selection-9 and Shilbea were evalusted for various seed quality parameters during March, 2019. The seed quality parameters of each variety consisting of 100 seed weight, seed colour, germination percentage, speed of germination, vigour index-I, vigour index-II, shoot length, root length, total seedling

193 length and seedling dry weight were recorded and analysed in a completely randomised design with three replications. Seed germination was conducted in sand medium. The results are furnished in table 1.

Results and Discussion

Wide variability was seen with respect to colour of seeds in the 10 french bean varieties; similarities for seed colour were also noted in a few varieties. Seeds of 2018-ILYA and Shilbea were black in colour; whereas that of Anupama and Anushka were dark brown. Seeds of Florence, Katrina, Komal, Phalgun and Royal were white in colour and that of Selection-9 was brown in colour. 100 seed weight is an indicator of general seed quality and it is an important indicator of seed quality. The 100 seed weight of the french bean varieties differed significantly from each other. The highest 100 seed weight was observed in Selection-9 (33.86 g) which was significantly superior to the rest of the varieties being tested. The lowest 100 seed weight was observed in Royal (15.59g) followed by Katrina (16.32g). The variations in 100 seed weight could be attributed to the genotypic differences for seed sizes among the varieties as reported by Zeliang (2018). Similar findings were also reported by, Attri (2017) in Sapindus mukorossi, Islam (2008) in Jute, Lambat (2015). Germination percentage is used as an important indicator of seed viability. In the present study the germination percentage of all the varieties, except 2018-ILYA (30%) and Komal (68.5%), were more than the minimum seed certification standards of 75%. The highest germination percentage was observed in the seeds of Katrina and Selection-9 (99%), while the lowest germination percentage was that of 2018-ILYA (30%).Similar observation was also reported by Aswathi (2015) in cowpea.

Table 1. Variability for seed quality parameters of french beans varieties

Varieties 100 seed Germi Speed Vigour Vigour Shoot Root Total Seedlin weight nation of index-I index-II length length seedling g dry (g) (%) germin (cm) (cm) length weight ation (cm) (g) (seeds /day) 2018-ILYA 24.69 30.0 2.99 1030.25 111.45 19.67 14.85 34.04 3.83 Anupama 26.96 88.5 9.00 2871.04 330.54 16.63 15.76 32.39 3.72 Anushka 28.39 90.5 8.33 2756.82 318.51 13.42 16.89 30.26 3.49 Florence 19.15 98.5 10.85 3222.26 220.13 22.02 10.70 32.72 2.23 Katrina 16.07 99.0 11.90 3375.43 236.35 26.20 7.89 34.10 2.39 Komal 20.94 68.5 5.38 1837.84 159.05 21.14 5.75 26.89 2.32 Phalgun 18.49 91.0 9.82 2754.16 208.86 23.44 6.85 30.28 2.30 Royal 15.59 95.0 10.84 3084.19 165.04 22.03 10.63 32.46 1.74

194 Selection-9 33.86 99.0 11.85 3861.36 474.58 21.54 17.49 39.03 4.80 Shilbea 24.81 91.0 9.45 4679.62 298.56 36.11 15.34 51.45 3.28 CD (1%) 1.15 8.52 2.46 655.36 75.79 4.94 4.67 7.73 0.85 CV (%) 2.58 5.15 13.99 11.44 15.45 11.43 19.68 11.58 14.52 SEm ± 0.3 2.19 0.63 168.51 19.49 1.27 1.20 1.99 0.22

The speed of germination of the different varieties varied significantly among themselves. The highest speed of germination was observed in Katrina with 11.9 seeds per day followed by Selection-9 with 11.85 seeds per day. The lowest speed of germination was observed in 2018-ILYA (2.99 seeds per day). Similar trends were also reported by Shaibu (2016) in common beans, Aswathi (2015) in cowpea. The vigour index-I estimated based on seedling length and germination percentage, was observed to be the highest in Shilbea (4679.62) and lowest in 2018-ILYA (1030.25). While vigour index-II (based on seedling dry weight and germination percentage) was found to be the highest in Selection-9 (474.58) and lowest in 2018-ILYA (111.45). High variations in the seed vigour of different varieties were also observed by Aswathi (2015) in cowpea. Selection-9 was observed to have the highest seed quality parameters such as 100 seed weight (33.86g), germination percentage (99%), vigour index-II (474.58), root length (36.11 cm) and seedling dry weight (4.80g/20 seedlings). Its mean speed of germination of 11.85 seeds/day was at par with Katrina (11.9 seeds/day), which had the highest mean speed of germination. Katrina also showed the highest mean germination percentage of 99%. The highest mean vigour index-I (4679.62), shoot length (36.11 cm) and total seedling length (51.45 cm) were observed in Shilbea.

Conclusions From these findings it can be concluded that Selection-9 had the best seed quality parameters among all the other tested varieties. Katrina was observed to be superior in terms of germination percentage and speed of germination and Shilbea had the highest shoot length and total seedling length.

Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge the Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai for providing the facilities to take up the studies.

References

Aswathi, C., Devadas, V.S., Francies, R.M. and Bastian, D. (2015). Genetic Divergence in Cowpea (Vigna spp.) varieties for seed quality. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 53(2),197-199.

195 Attri, V., Pant, K.S., Singh, N. & Negi, V. (2017). Influence of Seed Size and Pre-Sowing Treatments on Germination Parameters of Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn under Laboratory Condition. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6(10), 2788-2799.

Islam, M.M., Rahman, M.A., Ahmed, M., Hossain, S.M.A. & Moniruzzaman, S.M. (2008). Evaluation of Jute Seed Quality Attributes and their Relationship as Affected by Seed sources. Bangladesh Journal of Jute and Fibre, 28(1), 31-38.

Lambat, A., Gadewar, R., Charjan, S., Dapke, S. & Lambat, P. (2015). Studies on Seed Quality Parameters and Mycoflora Associated with Bold and Shriveled Seeds of Lentil. International Journal of Researches in Biosciences, Agriculture & Technology, 1, 139-141.

Shaibu, A.S. & Ibrahim, S.I. (2016). Genetic Variability and Heritability of Seedling Vigour in Common Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Sudan Savanna. International Journal of Agricultural Policy and Research, 4(4), 62-66.

Zeliang, P.K., Kumar, M., Kumar, R., Meena, K.L. & Rajkowa, D.J. (2018). Varietal Evaluation of French Bean for Higher Productivity and Nutritional Security under the Foot Hill Ecosystem of Nagaland. Indian Journal of Hill Farming, 31(2), 206-213.

196 EVALUATION OF PEA (Pisum sativum L.) VARIETIES FOR GROWTH AND YIELD UNDER NAMSAI CONDITIONS, ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Punyo Bakhang, Anil Kumar Jena, V. S. Devadas* and Sheelawati Monlai Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, 792103 *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT An experiment was conducted in 2018-19 to study the performance of different varieties of garden peas under Namsai conditions of Arunachal Pradesh in the Research Farm of Arunachal University of Studies. Ten varieties were evaluated in a replicated randomized block design with three replications during November 2018 to Febuary 2019. Analysis of observations revealed significant difference for all growth and yield characters among these varieties. All varieties exhibited considerable variation in their performance for most of the parameters. Growth parameters such as number of leaves (24.33 and 58.67 at 30, 45 days respectively), number of branches per plant (6.27 and 11.33 at 30, 45 days respectively) and fresh weight of plant (6.07 and 9.1 at 30, 45 days respectively) were the highest in variety Somani. The highest total pod yield per plot (3.76 kg per 4.8 sq m) was also recorded by Somani. Among all the varieties Somani recorded the highest yield. Keywords: Pea varieties, Arunachal Pradesh, Yield

Introduction Pea is one of the important vegetable crops in India and it is mainly cultivated for its green tender pods. In India, the main pea growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka. The pea cultivars, cultivated by the vegetable growers in India particularly in the state of Arunachal Pradesh are very low yielders and their quality does not compete with the varieties grown elsewhere. A lot of research work has been conducted on varietal performance of peas in India but there is lack of research work on evaluation of pea varieties under agro climatic conditions of Namsai region of Arunachal Pradesh. Hence the present investigation was conducted to select the suitable pea varieties under Namsai condition.

