S T O R I E S O F US E F UL I N V E N T I O N S

R M S . E . F O A N

UT H O R O F H l S ’I‘ O R Y O F T H E UN I T E D S T T E S A A A , “ ”

D V N C E D C 1 V 1 C S E T C . A A ,

N EW Y O RK R C O T H E C E N T U Y O 1 9 1 4 r i h t 1 9 1 1 1 9 1 4 b Cop y g , , y

E N T RY CO T H E C U ,

P u b lis h ed S ep t emb e r 1 9 1 1 PREFAC E

N thi s little book I have given th e histo ry o f thos e inventions which a re most use ful t o m an in his f . I o dailyli fe have told the sto ry the M atch , the

- Stove , the Lamp , the Forge , the Steam Engine , the w Plo , the Re ap er , the M ill , the Loom , the Needle ,

'

the Gun , the House , the Ca rriage , the B o at , the

C lock , the B ook , and the M essage . From the hi s tory O f the se inventions we le a rn how m an b ecame the

O f ma ste r o f the wo rld nature a round him , how he brought fire and a i r and e a rth and wate r unde r his control and comp elled them to do his will and his

n wo rk . When we trace the growth o f thes e inv e tions we a t the s ame time trace the course o f human

progress . These stori es , there fore , a re sto ri es O f human p rogre ss ; they a re chapters in the history O f

civi li zation . And they a re chapters which have not hithe rto

b O O k be en brought together in one . M onographs on most O f the subj ects included i n thi s b O O k have a p

e a r ed a b o u ~ m o d e r n p , and excellent books t inventions I h ave been written , but a s far a s know , this is the

V PRE FACE first time the evolution O f these useful inventions has been fully traced in a Single volume . While prep aring the stories I have received m any courtesies from O ffi cers in the Library o f C ongress

l\I s e and from those o f the National u u m .

S . E . F

1 1 1 . M ay , 9

Washington , D . C .

V i C O N T E N T S

T H E F OREWOR D T H E MAT C H T H E S TOV E

T H E L A M P T H E F ORG E

T H E S TEA M - E NG I N E H E PLOW T H E REAPER T H E M I LL T H E L OO M

T H E N EE D LE

T H E GU N T H E H OU SE T H E CA RR I AG E

T H E CA RRI A GE ( Co ntin u ed ) T H E B OAT T H E CLO C K T H E B OO K T H E M ESSA G E

A FO REWO R D 1

HE SE stori es O f use ful inventi ons are chapters

in the history O f civili zation and thi s little b ook

s is a book Of history . N ow we are told by Herodotu , o n e O f o f the Oldest and greatest historians , that when the writer O f history records an event h e should state

i h e the t i m e and t p la c e o f its happ ening . In some

’ O f o kinds history in the h istory Of the w rld s wars , f o r or O f it s — example , in the history politics thi s is strictly true . When we are reading Of the battle

O f Bunker H ill w e Should be told precisely when and where the b attle was fought , and in an account

O f the D eclaration o f Independence the time and place Of the decla ration should be given . But in the history Of inventions we cannot always be precise a s to dates and places . O f course it cannot be told when the first plow or the first loom o r the first clock w d a s m ade . Inventi ons like these h a thei r ori gin fa r back i n the earliest ages when there was no such

1 \Vh e r e r e ad e r s a r e q uit e young t h e F o r e w O r d had b e tt e r b e

s e h e s s e v e r e po t pon d unt il t e s tori th em l s a e r a d . ix A FOREWOR D

person as a historian . And when we come t o the history o f inventions in more recent times the his torian is still sometimes unable to discover the pre

o cise time and place f an invention .

I t is in the nature of things that the or igin of a n invention should b e surrounded by uncerta inty and

a s s ee doubt . An invention we shall presently , i s nearly always a response to a certa in want . The world wants something and it p romises a rich reward

in to one wh o will furnish the desired thing . The

ent or v , recognizing the want , sets to work to make the th ing , but he conducts his experiments in secret , for the reason th at he does not want another to steal

s ee his idea s and get ahea d o f him . We can that this is true in respect to the flying mach ine . The first ex p erim ent s with the flying machine were conducted in secret in ou t o f the way places and p ains were taken that the public shou ld know a s little a s possible about the new machine and about the results o f the exp er i fl ments . The history o f the ying machine will o f

O f course have to b e written , but because the secrecy and mystery which surrounded the b eginnings o f the inventi on it will be extremely di fficult for the future historian to tell precisely when the first flying ma

chine was invented O r to name the inventor . I f it is

s o di ffi cult to get t hefacts a s to the origin O f an in

x A FO REWOR D

n io n own ffi v e t in our time , how much more di cult it is to clea r away the mystery and doubt which surround the beginnings o f an inventi on in an age long past !

I n a history of inventions , then , the historian can

not b e p recise in respect to dates and places . For

l o tu na t e y this is not a cause f r deep regret . It is not a great loss to truth that we cannot know pre

c is el wa s y when the first b ook printed , nor does it

make much difference whether that book wa s printed

in Holland or in Germany . I n giving an account of an invention we may b e content to treat the matter

o f is time and place broadly , for the story apt to carry us through a stretch Of years that defies c om t pu ation , a stretch that is immensely longer than the

r li fe o f any nation . Fo ou r pu rpose these millen

n iu m s o f , these long stretches time , may be thought

o f a s being divided into three great p eriods , namely

r i ti e ie r m v a nc nt m o d e n . the p i , the , and the period

s o is not Even a division broad as this satis factory , for in the progress o f thei r inventions all countries

o f have not kept equal step with the ma rch time . In

wa s some things ancient Greece modern , while in most things modern Alaska is primitive and modern C hina

is ancient . Nevertheless it will be convenient a t

r im tiv e e u times in this b ook to speak o f the p i , the

c ient mod er n and the periods , and it will be use ful to

xl A FOREWOR D reg a rd the p r i m i tiv e peri od as beginning with the com ing O f man on earth and extending to the yea r

C a c . en 5 0 00 B . ; the n i t peri od m ay be thought O f a s beginning with the year 5 0 00 B . C . and ending with

D . 6 . m od er n the yea r 4 7 A , leaving for the period

c . the years that have passed sin e 4 7 6 A D . In tracing the growth O f an invention the peri o d s indicated ab ove can serve a s a time - guide only f o r those p arts o f the world where the course O f civ iliz a t io n h a s it s w a taken y , for inventi on and civiliz a f tion h ave traveled the same road . The region O the world ’s most advanced civili zation includes the

on lands bordering the M editerranean Sea , C entral and Northern Europe , the British Isles , North Amer ica , South America and Australi a . It is within this region that w e Shall follow the devel opment o f what ever invention is under consideration . When speak

o f o f ing the first forms an invention , however , it will sometimes b e necessary , when an illustration i s

t o o f wh o desired , draw upon the experience people are outside O f the wall O f civili zation . The reason for going outside i s plain . The first and simplest f orms O f the use ful inventions have utterly perished in civili zed countries , but th ey still exist among savage and b arb arous peoples an d it is among such peoples

th that the first forms must be studied . Thus in e xi i A FOREWOR D

O f w e O - O ff story th e clock , must g to a fa r peninsula

1 a o f O f Southern Asi a ( p . 9 0 ) f o r an illustr tion the

o r - beginning O f u modern time pi ece . Such a depa r ture from the beaten track O f civili z ation does no t

O f inv en ~ spoil the story , for a s a rule , the rude fo rms tions fou n d among the lowes t races O f t o - day a re precisely th e same forms that were in use among the Egyptians and Greeks when they were in their lowest state . When studying the history o f an invention there a re two facts or principles which should ever be borne in mind . The first principle is this : N ec es s i ty is th e o th v en m er of i n t i o n . Th is principle wa s touched upon when it was sa id that an invention appears as a

o response t a want . When the world wants an in v ent ion it usually gets it and makes the most O f it , but it will have nothing to do with an inventi on it

- does not want . The steam engine was invented two thousand ye ars ago ( p . 5 5 ) but the world then ha d

f o r d o no work steam to , so the invention attracted little attention and came to naught . About two hun dred years ago , however , man did want the services O f steam and inventors were not long in supplying the engine th at was needed . About a hundred yea rs a g o the broad pra iri e lands O f the United States began to be tilled but i t was soon found that the vast a reas xii i A FO REWO R D could not b e plowed and that the immense crops could n o t O ld b e harvested by the methods . SO improve ments upon the plow and the reaper began t o b e m ade and in time the steam gang - plow and the complete harvester were invented . When the locomotive first came into u s e a Simple handbrake was used t o stop the

- a s o f slow going tra ins , but the si ze and the speed tra ins increased the handbrake became more and more unsatis factory . Sometimes a train would run as much a s a hal f mile beyond a station b efore it could b e stopped and then when “ backed ” it would aga in f pass beyond the station . The problem O stopping the train promptly b ecame fully a s important as start

a s i o f ing it . The problem w solved by the invent on

- h a s in th e a ir brake . And thus i t been with all the v entions which surround us : necessity h as been the mother O f them all .

The other principle is that a mechanical inv en

is r o wth tion a g , or , to state the truth in another im way , an invention nearly always is Simply an provement upon a previous invention . The loom , f o r example , was not invented by a particular person at a p articular time ; it did not spring into existenc e

r ew in a day with all its parts perfected ; it g , century by century , piece by piece . In the stories which will follow the steps in the growth of an invention are xiv A FO REWOR D

s hown in the illustrations . These pictures are n o t

f or . for amusement but study As you read , examine them care fully and they will teach you quite as much about the growth o f the invention as you can be taught by words .

