ITU A|Z • Vol 17 No 3 • November 2020 • 13-30 An interdisciplinary experiment for the urban morphology of () and its surroundings during the and Middle Ages

Hasan Sercan SAĞLAM [email protected] • Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations (ANAMED), Koç University, Istanbul,

Received: January 2020 • Final Acceptance: March 2020

Abstract During its Byzantine times, Galata was the 13th region of , once the illustrious imperial capital now called Istanbul. This part of modern Beyoğlu especially came to the forefront with its prosperous Genoese period, which lasted between 1267-1453. Although Galata had a significant urban and architectural development during that period, there are solid evidence and recent discoveries regarding the phenomenon of spatial continuity. In this regard, it was seen that the Genoese did not found Galata as a colonial settlement from scratch but in fact possessed a well urbanized Byzantine district. In order to display the urban layout of its previous centuries, Galata was formerly subjected to some mapping attempts but few of them were able to accurately detect spatial continuities as well as discontinuities between different historical periods of this neighborhood. Hence, those efforts remained rather inconclusive from an urban point of view. Main reasons behind this failure can be given as the lack of an interdisciplin- ary approach and proper knowledge of urban morphology. Therefore, this article aims to improve the aforementioned research within the context of discovering the ancient road and water system; and to set a wider spatial connection between the late antiquity and medieval periods of Galata in comparison with modern times. For this reason, primary sources and archaeological evidence were consid- ered for exclusive urban objectives. In the end, related findings displayed that the urban layout of modern Galata and its surroundings not only have strong traces remained from ancient times but also had significant transformations. Keywords Galata, Architectural history, Urban archaeology, Urban history, Urban doi: 10.5505/itujfa.2020.68916 doi: morphology. 14

1. Galata in Ancient Times: ple and accorded the right of being a Sykai and its surroundings separate city to this suburb, which was until the Genoese Period renamed as “Justinianopolis” (Malalas, Galata is a northern district of Is- 1986; Chronicon Paschale, 1989). Af- tanbul, which is located outside the terwards, in 552, he constructed the historical peninsula and on the other monumental of of the . As a result there (Malalas, 1986; Procopius, 1999). of its coastal access to this gulf as well Elaia (or Elaion) was a sacred and as the , Galata has many nat- mountainous suburb on the opposite ural quays. Following an almost plain side of Constantinople, which first ap- coastal band all along the localities of pears in the 5th century. The church Azapkapı, Karaköy and , the and leprosarium of Saint Zotikos was topography rises until reaching a mid- located there, who lived in the 4th cen- way hilltop called . After this tury (Janin, 1969; Mango, 2009). Ac- location, the topography rises further cording to Anthony of Novgorod, who to the north, until Şişhane. Due to its visited Constantinople in 1200, the dominant position, Galata offers a aforementioned complex remained on clear view of the Golden Horn, Bospo- a hilltop from Pegai (modern Kasım- rus and Istanbul. paşa) (Janin, 1950). Narratives about the rich natural The Church of the Maccabees was and built environment of the place another earlier shrine of Sykai from now called Galata date back to ancient the 4th century but its location was times. It was formerly called “Sykai” also mentioned as Elaia, as it remained that named after figs. According to -Di slightly inland from Argyroupolis onysius of (2010), Sykai ap- (modern Tophane) (Mango, 2009). pears as a mere uninhabited place as of Therefore, the position of Elaia was in- the late 2nd century and the oldest set- terpreted as the commanding heights tlement of that area was located around rising above the neighboring Kasım- modern Tophane, opposite the ancient paşa, Galata and Tophane, like a con- Byzantium. ical hilltop (Dalleggio d’Alessio, 1946; The Notitia Urbis Constantinopol- Janin, 1950; Mango, 2009). The Patria itanae indicates as of the 5th century of Constantinople indicates that the that Sykai, the 13th region of Con- leprosarium of Saint Zotikos was re- stantinople was separated by a narrow built by Justin II and Sophia during the bay of the sea, therefore reached from 6th century (Berger, 2013). Elaia that the city through regular ferries. It was was named after olives was last seen completely situated on the side of a in a 10th century Byzantine liturgical mountain other than the course of a compilation published by Delehaye main street at the sea level, lying along (1902). the foot of that mountain. A landing Afterwards, the location of the stage for Sykai was in the 6th region aforementioned leprosarium appears right across (modern Eminönü). It had as “Herion” in the 11th century, with- one church; the Baths of ; the in the context of a Slavic attack in 596. Forum of Honorius; a theatre; a dock- Accordingly, it was soon restored by yard; 431 houses; a large portico; five Emperor Maurice that a second res- private baths; one public bakery; four toration was carried out by John I private bakeries; and eight bread distri- Tzimiskes in the 10th century (Janin, bution centers (Matthews, 2012). 1969). As of the late 10th century, When Theodoric, the king of Os- Hierion (also called Herion / Gerion) trogoths had mutinied with his army was mentioned as a burial place on against Zeno in 487, he occupied Thra- the other side of Constantinople by ce until Melantias and also Sykai oppo- the Patria. It was allegedly named af- site of Constantinople, and cut off the ter a priest (ιερεύς) called Iros’ statue, city’s aqueduct (Malalas, 1986; Mar- which was erected there; and also af- cellinus Comes, 2017). In 528, Justin- ter the word “tomb” (ἡρῷον) (Berger, ian I restored the ruined Sykai as well 2013; Kimmelfield, 2019). Moreover, as its theatre and walls. He also built a “Gerion” was defined as a place right bridge to go across from Constantino- above Galata in a Byzantine patriarchal

ITU A|Z • Vol 17 No 3 • November 2020 • H.S. Sağlam 15 document from September 1400 (Janin, The Middle Byzantine period was 1950). Thus, it was argued by Dalleggio relatively devastating for the area due d’Alessio (1946) and Janin (1950) that all to the Battle of Pegai against Bulgari- those names actually indicated the same ans in 921 (Hupchick, 2017) and the place in different times, above Galata. revolt of Nicephorus Bryennius in It is known that Sykai itself was also 1077, which caused a fire that burned used as a burial place. For instance, all the northern suburbs of Constanti- during the disastrous Plague of Justin- nople, opposite the Golden Horn (Ko- ian in 541-542, burial plots in Constan- hen, 2007). There are very few primary tinople were not enough for the victims. sources giving information about this Hence, the towers of Sykai walls were period of Galata and its surroundings. unroofed, entirely filled with corpses As of the second half of the 12th and roofed again (Procopius, 2007). century, a Jewish quarter in Galata was Nevertheless, it appears that the walls mentioned by Benjamin of Tudela. It of Sykai were soon restored to their pre- had a community of 2000 Rabbinic vious state, as Agathias (1975) indicates and 500 Karaite Jews, where a fence di- that they were manned against Kutrigur vided them (Jacoby, 1967). During the raids in 558-559. , the Castle of Galata “Exartysis” was the site of arming and its naval chain were captured by warships and it was placed opposite of the Crusaders in July 1203. The Jewish Constantinople as of the mid-10th cen- quarter there was sacked and burned. tury (Janin, 1950). Then, an “Old Ex- Then, the troops encamped beyond the artysis” was mentioned in the vicinity Golden Horn for a while, before the fi- of Pegai in 1265. As a result, the dock- nal siege and in yard of Sykai from the 5th century Noti- April 1204 (Geoffroy de Villehardouin, tia, the Exartysis, “vetus Tarsana” (old 2017). In this regard, it has been argued dockyard) in the west of Galata by May that Galata faced an overall abandon- 1303 (discussed in the next section) and ment and neglect during the struggling recent Haliç Shipyards were all matched Latin period in Constantinople, which with each other by position by Erkal lasted until 1261 (Jacoby, 1998; 2013). (2016) and Janin (1950). The foundation process of Sykai in Especially from the mid-5th century coordination with Constantinople on onwards, numerous shrines of Constan- the other side was discussed by Cam- tinople briefly appeared in historical iz (2019) that both settlements grad- accounts and with the distinctive state- ually expanded from the east towards ment of “peran” (πέραν = across) for the west during the Early Byzantine Sykai, Elaia, Argyroupolis and Exartysis, period. When the ancient Byzantium which were all located on the other side grew until the boundary where the of the Golden Horn (Delehaye, 1902; are situated, Janin, 1969). Sykai had seven churches in the meantime, the oldest settlement and nine monasteries in total as of the around modern Tophane then formed 6th century (Janin, 1969). Sykai in the west and later continued The exact etymological root of its growth towards modern Kasımpaşa. “Galata” is unclear but there are some hypotheses about this subject (Eyice, 2. Pera on top of Galata: Edicts 1965). It first appeared in the 8th cen- of May 1303 and March 1304 tury and after a castle as “kastelliou ton An alliance was made between Gen- Galaton” during the Siege of Constanti- oese and Byzantines in 1261 against nople (717-718) by Arabs. A chain was the and the city was re- extended from that fortress to Seraglio covered in the same year. Later on, Point in order to blockade the Gold- Galata was ceded to Genoese in 1267 en Horn (Theophanes the Confessor, (Müller-Wiener, 2001). Its fortifica- 1997). The remained cellar of this for- tions except for the castle were demol- tress now functions as Yeraltı ished by Michael VIII as a precaution (Erkal, 2011). The name “Sykai” last prior the arrival of the Genoese that appears in the 10th century compilation Galata was officially called “Pera” by of Delehaye (1902). It was eventually re- them. In July 1296, the colony was dev- placed by “Galata”. astated by the archrival Venetians (Ey-