Materials and Methods Present investigations were conducted at the Agriculture Research Farm of Arunachal University of Studies during rabi season of 2018-19. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with three replications and ten varieties. The varieties used were Welcome-2010, KSP-110, Local 1, Local 2, Local 3, Krishikalyan, Somani, Vipro VS-10, Durga and Rajdhani. The seeds were sown on first week of November in well prepared plots of size 2.4 m x 2.0 m (4.80 m2) with a spacing of 30 cm x 10 cm. All the standard agronomic practices were followed throughout the growing season. Observations were recorded for various growth and yield parameters, and analysed under standard procedures. 197 Results and Discussion Mean of growth and yield parameters of pea varieties along with results of statistical analysis are presented in table 1. The results showed significant variation in plant height of pea varieties. The highest plant height (tallest) was seen in Somani both at 30 and 45 DAS (19.23 cm and 42.00 cm), however the variety Welcome-2010 (17.67) were also at par with tallest variety Somani. The variety Local-2 expressed the shortest (dwarf) plant height (14.59 cm and 32.00 cm) at 30 and 45 DAS. This was at par with Krishikalyan (14.73). Maximum plant height of 19.23 cm and 42.00 cm was found in variety Somani at 30 and 45 DAS, respectively while minimum plant height was observed in variety Local-2 i.e., 14.59 cm and 32.00 cm at 30 and 45 days. The data presented in table 1 revealed significant difference among varieties on number of leaves per plant i.e. at 30 and 45 DAS. The maximum number of leaves per plant was seen in Somani both at 30 and 45 DAS (24.33 and 58.67) however the varieties Rajdhani, Local-1, Krishikalyan, KSP-110 and Welcome-2010 were also at par with variety Somani. The variety Local-2 expressed less number of leaves per plant (22.10 and 47.00) at 30 and 45 DAS. This was at par with Vipro, Durga and Local-3. Maximum number of leaves per plant i.e. 24.33 and 58.67 respectively, were found in variety Somani which was significantly superior. While minimum number of leaves was observed in variety Local 2 (22.10) at 30 DAS and Durga (45.33) at 45 DAS.

The highest number of branches per plant was seen in Somani both at 30 and 45 DAS (6.27 and 11.33). The variety Local-2 expressed rather less number of branches per plant (5.03 cm and 7.20 cm) at 30 and 45 DAS. This was at par with Vipro, Durga, Local-3 and KSP-110. Variety Somani recorded maximum number of branches per plant i.e. 6.27 and 11.33. While minimum number of branches per plant was observed in variety Local 2 i.e. 5.03 and 7.20.

Fresh weight of plant was recorded at 30 and 45 DAS. The data presented in Table (4) exhibited significant influence of varieties on fresh weight of plant at 30 and 45 DAS. The highest fresh weight was seen in Somani both at 30 and 45 DAS (6.07 g and 9.10 g) however the variety Durga expressed less fresh weight (3.85 g and 6.30 g) at 30 and 45 DAS. This was at par with Local-2 (4.37 g) and Rajdhani (7.47 g) at 30 and 45 DAS. Maximum fresh weight of plant was observed in case of variety Somani i.e. 6.07 g and 9.10 g at 30 and 45 DAS. While minimum fresh weight of plant was observed in Durga i.e., 3.85 g and 6.30 g. The highest dry weight was seen in Somani both at 30 and 45 DAS (0.70 g and 1.73 g). However the varieties Vipro were also at par with variety Somani. The variety Durga expressed the less fresh weight (0.32 g and 1.03 g) at 30 and 45 DAS. This was at par with Local-2, Local -3 and Rajdhani at 30 days and Local-3 (1.13 g) days. Dry weight of plant was recorded at 30 and 45 DAS. At 30 and 45 DAS, maximum dry weight of plant was found in varieties Somani. While minimum dry weight of plant was observed in Durga i.e., 3.85 g and 6.30 g.

198 Number of root nodules was recorded at 30 and 45 DAS. The highest number of root nodules was seen in Somani both at 30 and 45 DAS (31.00 and 20.00) however the varieties Krishikalyan and Vipro were also at par with variety Somani. The variety Durga expressed less number of root nodules (24.00 and 15.24) at 30 and 45 DAS. This was at par with KSP-110 and local-2 at 30 days. At 30 days and 45 DAS, highest root nodules were found with Somani (31.00 and 20.00). While minimum dry weight of plant was observed in Durga i.e., 24.00 g and 15.24 g.

The highest number of nodes of first flowering was seen in KSP-110 DAS (11.37) however the varieties Rajdhani were also at par with variety KSP-110. The variety Vipro expressed less number of nodes of first flowering (7.67). This was at par with Krishikalian, Local-1 and

199 Table 1. Mean performance of Pea Varieties for various characters

Num Days Nu Ave See Tot Number ber to Days Fresh Dry mbe rag Nu Po d al Plant Number of Number of 1st take weight weight r of e mbe d yie pod height of leaves branche of root node flow n to of plant of plant pod wei r of len ld yiel Varietie (cm) per plant s per nodules of erin 50% (g) (g) s ght seed gth per d s plant 1st g flow per of per (c Po per flow initi erin pla pod pod m) d(g plot erin atio g 30DS 30DS 30DS 30DS 30DS 30DS nt s(g) ) (kg) 45DS 45DS 45DS 45DS 45D 45DS g n Welco 17 41 23 5. 8. 1. 26 9. 5. 0. 30.1 37.1 14. 7. 10. me .6 .2 .8 48 8 1 3 .1 16 11.3 4.7 73 03 33 8 7 67 4.9 37 8 2.2 2010 7 3 3 6 7 2 9 3 6

KSP- 23 45 1. 17 17 5. 8. 4. 7. 0. 11.3 29.6 15. 4.6 6. 8.4 39 .0 .6 3 25 .5 35 110 .1 1 13 97 6 41 7 7 07 5.2 7 5 2 2.3 7 7 3 7 4 9 14 5. 7. 1. 25 19 Local- 22 7. 4. 0. 30.3 14. 3.6 5. 2 .5 32 47 0 3 4 .5 .4 8.67 35 5.8 9 2.6 9 .1 3 2 37 3 45 1 6 7 3 37 3 7 37 3

Krishi 14 34 23 53 4. 30 7. 3. 0. 1. 29.3 17. 5.1 5. 8.3 Kalya .7 .4 .5 .3 9 7 .6 18 9.33 40 59 4 35 4 3 07 7 1 3 2.5 n 3 3 3 3 7 7 4.9 4 17 40 4. 7. 1. 29 17 Local- 23 7. 4. 0. 38.6 16. 4. 8.0 1 .1 .0 49 6 6 5 .6 .6 9.11 31 4.9 4.5 2.4 6 7 .4 7 6 47 3 52 3 7 7 7 2 7 13 8 4 19 24 58 6. 11 1. Soman 6. 9. 0. 37.0 18. 5.8 14. i .2 42 .3 .6 2 .3 7 31 20 9.45 33 6.3 8 3.7 3 3 7 7 3 07 1 7 3 7 4 4 3 1 6 38 22 44 5. 8. 1. 29 18 7. 5. 0. 29.7 40.6 16. 4.3 9.1 Vipro 16 .0 .6 .6 0 3 2 .8 .1 7.67 4.3 5 2.1 3 7 7 7 97 07 3 6 5 5 7 1 7 33 7 3 1 7 15 38 22 45 5. 1. 15 7. 3. 6. 0. 27.6 41.3 14. 3. Durga .2 .8 .3 .3 3 0 24 .2 8 3.0 3 8 1.3 9 3 3 3 3 3 85 3 32 3 4 7 3 5 8 97 4 17 41 22 47 5. 8. 1. 27 18 Local - 7. 0. 30.9 15. 4.4 5. 3 .5 .7 .2 .3 1 5 1 1 .4 .1 8.18 40 4.7 9 2.2 1 3 5 3 1 8 3 4 3 1 5 8 17 2 8 41 1 16 46 7. 1. 28 18 Rajdh 39 4. 7. 4. 0. 30.3 38.1 16. 5. 10. ani .6 23 .6 4 3 .3 .6 9.71 4.4 2.6 3 .7 7 9 73 9 7 39 3 3 7 3 8 33 5.3 67 73 3