STO R I ES OF USE FUL I NVENTIONS

STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

know h ow to kindle fire ; and a fter they learned h ow

to kindle one , it was a long , long time b e fore they

on e learned how to kindle easily . In these days we

can kindle a fire without any trouble , because we can easily get a match but we must remember that the match is one of the most wonderful th ings in the

o f world , and that it took men thousands years to

h s learn ow to make one . Let u learn the history o f

this famili a r little Obj ect , the m atch .

Fire w as first given to man by nature itsel f . When a forest is s et on fire by cinders from a neigh

O r s et boring volcano , when a tree is abla ze by a

s a thunderb olt , we m ay y that nature strikes a match .

I n the ea rly h istory O f the world , nature had to

' f or h is own eff ort a s kindle all the fires , man by w unable to produce a spark . The first method , then , of getting fire f or use was to light sticks o f wood at fl — b a ame kindled by nature y a volcano , p erhaps ,

fir eb r a nd s . or by a stroke O f lightning . These ( Fig 1 ) were carri ed to the home and us ed in kindling the fires there . The fire secured in this w ay was ca re fully guarded and w a s kept burning as long as possible . But the fl ame , however faithfully watched , would sometimes b e extingu ished . A sudden gust

o r o f wind a sudden shower would put it out . Then

a new firebrand would have to be secured , and this

o f o ften meant a long j ourney and a deal trouble . In the course o f time a man somewhere in the world hit upon a plan of kindling a fire without hav

is s a ing any fire to begin with ; that to y , he h it upon 4 THE M ATC H

I F I G. . GETTING A MATCH FROM NATURE .

a r t c ia l a plan O f producing a fire by ifi means . H e knew that by rubbing his hands together very ha rd

and very fast he could m ake them very wa rm . By trial he learned that by rubbing two p i eces O f dry

th e m wood together he could make very wa rm . Then he asked himsel f the questi on : C an a fire b e kindled by rubbing two pieces

o f wood together , i f they a re rubbed hard enough ? H e placed upon the ground a p iece 2 O f perfectly dry wood ( Fi g . ) and rubbed this with the end o f a stick until a groove was I made . In th e groove a fine dust O f wood a kind o f s a w

— 2 V dust wa s made by the rub FIG . . PRIMITI E FIRE

. i M AKING . THE STICK o ru bb . 6 n - bmg H went mg A ND GROOVE METHOD . STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

h ard and fast , and , behold , the dust in the groove began to glow ! He placed some dry grass upon

the embers and blew upon them with h is breath , 1 e r and the grass burst into a fl a m . Here f o the

first time a m an kindled a fire f o r h imsel f . He ha d invented the m atch , the greatest invention , per

.

o f . h aps , in the history the world The stick - and - groove method as we may call i t — O f getting a fl ame was much better than guard ing fire and carrying it from place to place ; yet it

w a s . , nevertheless , a very clumsy method The wood u r e sed h ad to be p er fectly dry , and the rubb ing

o f quired a vast amount work and patience . Some times it would take hours t o

p roduce the sp ark . A fter a while and doubtless it w a s a very long while it w a s found that it was better to keep the end o f the stick in one spot and

twirl i t ( Fi g . 3 ) than it was to t o plow and fro with it . The

I twirling motion made a hole in F G. DRI L L FIRE . e ( Simpl Form . ) Which the heat produced by the friction was confined in a small space . At first the drilling was done by twirling the

O f stick between the p alms the hands , but th is made

1 l e . th e s e s e Mr Wa t r Hough o f National Mu um , him l f a w i zard in th e fi r e - k e s m e art o f ma ing , t ll that a bla z e cannot b e pro d u c ed s s k s e e imply by rubbing tic tog th r . All that can b e don e is k e t h em by rubbing to ma glo w . THE MATC H

t o o h o t f o r f fir e- the hands com ort , and the makers 1 lea rned to do the twirling with a cord o r thong

wrapped around the stick ( Fig . You see , the upper end O f the stick which serves a s a drill turns in a cav ity in a mouthpiece which the operator holds between his

teeth . I f you should under

- take to u s e a . fir e drill O f this

is kind , it likely that your j aws

a would be p in fully j arred . RE L By both the methods de ' g i Tfrngazé s j , Oh scribed above , th e fire was

t a ine o r d by rubbing r f ic t i o n . The friction method

seems to have been used by all primitive peoples , and it is still in use among savages in various parts

o f the world . Th e second step in fir e- making was taken when it w a s discovered th at a sp a rk can b e ma de by strik ing together a stone and a piece o f

o re i ron . Strike a p iece O f fl int aga inst a p iece O f iron ore known

a s o r fir e- o u pyrites , stone , and y will

make sparks fly . ( Fig Let

F I G' RI K I N S' S I G ERE these sparks fall into small pieces O f dried moss or powdered char

t nd er coal , and the i , as the moss or the cha rcoal is

called , will catch fire . It will glow , but it will not

1 w s O f e e A narro trip l ath r . STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

bla ze . N ow hold a dry splinter in the glowing tin

o r der , and fan blow with the breath and the splinter

o will burst into a fl ame . I f y u will tip your splinter with sulphur b e fore you place it in the burning tin

ou . der , y will get a flame at once This was the

- - r u s io n o f a e c s . strike light , or p , method making a fire w a s im It followed the friction method , and a great provement upon it because it took less work and a shorter time to get a bla ze . The regula r outfit for

6 — T1 N DER . B O! FIG . , FLINT , STEEL , AND SULPHUR

TIPPED SPLINTERS .

fire-making with the strike - a - light consisted o f a tin

- o f der box , a p iece steel , a p i ece O f fl int , and some splinters tipped with sulphur ( Fig . The fl int and steel were struck together , and the sp arks thus made fell into the tinder and ma de it glow . A splin

w a s t o ter applied as quickly as possible the tinder , and wh en a fl ame wa s produced the candle which

- rested in the socket on the tinder box wa s lighted . As soon as the splinter was lighted the cover wa s r e 8 THE M ATC H

o n - placed th e tinder box , so as to smother the glow

ing tinder and save it for another time . The strike - a - light method w a s discovered m any

a o thousands O f years g , and i t ha s been used by 1 nearly all the civili zed nati ons Of the world . And i t has not b een s o very long since this m ethod w a s

a lai d aside . There are m ny people now living who remembe r when the fl int and steel and tinder - box were in u s e in almost every hous ehold . About three hu ndred ye ars ago a third method o f producing fire was discovered . I f you should drop a small qu antity o f sulphuric aci d into a m ixtu re o f

o f ou chlorate potash and sugar , y would produce a

a s f o r bright flame . Here w a hint a new way O f

m aking a fire ; and a thoughtful man i n Vienna , i n

the seventeenth century , profited by the hint . H e took one O f the sulphur - tipped splinters which he

his - was accustomed to us e with tinder box , and

t o dipped it into sulphuri c acid , and then applied it

a mixture O f chlorate Of potash and suga r . Th e

splinter caught fire and burned with a bla ze . Here

nor was neither friction percussion . The chem ical

u y s bstances were simply brought together , and the

s a caught fire O f themselves ; that is to y , they caught

em fire by c h i c a l action . The discovery made by the Vienna man led t o a

1 Th e anci ent Gr eek s u s ed a burning - gla s s or - l en s f o r k indling ’ fi re Th e e s s e th e s s s s . l n focu d s un ray upon a ub tanc e that

w s s et a fi r e Th - s s ould burn e a ily and it . e burn ing gla w a s not

e e w a w th e e e e th e conn ct d in any y ith d v lopm nt o f match .

9 STO R IE S O F U SE FUL IN VENTION S

O f r new kind match the chem ical match . A p a c tical outfit f o r fir e- making now consisted O f a b ottl e o f sulphuri c aci d ( vitri ol ) and a bundle o f splints tipped with sulphur , chlorate O f potash , and sugar .

o f M atches this kind were very expensive , costing as much as five dollars a hundred ; besi des , they were very unsatis factory . O ften when the match was dipp ed into the aci d i t would not catch fire , but would smolder and sputter and throw the aci d about and spoil both the clothes and the temper . These dip splint matches were used in the eighteenth century by f those who liked th em and could af ord to buy them .

ou t - a - They di d not , however , drive the Old strike light

- and tinder b ox . I n the nineteenth century — the century in which — S O many wonder ful things were done the fourth

a step in the development of the match w s taken . In 1 8 2 7 , John Walker , a druggist in a sm all English town , tipped a splint with sulphur , chlorate of potash ,

on and sulphi d o f antimony , an d rubbed it sand h a . d paper , and it burst into fl ame The druggist

r ic tio n- c h emic a l discovered the first f match , the kind

e o - is - w use t day . It called fricti on chemical because i t is made by m ixing certa in chemicals together and ’ no t rubbing them . Although Walker s match did

o f w a s n ot require the bottle a cid , nevertheless i t a ' o nl b good one . I t could b e li ghted y y hard rub

dir ec b ing , and i t sputtered and threw fire i n all

f e . w tions In a years , however , phosphorus was

f o r substituted on the tip antimony , and the change I O

STO R IE S O F USE FUL INVENTIONS have caused fires by gnawing the phosphorus matches

o ne and igniting them . In city thirty destructive

fires were caused in one year by mice li ghting matches .