An interdisciplinary experiment for the urban morphology of Galata (Istanbul) and its surroundings during the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages 16 ice, 1967; Müller-Wiener, 2001). The detailed study of Palazzo (1946) The imperial edict of Andronikos II in order to apply the aforementioned dated May 1303 is an important docu- description on modern Galata achieved ment due to its contents about precise partial success and the position of Ha- borders of Pera, which also included gia Irene was well matched with Arap metric data and some reference places. Mosque, known as San Domenico It is absolutely necessary to well apply during the Genoese period. However, them onto present topography of Gala- that characteristic zigzag movement in ta in order to display the precise urban order to bypass two Byzantine church- layout at that time, which naturally had es was applied with a highly hypothet- a direct connection with the surround- ical manner, as if resembling a map ing area through the supposed main projection error. This mistake was also arteries that modern Perşembe Pazarı continued by Balard (1978); causing a Street was most probably one of them. situation as if the medieval urban lay- The other ones were discussed in fol- out was considerably different than lowing chapters. present one. Accordingly, and in short, the bor- It is known that Yeni Mosque in derline started in the west, before the Galata was built in the late 17th cen- landing stage called “vetus Tarsana” tury on a plot formerly occupied by a (old dockyard). It then climbed north- Franciscan convent with the churches east and reached the vineyard of Per- of Sant’Anna and San Francesco from dikares. Afterwards, it turned east and the Genoese period. This area is now continued straight towards this direc- a hardware bazaar called Hırdavatçılar tion, which passed through the church Çarşısı (Özgüleş, 2017). Although de- of Hagios Theodoros, another vineyard tailed 17th century site plans of the for- called “Macropita” (belonging to Lips mer convent with two churches were Monastery), the church of Hagia Irene, published by Matteucci (1967), mod- and two adjacent vineyards of Military ern studies failed to apply them despite Logothete Kinnamos (a Byzantine state the illustration of its characteristic up- official), respectively. In front of the side down L-shaped plot, which is in gate of Hagios Georgios (today Sankt fact still present. Hence, it was seen Georg), the borderline then made a that the churches of Sant’Anna and San characteristic double zigzag movement Francesco actually corresponded to towards the south and east, where the the churches of Hagioi Anargyroi and churches of Hagioi Anargyroi and Ha- Hagios Nikolaos by position, likewise gios Nikolaos were bypassed, respec- Arap Mosque and its former position- tively. It continued towards the east al phases. This discovery by Sağlam and turned south for a final time and (2018) secured the precise borders of reached the shore, before the Castle of Pera mentioned in the imperial edict Galata (today Yeraltı Mosque). Finally, dated May 1303. it followed the coastline and reached Moreover, it was noticed that all the the start point in the west. A buffer Byzantine shrines mentioned by May zone with a certain depth was to be left 1303 as well as the path of the border- unoccupied around the quarter (Fig. 1) line actually correspond to the grid (Belgrano, 1877; Sauli, 1831). layout of Galata, which is still present and was even better documented be-

Figure 1. A sketch of the edict of May 1303 (Sağlam, 2019).