S.Em 0. 0. 0. 0.5 0. 0. 0. 1. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.80 0.2 0.3 0. 0.6 0.0 1 0 0 0.63 0.66 0 ± 57 44 45 07 24 28 05 70 71 5 5 48 1 7 3 4 5 CD 1. 0. 1. 0. 2. (P=0. 1. 1. 3. 0. 0. 0. 2. 1.4 0.7 1.0 1. 1.8 0.2 33 3 1 1 07 1.86 1.96 2.37 05) 70 30 18 8 72 82 9 15 4 10 9 5 3 42 1 1

4. 10 9. 19 6. 14 CV 5. 1. 3. 3. 5. 4. 6. 11.7 5.5 8.8 13. 11. 5.0 1 .1 0 .9 0 3.79 3.61 .6 98 97 36 82 9 10 1 2 1 8 34 84 1 1 3 47 2 04 8

200 Somani. Minimum number of node of first flowering (7.67) was recorded in Vipro. While the variety KSP- 110 recorded maximum number of node of first flowering (11.37). Minimum days (27.67) taken to first flowering initiation was found with the variety Durga while the variety Somani recorded maximum days to first flowering initiation (33.00).

Minimum days taken to 50% flowering (35.00) was recorded in case of variety KSP-110 and Local-2. Maximum days taken to 50% flowering (41.33) was recorded with Durga.

The highest number of pods per plant was seen in Somani (18.40) however the varieties Krishikalyan (17.07) were also at par with tallest variety Somani. The variety Durga expressed less number of pods per plant (14.59). This was at par with Local-3 (15.17). Highest number of pods per plant was found with variety Somani (18.40). While lowest number of pods was observed under Durga.

The highest average pod weight was seen in Somani (6.34 g) however the varieties Local-2 (5.83 g) were also at par with tallest variety Somani. The variety Durga expressed less number of pods per plant (3.08).

The highest number of seeds per pod was seen in Somani (5.83) however the variety KrishiKalyan (5.17) was also at par with variety Somani. The variety Durga expressed less number of seeds per pod .This was at par with Local-2 (3.67).

The highest pod length was seen in Somani (8.00 cm) however the varieties Krishikalyan (6.50 cm) were also at par with variety Somani. Maximum pod length (8.00 cm) was recorded in variety Somani which was significantly superior over all other varieties. The minimum pod length (3.97 cm) was recorded in Durga.

The highest total pod yield per plot was seen in Somani (3.76 kg) .The variety Durga expressed less pod yield per plot (1.34 kg). Maximum seed yield per pod was found with variety Somani (14.10 g) while Durga (8.00 g) registered significantly lower seed yield per pod. Similar results were reported by Singh et al. (2006); Gupta &Singh (2007); Singh & Singh (2011) for all characters

Conclusion From the above studies, it can be concluded that among the ten pea varieties evaluated, Somani was found to be superior in terms of number of pods per plant and total yield per plot and hence, can be recommended to farmers for growing in Namsai region of Arunachal Pradesh. References Elzebroek, T., & Wind, K. (2008). Guide to cultivated plants. CAB International, Oxfordshire, UK. Gupta, A. J. & Singh, Y. V. (2007). Evaluation of garden pea (Pisum sativum) genotypes for earliness, yield and quality attributes. Haryana J. Hortic. Sci., 36(1&2), 106-110 Singh, J. D. & Singh, I. P. (2006). Genetic divergence in advanced genotypes for grain yield in field pea (Pisum sativum L.). Legume Res., 29(4), 301-303. Singh R. & Singh, P. M. (2011). Effect of sowing dates and varieties on yield and quality of garden pea seed. Veg.Sci., 38(2), 184-187. 201 EFFECT OF PRE-EMERGENCE HERBICIDE AND MULCHING ON WEED DENSITY AND DRY WEIGHT IN MAIZE (Zea mays L.)

Kamin Lego* and V. S. Devadas Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai-792103, Arunachal Pradesh *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT A field experiment to study effect of pre-emergence herbicide and mulching on weed density in maize (Zea mays L.) was conducted in the Agricultural Research Farm, Arunachal University of studies, during rabi season 2018. The experiment consisted of six treatments (Atrazine @ 0.25 Kg per ha, Banana Leaf mulch, Plastic sheet mulch, Atrazine@ 0.25 kg per ha + plastic mulch, Atrazine @ 0.25 Kg per ha + Banana leaf mulch and control), replicated four times in a randomized block design. Among all the weed control treatments tested, minimum weed density of grassy weeds(1246.25 per plot of 9m2) and broad leaved weeds (1161.25 per plot) at 60 DAS were found respectively by application of Atrazine @ 0.25 kg per ha + plastic mulch which was significantly at par with plastic mulch. Minimum dry weight of grassy weeds (243.74g) was significantly at par with plastic mulch. The study indicated effective use of plastic and broad leaved weeds (348.41g ) were obtained by application of Atrazine @ 0.25 kg per ha + plastic mulch sheet mulch in managing the weeds in maize crop as an alternative to chemical weedicides. Keywords: Pre-emergence herbicide, Mulching, Weed dry weight, Weed density, Maize

Introduction Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal crop grown in India. The crop has tremendous genetic variability, which enables it to thrive in tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates. Maize crop is associated with a wide variety of weed species. The weed flora differs widely with the environment, field conditions and cropping system. Chemical and mechanical methods can be employed for weed management in the maize fields. Chemical methods employ application of herbicides. Atrazine a pre-emergent selective herbicide used in field crops and it kills weeds by accumulating in chloroplast and interfere at or close the light reaction II of the process of photosynthesis, blocking the electron transport, and finally resulting in the death of the weeds. Mechanical methods of weed management employ mulching that involves covering the soil with a layer of material that has a smothering effect on weeds by restricting their photosynthesis. Mulching also enables conservation of soil moisture. Plastic and Banana Leaf Mulch are some of the type of mulches that could be utilized for weed control in maize. The present investigations were undertaken to study the effect of chemical herbicide (Atrazine) and mulching practices (Plastic and Banana Leaf mulch) on weed management in maize under Namsai conditions, so that the scientific data gained from the research will be helpful for future researchers and farmers.

202 Materials and Methods A field experiment was carried out during Rabi season of 2018 at Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh using Random Block Design involving six treatments (T1-Atrazine @0.25 kg per ha , T2- Banana Leaf mulch, T3- Plastic mulch ,T4- Atrazine@ 0.25 kg per ha + plastic mulch, T5 -Atrazine @ 0.25 kg per ha + Banana mulch and T6 – untreated Control) in four replications. Plot size was 3.0 m X 3.0 m. Maize hybrid Hero-22 was dibbled at a spacing of 60 x 20 cm on 21 November 2018. Treatments were applied after sowing the seeds, and other management operations were done uniformly to all plots. Observations on weed density and dry weight were recorded at 60 days after sowing. Weed density was recorded by counting the number of weeds from each plot, and thereafter the dry weight was also recorded. Observations recorded were subjected to normal procedures of statistical analysis and the results are presented hereunder.

Results and Discussion Data on the effect of treatments on grassy and broad leaved weed density are presented in Table 1. Significantly lowest number of grassy weeds (1246.25 per plot of 9 m2) were observed in plots applied with Atrazine @0.25 kg per ha+ plastic mulch which was at par with plastic mulch alone (1327.50 per 9m2). Significantly highest number of grassy weeds was observed in control plots (3795.25 per 9m2). Similarly the lowest number of broad leaved weeds (1161.25 per 9m2) were also observed in plots applied with where Atrazine @0.25 kg per ha+ plastic mulch which was at par with plastic mulch (1295.00 per 9m2). Significantly highest number of broad leaved weeds was observed in control (3404.00 per 9m2).

Significantly lowest dry weight of grassy weeds per plot (243.74 g) was also observed in plots where Atrazine @0.25 kg per ha+ plastic mulch was applied which was at par with plastic mulch alone (289.54 g ). The highest amount of dry weight of grassy weeds was observed in control (642.82 g). Significantly lowest amount of dry weight of broad leaved weeds (348.41 g) were observed in plots where Atrazine @0.25 kg per ha+ plastic mulch was applied which was at par with plastic mulch (391.87 g). Significantly highest amount of dry weight of broad leaved weeds were observed in control (923.70 g).