T O s a e t m a tc h avoi d accident by matches , the f y

r e ( Fig . 8 ) ha s

c ently b een invented . The sa fety m atch does n ot conta in

phosph o rus . The — 8 . . O! S FIG A B OF MODERN AFETY phosphorus is mixed MATCHES . With fine sand and glued to the si de o f the b ox in which th e matches are sold . The sa fety match , there fore , cannot b e lighted

i O n on unless it s ru bbed . the phosphorus th e outside

O i o O ld O f f the b ox . It s s much better than the kind phosphorus match that it is driving the latter ou t O f the market . Indeed , in some places it is forb idden by law t o sell any kind o f match but the sa fety match . The invention o f th e sa fety m atch is the last step

e- in th e long history Of fir making . The first match

o f ou r w as li ghted by rubb ing , and the match own time i s lighte d by rubb ing ; yet wh at a difference there is between the two ! With the plowing - stick or fir e drill it took strength and time and skill t o get a bla ze ; with the s a fety match an awkward little ch ild

can kindle a fire i n a second . And h ow long it h as taken to make the match as

is ! - good as it The steam engine , the telegraph ,

the telephone , and the electric light were all in use

be fore th e simple little sa fety m atch . 1 2 THE STOVE

RO M th e story O f the m atch y o u have learned how m an through long ages O f experience gra dually mastered the art o f making a fire easily

and quickly . I n this chapter , and in several which

w e in are to follow , shall have the history O f those v entions which h ave enabled man to m ake the best

o f use fire . Since the first and greatest us e O f fire

is ou r to cook food and keep the b ody warm , account o f the inventi ons connected with the use O f fire m ay

best begi n with the story o f the stove . The most important uses O f fire were taught by

fire its elf . As the prim itive man stood near the fl ames o f the burning tree and felt thei r pleasant w glo , he learned that fire may add to bodily com fort ; and when the fl ames swept through a forest

and overtook a deer and baked it , he learned that

fire might be used t o improve the qu ality Of his food .

a s h Th e hint w not lost . He took a burning torc t o h is cave o r b u t and kindled a fire o n h is fl oor

O f e arth . H is dwelling filled w ith smoke , but he could endure the discom fort f o r the sake Of the ’ fire s wa rmth , and for the s ake O f the toothsomeness o f w a s the cooked me ats . A fter a time a hole made t h e in the roo f o f th e hut , and throu gh this hole 1 3 STO RIE S O F U SE FUL INVENT ION S

w a s . smoke passed o u t . Here the first stove The primitive stove was the entire house ; the floor was the fireplace and the hole in the roof was the ”

I . chimney ( Fig . ) The word stove originally

I T H E . F I G . . PRI MITIVE STOVE

SO w e meant a heated room . that i f should say w e that at first people lived in thei r stoves , sh ould

s a y that which is literally true . E arly inventions i n cooking consisted in simple 1 4 TH E STOVE d evices for a pplying fl ame di rectly to the thing whi ch

s w a s to be cooked . Th e first roasting was doubtles d one by fastening the fl esh to a pole placed i n a hori zontal positi on above the fire and supported as

F I G 2 . . . PRIM ITIVE COOKING is shown in Figu re The h ori zontal bar called a

o f spit was ori ginally wood , but a fter man had le arned to work in metals a n i ron bar was used . When o ne side o f th e flesh w a s roasted the spit w as turned and the other side w a s exposed to the fl ames . The spit O f the prim itive a ge was the parent O f the m od ern grill and broiler .

Food was first boiled in a hole i n the ground . A h ole w a s filled with w ater into which he ated stones

o ff were thrown . The stones , by giving thei r heat , f caused the water to boil i n a very short time . A ter

1 S ev eral o f th e i llu s tration s i n th i s chapt e r a r e r eproduc e d

t h e s O f th e s S e O through e court y Bo ton tov C . I S STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

O f w a s the art of m aking vessels clay learned , food

was b oiled in earthen pots suspended above the fire . The methods O f warming the house and cooking the food which have j ust been described were cer

t a inl y crude and inconvenient , but it w a s thousands

T h e O f years be fore b etter methods were invented . long p eriods o f savagery and barbari sm p assed and

o f w a s the p eriod civili z ation ushered in , but civ

iliz a tion di d not a t once bring better stoves . N either the ancient Egyptians nor the anci ent Greeks knew h ow to heat a house com fortably and conveniently . — All o f them used the primitive stove a fire on

th e o f the fl oor and a hole in the roof . In h ouse an anci ent Greek there w a s usually on e room which

a s could b e heated when there w need , and this w as “ — called th e black - room ( a tr iu m ) black from the soot and smoke which escaped from the fire on the fl oor . But w e must not sp eak h arshly O f the ancients because they were slow in improving thei r methods

O f heating , for in truth the modern world has not done as well in this direction a s m ight have b een ex

ec t ed o f p . I n a book travels written only sixty years ago m ay b e found the following pa ssage : In

is ex en Normandy , where the cold s evere and fire p

- s ive , the lace makers , to keep themselves warm and to save fuel , agree with some farmer who has cows in winter quarters to be allowed to carry on their work i n the s oci ety o f the cattle . The cows would b e tethered in a long row on one side o f the ap art 1 6 THE STOVE

- o n t h e ment , and the lace m akers sit the ground on ” other side with their feet buried i n the straw . Thus the lace - makers kept themselves warm by the heat wh ich came from the bodies o f the cattle ; the

a s . cows , i n other words , served stoves This b arb a

h ea t in w a s o o f rous method o f g , practi sed in s me parts

a o France less than sixty yea rs g .

— ! . A . FIG . 3 ROMA N BRA IER The anci ent peoples around the M editerranean m ay b e excused for not m aking great progress in the

a a s s o art o f heating , for their clim te w mild that

they seldom ha d use for fire in th e house . Never th eles s there w as in use among these people an in v ention which h a s in the course o f centuries de

v elo ed o f - p into the stove to day . This was the

bra z ier or - r , warming p an ( Fig . The bra zie 2 I 7 STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS w a s filled with burning charcoal and w as carried

a s u n from room to room as it w needed . The pleasant gases which escaped from the charcoal were

f n ot m a de less of ensive , but less unhealthy , by burn i ng per fumes with the fuel ; The bra z ier ha s never been entirely la i d aside . It is still used in Spa in and in other w arm countries where the necess ity for fire is rarely felt .

o f t h e Th e bra zier satisfied the wants Greece , but colder climate o f Rome required something b etter ; f and in their ef orts to invent something better , the ancient Romans m ade real progress in the art o f

fire- warming thei r houses . They bu ilt a room

h oc a u s t — in called a yp the cellar , and , by means o f o f pipes m ade baked clay , they connected the hypocaust with different p arts o f the house ( Fig . Heat and smoke p assed up together through these pipes . The poor ancients , it seems , were for ever persecuted by smoke . However , a fter the w ood in the hypocaust was once well charred , the

a o smoke w s not s troublesome . The celebrated baths ( club - rooms ) o f ancient Rome were he ated

o f by means hypocausts with excellent results . In

t h e o f deed , hypocaust ha d many the features and

o f o many th e merits o f u r modern furnace . Its weak feature was that it ha d no separate pipe to carry away the smoke . But as there were no chim

s ney yet i n the world , it is no wonder there w as no such pipe . The Roman s made quite as much progress in the 1 8

STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

f o r a crane , that he might enj oy a longer time his food as it descended . This demand for tempting viands developed a race of cooks wh o were a rtists in

one their way . Upon occasion a king called for a certain kind of fish . The fish could not b e had , but the cook w a s equ al to the emergency . He cut a large turnip to th e perfect im itation o f the fish de

s o s ired , and this he fried and seasoned skil fully ’ w a s that hi s maj esty s taste exqu isitely deceived , and

o h is he pra ised the root t guests a s an excellent fish . Such excellent cooking could not b e done on a prim i

a nd th e tive stove , along with th e improvements in

o f a rt cooking , there was a corresponding improve

- ment at Rom e in the art o f stove making . When Rome fell ( 4 7 6 many of the best

o f features her civili zati on perished with her . Among the things th at were lost to the world were the Roman m ethods o f cooking and heating . When

the barbari ans came i n at the front door , the cooks

fled from the kitchen . The hardy northerners ha d

f o r no taste dainty cooking . Hypocausts ceased to

Fo r b e used , an d were no longer built . s evera l

hundred years , in all the countries o f Europe , the

o f old o n fireplace was located , as , the floor in the

o f w a s t o center the room , while the smoke allowed

p ass out through a hole in the roo f . Th e eleventh century brought a great improve

o f ment in the a rt heating , and the improvement

o came from England . About the time f the Con quest ( 1 0 6 6 ) a great deal o f fighting was done on 2 0 THE STOVE

o f f the roofs English ortresses , and the smoke com ing up through the hole in the center o f the roo f

o So proved t be troublesome to the soldiers . the fire was moved from the center o f the fl oor to a spot

w a s nea r an outside wall , and an opening m ade

s o in the wall j ust above the fire , that th e sm oke

o w a s o f c h m could pass u t . Here the origin the i

a ney . Proj ecting from the wall ab ove the fire w s

t o a hood , which served direct the smoke to the opening . At first the opening for the smoke ex

f ew tended but a feet from the fire , but i t wa s soon found that the further up the wall the opening ex tended the b etter was the

So c dra ft . th e himney was made to run di agonally up wall possi

—A . 5 . FIG CHIM NEY AND FIREPLACE IN AN OLD ENGLISH CASTLE . 2 I STOR IES O F USE FUL I NVENTIONS

o f ble . The next and last step in the development the chimney was t o m ake a recess in the wall as

t o o f a fireplace , and build a separate structure — — masonry the chimney for the smoke . By the middle o f the fourteenth century ch imneys were u As sually built i n this way ( Fi g . the fireplace and chimney cleared the house o f soot and smoke , fif they grew in favor rap idly . By the end o f the t eenth century they were found in the homes of nearly all civili zed people .