ITU A|Z • Vol 17 No 3 • November 2020 • H.S. Sağlam 17

Kinnamos in the edict of May 1303 were exclusively mentioned as the first and the second along the same linear course, which were located immedi- ately between Hagia Irene and Hagioi Anargyroi that San Domenico / Arap Mosque and Sant’Anna / Yeni Mosque correspond to those shrines by posi- tion in later times, respectively. Hence, the aforementioned street also seems as if the pivotal dividing element, namely a cadastral road between two Figure 2. An accurate superposition of the edict of May adjacent properties of the same person, 1303 (Sağlam, 2019). therefore two well proportioned plots appeared for those vineyards of Kinna- fore modern demolitions, by Gaitan mos between the former Hagia Irene D’Ostoya and Rose & Aznavour maps and Hagioi Anargyroi. If there was no from 1858-1860. Thus, it has also been urban element in between, it would be argued by Sağlam (2018) that the char- pointless to separately mention them acteristic urban pattern of Galata ac- one after another (Fig. 2). tually predates the Genoese period, as With a second imperial edict dated testified by the edict of May 1303 in March 1304, Pera was completed to a comparison to all the discoveries con- rectangle, as it was required due to a cerning the phenomenon of positional surrounding moat. Three Byzantine continuity (Fig. 2). churches remained inside the Geno- It can also be said after the notary ese quarter that their names were not acts published by Bratianu (1927) that provided. The Genoese were also al- positioning some Genoese properties lowed to construct strong civil build- of Pera with a precise quadruplet or- ings but no city walls (Belgrano, 1877; der as of 1281-1284 seems coherent Sauli, 1831). Although identities of with an antecedent grid layout, as there those churches remained unknown, are regular anterior, posterior and two they were apparently the previously lateral adjacencies concerning detailed mentioned Hagia Irene, Hagioi Anar- positional descriptions of twelve pos- gyroi and Hagios Nikolaos. Therefore, sessions mentioned by those notary the area later remained inside the well acts. documented rectangular wall circuit Besides, due to its central position with regularly arranged towers was and likely earlier origins, Perşembe actually ceded to the colonists in two Pazarı Street was supposedly the main phases; in May 1303 and March 1304. marketplace street of Genoese called That rectangular form clearly stresses platea loggia next to the loggia build- the antecedent grid layout of Galata ing, the commercial center of the col- that can be seen even today (Sağlam, ony (Sağlam, 2018). Moreover, the ad- 2018) (Fig. 3). jacent vineyards of Military Logothete 3. New interpretations concerning the urban morphology of Medieval Galata Details about the continuity of modern Perşembe Pazarı Street like a main artery of the settlement during the Genoese period can also be found in later primary sources. According to the continued chronicles of Jacobus da Varagine (c. 1230-1298), an accidental fire burned nearly the whole Pera and the communal palace in 1315. Then, the palace was rebuilt in 1316 togeth- Figure 3. Main expansion and fortification phases of the er with other civil buildings. On the Genoese (Sağlam, 2019). An interdisciplinary experiment for the urban morphology of Galata (Istanbul) and its surroundings during the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages 18 other side, an inscribed slab also from fore the palace itself was apparently 1316 tells very similar things but it ad- one of those “houses”. A morphological ditionally mentions that “houses next trace that was formed by adjacent lon- to the moat around the lands of Pera gitudinal plots in accordance with di- were permitted as a favor” by Emperor mensions of the former palace is easily Andronikos II, who was highly hon- detectable in the site (Fig. 3). This area ored by the inscription on that slab was formerly covered with vineyards (Sağlam, 2018). A certain part of the but urbanized by the Genoese. As it former Genoese communal palace is happened following the official consent still standing that the building is called of Andronikos II, with whom the Gen- “Bereket Han” and located in the junc- oese had quite well relations and highly tion of Galata Kulesi Street and Banka- honored on the slab dated 1316, the in- lar Street (Eyice, 1982). The aforemen- terpretation of Akyol (1997) about the tioned moat was dug sometime before communal palace that was constructed March 1304 and surrounded terrestrial as an illegal building against the Byz- parts of the colony towards the hill. It antine authority and as a strong mes- then caused a second concession, as sage to them by 1316 remains slightly discussed in the previous section. inaccurate. It was previously questioned by In this case, the known dimensions Sağlam (2018) that those “houses next of the former communal palace from to the moat” could be the regularly ar- 1316 and its elaborate western facade ranged rectangular towers around the also testify the preexistence of Perşem- first quarter that were well document- be Pazarı Street along the same course ed by some 19th century maps and as well as its northeastern extension. photographs. However, they were not This part is now called Galata Kule- only present already in 1306 according si Street, which continues until the to George Pachymeres and Nicephorus namesake . Gregoras but also primarily positioned To conclude, there are convincing along the Golden Horn, which is cer- evidences concerning the existence tainly not a moat. Hence, the conces- of a much older grid urban layout in sion of 1316 must be something else, Galata before the arrival of the Geno- where the emperor’s favor was needed. ese, and a continuous northeastern axis As of 1316, the moat formed the that corresponds to modern Perşembe outermost perimeter of Pera and for Pazarı Street and Galata Kulesi Street. the internal area, the colonists were This characteristic morphology most already free to construct any kind of probably belongs to the Early Byzan- strong civil buildings since March tine period of Galata (Sykai), where 1304. Soon afterwards, they abused its major urbanization took place. This this right and erected tower houses development can be well attributed along their quarter, as quoted by Eyice to the reigns of Honorius (r. 395-423) (1967). Therefore, they did not need and Justinian (r. 527-565) with regard such a “favor” from the emperor for to primary sources. By May 1303, pre- their own, already walled internal area decessor Byzantine properties of Pera by 1316, which was devastated by a fire were already in a coherent spatial rela- a year ago. In this case, those “houses tionship with the aforementioned grid next to the moat” must be placed just layout, such as Hagia Irene, the vine- out of the quarter and its moat, like di- yards of Kinnamos, Hagioi Anargyroi saster homes. and Hagios Nikolaos (Fig. 1, Fig. 2). When considered current position When the Genoese built their new pal- of the communal palace (later Bere- ace out of the colony in 1316, they con- ket Han) and direct accounts about its sidered the same road network towards construction out of the first quarter in the northeast (Fig. 3). 1316, it appears that houses above a Moreover, as the main gates of the strip of land immediately next to the first Genoese walls directly match with moat and towards the hill were allowed each other through modern Perşembe after the devastating fire of 1315. The Pazarı and Tersane streets, they can be positional description mentioned by supposed as the pivotal axes of the an- the slab is especially noteworthy, there- tecedent urban layout as if resembling

ITU A|Z • Vol 17 No 3 • November 2020 • H.S. Sağlam 19

Cardo Maximus and Decumanus Max- dated 1294-1301. It indicates that a imus (Sağlam, 2018). In this case, the vineyard of 112 modioi and a garden of former morphology of Tersane Street 3 modioi were located in Galata; also a with longitudinal city blocks that last- vineyard of 237 modioi and gardens ed until the 20th century well resem- of 98 modioi (1 modioi = c. 0.1 hect- bles the “main street at the sea level, ares) (Talbot, 2000). During the same lying along the foot of the mountain”, period, the convent of Anargyroi in defined in the 5th century Notitia and Constantinople also had two places in supposedly included the single large Galata, which were a field of 30 modioi portico of Sykai. and of Barelina of 10 modioi, in which is a bathing place with poor people 4. Other developments until squatting nearby (Talbot, 2000). The the Ottoman takeover (1453) name of the vineyard belonging to the The Genoese period of Galata caused Lips Monastery as “Macropita” (possi- further urbanization on top of an an- bly Μακρά φυτεία = long plantation) cient city layout and the emergence of well matches with the aforementioned a medieval settlement character, which modioi of immense agricultural lands. included both continuity and transfor- In this respect, a significant portion mation. For instance, it was previously of these agricultural properties was argued by Sağlam (2018) after some zoned for construction following the primary sources that Hagia Thekla, the edict of March 1304, when they re- oldest church of Sykai that is known mained inside the extended Genoese from the 5th century could also be the quarter. single church of the suburb mentioned Furthermore, according to Nicepho- in the 5th century Notitia and it was rus Gregoras and two construction probably located on the former posi- slabs, the triangular area between the tion of San Michele, the parish church first Genoese quarter and the hilltop of the colony under the archbishopric was occupied and fortified by the Gen- of . Its plot was then occupied oese between 1335-1349 with high by Rüstem Pasha Caravanserai in the towers, ramparts and moats. Mean- mid-16th century. while, John VI Kantakouzenos indi- Major axes of historical cities often cates that a tower was built above the keep their original routes, likewise hilltop by the Genoese in 1348 that is the of Constantinople, which known as Galata Tower today (Sağlam, was well displayed by Müller-Wiener 2018). Then, the Genoese appear as a (2001) through primary sources and tax collecting authority in the west- archeological evidence. Thus, as main ern borough called Spiga (Pegai) as of landmarks of Pera like the loggia, San 1351 (Balard, 1978). With the treaty Michele and San Francesco were for- of 6 May 1352, the Genoese obtained merly concentrated along the suppos- a certain piece of land delimited by edly ancient Tersane Street (Sağlam, the Castle of Holy Cross (the renamed 2018), it can also be argued that oth- Galata Castle) (Sauli, 1831), which was er public monuments of the 5th cen- discussed in detail by Sağlam (2018). tury Sykai like the Baths of Honorius The administration of the eastern and the Forum of Honorius were per- borough called Lagirio (Argyroupolis) chance positioned in relation to that was given to the Genoese with anoth- major axis with the large portico, and er treaty dated 23 August 1376 (Gan- the plots of its later public monuments chou, 2003). Afterwards, with regard that are mentioned above. to archival sources as well as a cer- On the other hand, it appears af- tain group of mural slabs with coat of ter the edict of May 1303 that slopes arms and inscriptions, the aforemen- around the first Genoese quarter in tioned districts of Spiga and Lagirio Galata were covered with vineyards, belonging to Pera were secured and which all along delimited the grid lay- turned into proper walled boroughs out of the urbanized area. Details about with a series of moats, walls and tow- some of them can also be found in the ers. They were constructed in different typikon (liturgical book) of the Lips phases that lasted until 1452 (Sağlam, Monastery (today Fenari İsa Mosque), 2018) (Fig. 3). Finally, the Ottomans