203 Table 1. Mean density and dry weight of weeds (per 9 m2) at 60 days after sowing

Treatments Density of Density of Dry Dry

grassy broad leaf weight of weight(g) weeds weeds(number) grassy of Broad (number) weeds(g) leaf weeds (g) T1- Atrazine @0.25 Kg 2575.75 2473.75 486.62 689.88

per ha T2- Banana Leaf mulch 3207.25 2912.50 577.74 805.54 T3- Plastic mulch 1327.50 1295.00 289.54 391.87 1246.25 1161.25 243.74 348.41 T4-Atrazine@ 0.25kg per ha +

plastic mulch T5 -Atrazine @ 0.25K g 2071.25 1904.50 377.18 525.63 per ha + Banana mulch

T6 – Control 3795.25 3404.00 642.82 923.70 SEm+ 117.83 110.07 18.52 15.99 CD( P = 0.05) 355.17 331.80 55.83 48.21 CV 9.99 10.04 8.49 5.21

The results showed that the treatments varied significantly in reduction of density and dry weight of weeds compared to un- weeded control plots where no treatment was applied. It was observed that combination of Atrazine @0.25 kg per ha in combination with plastic mulch resulted in the lowest weed density and dry weight of both grassy and broad leaved weeds which was at par with plastic mulch. When two treatments were applied in combination it resulted in synergistic effect. Banana leaf mulch was less effective compared to other treatments in controlling weeds because as a mulch it had poor smothering effect or faster degrading effect. However, in combination with atrazine @0.25kg per kg, it reduced density and dry weight of weeds significantly. Similar observations have been reported in wheat (Mani et al., 2016) and in maize (Barla et al., 2016; Pandey et al., 2001; Saeed et al., 2013). Application of Atrazine significantly decreased the density and dry weight of weeds which may be due to its selectivity and ability to control weeds at the early stages of growth. Plastic mulch also reduced weed density and dry weight by preventing sunlight from reaching the soil, inhibiting germination and weed growth and smothering effects.

Conclusion On the basis of these findings it can be concluded that application of plastic mulch can be effectively used for managing the weed flora in maize crop as these resulted in significant reduction in weed density and dry weight. This practice will be highly beneficial for farmers to undertake organic farming of maize.

204

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge Arunachal University of Studies for providing the facilities to conduct the research experiments.

References Barla, S.U., Pasani, R.R., Puran, A.N. & Thakur, R. (2016). Weed management in maize. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 48, 67–69. Mani, D., Singh, M K. & Prasad, S. K. (2016). Influence of varieties and organic mulches on weed suppressive ability, growth and yield of wheat. Ecology Environment and Conservation, 22, 303-309. Pandey, A. K., Prakash, V., Singh, R. D. & Mani, V. P. (2001). Integrated weed management in maize. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 46, 260-265. Saeed, M., Haroon, M., Waqas, M., Fahad, S., Ali, S., Bibi, H. & Din (2013). Mulching: A management practice for weeds in maize.Pakistan Journal of Weed Sciences Research, 19(4), 403-410.

205 INTER RELATIONSHIPS OF YIELD AND GROWTH PARAMETERS IN RICE VARIETIES

Chera Buri and Avinash Sharma* Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai-792103, Arunachal Pradesh *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Correlation analysis indicates the mutual relationship between various plant characters and yield, and it gives an indication of the important component characters useful for genetic improvement. It also helps to formulate selection indices. Hence investigations on inter relationships between yield and growth parameters were undertaken in five paddy varieties (Khamti Lahi, Thailand Lahi, Sali, MTU 7029 and MTU 1010) using the data collected from a replicated trial of Kharif 2018 season of Agriculture Research Farm of Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai. The results of correlation analysis showed that the grain yield per plot had positive and significant association with plant height (r = 0.96), number of grains per panicle (r = 0.78), length of panicle (r= 0.93) and crop durations (r= 0.80). This shows positive contribution of these characters with high yield, and while formulating selection indices, these characters are to be given priority. Keywords: Rice, Yield, Growth parameters, Correlation coefficient.

Introduction Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the main food of North Eastern region particularly Arunachal Pradesh. Most of the farmers of Arunachal Pradesh, particularly in Namsai region cultivate traditional varieties of rice through organic means. The land races have low productivity compared to improved or high yielding varieties popular in other parts of the country, but have several other advantages too. Crop improvement programmes are normally based on selection indices, or characters which contribute to the economic yield. Hence a study was undertaken to find out the inter relationships of various biometric characters associated with yield of rice using the promising varieties of Namsai region.

Materials and Methods

The investigation was carried out at the Agricultural Research Farm of Arunachal University of Studies in Namsai, during the Kharif season of 2018-19. Five rice varieties including two popular indigenous varieties (Sali and Khamti Lahi), two improved varieties (MTU-1010 and MTU-7029) and one exotic variety (Thailand Lahi) were evaluated following Randomised Block Design with five replications. Observations were collected on different growth parameters such as plant height at maturity, number of productive tillers, number of days for panicle emergence, crop duration and yield contributing characters such as number of grains per panicle, length of panicle, average length of grain, 1000 grain weight, yield per plot and length/breadth ratio of grains. The data were analysed to study the inter relationships using standard procedures.

206 Results and Discussion

The correlation coefficients involving the ten characters are furnished in the Table 1. Total yield per plot was found positively and significantly correlated with plant height at maturity (0.96), number of grains per panicle (0.78), length of panicle (0.93), and crop duration (0.87).

Table 1. Correlation of growth and yield parameters

PHM NPT NGPP LP ALG 1000 NDPE CDrn L/B TYPP GW RG PHM 1 NPT -0.79** 1 NGPP 0.90** -0.87** 1 LP 0.84** -0.48 0.67* 1 ALG -0.10 0.42 0.01 -0.08 1 1000GW 0.28 0.21 -0.12 0.37 0.004 1 NDPE 0.20 -0.37 0.04 0.36 -0.92** 0.06 1 CDrn 0.96** -0.90** 0.94** 0.78** -0.22 0.06 0.29 1 L/B RG -0.46 0.50 -0.23 -0.56 0.86** -0.28 -0.94** -0.51 1 TYPP 0.96** -0.60 0.78** 0.93** -0.03 0.46 0.21 0.87** -0.48 1

CD(P=0.001)= 0.765 CD(P=0.005)= 0.632

PHM- Plant height at maturity, NPT-Number of productive tillers, NGPP-Number of grains per panicle, LP- length of panicle, ALG-Average length of grain, 1000GW-1000 grain weight, NDPE-Number of days for panicle emergence, CDrn-Crop duration, L/BRG- length/breadth ratio of grains, TYPP- Total yield per plot. The correlation matrix showed that the plant height at maturity had significant positive correlation with the total yield per plot (0.96), number of grains per panicle (0.90), length of panicle ( 0.84) and crop duration (0.96), while it was negatively correlated to number of productive tillers (-0.79). Crop duration was negatively correlated with number of productive tillers (-0.90), while it positively correlated to number of grains per panicle (0.94), plant height at maturity (0.96) and length of panicle (0.78). Number of productive tillers was negatively correlated with plant height at maturity (-0.79). Number of grains per panicle was observed to be positively and significantly correlated with plant height at maturity (0.90), while it was negatively correlated to number of productive tillers (-0.87). Length of panicle was positively correlated with number of grains per panicle (0.67). Number of days for panicle emergence was negatively correlated with average length of grain (-0.92). Length/breadth ratio of grains was observed to be positively and significantly correlated with average length of grain (0.86), while it found to be negative correlated to number of days for panicle emerge.

Correlation analysis indicates the mutual relationship between various plant characters and determines the important component characters for genetic improvement in yield. It is important to have the knowledge

207 about the correlations between yield and its different component characters to find out the superior varieties and to improve the yield through selection procedures. It also helps to formulate selection indices.