The open fireplace was always cheer ful , and it was com fortable when you were close to it ; but it , did n o t heat all p arts o f the room equ ally . That part next to th e fireplace m ight b e too warm f o r c o m

in o f fort , while another part the room it m ight b e

o f freezing . About the end the fi fteenth century efforts were m ade to distribute heat throughout the f th e in room more evenly . These ef orts led to

entio o v n f the modern stove . We h a v e learned that the origin o f the stove is to b e sou ght in the

e ancient brazi er . In the m i ddl ages the braz i er in

o a s fir e-b ox France took n a new form . Here w a

o r ( Fi g . 6 ) with openings at the bottom f dra fts o f a i r and arrangements at the top for cooking things . This French w arming - p an wa s the c on n ec ting- link between the ancient bra zier and the m o d

o f ern stove . All it lacked b ein g a stove was a

o ff pipe to carry the smoke , and this was added by a Frenchman named Savot , about two hundred years

o f n t o ago . We owe the invention the chim ey Eng 2 2 THE STOVE

land , but for the stove we are indebted to France .

e fir e- b o x The Fr nchman built an iron , with open

f o r ings dra fts , and connected the box with the chim

o r ney by means o f an iron flue pipe . Here w a s a s t ov e wh ich could be pl aced i n the middle o f the

— F I G 6 . A . STOVE OF THE M IDDLE AGES .

or room , in any p art o f the room where it was de

o u t in sirable , and wh ich would s end its hea t evenly all directions .

o f u n The first stoves were , course , clumsy and satis factory ; but inventors kept working at them making them b etter both f o r cooking and f o r heat 2 3 places , th at the latter were gradually replaced in a l rge p art by the former . Our affection , however ,

. . T M R S FIG 7 HE ODE N TOVE .

is for a bla zing fire strong , and it is not likely tha t

old - the fashioned fireplace ( Fi g . 8 ) will ever en t irel r y disappea .

Th e French stove j ust described is intended to heat only one room . I f a house with a dozen rooms t o is be heated , a dozen stoves are necessary . About o ne hundred yea rs ago there b egan to appea r an invention by which a house o f m any rooms could be 2 4 THE STOVE

o f o n e heated by means stove . This inventi on w a s

u r na c e . the f Place in the cellar a la rge stove , and run pipes from the stove to the different rooms o f the

- . 8 . FIG AN OLD FASHIONED FIREPLACE AND OVEN .

house , and you have a furnace ( Fig . D oubt less we got ou r i dea o f the furnace from the Rom a n hypocaust , although the R oman invention h a d no special pipe for the smoke . The first furnaces sent

o r out only hot a ir , but in recent years steam hot

o u t t o r a d a t o rs water i s sent through the p ipes i , 2 5 STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS wh ich are simply secondary stoves s et up in c on v enient places and a t a distance from the source o f

- A . FIG . 9 . MODERN FURNACE

. the heat , the furnace in th e cella r Furnaces were

o f l invented for the purpose heating arge buildings ,

but they a re now used in ordinary dwellings . 2 6 .

THE LAM P

E! T to its use fulness for h eating and cook

o f is t o ing , the greatest use fire furnish light

. is no t to drive away darkness M an content , like

o f birds and brutes , to go to sleep at the setting the

n - s u . H e takes a p art o f the night time and uses it

or f o r o r f o r f o r for work travel soci al pleasures , or the improvement o f his mind , and in this way a dds

d o several ye ars to li fe . He could not this i f he

t o were compelled grop e in darkness . When the great source o f daylight disappears he must make

f o r o f - light for h imsel f , the sources night light the m oon and stars and aurora b orealis and light ffi ning are not su cient to satis fy his wants . In this chapter we shall follow man in his eff orts to c o n

e quer darkness , and w shall have the story of the lamp . We may b egin the story with an o dd but interest

- ing kind o f lamp . The firefly or lightning bug which we s ee s o often in th e summer nights w a s in the earliest time brought into service and m ade to shed it s light f o r man . Firefl ies were imprisoned

o f i n a rude box in the shell a cocoanut , perhaps , or in a gou rd — and the light o f thei r bodies was allowed t o shoot ou t through the numerous holes

2 8 THE LA M P

made in the box . We must not despise th e li ght “ given o u t by these tiny creatures . In the moun ” ta ins o f Tij uca , says a traveler , I h ave read th e finest print by the light o f one o f these natural lamps ( firefl ies ) placed under a common g l a s s tumbler

( Fi g . I ) , and with distinct ness I could tell the hour o f the night and discern the I I F . . very small figures wh ich G. A FIREFLY LA MP ma rked the seconds o f a little Swiss watch . Although firefl i es h ave been used here and there

by primitive folk , they could hardly have b een the first ’ lamp . M an s b attle with darkness really began with

t o r c h the , which was lighted a t the fire in th e cave o r in the Wigwam and kept burning for

purposes o f illuminati on . A burning stick was the first

lamp ( Fig . The first improvement in the torch was m ade when slivers o r splinters o f resinous or oily wood were ti ed together and

bu rned . We may rega rd I — . 2 A F G . BURNING STICK is a ll WA T H E this as a lamp which S FIRST LAM P . 2 9 STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

wick . This invention resulted in a fuller and

on e clearer light , and tha t would burn longer than the single stick . A further improvement came when a long pi ece o f wax or fatty substance was wrapped about with leaves . This wa s something like a

w a s candle , only the wick ( the leaves ) outside , and the oily substance which fed the wick w a s in the center . In the course o f time it was discovered that it was better to smear the grease on the o u ts i d e o f the

o r on o f w a s stick , the outside whatever to b e burned ;

a s t o i w ns d e . that is , that it better have the wick i Torches were then m a de o f rop e coated with resin

o r o f o r or fat , sticks splinters smeared with grease ; here th e stick resembled th e wick o f the candle as

- o f c o r we know it to day , and the coating fat

o h o r a r a responded t t e tallow p flin . Rude candles made o f oiled rope o r o f sticks smeared with fat were

imi i invented in pr t ve times , and they continued to b e used f or thousands o f years a fter men were civ iiz e l d . I n the da rk a ges and they were dark in more senses than on e torch - m akers b egan t o wrap the central stick first with fl ax or hemp and the n place around this a thick layer o f fat . Th is torch

o f gave a very good light , but about the time Al fred the Great ( 9 0 0 A . D . ) another step wa s taken : the

ou t central stick was le ft altogether , and the thick layer o f fat o r wax w a s placed directly around the wick o f twisted cotton . All that was le ft o f the

— — a ori ginal torch the stick of wood w s gone . 3 0 THE LA M P

c a ndle The torch had developed into the ( Fi g .

The candles o f to - day a re made o f better m ateri al

y o f . than those the Olden time , and they ma a re much cheaper ; yet in principle they do not di ffer from the candles o f a

o thousand ye ars a g . I have given the development o f the

it s candle first because forerunner , the

w a s . torch , first used for lighting But it must not b e forgotten th at along with the torch there was used , almost from th e beginning , another kind o f lamp . Almost as soon as men dis covered that the melted fat o f animals would burn easily and that was cer f a inly very long a go — they invented

F I G . T H E in a rude form the la mp from which . 3 CANDLE - the lamp o f to day h as been evolved .

o f . o r o r The cavity a sh ell ( Fig 4 ) o f a stone , o f the

o f w a s o r o il skull an animal , filled with melted fat , and a wick o f fl ax or other fibrous m aterial was la i d upon the edge o f the ves

el s . Th e o il o r grea se

—A FIG . 4 . S HELL FILLED WITH p assed up the Wick by OI L A N D A S U SED A LAMP . 1 capilla ry a C t i O n and when the end o f the wick was lighted it continued t o

o il burn as long as there were both and wick . This

1 h d Hold t e e n o f a dry tow el i n a ba s in o f w at e r and w atch th e w e is e th e w e . s e s at r r in to l It ri by capillary action . 3 1 STO RIE S OF USE FUL I N VENTIONS

was the earli est lamp . As man became more civil iz ed o f o r , instea d a hollow stone a skull , an earthen saucer or bowl w a s used . Around the edge o f the bowl a gutter o r spout w a s ma de f or holding the

o wick . lamp f the ancient Greeks and

F I G . 2 00 OL D . 5 AN ETRUSCAN LA MP 5 YEARS .

o il a s Romans the reservoir wh ich held the w closed , although in the center there w a s a hole through

o il one which the might be poured . Sometimes of these lamps would have several spouts or nozzles .

r The more wicks a lamp had , o f cou s e , the more 3 2 THE LA M P

light it would give . There i s in the museum at Co r tona , i n Italy , a n ancient l amp which has sixteen nozzles . This interesting reli c ( Fig . 5 ) w a s used in a p agan temple in Etruri a more than twenty - fiv e hundred years ago . Lamps such a s have just been described were used

o f among the civili zed peoples the anci ent world , and continued to b e used through the M iddle Ages fa r into modern times . They were sometimes very costly and b e auti ful ( Fig . but they never gave a

ou t good light . They sent an unpleasant odor , and they were so smoky that they covered the walls and furniture with soot . The candle was in every way better th an the ancient

inv en lamp , and a fter th e — tion o f wax tapers can 6 — A P N . G . , A C AM dles made o f wax in the FI N IENT L

no thirteenth century , lamps were longe r used

Fo r by those wh o could afford to buy tapers . th e ordinary purposes and ordinary people , however ,

b u t it not im lamp continued to do service , was n proved . The eighteenth century ha d early passed ,

w a s and the lamp still the unsatis factory , dis agree i able thing t ha d always been . Late in the eighteenth centu ry the improvement 3 3 3 STO R IE S O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