An interdisciplinary experiment for the urban morphology of Galata (Istanbul) and its surroundings during the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages 20 captured Pera in 1453 together with a small opening on its top. A small, lat- Constantinople. The colony was sur- er collapsed aperture towards the cliff rendered without a battle, therefore was positioned on the southern cor- secured privileges that Mehmed II in- ner. It was probably reused by the Ot- troduced with the edict of 1 June 1453 tomans as a water distribution center (Şakiroğlu, 1982). (Envanter, 2019b). As a result of all those Genoese de- It is known that true to its name, velopments, Galata also kept its typi- Krinides / Pegai (springs) was rich in cal medieval characteristics even after natural water resources during ancient modern demolitions in the 19th cen- times (Dionysius of Byzantium, 2010). tury that similar fortified settlements Some Byzantine walls and nearby can be found all along the Mediterra- tombs were also recorded in Kasım- nean Sea (Camiz and Verdiani, 2016). paşa, towards further north of both Not only medieval but even ancient cisterns mentioned above (Envanter, origins of a city affect modern urban 2019c; Kimmelfield, 2019). works that can be tracked to some There were some discoveries also extent (Strappa, Carlotti and Camiz, in the east, around the former Argy- 2016). roupolis (modern Tophane) that some scant Early Byzantine ruins and vari- 5. Archaeological remnants ous small artifacts were found. In this reconsidered: Water infrastructure context, a large and supposedly mid- Not many physical traces were re- 5th century cistern was discovered in corded from the ancient Galata and its Sıraselviler Street together with some surroundings but there are still suffi- related foundations and nearby graves, cient discoveries to give an idea espe- which were attributed to the lepro- cially about the water infrastructure. sarium of Saint Zotikos. Brick arched For instance, speaking of western terri- 7th century foundations with adja- tories, being the former Pegai (modern cent graves in Kadiriler Street, and the Kasımpaşa), a large cistern probably 6th-7th century baths next to Meclis-i from the 5th-6th centuries was discov- Mebusan Street with a marble 4th- ered in 1878 at the bottom of the Otto- 5th century sarcophagus were further man cemetery in Kasımpaşa. It had two noteworthy ruins from this area (Kim- rows of roughly shaped and superposi- melfield, 2019). It can be said that the tioned marble columns, like the ones aforementioned attribution of Saint of the Cistern of Philoxenos (Binbird- Zotikos is topographically not very irek), and a ceiling with domed vaults. accurate with regard to the previously It was located in Yaşmak Sıyıran Street supposed location of Elaia. In addition, with an east - west orientation and had some arched Byzantine foundations a rectangular shape with a width of are still visible along Kemeraltı Street, 17,3 meters and a height of 4 meters. which were heavily altered during The cistern had stairs on its southern the Late Ottoman period (Envanter, facade and also supportive buttresses. 2019d). It was listed on 24.03.1968 but then Moreover, foundations of a cylindri- demolished. Some of its columns were cal and supposedly single domed struc- moved to Istanbul Archaeological Mu- ture with a distinctive Byzantine brick- seum (Envanter, 2019a; Eyice, 1967; work was seen in the northeast of Galata. Fıratlı, 1969; Forchheimer and Strzy- This recently restored ruin is located 290 gowski, 1893). meters northeast of Galata Tower and Another Byzantine cistern was accessed through Lüleci Hendek Street found in the north of the aforemen- (Beyoğlu District, Hacımimi Quarter, tioned monument, near Kasımpaşa city block 145, parcel 5). The approxi- Stadium and 43 meters above the sea mate radius of this structure is 5 meters level. It was positioned into the bed- and its fine brickwork resembles Early rock on the western cliff of that ex- Byzantine works. tremely steep area. This small, rectan- In Sykai / Galata proper, the collapsed gular structure had dimensions of 2,3 cistern of Saint Benoît with roughly 300 x 3 meters. It also had brick masonry pillars and ruins of the ancient forum, walls, a brick vaulted ceiling above, and which was located next to the caravan-

ITU A|Z • Vol 17 No 3 • November 2020 • H.S. Sağlam 21

Perhaps the most significant ancient remnants are brick vaulted tunnels in Galata. A portion with a width of 0,8 meters and a height of 1,5 meters is lo- cated right beneath the minaret of Ber- eketzade Ali Efendi Mosque (Fig. 4). Having a crook there, the tunnel runs straight towards Galata Tower in the north. It is almost parallel to the south- western facade of that mosque. After passing it and having a second turn nearby, it then continues towards the Golden Horn in the south, and suppos- edly all along Bereketzade Medresesi Figure 4. The tunnel beneath Bereketzade Ali Efendi Mosque Street. It was dated to Late Antiquity (Kuş, 2009). / Early Byzantine periods after small serai and harbor were mentioned as findings and a section of 60 meters was significant remnants noticed as of the recently restored. Two nearby graves 1540s by Gyllius (2016). In addition, in from the same period and scant abo- Bankalar Street and next to Saint Pierre veground foundations with stamped Han, some ruined infrastructures were bricks were also found. The mosque documented. These were clay brick ma- building itself was reconstructed in sonry walls supported by buttresses and 2006 (Envanter, 2019f; İSTED, 2019; covered with multiple barrel vaults that Kuş, 2009). later collapsed to a large extent (Envan- Another brick vaulted tunnel with a ter, 2019e). There were also some mis- clear north - south direction is located cellaneous marble artifacts discovered right below the cellar of Galata Tower, around Galata, such as a statue base from which is 1,5 meters high and 0,72 me- the 1st century BC; a column dedicated to ters wide (Fig. 5). It was discovered be- Pompey; a milestone; an allegoric sculp- fore the restoration works of 1960s and ture; an inscription in Greek from 391; interpreted as a Byzantine construc- and various unidentified fragments of tion (Anadol, 1964; Anadol and Arıoğ- spolia on Galata Walls and Arap Mosque lu 1979; Eyice, 1967; Hürriyet, 1965). (Dallegio d’Alessio, 1946; Ebersolt, 1921). A small, upper part of its barrel vault is still visible from the nearby public space, as the former ground level in the

Figure 6. The tunnel in the north of Galata Figure 5. The tunnel beneath Galata Tower (Hürriyet, 1965). Tower and near a cistern (Sağlam, 2019).