The results of correlation analysis showed that the grain yield per plot has positive and significant association with plant height (0.96), number of grains per panicle (0.78), length of panicle (0.93) and crop durations (0.8). This shows positive contribution of plant height, panicle length, grains per panicle and crop durations with high yield, and while formulating selection indices, these characters are to be given priority.

However, productive tillers had a high negative correlation though (-0.60 not significant) with yield per plot; and with crop durations (-0.90). This shows more the number of tillers, results in lower durations and consequently reduced yield. Similar results were also reported by Shanthi & Singh (2001); Akhter et al. (2004); Manna et al. (2006); Pankaj et al. (2010), Singh et al. (2013) and Kumar et al. (2016).

Conclusion The results of correlation analysis showed that the grain yield per plot had positive and high significant association with plant height (r = 0.96), number of grains per panicle (r = 0.78), length of panicle (r= 0.93) and crop duration (r= 0.80). This shows positive contribution of these characters with high yield, indicting their importance and priority while formulating selection indices in crop improvement programmes.

References Akhter, K., Iftekharuddaula, K.M., Bashar, M.K., Kabir, M.H. & Sarkar, M.Z.A. (2004). Genetic variability, correlation and path analysis in irrigated hybrid rice. Journal of Subtropical Agriculture Research and Development, 2, 17-23. Kumar, N., Singh, S.K., Singh, S.P., Singh, M. & Pal, M. (2016).Character, Association and Path Analysis in Rice. Progressive Agriculture, 16 (1), 103-108. Manna, M., Ali, M.N. & Sasmal, B.G. (2006). Variability, correlation and path coefficient analysis in some important traits of lowland rice. Crop Research, 31, 153-156. Pankaj, G., Pandey, D.P. & Dhirendra S. (2010). Correlation and path analysis for yield and it's components in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Crop Improvement, 37, 46-51. Shanthi, P. & Singh, J. (2001). Variability studies in induced mutants of Mahsuri rice (Oryza sativa L.). Madras Agriculture Journal, 88, 707-709. Singh, A.K., Nandan, R. & Singh, P.K. (2013). Genetic variability and association analysis in rice germplasm under rainfed conditions. Crops Research, 47(1-3), 7-11.

208 RESPONSE OF MAIZE (Zea mays L.) VARIETIES TO DIFFERENT PLANTING DENSITIES

Mege Duchok1, Tara Bhuyan1, Sheelawati Monlai1, Avinash Sharma1 and V. S. Devadas*2 2Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, 792103 2College of Horticulture, Central Agricultural University, Thenzawl, Mizoram *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT An experiment was conducted at the Agriculture Research Farm of the Arunachal Universities of Studies, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh during rabi season 2018-19 to study the response of maize varieties to different planting densities.Twelve treatment combinations comprising of four different spacing viz., S1 (70cm x 20cm), S2 (60cm x20cm), S3 (50cm x 20cm), S4 (40cm x 20cm) and three varieties V1 (Bond NMH 007), V2 (HQPM-1), V3 (Local) were evaluated in a split plot design with three replications. Observations on various growth and yield parameters were recorded. Results revealed that the variety Bond NMH 007 was superior to other varieties. Although maximum plant height(220.35cm) was observed in local variety (Namsai Local), all other growth and yield parameters were the highest in variety Bond NMH 007 such as number of leaves (10.83), number of cobs (2.00), ear diameter (16.70 cm), cob length (21.53 cm), 50% tasselling (85.79), fresh weight (181.33 g), dry weight (141.78 g), number of seed per cob (315.96), grain yield per plant (126.37 g) and grain yield per plot (2.24 kg). Different spacing showed no significant difference on number of leaves, number of cobs, ear diameter, length of cob and grain yield per plant. However, numerically highest growth parameters were recorded by wider spacing 70cm x 20cm followed by 60cm x20cm. And among the interactions, treatment combination of Bond NMH 007 at 70cm x 20cm recorded the highest growth and yield parameters compared to other treatment.

Keywords: Maize, Planting density

Introduction

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important cereal crops in the global agricultural economy and it is also known as ‘queen of cereals’. Maize being a C4 and day-neutral plant, have a very high yield potential. It is one of the most versatile crop with wider adaptability in varied agro-ecologies. Maize is one of the most popular cereal crop cultivated next to rice and millets, in Arunachal Pradesh. Major maize producing districts of Arunachal Pradesh are Tawang, East Kameng, Upper Subansiri, East Siang and Papumpare. As in the case of any other crops the production and productivity of maize is also influenced by the genetic makeup or varietal character. Varieties suited to specific agro climatic conditions are to be identified and popularized. Maize is a non-tillering crop, and each plant counts for the yield. Unlike tillering plants such as rice or wheat, maize cannot compensate for lost space., therefore, it is very important that plant density is maintained in maize. Pepó and Sárvári (2013), reported that maize is a plant with individual productivity and therefore plant density

209 determines yield significantly. Plant density is a production factor that affects yield to the greatest extent. Over-crowding may reduce yields. Spacing also plays an important role in disease management by reducing the risk of diseases which are contagious and also improves the immune system of the crop. Hence an experiment was conducted to determine the optimum planting density of maize under Namsai conditions.

Materials and Methods

The experiment was carried out during rabi season, 2018-2019 at the Agriculture Research Farm of Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai. The effect of three different varieties (V1=Bond NMH007, V2=HQPM-1 and V3= Namsai Local) with four planting densities (S1= 70cm x 20cm, S2= 60cm x 20cm, S3=50cm x 20cm and S4=40cm x 20cm) on growth and yield characters of maize was evaluated in split plot design with three replications. The maize seeds were sown during the second week of December 2018. Observations on growth and yield were recorded and analysed statistically as per standard procedures.

Results and Discussion Results obtained from the present investigations are summarized in tables 1 and 2.

Effect of varieties The plant height, number of leaves per plant, days to 50% tasselling, number of cobs per plant, ear diameter, cob length, fresh weight and dry weight of cobs per plant, number of seeds per cob and grain yield per plant were significantly influenced by various varieties (Table1). In the present study, variety V3 (Namsai Local) recorded the highest plant height of 220.35cm and the lowest (174.07cm) by V1 (Bond NMH007. The highest number of leaves (10.83) was recorded by V1 (Bond NMH007) and the lowest number of leaves (8.55) by V1 (Local). The maximum days for 50% tasseling (85.79days) was recorded by V1 (Bond NMH 007) whereas V3 (Namsai Local) recorded minimum days (67.58 days). The mean number of cobs per plant was maximum (2.0) for V1 (Bond NMH 007), whereas the other two varieties were at par with each other i.e., 1.64 for V2 (HQPM-1) and 1.61 for V3 (Namsai Local). Maximum ear diameter (16.70 cm) was recorded by V1 (Bond NMH007) and the lowest ear diameter was recorded by V3 (Namsai Local) of 13.03cm. The highest cob length (21.53cm) was found in V1 (Bond NMH007) and lowest cob length (17.43 cm) was obtained in V3 (Namsai Local). The results showed that V1 (Bond NMH007) recorded highest fresh weight of cobs (181.33g and 141.78g respectively) and the lowest by V3 Local ( fresh weight 140.11g) and dry weight 103.86g). The results further showed that V1 (Bond NMH007) recorded maximum number of seeds per cob of 315.96 and the lowest was recorded by V3 (Namsai Local) of 216.33. The highest grain yield per plant (126.37g) was recorded by V1 (Bond NMH007) and lowest grain yield (82.72g) was recorded by V3 (Namsai Local). The results are in conformity with Gozubenii et al. (2001) and Zamir et al. (2011). In maize who reported that variation in ear characteristics of maize depends upon the genotype and environmental conditions.