1 8 came . I n 7 3 a man named Argand , a Swiss physician residing in London , invented a lamp that w a s fa r better than any that ha d ever been ma de b e

f o r ? fore . What did Argand do the lamp Ex

a - am ine a n ordinary lamp in which co l oil is burned . The c h i m ney protects the fl ame from sudden gusts O f wind and also creates a 1 fire dra ft o f a ir , j ust as th e

chimney creates a dra ft . ’ w a s Argand s lamp ( Fi g . 7 )

th e first to have a chimney . Look below the chimney and you will s ee open p assages through which a i r m ay pass upward and find its w a y to

the wick . Notice further that as this dra ft o f a ir passes upward it is s o di

r ec t ed that , when the lamp

is burning , an extra quantity 7 . A N ARGAND LA MP . o f a ir plays directly upon the wick . B e fore Argand , the wick received no

o i supply f air . Now notice and th is is very m — portant that the wick o f Our modern lamp i s

o r t h n . fl at circula r , but i The a i r i n abundance

1 s e e e e t e Light a hort pi c of candl and plac it in a umbl r , and

th o h Th x s co v e r e t p o f t e tumbl e r . e e p e rim ent t each e that a fl am e mu s t h a v e a con s tant s upply of fr e s h ai r and w ill go out th e is s o ff i f ai r hut .

3 4

STO RIE S OF U SE FUL INVENTIONS

w a s driven O ff - to pass through mains and tubes to

different parts of his house . Wherever he wanted

l I a light he let the gas es \ \ cape at the end o f the

F i 8 a t u be ( g . ) in small H jet a nd l i ghted it . ere k was a lamp without a wi c . M urd ock s oon extend ed — his ga s pipe s to h is f a c

a nd d tories , l i ghte them ET 8 . . FIR . THE GAS J A with ga s . s s oon a s it w a s a d h ow k a s a a nd d le rne to ma e g che ply , con uct it

f f h s h u s s d sa ely rom ou e to o e , whole cities were re cue

f rom d ark ness b v the new i ll u minant . A consi d erable

L w a h d a s 1 1 part o f ond on s l i g te by g i n 8 5 . B al t i more w a s the first city in the United

w a s States to be lighted by gas . This

1 2 1 in 8 .

The gas - light proved to b e s o much b etter than even the best o f lamps , that in towns and cities almost every body who could afford to do so la i d aside the old wick - lamp and burned

. 1 8 6 gas Ab out 7 , however , a new

o f t o kind light b egan appear . This

e lec tr c wa s the i light . The powerful

— A N a r c l h t . ig ( Fi g . m ade by the pas FIG 9 EARLY A RC “ M R sage o f a current o f electricity b e

t o in tween two carbon points , was the first be vented . This gave as much light as a hundred 36 THE LA M P

- o r gas j ets several hundred lamps . Such a light w a s f o r f excellent lighting streets , but its pa in ul glare and its sputtering rendered it unfit for use within doors . I t was not long , however , be fore an electri c ligh t was invented wh ich could b e used any ’ where . This w a s the famous Edison s i nc a nd es c en t

o r e s ee o n . glow lamp ( Fi g . which w every hand ’ o ld Edison s invention i s only a few years , yet there are already hundreds o f millions o f incandescent lamps in use in the United States alone .

I I T I I O . L I G F G . . AN INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC

- The torch , the candle , the lamp , the gas light , th e

o f electric light , these are the steps the develop

o f h o ment the lamp . And w marvelous a growth it is ! H ow great the triumph over darkness ! In the beginning a pi ece o f wood burns with a dull

o r fl ame , and fills the dingy Wigwam cave with soot and smoke ; now , at the pressure o f a button , the house i s filled with a light th at rivals the light o f

n o t o r o o r day , with a particle o f smoke s o t harm ful gas . Are there to b e further triumphs i n the ? art o f lighting Are we to have a light that sh a ll ? drive out the electric light Only time can tell . 3 7 THE FO RGE

FTE R men ha d learned h ow to use fire for cooking and heating and lighting they slowly learned how to use i t when working with metals .

In the earli est times m etals were not used . For long ages stone w a s the only m ateri al that m an hi could fashi on and sh ape to s use . During this ” period , sometimes called the stone age , weapons were ma de o f stone ; dishes and cooking utensils were

o f o f m ade stone ; and even the poor , rude tools the

o f age were made stone ( Fig . I ) . In the course o f time m an le arned how to make his implements and weapons of metals as well as of stone . It i s generally thought that bronze w a s th e first metal t o be used and that the stone age was ” followed directly by the bronz e age , a peri od when all utensils , weapons , and tools were m a de o f 2 bronze ( Fi g . ) It is easy t o b elieve th at bronze

f or w as used be fore iron , bronze is ma de of a mix ture o f tin and copper and these two metals a re

o h en o ften found in their pure r natural state . VV

o f ever primitive man , therefore , found pi eces pure

tw o copp er and tin , he could take the metals and by m elting them could easily mix them and make bronze o f i . s h s u s e them This bronze he could fa hion to . 3 8 THE FO RGE

FI G I . . I OF A GE MPLEMENTS STONE . 3 9 STO R IE S O F USE FUL IN VENTION S.

F I G OF T H E ! AGE . 2 . N . I MPLEME TS BRON E 4 0 THE FO RGE

There i s no doubt th at h e di d th is at a very early

o f age . In nea rly all parts the world th ere a re proo fs that in primitive times , m any a rticles were made o f bronze . I f primitive man were slow to learn the use o f i ron

a s it w not because this m etal was scarce , for iron

is everywhere . Wherever , as w e go up and down ,

e - o r w see a red colored surface , a reddish tint upon

o f s ee — the soli d substances the earth , we iron the

bank o f red clay , the red brick , the red paint upon

o f o r the house wall , the complexion rosy youth , my ’ lady s ribbon . Even the rosy apple derives its tint ” 1 from iron which it contains . But although iron is s o abundant it is seldom found in its pure o r

is natural state . I t nearly always mixed with other

substances , the m ixture b eing known as iron ore . Prim itive m an could find copp er and tin in their pure state but the only pure i ron he could find w a s the

o f little which fell from heaven in the form meteors , and even this w a s no t p erfectly pure for m eteoric i i ron s also mixed sli ghtly with other metals . The Iron which lay ab out primitive man in such

w a s o r e . abundance , buried and locke d tightly in an To separate the iro n from the other substances

o f o r e no the was by means an e asy thing to do . I ron can best be extracted from the o r e by putting

ou t th e ore in a fire and melting the iron . Place some iron ore in a fire and i f the fire is hot enough and i t must be very hot indeed — the iron will Th . e ee R Smith , Story o f I ron and St l , p . 3 . 4 1 STOR IES O F USE FUL IN VENTIONS leave the o r e and will gather into a lump at the bottom o f the fire . To sep arate the i ron from its o r e a in this w y is to make iron . When and where m an first learned the secret o f making iron is o f

FIG . 3 . THE PRIMITIVE FORGE .

- fir e course unknown . A camp in some p art of the

t o world may h ave shown m an the first lump of iron , o r a forest fire sweeping along and melting or es in its path m ay have given the first hint f o r the manu

O f facture iron . I ron making at first doubtless consisted in Simply melting the o r e i n an open heap o f burning wood o r

f o r a f o r charcoal , cha rco l i s an excellent fuel smelt 4 2

STO R IE S OF USE FUL IN VENTI ONS

thei r furnaces at any time and a t any place . This rude bellows forcing a dra ft o f a ir into a half closed furnace filled with a burning mass o f ch arcoal

o re w a s o f o f and iron the first form the forge , one the greatest o f all inventions . With the invention o f the forge the stone age gradually passed away and the iron age was ushered

. S FIG . 5 THE WOODEN BELLOW .

in . Tools and we apons could now be made o f iron . And great w a s the difference b etween iron tools and stone tools . To cut down a tree with a fl int h atchet

o f f o r t o required the labor a man a month , while clear a forest with such an implement was an im

o r possible task . But the forge gave to m an iron f

f o r the sharp cutting tools , the ax and kni fe and chisel and s a w . With these he became th e master of wood and he could now easily cut down trees and 4 4 THE FO RGE build houses and m ake furniture and wagons and boats .

on e As time went and m an advanc d i n civili zation , i ron w a s found to b e the most use ful o f metals .