An interdisciplinary experiment for the urban morphology of Galata (Istanbul) and its surroundings during the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages 22 exterior was lowered in modern times A straight connection between all of and vaults of the tunnel section out of those Late Antique water tunnels seen Galata Tower were destroyed. Dimen- in Galata as a part of a very long wa- sions and overall architecture of this ter system is evident. They were simply tunnel section is very similar to the subterranean aqueducts once brought one discovered below Bereketzade Ali potable water to Sykai and apparently Efendi Mosque. also to the Baths and Forum of Hon- Finally, in 70 meters north of Gala- orius in the very central part, near the ta Tower and next to Küçük Hendek coast. A construction or improvement Street (Beyoğlu District, Şahkulu Quar- to the water infrastructure of Sykai also ter, city block 283, parcel 56), a ruined by Honorius during his reign between tunnel structure was seen during an in 395-423 is likely due to the Baths of excavation next to a cylindrical, single Honorius and the Forum of Honorius domed and due to its bricks supposed- that were already present in this sub- ly 18th century Ottoman cistern (Fig. urb, according to the 5th century Noti- 6). Its position well corresponds to the tia. straight northern route of the ancient There are further connections be- tunnel below Galata Tower. tween Honorius and water structures It has been said by Ibn Battuta (1929) of Constantinople. That is to say, em- that a small, dirty river was running perors Arcadius (r. 395-408) and Hon- through the main marketplace of Gala- orius intended to safeguard the aque- ta as of the early 1330s. A visible por- ducts of Constantinople with a statute tion of an ancient aqueduct in the form dated 29 May 395 and introduced of an underground tunnel was also no- harsher punishments against any vi- ticed during 1540s by Gyllius (2016), olations instead of using public res- which reached the coastal area next ervoirs. Then, with two laws dated 29 to the caravanserai and the supposed and 31 December 396, both emperors ancient forum. These two narrations diverted public entertainment expens- most probably defined the same thing, es to the construction and repair of the which was supposedly the southern Theodosian aqueduct of Constantino- end of the water conduit that is known ple, except for festivities on their own after the previously mentioned archae- birthdays. A final statute dated 29 Oc- ological discoveries. The current of its tober 412 and issued by emperors Hon- final course before reaching the Gold- orius and Theodosius II (r. 408-450) en Horn must have been used by near- was about the construction of a new, by shops during the 14th century for elegant portico in front of the Baths of evacuating garbage to the sea. Honorius in Constantinople (Theodo- Although there is little evidence sius II, 2001). It should be noted that about the water supply of the area in as of the 5th century, a second Baths of ancient times, it has been questioned Honorius was located in the 5th region by Crow, Bardill and Bayliss (2008) that of Constantinople, right across Sykai Sykai must had a well water infrastruc- (modern Sirkeci) (Matthews, 2012). ture due the Baths of Honorius locat- As previously discussed, the reb- ed there, which was presumably built el of Theodoric reached Sykai in 487 in 395-423. Hence, the water supply of and the aqueduct of Constantinople Byzantine Constantinople from north- was also cut. Then, Sykai had a large ern resources around Belgrad Forest scale restoration by in 528. probably also nourished Sykai and had These incidents might be relevant to a similar route with the Ottoman water the water supply of Sykai in terms of a system (of ) until modern Tak- probable 6th century repair but there is sim Square (Crow, Bardill and Bayliss, no archaeological evidence or research 2008). It has also been briefly argued by so far. This underground water system Çeçen (1992) that around the time of of Sykai / Galata probably also fed the the Ottoman conquest in 1453, Gala- mentioned bathing place near poor ta received potable water from nearby people’s houses there, which appeared resources and through small galleries in the typikon of the convent of Anar- inside hills. gyroi, dated 1294-1301.

ITU A|Z • Vol 17 No 3 • November 2020 • H.S. Sağlam 23

6. Burials along the ridge Concerning another topographical issue, it has been suggested by Dalleg- gio d’Alessio (1946) that the necropo- lis of Sykai was located at Kalafat Yeri next to Azap Gate, as abundant funer- ary debris and sculpted marbles were found there. It should also be men- tioned that some ancient funerary de- bris was unearthed within the plots of Arap Mosque and Yeni Mosque. They included a small funerary stele with an angular pediment, where the relief of a Figure 7. Ottoman water system of Galata (Sağlam, 2019, after half-draped man with an object on his Çeçen, 1992). right hand was placed inside a niche Moreover, according to a treaty dat- that the lower edge has a Greek inscrip- ed 5 September 1341 and published by tion; and an elliptical column of gray- Bertolotto and Sanguineti (1896), the ish marble with another Greek inscrip- underground water system of Galata tion, respectively (Dalleggio d’Alessio, was highly likely in use also during the 1946). In this case, it can be said that Genoese period. With this treaty, the Sykai, known as a fig orchard by the Byzantine imperial authority obliged 2nd century also served as a cemetery the Genoese not to inflict any harm to Byzantium until the early 5th cen- on while conveying, canalizing tury, when its major urbanization took and collecting water for Pera. There- place. The aforementioned sculpted fu- fore, the underground aqueducts in nerary materials apparently belonged question must be used by the Genoese to Hellenistic / Roman periods. Yet, it in order to meet this liability. should be noted that the monumental The Ottoman water supply of Is- tomb of Hipposthenes, who was a hero tanbul that originated from northern from Megara lived in the 7th centu- resources had approached Galata all ry BC was accordingly located in the along modern , İstik- west of Sykai (Dionysius of Byzantium, lal Street and Galip Dede Street. After 2010). Therefore, Sykai perchance had a tripartition around Galata Mevlevi burials even during the Archaic period House, it supplied the walled quarter but this function then continued to- through laterals, namely modern İlk wards the north, as discussed below. Belediye, Lüleci Hendek and Yolcuzade A larger burial location was detect- İskender streets (Fig. 7) (Çeçen, 1992; ed around the church of Ss. Pietro e Özgüleş, 2014). Correspondingly, a Paolo. There were some significant dis- large section of Ottoman water tunnel coveries during its 18th and 19th cen- was discovered below İstiklal Street in tury restorations, such as a number of 2012. It is 563 meters long and locat- ed between the French Cultural Cen- ter and (TRT Haber, 2012). A year later, a smaller water tunnel with a very similar ap- pearance to the ones detected in Galata was discovered below Taksim Square (Habertürk, 2013). However, the origin of this section is absolutely uncertain. Hence, it appears that the Late An- tique water system had a different and rather direct route within Galata Walls when compared to the Ottoman water supply system. Yet, it is highly proba- ble that they once had the same route from the main resource until the north Figure 8. Funerary steles in the church of Ss. of Galata Tower, where the Ottoman Pietro and Paolo (Sağlam, 2019). system split up for some reason. An interdisciplinary experiment for the urban morphology of Galata (Istanbul) and its surroundings during the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages 24 ancient tombs formed of large bricks, scene of a typical funerary meal, ac- marble funerary steles, and several companied by Greek inscriptions poorly cooked clay urns in the form of (Dalleggio d’Alessio, 1946). There were a pot, which contained lachrymatory five funeral discoveries around and glasses and bones (Dalleggio d’Alessio, towards the northeast of that site, all 1946). from the 3rd-1st centuries BC (Fıratlı Those steles, being four in number and Robert, 1964). are still located above the high wall in Finally, a very significant Late Byz- the right hand side, after passing the antine necropolis including more than main courtyard gate of the church of 50 burials was found in Taksim. It con- Ss. Pietro and Paolo in Galata. They sisted of 47 brick tombs, 2 stone tombs were found during the reconstruction and many nearby inhumations, which of 1838-1843 (Dalleggio d’Alessio, were discovered behind the famous 1946). Two sculpted artifacts can be Ottoman reservoir in Taksim Square safely dated to the Roman imperial pe- and dated after various small findings riod before the foundation of Constan- from the area (Envanter, 2019g). tinople (Fig. 8) . Among the remain- With a series of strict statutes issued ing two steles with crosses and some between 340-356, Constantius forbade inscriptions, one of them was dated the demolition of tombs and remov- to the 6th century by Curtis and Aris- al of their materials for any purpose tarchis (1885), which tells: ΕΝ|ΘΑ|ΔΕ but those penalties were mitigated by ΚΑΤΑΚΙ|ΤΕ ΣΑΒΒΑ|ΤΙΣ ΠΙΣΤΟΣ Julian in 363. Then, in 381, Gratian, (Here lies down Sabbatis the faithful). Valentinian II and Theodosius I issued It can be said that the other one also a law that burial sites must be placed belongs to the 5th - 6th centuries with out of Constantinople due to contam- regard to its epigraphic style (Fig. 8)1. ination reasons (Theodosius II, 2001). Two Late Antique / Early Byzantine Finally, in two burial laws issued by graves discovered near Bereketzade Ali Anastasius I and Justinian I in the 6th Efendi Mosque together with a section century, Sykai was considered as a part of the water tunnel from the same peri- of Constantinople (Justinian I, 2015; od were already mentioned in the pre- 2018). In this case, the temporary us- vious section. Then, towards the south- age of Sykai walls for corpses during east of Galata Mevlevi House, today the plague of 541-542 can be interpret- Serdar-ı Ekrem Street no. 30, an Early ed as an exceptional situation due to a Byzantine cemetery with triangular disaster. Nevertheless, it can be argued graves and stamped bricks was found that after all the efforts by the afore- during the first half of the 20th centu- mentioned emperors, new and larger ry (Bardill, 2004; Mamboury, 1951). burial sites appeared out of Constanti- Further funeral materials were found nople as well as Sykai during the Early towards the north, as a terracotta cof- Byzantine period. fin with a skeleton was unearthed in the northern end of Karaköy - Beyoğlu 7. Discussing continuities funicular tunnel (Dalleggio d’Alessio, and discontinuities 1946). When considered the funerary dis- Much above, ten Byzantine graves coveries concerning Galata, it can be with rectangular bricks forming trian- said that the tombs display a topo- gular covers were discovered during graphical and also chronologically re- the restoration of Casa Garibaldi in petitive continuity while moving away 2014, and dated to the 4th-6th centu- from Galata towards the north; from ries after small findings and radiocar- Hellenistic / Roman periods until the bon dating (Radikal, 2015; Hürriyet, Late Byzantine period; and through 2016; Bornovalı, 2016). Slightly up- modern Galata Kulesi, Bereketzade wards from that location, two funerary Medresesi, Galip Dede and İstiklal steles, nearby human bones and lach- streets, likewise the supposed Late Ro- rymatory glasses were found during an man / Early Byzantine water system excavation in Surp Yerrortutyun (Üç along Bereketzade Medresesi, Galip Horan) Armenian Apostolic Church. Dede and İstiklal streets. That buri- Those steles reportedly depicted the al site reached modern Taksim from