210 Table 1. Mean growth and yield parameters of maize varieties influenced by different plant densities

Variety Plant Number Days to Number Cob Cob Fresh Dry Number Grain height of 50% of cobs diameter length weight weight of seeds yield -1 -1 - (cm) leaves tasselling palnt (cm) (cm) (g) (g) plant plant -1 1 plant (g) V1- 173.66 10.83 85.79 2.00 16.70 21.53 181.33 141.78 315.96 126.37 Bond NMH007 V2- 172.21 10.31 83.95 1.65 15.45 18.20 159.46 122.90 248.70 111.33 HQPM-1 V3- 220.35 8.55 67.58 1.61 13.03 17.43 140.11 103.86 216.33 82.72 Namsai Local CD(5%) 4.05 1.79 0.81 0.26 0.65 0.73 3.06 1.99 7.10 0.67 S.Em(±) 1.00 0.44 0.20 0.06 0.16 0.18 0.83 0.49 1.76 0.16

Effect of planting density on crop characters and yield contributing characters of maize The planting density had a significant effect on plant height, ear diameter, cob length, days to 50% tasselling, fresh weight, dry weight, number of seeds per cob and yield per plant (Tabe 2). The plant height was the highest (191.47cm) at wider spacing of S1 (70cm x 20cm) with low planting density; and lowest plant height (186.35 cm) was obtained in dense planting of S4 (40cm x 20cm). Similarly spacing of S1 (70cm x 20cm) recorded the highest ear diameter (15.92cm) and the lowest of 13.90cm was recorded by S4 (40cm×20cm), whereas S2 and S3 were at par. The cob length was the highest in S1 (70cm×20cm) of 20.58cm and the lowest was recorded by S3 (50cm×20cm) of 18.18cm. The data revealed that cob length decreased with increasing planting density. These results indicate that there is a positive relationship between plant spacing and plant height and cob length of maize, which may be probably due to low inter plant competitions for light, water and nutrients. Similar results were reported by Zamir et al. (2011) and Karimet al. (1983) in maize. The maximum days taken to 50% tasselling of 81.22days was recorded in S2 (60cm×20cm) and minimum of 77.42 days by S4 (40cm×20cm), whereas S1 (70cm x20cm) of 79.54days and S3 (50cm x 20cm) of 78.25 days were at par. The highest fresh weight (175.75g) and dry weight (137.22g) of cobs were recorded by S1 (70cm×20cm) and lowest fresh weight (150.47g) and dry weight (114.49g) was recorded by S4 (40cm×20cm). The highest number of seeds per cob was recorded in S1 (70cm×20cm) of 286.83 and lowest was recorded by S4 (40cm×20cm) of 246.11. The highest grain yield per plant 114.00g was recorded in S1 (70cm×20cm) of and the lowest of 102.08g was recorded by S4 (40cm×20cm). Hasan et al. (2018) recorded the longest plant, highest cob, maximum diameter of cob, highest number of kernel per cob, the highest 1000

211 grain weight, maximum grain yield and maximum stover yield in spacing of 75cm x 25cm. Sabo et al. (2016) reported that wider intra-row spacing in maize of 25cm recorded the highest plant height, number of leaves, leaf area, number of cob per plot, cob length, 100 seed weight and grain yield. Wider spacing has positive influence on growth parameters and this may be due to efficient utilization of light, space, moisture and aeration for growth and development.

Table 2. Mean effect of planting densities on growth and yield parameters of maize

Spacing Plant Leaves Days to Number Ear Cob Fresh Dry Number Grain -1 height plant 50% of cobs diameter length weight weight of seeds yield

-1 -1 -1 (cm) tasselling palnt (cm) (cm) (g) (g) plant plant (g) S1- 191.47 9.77 79.54 1.84 15.92 20.58 175.75 137.22 286.83 114.00 70cm x 20cm S2- 186.35 10.13 81.22 1.77 15.38 19.12 157.00 122.25 255.17 107.94 60cm x 20cm S3- 189.07 10.13 78.25 1.73 15.05 18.18 158.27 117.42 253.22 103.21 50cm x 20cm S4- 188.07 9.66 77.42 1.66 13.90 18.33 150.47 114.49 246.11 102.08 40cm x 20cm CD(5%) 3.24 NS 1.45 NS 0.72 0.79 1.33 1.26 2.58 4.21 S.Em(±) 1.08 0..23 0.48 0.10 0.24 0.26 0.44 0.42 0.86 1.40

Interaction effect of planting density and varieties of growth and yield characters of maize

The interaction effect of planting density and variety was found to be significant for plant height, days to 50% tasselling, fresh weight, dry weight and number of seeds per cob (Table 3). The tallest plant height (227.40 cm) was seen in interaction effect of V3 Local variety with S1 (70cm x 20cm) and shortest plants (163.06) were recorded by variety HQPM-1 with S1 (70cm x20cm). The maximum days (86.85 days) taken to 50% tasselling was recorded by the T3 (V1S2) whereas minimum days (65.00 days) was recorded in T11 (V3S3). The highest fresh weight of cobs of 216.00g was recorded by the T1 (V1S1) whereas lowest of 130.75g was recorded in T12 (V3S4). The maximum dry weight of cobs of 173.30g was recorded by the T1 (V1S1) whereas T12 (V1S1) recorded the lowest dry weight of 86.00g. The highest number of seeds per cob of 355.00 was recorded by the T1 (V1S1) whereas T11 (V3S3) recorded lowest number of seeds per cob of 213.66 is which was at par with T12 (V3S4) with 214.33 seeds. In this experiment it was seen that wider spacing produced higher seed yield as reported by Gulluoglu et al. (2017). 212 Table 3. Mean growth and yield parameters of maize varieties influenced by different plant densities

Variety Plant Leaves Days to Number Ear Cob Fresh Dry Number Grain

height plant-1 50% of cobs diameter length weight weight of seeds yield

(cm) tasselling palnt-1 (cm) (cm) (g) (g) plant-1 plant-1 (g) 171.82 11.06 86.85 2.33 17.58 23.93 216.00 173.30 355.00 128.33 T1-V1S1 174.00 11.06 85.30 1.93 16.64 21.16 171.00 132.48 301.86 128.82 T2-V1S2 175.00 10.53 85.77 1.93 16.23 20.42 178.00 133.00 316.00 125.66 T3-V1S3 173.83 10.67 85.26 1.80 16.23 20.60 160.33 128.33 291.00 122.66 T4-V1S4 181.20 9.53 86.12 1.66 15.83 19.75 155.67 117.18 285.83 120.66 T5-V2S1 167.06 10.80 84.70 1.46 15.76 18.81 157.00 118.00 246.00 112.3 T6-V2S2 177.53 10.46 84.00 1.66 15.90 17.13 164.83 127.28 230.00 106.66 T7-V2S3 163.06 10.46 81.00 1.80 14.33 17.13 160.33 129.15 233.00 105.66 T8-V2S4 227.40 8.73 65.66 1.53 14.34 18.06 154.70 121.18 219.66 93.00 T9-V3S1 218.00 8.53 73.66 1.93 13.75 17.40 143.00 116.28 217.66 82.66 T10-V3S2 214.70 8.53 65.00 1.60 14.33 17.00 130.00 92.00 213.66 77.31 T11-V3S3 T12-V3S4 221.33 7.86 66.00 1.40 11.15 17.26 130.75 86.00 214.33 77.93 CD(5%) 6.15 NS 2.32 NS NS NS 2.30 2.23 4.68 NS S.Em(±) 2.00 0.89 0.75 0.13 0.32 0.36 1.66 0.33 0.98 3.52

Conclusion The results obtained from this investigation show that planting density of maize is an important factor to get an optimum growth and yield. From the findings of present experiment it can be concluded that variety V1 (Bond NMH 007) among other two varieties, and a plant spacing of 70cm x20cm are ideal under Namsai region. Variety Bond NMH 007 found to be the most superior and its performance was consistently superior to that of the other varieties followed by HQPM-1.

Acknowledgement

The authors thankfully acknowledge the facilities provided by the Arunachal University of Studies for conducting this investigation.

References Gozubenli, H., Ulger, A.C. & Sener, O. (2001). The effect of different nitrogen doses on grain yield and yield- related characters of some maize genotypes grown as second crop. J. Agric. Fac., 16, 39-48.

213 Gulluoglu, L., Bakal, H., Sabagh, A.E. & Arioglu, H. (2017). Soybean managing for maximize production: plant population density effects on seed yield and some agronomical traits in main cropped soybean production. Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences, 5(1), 31-37.

Hasan, M.R. ,Rahman, M.R., Hasan, A.K., Paul, S.K. & Alam. A.H.M.J. (2018). Effect of Variety and Spacing on the Yield Performance of maize (Zea mays L.) in Old Brahmaputra Floodplain Area of Bangladesh. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 3(3), 270-274.