Iron can b e shaped into m any forms . I t can b e

o f o r drawn into wire any desi red length fineness , it

b e may bent in any directi on , it m ay b e sha rpened , “ o r o r . a c h ardened , so ftened , at pleasure I ron c omm o d a t es itsel f t o all ou r w ants and des i res and

‘ o o r even t u caprices . I t is equally service able to the

u w a r a rts , the sciences , to a gricult re and ; the same o r e furnishes the sword , the plowshare , the scythe ,

- o f th e pruning hook , the needle , the spring a watch o r o f a carri age , the chisel , the cha in , the anchor ,

o f the comp ass and the bomb . It is a medicine much virtue and the only metal fri endly t o the human ” 1 frame . A metal that w a s s o useful w a s needed i n large

o u t quantities , yet the primitive forge could turn ’ only small quantities o f iron . A day s labor at the bellows would produce a lump weighing only fi fteen or s twenty pounds . A a result of this slowness in manu facture there w a s alw ays in primitive and

o ancient times a scarcity f iron . Indeed in some

w a s countri es iron a preci ous metal , almost as

o r . precious as s ilver gold In many countries , it is

e o f f true , ther were thousands orges a t Work , but in no country w a s the supply o f i ron equal to the de f m and . The old orge could not supply th e demand ,

1 m k s 1 e 1 . Fro Fiv Blac Art , p . 3 4 5 yet centuries passed be fore any great improvement wa s made i n the progress o f iron making . Ne a r the close o f the M i ddle Ages improvements upon the prim it iv e forge b e

gan t o be made . I n the sixteenth century i r o n m akers in Ger many b egan t o Smelt o r e in

a n d to build t h e i r furnaces higher and to m a k e t h e m 6 l arger ( Fig . ) Sometimes they built their fur naces to a height

About this time a l s o a better and a stronger

— A 6 . FIG . BLAST FURNACE OF THE MIDDLE blast was invent AGES . ed W a t e r f o r power instea d o f hand - power began t o b e used

operati ng the b ellows . In some cases wooden bel lows — great woode n pistons working in tubs 4 6 THE FO RG E

l were substituted f o r the o d bellows o f leathe r . By the end o f the sixteenth cent u ry so m any improve ments ha d been m ade upon the primitive f orge that i t no longer resembled the forge o f anci ent times . So the new forge received a new name and was called 1 bla s t u r na c e . a f You should observe , however , that th e blast furnace was simply th e o ld forge built with a large closed furnace and provi ded w ith a more powerful blast . The invention of the blast furnace m arked the b eginning o f a new era i n the history o f i ron mak

a s ing . In the first place there w produced i n the blast furnace a kind o f i ron that was entirely di f f er ent from tha t which w as produced i n the primi

a s tive forge . In the primitive forge th ere w m ade

o f a lump practically pure unmelted iron , known as

a r o wrought iron . In the blast furnace there w s p du c ed o f a somewhat impure gra de melted iron , i 2 c a s t o r . known as i ron , p g i ron In the second place , the blast furnace produced i ron in qu antities vastly greater than it w as ever produced by the o ld

1 Th e O ld forg e continu ed to b e u s e d by th e s id e o f t h e bla s t

e e es s e w e e w a s s e w a s furnac for c nturi , and o f cour h r it u d it s e w e r e 1 6 1 e . s a till call d a forg Thu told that in Maryland i n 7 , w e e s t e e s I t is s a s th e r e r e e ight furn ac an d n forg . aid that lat e a s t w e nty - fi v e y ear s ago in c e rtain part s o f t h e Appalachian r egion s th e Am e rican mountain ee r s till w ork e d th e l ittl e primiti v e k h is forge to ma e i ron . 2 It w a s giv en th e nam e O f pig iron b e cau s e w h e n th e molt e n m etal ran into th e impr e s s ion s mad e for it upo n th e s anded

fl e s s e s e e s e oor and cool d , it a um d a hap r mbling a family o f

e s littl pig . 4 7 STO R IE S O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

forge . I n the blast furnace more iron could b e made in a day than could be made by the forge in a month . I n some of th e early blast furnaces a thousand pounds o f iron could be made at one melting and we read o f one early furnace that produced 1 5 0 tons o f i ron in a yea r . But even w ith th e blast furnace it was still diffi cult to make enough iron to supply the ever -inc rea s

FIG . 7 . MAKING CHARCOAL .

in s ix g demands o f the industri al world . In the t eent h and seventeenth centuries machinery was b rought into use more than ever be fore and of course more iron w a s needed for the construction o f the machines . There w as or e enough f o r all the iron that was needed but it w a s di fficult to get fuel enough

e to smelt th e o r . Charcoal w a s still used as the

f or fuel smelting ( Fi g . and in order to get wood 4 8 THE FO R GE for the charcoal great inroads were made upon the

o f forests . I n England i n the e a rly part the eight eenth centu ry Pa rliam ent ha d to put a check upon the manu facture o f i ron in certa in counties in order to save the forests o f those counties from utte r destructi on . It then became plain that i f iron m ak ing were t o be continued on a large scale a new kind o f fuel would have to b e used in the furnaces . So men s et their wi ts to work t o find a new kind o f fuel . As fa r back a s 1 6 1 9 Dud Dudley in the county o f

Warwick , England , undertook to use ordinary soft

‘ coal in his furnaces but his experiment wa s not very

o r success ful very profitable . M ore than a century a fter this an English i ronmaker named Abraham D arby b egan ( in 1 7 3 5 ) to use c h a r r ed c oa l in his i h s . blast furnaces , and experiments were success ful

Here w a s the new fuel which w a s so b adly needed . Charred coal is simply c oke and coke could be h ad

a s in abundance . So the new fuel w soon used in all parts o f England and by the end o f the eighteenth century coke w a s driving cha rcoal out of blast fur naces ( Fi g . About the time the u s e o f coke for smelting b e cam e general , an Englishm an named Neilson brought about another great change in the process o f iron ’ m aking . B e fore Neilson s tim e the blast driven into the furnace ha d always been one o f cold a i r . Neil s on learned th a t if the a ir before entering the furn ace were heated to a temperature o f 6 0 0 degrees it would melt twi ce th e amount o f or e and thus produce twice 4 4 9 STO RI ES OF USE FUL IN VENTION S the amount of iron without any incre ase in the amount

‘ 1 8 2 8 h o t bla s t o f fuel . So he invented ( in ) a for

o f the blast furnace ( Fig . With the us e coke and with the h o t blast the production o f iron increased enormously . But there was need for all the iron that could be made . Indeed it seems that the world can

o never get t o o much iron . About the time the h t blast w a s invented iron cha ins inste a d o f rope s b e

— - 8 A N OL D . FI G . . T I M E P ITTSBU RG H CO KE OVE N

gan to be used for holding anchors , i ron plows n began to b e ma de in great numbers ( p . iro p ipes inste a d o f hollow wooden logs b egan t o be used a s - water mains in cities , and iron rails began to be

on T o f o r used railroads . supply iron all these

ir onm a k ers h purpos es kept busy enough , even thoug they burned coke in thei r furnaces and m ade use o f th e hot a ir blast . But ir onm a k ers were soon to become busier than 5 0

STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENT IONS

d r Un d er w o o d N . Y. F r om c op y righ t s t er eograp h b y Un e wood .

— T I - SS S T F I G I O . . . GR EA BEA M PA I N G T H R OU G H A TR U C URAL M I LL

5 2 THE FO R GE undertook to make steel in large quantities and at

low prices . In h i s experiments ami d showers o f

molten metal h e often risked his li fe , but his perse

1 v era nc e and courage were rewa rded . By 8 5 8 he ha d invented a p rocess by which tons of molten i ron could be run into a furnace and in a few m inutes b e

converted into a fine quality of steel . This invention o f Bessemer was the last great step in the h istory o f

th e forge . Now that steel could be m ade in great qu antities and at a low cost i t w a s put to uses never dreamed

o f in former times . Soon the ra ilroad ra il wa s made

o f ste el , b ri dges were m ade o f ste el , and sh ips

. o f war were plated with steel . Then ocean gray

hounds and b attlesh ips were ma de o f steel , still later steel freight cars and steel p assenger coaches were in

t ro d u c ed ou r s ee , while in own time we vast quanti t I es o f steel used i n the building o f houses . So while the invention o f B essemer m arked the last step in the h istory o f the forge it also marked the ending o f the Age o f I ron and the b eginning o f the wonderful age o f in which we live the Age Steel .

5 3 THE STEA M - ENGINE

E have n ow traced the steps by which man mastered the art o f kindling a fire qu ickly and easily and have followed the progress that h as been made in the most common uses of fire . But the story o f a most important use o f fire rema ins ’

o o f w or k . to be told , the st ry its use in doing m an s ’ h ow o f How important th is use is , much the world s

o f work is done through the agency fire , a little refl ection will make plain . Fire makes steam and what does steam do ? Its s ervices are s o many you could hardly name all of them . The great and m any

o f fir e- services steam are made possible by the engine , o r s tea m - en ine o f g , and the story th is wonderful invention will now be told . That steam h a s the power to move things must have been learned almost as soon as fire w a s used to b oil water . Heat water until it b oils and the steam that i s formed is bound to move something unless i t is allowed to escape freely . It will burst

n ot w h the vessel i f an outlet is p rovided . That is y

- a spout has been placed on the tea kettle . Where there is cooking , steam i s abundant and th e first ex p er im e nt s in steam were doubtless made in the kitchen 5 4 THE STEA M - ENGIN E

I O f ( Fi g . ) . I t h a s been sa id that the idea the steam - engine first occurred t o Adam as h e watched ’ his wi fe s kettle b oil .

Whatever may have happened in anci ent kitchens , we are certa in that there were no ste am - engines until m any centuries a fter Adam . The beginnings o f this invention are not shrouded in so much mystery a s are those o f the m atch and the l amp and th e forge . In giving an account o f the steam engine we can men tion n ames and give dates from the very beginning o f t h e story . W e k n o w what the first ste am engine was like and we know wh o m a de i t a n d when and

1 wa s . . where it made . FIG FIRST EXPERI MENTS WITH STEAM . 1 2 0 It was made B .