ITU A|Z • Vol 17 No 3 • November 2020 • H.S. Sağlam 25

Galata by Hellenistic / Roman peri- tractor. Hence, the “ridge-top theory” ods. This area was intensely used also formerly set forth by Gianfranco Can- during the Early Byzantine period and iggia in 1976 can also be interpreted as reached modern Taksim once again by the result of the attraction of geograph- the Late Byzantine period. ic features on anthropic routes (Camiz, It was already revealed in previous 2018). Burial sites around Argyroupo- sections that modern Perşembe Pazarı lis and its urban morphology point a and Galata Kulesi streets as well as similar situation along a second ridge the characteristic grid urban layout of through modern Necatibey, Defterdar Galata date back to pre-Genoese times and Sıraselviler streets in the east, of Galata. In fact, a probable ancient which most probably linked to the sup- origin of the strong axis that consist- posed main axis of Sykai with the large ed of modern Galip Dede and İstik- portico, but this subject needs further lal streets was previously set forth by research (Fig. 9). There were burials Dalleggio d’Alessio (1946) but lacked along the ridge since the Hellenistic a larger scale topographical, chrono- period but victims from the nearby logical and archaeological elaboration. leprosarium of Saint Zotikos from the Therefore, when considered all the 4th century supposedly increased the burials found along the main topo- number of burials there. When con- graphical axis mentioned above, an sidered the need of more burial sites ancient road can be supposed for the of the new imperial capital, that funer- same course, where the Early Byzan- ary practice on the other side was well tine underground water system was continued through centuries. Corpses also positioned. Such urban elements belonging to the victims of the Plague often superpose, but not always. of Justinian and recovered from Sykai Concerning the concentrated ceme- walls, where they were initially dis- teries along the aforementioned route, posed were probably reburied towards an ancient road was highly likely in the hill behind Galata in the mid-6th connection with that ridge as an at- century. In time, a site formerly known tractor urban element, which suppos- as Elaia that was named after olives edly caused adjacent burials in rows for then turned into an intense cemetery, long centuries; all along the ridge be- and its name was also changed (Hieri- tween Galata and Taksim. Concerning on) in accordance to the later tradition. this phenomenon, it has been argued This function lasted until the Late Byz- by Camiz (2018) that mountain ridg- antine period and stretched out a dis- es are natural continuous attractors, tant position (Taksim) once again. therefore routes within certain condi- On Tabula Peutingeriana, which is tions take the shape of a continuous at- a Roman road map from the 4th-5th centuries, a road reached Sykai af- ter following the Thracian Black Sea coasts until (Karaburun) and then passing Thimea for 12 Roman miles (24 km) (Talbert and Elliott, 2010). “Timaea turris” was located on the western coast of the Bosporus and towards the north, which falls around modern Sarıyer (Dionysius of Byzan- , 2010). In fact, the approximate distance between modern Sarıyer and Galata matches with the related section of the Roman road map. In this case, the supposed ancient axis along the ridge of modern İstiklal Street with re- gard to topographical and archaeolog- ical evidence was perchance the south- ern end of the ancient road between Figure 9. A hypothetical map for the ancient Sykai and Thimea, known from the water and road network (Sağlam, 2019). contemporary Tabula Peutingeriana.

An interdisciplinary experiment for the urban morphology of Galata (Istanbul) and its surroundings during the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages 26

When considered the known final route of the Late Antique / Early Byz- antine water tunnel of Galata, its un- certain northern route can be safely supposed along that ridge due to an evident topographical advantage in order to distribute water effectively to lower suburbs; likewise the Ottoman water system between modern İstiklal Street and Taksim Square. The crook of that ancient water tunnel (together with the antecedent road) in the posi- tion of modern Bereketzade Ali Efendi Figure 10. A hypothetical map for the continuities and Mosque perhaps intended to reduce discontinuities (Sağlam, 2019). the slope and to slow down the water pressure against the steep topography that the nearby Perşembe Pazarı Street 8. The aftermath also has the same morphology on two For the area immediately outside spots. In addition, it can be supposed Galata Walls, a c. 1481 copy of the fa- that cisterns of Pegai and Argyroupo- mous Buondelmonti panorama (orig- lis were also supplied by some second- inally from c. 1422) shows a Turkish ary connections from that major water cemetery (sepulcra turcarum) in the conduit but it should be noted that west and vineyards (hic sunt vinee Pegai had its own, perhaps limited nat- burgensium Peyre) in the east, respec- ural water resources. tively (Buondelmonti, 2005). Similarly, The construction of Galata Walls “Vigne de Pera” also appears on many with multiple gates during the 14th- 16th-17th c. panoramas of Istanbul. It 15th centuries but especially Galata appears that the cemetery function of Tower in 1348 most probably repelled the area from modern Şişhane until the antecedent continuous route of Kasımpaşa, formerly used by Greeks modern Galip Dede Street and ob- and Genoese was continued by the Ot- structed its bifurcated continuity to- tomans as “Küçük Mezaristan” (Small wards modern Galata Kulesi and Bere- Cemetery) (Eyice, 1996; İşli, 1992; ketzade Medresesi streets in the south. Kömürciyan, 1988). Therefore, it seemingly diverted itself The Ottomans called the nearby towards Yüksek Kaldırım Street, where coastal gate of Galata Walls “Meyit” a Genoese city gate was located, which (Death), which recalled that cemetery. was called Küçük Kule (Small Tow- Its landing stage was used for disem- er) Gate during the Ottoman period. barking Ottoman funerals brought However, it can be said that the Ear- from the city, which were buried on the ly Byzantine water tunnel under the other side of the Golden Horn (Kömür- ground safely kept its ancient, straight ciyan, 1988). “Büyük Mezaristan” (Big route along the ridge and beneath the Cemetery) was located around mod- Late Medieval Galata Tower (Fig. 10). ern Taksim. Those two cemeteries once It is clear that the Genoese had con- occupied a huge area along the topog- sidered the ancient water tunnel and raphy. Both of them were disappeared positioned Galata Tower directly on its in the late 19th century together with top, probably for securing the water re- the previously mentioned agricultural source of the colony as well as the need areas (Eyice, 1996). This hilly region of the tower itself. In this case, Camiz kept a functional and spatial continuity (2018) argued that the “ridge-top the- for centuries but had a complete ur- ory” can also be interpreted as a result banization in modern times. of the repellence of anthropic routes by anthropic features. Then, a repelled References route is inclined to be attracted by a Agathias. (1975). The Histories (trans. contemporary attractor feature, either Frendo, J. D.). Berlin and New York: anthropic or natural, such as a city gate Walter de Gruyter (Camiz, 2018). Akyol, E. (1997). Ortaçağ Galata’sının