Karim, M., Baksh, A. & Shah, P. (1983). Effect of plant population on yield and yield components of synthetic 66 maize .Journal of Agriculture Research, 21(1), 57-69.

Sabo, M.V., Wailare, M.A., Aliyu, M. & Sanusi, J. (2016). Effect of variety and spacing on growth and yield of Maize (Zea mays L.) in Bauchi state, Nigeria, International Journal of plant and Soil Italic, 9(6), 1- 6.

Zamir, M.S.I, Ahmad, A.H., Javeed, H.M.R. & Latif, T. (2011). Growth and yield behaviour of two maize hybrids (Zea mays L.) towards different plant spacing. Cercetari Agronomice in Moldova, 44(2), 33- 40.

214 PERFORMANCE OF TORIA (Brassica campestris L.) VARIETIES UNDER NAMSAI CONDITIONS

Taba Nem, Pranamika Sharma1, V. S. Devadas*2, G. N. Hazarika and Sheelawati Monlai Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, 792103 1 SCS College of Agriculture, Assam Agricultural University, Rangamati, Dhubri 2College of Horticulture, Central Agricultural University, Thenzawl, Mizoram *Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Investigations were conducted to study the performance of different varieties of toria under Namsai conditions of Arunachal Pradesh at the Agricultural Research Farm of Arunachal University of Studies. Six varieties (TS- 67, M-27, TS-36, TS-38, TS-46 and Jeuti) were evaluated in replicated randomized block design with four replications during November 2018 to February 2019. Observations recorded on growth and yield parameters indicated significant difference among the varieties. Maximum plant height was observed in TS-36 (108.05 cm) and minimum in M-27 (99.41 cm). Primary branches per plant was maximum in TS-36 (4.14) followed by TS-46 (3.03) and minimum in TS-67 (2.15). Maximum days to 50% flowering was observed in TS-38 (36.10) , which was found to be at par with M-27 (37.35), and TS-36 (38.03). It was further observed that the variety TS-67 (42.96) took longest duration for 50% flowering, and it was at par with TS-46 (40.00). Minimum days taken for days to maturity was recorded in TS-38 (82.13) at par with M-27 (83.28). Maximum crop duration was recorded in TS-67 (95.61) and was at par with Jeuti (94.55). Considering the growth and yield characters observed, the variety TS-36 (526.25 g plot-1) was found promising and can be recommended for Namsai region.

Keywords: Toria varieties, seed yield.

Introduction Rapeseed and mustard holds key place among the different oilseed crops of Indian agriculture. Toria (Brassica campestris L.) is an important short duration oilseed crop of Arunachal Pradesh cultivated during kharif season after harvest of paddy but the productivity is very poor (520 kg/ha) which is much below the nation at average of 1176 kg/ha (Pati & Mahapatra, 2015). Under these circumstances, a trial was conducted to identify the best toria variety suited for cultivation in Namsai region of Arunachal Pradesh.

Materials and Methods

Six varieties of toria viz-, TS-67, M-27, TS-36, TS-38, TS-46, and Jeuti were evaluated in a randomized block design with four replications in Rabi season (Nov 2018 to Feb 2019) at the Agriculture Research Farm of Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai. The crop was sown during 2nd week of November

215 2018 and harvesting was done in 3rd week of February 2019. Plot size was 3.6 sq m. Three irrigations were given during seeding, flower initiation and siliquae development stages. Observations on growth and yield parameters were recorded at 90 days after sowing and on harvesting of the crop. The results were analysed using standard statistical procedures of ANOVA.

Results and Discussion

Data recorded were analysed and the results are furnished in table 1. It is seen that the varieties varied significantly for all the growth and yield parameters studied. The variety TS-36 had the tallest plants (108.05 cm) and maximum number of primary branches plant-1 (4.14).The earliest variety for 50% flowering (36.10 days) with shortest duration to crop maturity was TS-38 (82.13 days) as compared to other treatments.

Table 1. Mean growth and yield parameters of toria varieties

Plant Number Days to Days to No. of No. of 1000 Seeds Seeds Average Varieties height of 50% maturity siliquae seeds seed yield yield seed (cm) primary flowering branches per per weight per per yield q plant siliqua (g) plant plot / ha (g) (g) TS-67 103.04 2.15 42.96 95.61 241.10 17.88 4.74 14.56 295.50 8.21 M-27 99.41 2.18 37.35 83.28 230.75 15.40 3.56 14.37 405.75 11.27 TS-36 108.05 4.14 38.03 92.53 304.55 19.30 3.94 17.17 526.25 14.62 TS-38 106.09 2.50 36.10 82.13 235.25 17.50 3.34 14.60 431.75 11.10 TS-46 107.01 3.03 40.00 90.25 294.00 18.35 5.41 16.10 433.25 12.34 Jeuti 101.53 2.26 39.59 94.55 124.55 14.35 5.38 14.25 360.75 10.21 CD 0.5 0.45 2.09 0.50 1.43 0.28 0.27 0.10 0.34 0.50 (P=0.05) S.EM± 0.24 0.15 0.69 0.60 0.48 0.32 0.09 0.6 0.11 0.60

Analysis of the data indicated that TS-36 recorded the maximum yield attributing characters like numbers of siliquae plant-1(304.55), number of seeds per siliqua-1 (19.30) and seed yield plant-1 (17.17 g). Maximum1000 seed weight (5.41 g) was recorded in variety TS-46. Similar varietal variations were reported by Munda et al. (2011) and Kumari et al. (2012). The variety TS-36 produced the maximum seed yield of (526.25 g plot-1) which is 23.8 % higher than that of TS -67 (295.50g plot-1). Varieties TS- 36 was characterized by higher number of siliquae per plant and seeds per siliqua. The investigations revealed that the variety TS-36 produced the highest yield (526.25 g). Varieties TS- 46 (433.25 g), TS-38 (431.75 g), M-27 (405.75 g) were at par with each other. Jeuti (360.75 g) and TS-67 (295.50g) had comparatively low yield. These varieties showed that higher number of siliquae per plant and number of seeds per siliqua. Growth parameters showed that these varieties were dwarf and semi- dwarf in plant height with comparatively higher number of branches per plant. The studies with seed yield 216 verses yield attributing characters also indicated similar trend. These results are in agreement with Adak et al. (2011) and Patel (2013).

Conclusions The investigations revealed that the variety TS-36 produced the highest yield (526.25 g) and is found suited for Namsai conditions. In general, varieties TS-36, TS-46, RS-38 were also found to be promising.

Acknowledgement Theauthors are thankful to the Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai for providing the facilities required for the study.

References Adak, T., Bhaskar, N. & Chakravarty, N.V.K. (2011). Response of Brassica to microenvironment modification under semi-arid agro ecosystem.Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 81(8), 744–50. Kumari, A., Singh, R. P. & Yeshpal. (2012). Productivity, nutrient uptake and economicsof mustard hybrid under different planting time and row spacing. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 57(1), 61-67. Munda, G.C, Islam Mokiduland Nath, L.K. (2011). Integrated nutrientmanagement approach for enhancing productivity and economics of maize (Zea Mays L.) - toria (Brassica campestris L.) cropping system. Agricultural Science Digest, 31(3), 188-192. Patel, N. (2013). Effect of sowing dates and varieties on growth, development and yield of Indian mustard under irrigated conditions. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, JNKVV, Jabalpur. pp-128. Pati, P. & Mahapatra, P.K. (2015). Yield performance and nutrient uptake of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.) as influenced by integrated nutrient management. Journal Crop and Weed, 11(1), 58-61.