. C by Hero , a philosopher o f Alexandri a in Egypt . It was like the one shown in Figure 2 Th e boy applies th e fire to the steam - tight vessel p and when steam i s form ed i t passes up through the tube 0 and

o n enters the globe which turns easily the pivots .

o f The steam , when i t ha s filled the glob e , rushes out the short tubes w and z proj ecting from opposite sides o f the globe and bent a t the end in opposite directions . AS i t rushes out o f the tube s the steam 5 5 STO R IE S O F USE FUL IN VENTIONS strikes aga ins t the a ir and the reaction causes the globe to revolve , j ust as in yards we sometimes s ee

’

2 . H ERo s 1 2 0 B c . FIG . ENGINE , .

j ets of water causing bent tub es to revolve . This ’ - was Hero s engine , the first steam engine ever made . ’ Hero s engine was used only a s a toy and it seems 5 6 THE STEAM - ENGIN E to represent all the anci ents knew about the power o f steam and all they did with it . It is not strange that they di d no t know more for there is no general rule by which discoveries a re m ade . Sometimes even enlightened peoples have f o r centuries rema ined blind to the Simplest principles o f nature . The G reeks and Rom ans with all thei r culture and wisdom were igno

O f o rant som e f the pla inest facts o f science . It ’ is a little strange , h owever , that a fter Hero s dis

c ov er w a s no t . y made known , men did profit by it I t would seem that eager and persistent attempts would h ave been made at once t o have steam d o use ful work , as well a s furnish amusement . But such ’ was not the case . Hero s countrymen pa id but little attention to his invention and the steam - engine passed ’ almost completely ou t o f men s minds and did not aga in attract attention f or nearly seventeen hundred years . About the end o f the fi fteenth century Europe began t o awaken from a long slumb er and by the end o f the sixteenth century its eyes were wide open . Everywh ere men were now trying to learn all they

o f could . The study steam was taken up in earnest about the m iddle o f the sixteenth century and by the m iddle o f the next century qu ite a little had been 1 6 2 learned o f its nature and power . In 9 an Italian ,

- Branca by n ame , described i n a b ook a steam engine which would furnish power f o r pounding drugs in

no f o r a mortar . There was more need such a machine then th an th ere is now and o f course the 5 7 STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

t . inventor aroused no interes in his engine . You ’ can easily understand how B ranca s engine ( Fig .

3 ) works . The steam causes the wheels and the AS cylinder to revolve . the cylinder revolves , a cleat on i t catches a cleat on the pestle and li fts the pestle a short distance and then lets it fall . Here the pestle instea d o f b eing ra ised by a hum an hand i o s ra ised by the force f ste am . This engine would

’ S 62 1 . FIG . 3 . BRANCA ENGINE , 9 be more interesting i f an engine ha d actually bee n made , but there is no reason to believe that B ranca

o e ever made the engine he described . We w much

f o r h o w to him , nevertheless , suggesting steam m ight

u b e put to doing seful work . I t w a s not very long be fore an Englishman put into practice what th e Itali an had only suggested . d o f o r E dward Somerset , the Secon M arquis W

1 6 6 - t gester , in 3 built a steam engine that ra ised o 5 8

STO R IE S OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS

o water out f them and keep ing them dry . The water w a s li fted up from the m ines by means o f

buckets drawn by horses or oxen ( Fi g . Some times it took several hundred horses t o keep the water ’ o r t o u t o f a single mine . It was Wo cester s obj ect construct an engine that would do the work o f the

horses . The engine he built could not do this , yet it furnished the i dea and the idea is o ften the most

FI G . T OF T . 5 AN ANCIEN METHOD DRAWING WA ER.

important thing . It was no t long b e fore engines built upon Worcester ’s plan were doing use ful work

at the m ines . At the opening of the eighteenth century th e steam - engine ha d b een put to work and

w a s serving m an in England and throughout the c on ~

t inent of Europe .

The first engines w ere not sa fe . O ften the steam pressed t oo h eavily upon the sides o f the vessel in

which it wa s compressed and there were explosions . 6o T HE STEAM - ENGI N E

1 6 8 0 About D eni s Papin , a Frenchman , invented the

s a et v a lv e own f y , that is a valve that opens o f its accord and lets out steam wh en there is more i n the

vessel than ought to be th ere . About ten years later

Papin gave the world another most valuable idea . In Worcester ’s engine the steam in the steam chest pressed di rectly on the w ater that w a s to b e forced

w a . up . Papin showed a better y He invented the

engine shown in Figu re 6 . In this engine a small quantity o f water w a s placed in the bottom

o f the cylinder A . Fitting closely in the cylinder was a pis t o n B such a s Pap in ha d seen

us ed in ordina ry pumps . We will suppose that the p iston is near the bottom o f the cylinder and that a fire is built under

' I G 6 — P A P 1 N S EN F o neath . The bottom b eing

1 6 0 . GINE , 9 m ade o f very thin metal the water is rap idly converted into steam and thus drives

the piston up t o the top as shown in the figure . Here a latch E catches the p iston - r o d H and holds ow the p iston up until it is time f or it to descend . N

the fire is removed and the steam , b ecoming cold , i s

‘ condensed and a vacuum is formed below the piston . The latch E now releases the rod H and the piston

is driven down by the a i r above i t , pulling with it

the rop e L which passes over the pulleys T T. As the rope descends it li fts a weight W or does other 6 1 STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

o f u se ful work . As th e inventor the p iston Papin ranks among the greatest o f those whose names are

e o f - connected with the d velopment the steam engine . Ou r sto ry has now brought u s to the early part o f the eighteenth century . Everywhere men were now trying to make th e most o f the i de as o f VVo r

e er c s t and Papin . Th e m ines were growing very

a s deep . As the w ater in them w getting b eyond control something extraordinary ha d to be done . Now it s eems that whenever the world is in need o f an extra ordinary service someone is found to render that service . The man who built the engine that w a s needed w a s a humble blacksmith o f D art

m outh , England , Thomas N ewcomen . This master mechani c in 1 7 0 5 constructed the b es t steam - engine ’ om en the world had yet seen . We must study N ew c s

engine ( Fig . 7 ) very care fully . Th e l a rge b eam iimoved freely up and down on the p ivot One end o f the beam w a s connected with the heavy pump rod k by means o f a rop e o r ch a in working in a groove and the other end was connected with the

r rod in the same way . When steam from the b oiler b passed through the valve d into the cylinder ( steam chest ) a it ra ised the p iston s and with it the p isto n rod r thus slackening the rop e and allowing the op p os it e end o f the beam to be pulled down by the

o - k a s weight f the pump rod . As soon th e p iston 5 reached the t op o f the cylinder the steam was shut o ff by means o f th e valve d and the valve f w a s turned and a jet o f cold w ater from the t ank g w a s inj ected 6 2 ’

N E WCO M E N S 1 0 . FIG . 7 . ENGINE , 7 5 STO RIE S O F USE FUL IN VENTIONS

a o f into the cylinder with the steam . The j et cold — water condensed the steam rap idly steam is always condensed rapidly when anything cold comes — in conta ct with it and the water formed by the condensation escap ed through the p ipe p into the tank

0 i . a s a s As soon the steam in condensed , a vacuum w a s formed in the cylinder and the atmosphere above forced the p iston down and at the same time pulled th e pump - r o d k up and li fted water from the well o r

o mine . When the piston reached the b ottom f the cylinder the valve d w a s opened and the p iston

i o a ga in ascended . Thus the b eam s m a de t go up

and down and the pumping goes on . N otice that steam pushes the p iston one w ay and the atmosphere pushes i t back . ’ I n N ew c om en s engine the valves ( f and d ) at fir s t were op ened and shut ( at each stroke o f the p iston )

b o a n . 1 1 by attendant , usually a boy In 7 3 a y t o named Humphrey Potter , in order get some time

f or o f s play , by means strings and latche , caused the b eam in its motion to open and shut the valves without human a id . We must not despise Humphrey

because h is purpose w a s to ga in time for play . The purpose o f almost all inventions is t o save human labor s o that men m ay have more time for amuse t o r e ment and rest . Humphrey Potter ought be memb ered not a s a la zy b oy but a s a great in-1

e or v nt . H is strings and latches improved th e engine

wonderfully ( Fi g . B efore his invention the p iston made only s ix o r eight strokes a minute ; a fte r 64 THE STEAM - ENGIN E the valves were made to open and shut by the motion o f the beam , it m ade fifteen or sixteen strokes a minute and the engine di d more than twice as much work . ’ N ewc om en s engine as improved by Potter and others grew rap idly into favor . It w as used most

’ - P S A N D . 8 . FIG . HU MPHREY OTTER LATCHES STRINGS

commonly to pump water ou t o f the mines but i t

was put to other uses . I n and about London it wa s used t o supply water to large houses and in 1 7 5 2

- e a flour mill nea r Bristol w a s driven by a steam engin . ’ I n Holland N ewc om en s engines were used to assist

- the wind mills in dr a ining lakes . 5 6 5 STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

a e the p iston upwards . H ere w s o n o f the things done by Watt f o r the engine : he contrived t o make

a s the steam push th e p iston down well as up . You

’ FIG . Io . WATT S ENGINE .