ITU A|Z • Vol 17 No 3 • November 2020 • H.S. Sağlam 27

Kamusal Bir Yapısı - Podesta Sarayı, İs- Whitby, M., & Whitby, M.) Liverpool: tanbul 23, 25-33. Liverpool University Press. Anadol, K. (1964). Galata Kulesinin Crow, J., Bardill, J., & Bayliss, R. Turistik Tanzimi. Arkitekt, 317, 150-159. (2008). The Water Supply of Byzantine Anadol, K., & Arıoğlu, E. (1979). Constantinople. : Society for Galata Kulesi. Mimarlık, 79/1, 49-55. the Promotion of Roman Studies. Balard, M. (1978). La Romanie Curtis, C. G., & Aristarchis, Genoise. Genoa: Società Ligure di Storia S. (1885). Ανεκδοτοι Επιγραφαί Patria. Βυζαντίου. Ο εν Κωνσταντινουπόλει Bardill, J. (2004). Brickstamps of Con- Ελληνικός φιλολογικός σύλλογος. stantinople 1. Oxford: Oxford University Σύγγραμμα περιοδικόν 16/2, 1-39. Press. Çeçen, K. (1992). Taksim ve Ha- Belgrano, L. T. (1877). Documenti midiye Suları. Istanbul: İSKİ. riguardanti la colonia Genovese di Pera. Dalleggio d’Alessio, E. (1946). Gala- Atti della Società Ligure di Storia Patria, ta et ses environs dans l’antiquité. Re- 13, 99-417, 932-1003. vue des études byzantines, 4, 218-238. Berger, A. (2013). Accounts of Medi- Delehaye, H. (1902). Synaxarium eval Constantinople, The Patria.Wash - Ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae. Brus- ington DC: Dumbarton Oaks. sels: Socios Bollandianos. Bertolotto, G., & Sanguineti, A. Dionysius of Byzantium. (2010). (1896). Nuova serie di documenti Boğaziçi’nde Bir Gezinti (ed. Yavuz, M. sulle relazioni di Genova coll’Impero F.). Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Bizantino. Atti della Società Ligure di Ebersolt, J. (1921). Mission Storia Patria, 28, 337-573. Archéologique de Constantinople. Par- Bornovalı, S. (2016). Beyoğlu’nda is: Ernest Leroux. Az Tanınan Bir Vakıf Yapısı Surp Yer- Envanter, (2019a). Istanbul Ar- rortutyun Katolik Ermeni Kilisesi. chaeology Museum Reg. (Report No. Vakıf Restorasyon Yıllığı, 6/12, 42-55. 474/67946). Retrieved from Envanter Brătianu, G. I. (1927). Actes des no- http://www.envanter.gov.tr/anit/arke- taires génois de Péra et de Caffa de la oloji1/detay/56595 fin du XIIIe siècle (1281-1290). Bucha- Envanter (2019b). Istanbul Ar- rest: Cultura Nationala. chaeology Museum Reg. (Report No. Buondelmonti, C. (2005). Cristo- 690/108365). Retrieved from Envan- foro Buondelmonti, Liber Insularum ter http://www.envanter.gov.tr/anit/ (ULBD Ms. G 13) - Faksimile und arkeoloji1/detay/56176 Kommentar (ed. Siebert, I., & Plass- Envanter (2019c). Istanbul Ar- mann, M.). Wiesbaden: Reichert. chaeology Museum Reg. (Report No. Camiz, A., Verdiani, G. eds. (2016). 720/152564). Modern Age Fortifications of the Med- Envanter (2019d). Istanbul Ar- iterranean Coast. Exhibition Cata- chaeology Museum Reg. (Report No. logue. Florence: DIDApress. 720/132497). Retrieved from Envan- Camiz, A. (2018). Diachronic ter http://www.envanter.gov.tr/anit/ transformations of urban routes for arkeoloji1/detay/56318 the theory of attractors, in Mondé- Envanter (2019e). Istanbul Ar- jar D. U., Alcácer, J. C., Mañanós, A. chaeology Museum Reg. (Report Fol. P. eds. Conference Proceedings, 24th “Galata-Voyvoda Cad. - St. Piyer ISUF 2017, City and Territory in the Hanı yanı”). Retrieved from Envanter Globalization Age, Valencia: Editorial http://www.envanter.gov.tr/ anit/arke- Universitat Politècnica de València, oloji1/detay/56717 1359-1369. Envanter (2019f). Istanbul Ar- Camiz, A. (2019). Notes on the chaeology Museum Reg. (Report No. formation process of Sykais-Pera- 720/137007). Retrieved from Envan- Galata, from the foundation to 1304, ter http:// www.envanter.gov.tr/anit/ International Conference, Reading and arkeoloji1/detay/56331 Designing Galata, 26 March 2019, Envanter (2019g). Istanbul Ar- Özyeğin University, Istanbul. chaeology Museum Reg. (Report No. Chronicon Paschale, (1989). Chron- 720/122942 - I). Retrieved from En- icon Paschale, 284–628 AD (trans. vanter http://www.envanter.gov.tr/