217 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC MANURES ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF MUSTARD (Brassica juncea L. )

Debia Yashi, Toyir Nyori, Tara Bhuyan, Sheelawati Monlai and V. S. Devadas*

Faculty of Agriculture Sciences, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai 792 103

*Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT A field experiment was conducted during 2018-19 rabi season (December 2018 to March 19) to study the effect of different organic manures on growth and yield of mustard (Brassica juncea L.) at the Agricultural Research Farm of the Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai. This experiment comprised of 9 treatments in 3 replications in a randomized block design. The treatments consisted of two doses each (@ 5 t and 10 t each) of farm yard manure (FYM), vermi compost (VC) and poultry manure (PM), a combination of FYM, vermicompost and poultry manure (2 tonnes each), enriched compost (phosphate solubilising bacteria, rock phosphate, azotobacter) @ 5t/ha and an untreated control. The cultivar used was NRCHB101 mustard variety. The study revealed that application of different organic manures exerted significant variations in most of the growth parameters. Better growth and yield parameters in terms of plant height, number of primary branches per plant, days to 50% flowering, siliquae per plant, seeds per siliqua and yield per plot (4m2) was observed by application of poultry manure @ 10t/ha and this was found to be superior among all other treatments. The second best results were obtained from plants supplied with vemicompost @5t/ha and 10t/ha.

Keywords: Organic manures, Mustard

Introduction Mustard (Brassica juncea L.) belonging to the family Brassicaceae is one of the most prominent oilseed crops next to groundnut in India. It is a rabi season crop and thrives well in dry and cool climate. Heavy rainfall, cloudy rainfall, frost and high humidity during flowering and pod formation are harmful to the crop. Mustard is a major oil crop grown in Arunachal Pradesh and it is cultivated during rabi season. Mustard was cultivated in 27986 ha of land, with a production of 28514 MT with an average yield or productivity of 1.019 t/ha (Dept. of Agriculture, Govt of Arunachal Pradesh, 2018). Crop management practices, especially application of organic manures profoundly influence the growth and yield of crops. Farmers of Arunachal Pradesh generally follow organic farming practices. This study was taken up to identify the most suitable kind and dose of organic manures for growth and yield of mustard under Namsai conditions.

Materials and Methods The experiment was conducted at the Agriculture Research Field, Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai, Arunachal Pradesh, India, during the rabi season 2018-2019. Four different organic manures viz.,

218 farm yard manure (FYM), poultry manure (PM), vermi compost (VC) and enriched compost (rock phosphate, azotobacter and phosphate solublising bacteria) were evaluated in the mustard variety NRCHB101. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with three replications and nine treatments viz., T1 - FYM @5t/ ha, T2 - FYM @10/ha, T3- VC@5t/ha, T4 - VC @10t /ha, T5- PM @5t/ha, T6- PM @10t/ha, T7- FYM+VC+PM @2 t each (ie, total of 6t/ha), T8 - Enriched compost @5t/ha and T9 – Control. Sowing was done at spacing of 40×15 cm, and plot size was 2 m X 2m. All other agronomical operations were performed uniformly as per recommendation for the crop. The data on various growth and yield parameters were recorded in different treatments and statistical analysis of the data was carried out as per the globally accepted procedures analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the help of OPSTAT software. Results and Discussions

Results of the statistical analysis are furnished in Table 1. Plant height recorded at 30, 60 and 90 DAS (days after sowing) and number of primary branches per plant at 60 (DAS) revealed that growth parameters i.e. plant height and number of primary branches per plant were significantly influenced by application of different organic manures., this findings have been corroborate by Reza et al. (2016) on experimentation of cabbage by applying different organic manures. Heerendra et al. (2017) from their experimental studies concluded that, bio-fertilizers combined with organic manure influences the plant growth by enhancing root biomass; total root surface facilitates higher absorption of nutrients and increase in yield by reducing consumption of natural sources of energy. The organic fertilizers have proved that their application has the potential to increase the biomass and productivity of a wide range of crops.

Table 1. Average plant height at 30, 60, 90 DAS and number of primary branches per plant.

Plant height (cm) Primary Yield parameters branches Treatments No. of Seeds Yield per siliquae/ per (g / 4 sq 30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS plant plant siliqua m)

T1 FYM @5t/ ha 5.90 75.40 101.27 4.57 102.13 12.47 85.80 T2 FYM @10/ha 6.20 66.33 103.80 4.73 97.07 12.00 115.20 T3 VC@5t/ha 8.20 96.80 126.00 4.67 112.20 12.07 158.8 T4 VC @10/ha 7.83 105.07 130.80 4.93 95.13 13.27 170.22 T5 PM @5t/ha 8.27 92.27 122.93 5.13 110.40 11.80 183.18 T6 PM @10t/ha 8.40 102.80 140.07 5.80 112.00 14.60 203.25 T7 FYM+VC+PM 6.60 68.43 101.00 5.13 92.60 10.07 127.17 T8 Enriched compost 6.00 65.33 108.13 4.53 101.80 11.73 113.67 T9 Control 6.87 69.20 114.93 4.00 115.40 11.00 99.45 S.Em ± 0.58 6.96 7.03 0.38 10.73 0.96 14.37 CD ( P=0.05 ) 1.73 24.59 21.06 1.14 32.17 2.89 43.09 CV % 14.00 14.28 10.42 13.68 17.82 13.88 17,00

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50 seed Average yield 0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9

Treatments

Fig 1. Average seed yield of mustard under different treatments

There were significant variations in number of siliquae per plant under different treatments and doses. Maximum number of siliquae per plant was reported in T9 (control) i.e. 115.40, which was at par with T1 (102.13), T3 (112.20), T5 (110.40), T6 (112.00) and T8 (101.80) viz. FYM @5t/ha, VC 5t/ha, PM @5t/ha, PM @10t/ha and EC @5t/ha respectively (Fig 1). Minimum number of siliquae per plant was reported in T7 (FYM + VC+ PM@ 2t/ha) 92.60, however treatments that were at par with this are T4 (95.13) and T2 (97.07) viz. VC @10t/ha and FYM @10t/ha. Number of seeds/ siliqua varied significantly under different treatments. Maximum seeds/siliqua (14.6) was reported in T6- PM @10t/ha and other treatments such as T4 (13.27), T1 (12.47), T3 (12.07) and T7 resulted significantly minimum number of seeds per siliqua (10.07). Seed yield was significantly affected by different treatments and T6 (PM @10t/ha) produced maximum seeds per plot i.e. 203.25/g and T4 (VC 10t/ha) 170.22 g and T5 (PM @5t/ha) 183.18 g were found at par with T6. While T1 (FYM @5t/ha) 85.80 g resulted in significantly lowest seed yield per plot and this was at par with T9- control (99.45 g) and T2 (FYM @ 10t/ha) 115.20 g. These findings are in line with the results of Sheikh et al. (2003) in sorghum, Lim (2006) in mustard and Fiezal & Ahmed (2007) in mustard.

Conclusions Among the different organic manures tested, application of T6 (PM @10t/ha) recorded maximum yield of mustard. Second best results were obtained from T4 (VC 10t/ha) and T5 (PM @5t/ha). Based on higher growth and yield of mustard, poultry manure is found as the best suitable manure for mustard in Namsai soil conditions of Arunachal Pradesh. Application of organic manures not only influenced the growth and yield of mustard but it also helped in enhancing the soil fertility.

Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to the Arunachal University of Studies, Namsai for providing the facilities required to undertake the studies. 220

References Feizal, O.A. & Ahmed, M.E.N. (2007). Influence of Chicken Manure on Growth and Yield of Forage Sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor L.Moench). Inter.J. of Agriculture and Forestry, 2(2), 56-60. Heerendra, P., Paramjeet, S., Meena, K. & Solanki, S.P.S. (2017). Effect of organic manures and biofertilizer on plant growth, yield and quality of horticultural crops. Inter. J. of Chemical Studies, 5(1), 217-221. Lim, A.H. (2016). Effect of poultry manure on the growth and yield of leaf mustard (Brassica juncea) and lettuce (Latuca sativa) grown on bris soil. J. Trop. Agric. and Fd. Sc., 44(1), 29 – 37. Reza, M. S. A. K. M., Sajjadul, I., Rahman, M. A., Yunus, M. M., Sohela, A. & Mosheur, M.R. (2016). Impact of organic fertilizers on yield and nutrient uptake of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). J. Sci. Technol. Environ. Inform., 03(02), 231-244. Sheikh, S.Z., Quazi F.Q., Chowdhury, M.A.H. & Wahid, A.A. (2003). Effects of different animal manures on yield, quality and nutrient uptake by mustard cv. Agrani brac University J., 1(2), 59-66.

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