An interdisciplinary experiment for the urban morphology of Galata (Istanbul) and its surroundings during the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages 28 anit/arkeoloji1/detay/56259 Altında Gizli Bir Tünele Rastlandı. Erkal, N. (2011). The Corner of the Hürriyet, 09 September 1965. Horn: An Architectural Review of the Hürriyet (2016). İstiklal Cadde- Leaded Magazine in Galata Istanbul. si’nin altı Roma mezarlığı.” Hürriyet, Middle East Technical University Jour- 23 January 2016. http://www.hurriyet. nal of the Faculty of Architecture 28/1, com.tr/kelebek/hayat/istiklal-caddesi- 197-227. nin-alti-roma-mezarligi-40044202/ Erkal, N. (2016). Reporting from Ibn Battuta (1929). Travels in Asia Darzaná: Seven Episodes of the Gold- and Africa, 1325-1354 (trans. Gibb, H. en Horn Arsenal. Paper presented at A. R). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul the 15. Venedik Mimarlık Bienali Tür- Ltd. kiye Pavyonu, Istanbul. İSTED (2019). Galata - Bereketzade Eyice, S. (1965). İstanbul’un Mahal- Tünel Restorasyonu. Retrieved from le ve Semt Adları Hakkında Bir Den- http://www.isted.org.tr/destek-ver- eme. Türkiyat Mecmuası 14, 199-216. digimiz-projeler/galata-bereketza- Eyice, S. (1969). Galata ve Kulesi, de-tunel-restorasyonu/detay Galata and its Tower. Istanbul: Türkiye İşli, N. (1992). Beyoğlu Mezarlığı. İs- Turing ve Otomobil Kurumu. lam Ansiklopedisi 6, 80-81. Eyice, S. (1982). Palazzo del Comune Jacoby, D. (1967). Les Quartiers Juifs des Genois a Pera (Galata). Studia Tur- de Constantinople À l’Époque Byzan- cologica Memoriae Alexii Bombaci Di- tine. Byzantion 37, 167-227. cata (ed. Gallotta A., & Marazzi, U.). Jacoby, D. (1998). The Jewish Com- Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orien- munity of Constantinople from the tale. Komnenan to the Palaiologan Period, Eyice, S. (1996). Galata’daki Türk Es- Византийский Временник 55/2, 31- erleri. İslam Ansiklopedisi 13, 307-313. 40. Fıratlı, N., & Robert, L. (1964). Les Jacoby, D. (2013). Between the Im- stèles funéraires de Byzance gréco-ro- perial Court and the Western Maritime maine. : Adrien Maisonneuve. Powers: the Impact of Naturalizations Fıratlı, N. (1969). İstanbul’dan Yeni on the Economy of Late Byzantine Bazı Önemli Buluntular / Recent Im- Constantinople, in Ödekan, A., Ne- portant Finds in Istanbul. İstanbul cipoğlu, N., Akyürek A. eds. The Byzan- Arkeoloji Müzeleri Yıllığı 15-16. tine Court: Source of Power and Culture. Forchheimer, P., & Strzygowski, J. Papers from the Second International (1893). Die Byzantinischen Wasser- Sevgi Gönül Byzantine Studies Sympo- behälter von Konstantinopel. : sium, Istanbul: Koç University, 95-103. Mechitharisten-Congregation. Janin, R. (1950). Constantinople Byz- Ganchou, T. (2003). Giacomo Bado- antine: Développement Urbain et Réper- er et kyr Théodôros Batatzès, «chomer- toire Topographique. Paris: Institut chier di pesi» à Constantinople (flor. Français d’Études Byzantines. 1401-1449). Revue des études byzan- Janin, R. (1969). La Géographie Ec- tines 61, 49-95. clésiastique de l’Empire Byzantin, 1, Le Geoffroy de Villehardouin, (2017). siège de Constantinople et le patriarcat Memoirs of the . USA: Fb&c Oecuménique 3, Les Églises et les Monas- Ltd. téres. Paris: Institut Français d’Études Gyllius, P. (2016). The Antiquities Byzantines. of Constantinople. USA: Independent Justinian I (2015). The Civil Law. Publishing Platform. USA: Lulu Press. Habertürk (2013). Taksim’in Altında Justinian I (2018). The Novels of Jus- Gizemli Tüneller! Habertürk, 05 March tinian. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- 2013. https://www.haberturk.com/gun- sity Press. dem/haber/824988-taksimin-altinda- Kimmelfield, I. (2019). : gizemli-tuneller/ A diachronic approach to the study of Hupchick, D. P. (2017). The Bulgar- Constantinople’s suburbs. Constantino- ian-Byzantine Wars for Early Medieval ple as Center and Crossroad, Swedish Balkan Hegemony. USA: Palgrave Mac- Research Institute in Istanbul Transac- millan. tions 23 (ed. Heilo, O., & Nilsson, I.). Hürriyet (1965). Galata Kulesi’nin Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute.

ITU A|Z • Vol 17 No 3 • November 2020 • H.S. Sağlam 29

Kohen, E. (2007). History of the of Justinian (trans. Stewart, A.). New Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the York: Adegi Graphics LLC. Thousand Year Empire. USA: Universi- Procopius, (2007). History of the ty Press of America. Wars: Books 1-2 (Persian War). New Kömürciyan, E. Ç. (1988). İstanbul York: Cosimo Inc. Tarihi - XVII. Asırda İstanbul (ed. An- Radikal (2015). Pera’nın altın- dreasyan, H. D., & Pamukciyan, K.). dan nekropol çıktı! Radikal, 15 April Istanbul: Eren Yayıncılık. 2015. http://www. radikal.com.tr/ha- Kuş, F. (2009). Galata Surları (Un- yat/peranin-altindan-nekropol-cik- published master’s thesis). ti-1335855/ University, Istanbul. Sağlam, H. S. (2018). Urban Pa- Malalas, J. (1986). The Chronicle of limpsest at Galata & An Architectural John Malalas: A Translation (trans. Inventory Study for the Genoese Co- Jeffreys, E., Jeffreys, M., & Scott, R.) lonial Territories in Asia Minor (Un- Melbourne: Australian Association for published PhD thesis), Politecnico di Byzantine Studies. Milano, Milan. Mamboury, E. (1951). Les fouilles Sauli, L. (1831). Della Colonia dei byzantines à Istanbul et ses environs et Genovesi in Galata. Turin: Giuseppe les trouvailles archéologiques faites au Bocca. cours de constructions ou de travaux Şakiroğlu, M. H. (1982). Sul- officiels et privés depuis 1936.Byzantion tan Mehmet’in Galatalılara Verdiği 21/2, 425-459. Fermanın Türkçe Metinleri. Anka- Mango, C. A. (2009). Constantino- ra Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya ple’s Mount of Olives and Pseudo-Dor- Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü Tarih Araştır- otheus of Tyre. Nea Rhome 6, 157-70. maları Dergisi 14/25 , 211-225. Matteucci, G. (1967). Un Glorioso Strappa, G., Carlotti, P., Camiz, A. Convento Francescano sulle Rive del (2016). Morfologia urbana e tessuti Bosforo; il S. Francesco di Galata in storici - Urban Morphology and Histor- Constantinopoli, c. 1230-1697. Flor- ical Fabrics: Il progetto contemporaneo ence: Studi Francescani. dei centri minori del Lazio - Contem- Matthews, J. (2012). Notitia Urbis porary design of small towns in Latium. Constantinopolitanae. Two Romes (ed. Rome: Gangemi Editore. Lucy, G.). Oxford: Oxford University Talbert, R. J. A., & Elliott, T. (2010). Press. Rome’s World: The Peutinger Map Re- Müller-Wiener, W. (2001). İstan- considered. Cambridge: Cambridge bul’un Tarihsel Topografyası (trans. University Press. Sayın, Ü.). Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayın- Talbot, A. M. (2000). Anargyroi: ları. Typikon of Theodora Palaiologina for Özgüleş, M. (2014). Belgeler Işığın- the Convent of Sts. Kosmas and Da- da Gülnuş Emetullah Sultan’ın Gala- mian in Constantinople. Byzantine ta’da Yaptırdığı Çeşmeler ve Su Yolları. Monastic Foundation Documents (ed. Tasarım + Kuram 17, 27-38. Thomas, J., & Hero, A. C.). Washington Özgüleş, M. (2017). The Women DC: Dumbarton Oaks. Who Built the Ottoman World. London Talbot, A. M. (2000). Lips: Typikon and New York: I.B. Tauris. of Theodora Palaiologina for the Con- Palazzo, B. (1946). L’Arap Djami ou vent of Lips in Constantinople Byzan- Eglise Saint Paul à Galata. Istanbul: tine Monastic Foundation Documents Hachette. (ed. Thomas, J., & Hero, A. C.). Wash- Procopius, (1999). Of the Buildings ington DC: Dumbarton Oaks.

An interdisciplinary experiment for the urban morphology of Galata (Istanbul) and its surroundings during the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages Theodosius II (2001). The Theodo- April 2012. https://www.trthaber.com/ sian Code and Novels, and the Sirmon- haber/gundem/istiklal-caddesinde- dian Constitutions (ed. Pharr, C.). New ki-tarihi-sir-35696.html Jersey: Lawbook Exchange. Theophanes the Confessor (1997). Endnotes The Chronicle of Theophanes Confes- I am greatly indebted to Prof. Dr. sor: Byzantine and Near Eastern His- Serra Durugönül, Assoc. Prof. Dr. tory, AD 284–813 (trans. Mango, C., & Bülent Öztürk and Res. Asst. Bünyat Scott, R.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Burak Aykanat for these expert opin- TRT Haber (2012). İstiklal Cad- ions. desi’ndeki Tarihi Sır. TRT Haber, 06