’ have observed that i n N ewc om en s engine steam was

u used only to push the p iston p , the atmosphere being

s a relied upon to push i t down . Thus we may y that 6 8 THE STEAM - ENGIN E

’ r ea l s tea m- en ine Watt s engine w as the first g , for it All was the first that was worked entirely by steam . engines be fore i t ha d been worked partly by steam

and partly by air . Watt ’s greatest improvement upon the steam ’ o N ew c o m en s engine i s yet t b e menti oned . In engine wh en the cold water was inj ected into the cyl inder it cooled the p iston and when steam w a s let into

the cylinder again a p art o f it , striking the cold piston , w a s condensed b e fore it had time t o do any work and

th e power o f th is part o f the steam w a s lost . Watt

n o t no t di d allow the p iston to get cold , for he did

inj ect any cold water into the cylinder . In his engine as soon a s th e steam di d its work it w a s carried o ff through the p ipe M to the vessel N a n d there c o n d ens ed by me ans o f a j et o f w ater which w a s inj ected into N ( called the c o nd ens er ) by m eans o f a pump

E o f worked by the motion the beam , thanks aga in

to Humphrey Potter for the idea . This condensa tion o f the steam outside o f the cylinder and at a

' dis t a nc e f r om it prevented th e p iston ( and cylinder )

en from getting cold . I n other words , in the Watt gine when ste am entered the cylinder it went straight

a to work pushing the piston . No ste am w s lost and no power w a s lost and the cost of running the eu

wa s gine greatly reduced . It cannot be sa i d that Watt invented the steam — engine no one can claim that h onor yet he di d s o much to m ake it better that he well deserves the epitaph which is inscribed on his monument in 6 9 STO RI E S OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS

Westminster Abbey . Th is inscription is as f o l lows

N O T TO PERPETUATE A NAME WHICH MUST ENDURE WH ILE TH E PEA CEFUL ARTS FLO URI SH B UT TO SH EW THAT MAN KI ND HAV E LEARNT TO H O NOR TH O S E WHO BEST D ESERV E THEIR GRATITUD E THE KI N G HI S M I NI STERS AN D MA N Y O F THE NOBLES AND CO M MO NERS O F TH E REALM RAI SED THI S M O NUMENT TO JAM E S WATT WH O D IRE CTI N G THE FO R CE O F AN O RI GI N AL G ENIUS EARLY E! ERCISED I N PHI LO SO PH I C RESEARCH T O THE IM P RO V EMENT O F TH E STEAM ENGI NE ENLARGED TH E RES OURCES O F HI S COUNTRY I N CREA SED THE POWER O F MAN AND RO SE TO A N EMINENT P LA CE AM O NG THE M O ST I LLUSTRI O US FO LLO WERS O F S CI EN CE AND THE REAL B ENEFA CTO RS O F THE WORLD B O RN AT GREEN O CH M D CC! ! ! V I D IED AT HEATHFIELD I N STAFFORD SHIRE M D CCC! I !

But the story o f the steam - engine does not end

en with Watt . It will be remembered that in th e gines of Nero and o f B ranca the steam di d its work

by reacti on or by impulse . Now soon a fter the time 7 0 THE STEAM - ENGI N E

o f Watt , inventors turned thei r thoughts to the old engines o f Nero and B ranca and began to experiment with engines th at would do their work by a direct

o f impact steam . A fter nearly a century o f exp er i m ent ing and a fter many failures there w a s at last

s tea - t u r b i e developed an engine known as the m n . In this engin e the steam does its work by impinging

or s 1 1 pushing directly upon blade ( Fi g . ) which

F I G. . OF L I\I ARI N E UR I I SHAFT A ARGE T BINE . Within th e cylind e r a re thou s and s O f blad es upon w hich th e s e s e th e t h e s th e e s t am act dir ctly in turning o f ha ft . I n larg t es e e a r e a s a s e s turbin th r many blad .

are connected with th e sh a ft which is to be turned , and it does this in much the same m anner that w e saw th ’ esteam do its work in B ranca s engine . One o f the greatest names connected with the steam turbine

i s that o f Cha rl es Alge rnon Pa rsons o f England .

In 1 8 8 4 thi s gre at invento r patented a ste am - tu rbine which p roved to be a comme rci al success and since that date the ste am - tu rbine ha s been constantly grow 7 1 STO R IES OF U SE FU L INVENTIONS

is on ing in favor . So great has been t success land and on s ea that there a re those wh o believe that the

engine ‘ invented by Watt wi ll in time b e cast as ide and th at i ts place will be taken by an engine which i s the most ancient a s well a s the mos t modern o f steam motors . THE PLOW

OU have now learned the history o f those inv en tions wh ich en abled m an to ga in a m astery over

fire and t o u s e it for h is com fort and conveni ence . We shall n ext learn the history o f an invention which gave m an the mastery o f the soil and enabled h im t o take from the earth priceless treasures o f

w a s . fruit and gra in . This invention the plow In his earli est s t a t e ' m a n ha d no us e for th e plow because h e did not look to the soil a s a place from which he w a s to get his food . The first men were h hunters and they relied upon the chase f o r t eir food . They roamed from place to place in pursu it o f thei r prey th e b irds and beasts o f the forest and the

o f fishes the stream . They did not rema in long enough i n one spot to s ow seed and to re ap the har vest . Still i n thei r wanderings they found wheat and b arley growing wild and they ate o f the seeds o f these plants and learned that the little gra ins were

f o r . good food They learned , too , that i f the seeds were planted in a soil tha t w a s well stirred the plants would grow b etter than they would i f the seeds were planted in h ard ground . So by the time men had grown tired o f wandering about and were ready to s ettle down and live in one spot they h a d learned two 7 3 STO R IES OF U SE FUL INVENTI ONS imp ortant facts : they knew they could add to thei r food supply by tilling the soil , and they knew that they could grow better crops i f they would stir the soil be fore planting the seed . For the stirring of the s oil th e primitive farmer doubtless first used a sharpened stick such a s wander ing tribes carry f or the purpose o f digging up eatable

. F I I . T H E G. KATTA OR DIGGING STICK

roots , knocking fruits down from trees , and breaking the h eads o f enemies . Such a stick known as the

t is Au s Ka t a ( Fi g . I ) carried by certa in tribes in

ra lia Ku ru b a r s t , and we are told by travelers that the of Southern Indi a use a sharp stick when digging up is the ground . The digging stick used by savages in many parts o f the world and we may regard it a s the oldest o f implements

Th e first plow wa s a

im ( Fig . With this

I 2 TH E ST . F G. . FIR PLOW plement the ground was b roken not by digging but by dragging the fo rk o r proj ecting point o f the stick through the

ground and fo rming a continuous fu rrow . In thi s 7 4

STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

human b ody ( Fi g . 4 ) Upon a very old monument o f n t a cient Egypt , the coun ry which seems to have been the first home o f the plow , we have a plowing scene which Shows a num b er o f men dragging a

plow by means o f a rope . But primitive man was not at all fond o f lab or and in

the . course o f time he tamed

“ f wild bulls and horses and

‘ FI G . 1 4 1 1 H . 4 BY U 2 m ade them draw the plows . 1 3q 5.22t S o upon another E gyptian monument o f a later date we have a p icture o f a plowing scene in which animals are drawing the plow

s ee ( Fi g . In th is Egyptian plow we improve

o f ments upon the crooked stick the Syri ans . The

ou . Egyptian plow , y observe , h as a broa der share

f u rf ow It will , there fore , make a wider and will plow more ground . M oreover , it has two handles instead

t h e a l t o g e t h e r , Egypti an plow w a s a fai rly good imp le ment . M a 11 y centuries

a n — Passed b e fore y FIG . 5 . THE EGYPTIAN PLOW . real improvement w was m ade upon the o ld Egyptian plo . I f there were any improvement anywhere it wa s among r the R omans . We read i n Pliny a Roman write 7 6 THE PLOW o f the first century o f a plow that had wheels t o

c o u lter regulate the depth of the plow and also a , that is , a kni fe fixed in front o f the share to make the first cut o f the so d

( Fig . But such a plow wa s no t in g e n e r a l use in Pliny ’s t i m e A t h o u s a n d yea rs

’ later , however , the — 0 6 . FIG . PLINY S PLOW , 7 A . D . plow with wheels and coulter was doubtless in common use . In a pic ture taken from an old Saxon print w e see ( Fig . 7 ) a plow which w a s used in the time o f Willi am the C on q u eror Here the plow has a coulter in s ert ed in the beam and there a re two wheels t o regu

. . S A x N 1 O 000 . FIG 7 AN OLD PLOW , A D .

late the depth to which the plow may go . This Saxon plow is drawn by fou r fine oxen and it i s pla inly a great improvement upon the old E gyptian plow . 7 7 STO R IE S O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

B u t improvements in the plow during the dark ages came very slowly . At the time of the discovery o f America the plow w a s still th e clumsy wooden thing it w a s five hundred years before . In the six t eent h im and seventeenth centuries , however , when

r ov em ent s p were b eing made in so many things , it w a s n atural that men should b egin to think o f try old ing to improve the plow . I n an book published — i n 1 6 5 2 we read o f a double plow o ne which one would plow two furrows at time . A p icture

8 . FIG . A DOUBLE PLOW OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

w a s e s e m e ( Thi s plo w propo s d but w a n v e r ad . )

o f ( Fi g . 8 ) the double plow is given in the book but there is no proo f that such a plow w a s ever made o r ever used . The world di d not as yet need a double

w a s plow , although the time to come when it would need one . In the early part o f the eighteenth century w e

ee begin to s real improvements in plow m aking . About this time Dutch p lowm a k ers began to put m o ld - b oa r d s on o f thei r plows . The purpos e the mold - board is to li ft up and turn over the slice o f s o d - cut by the sh are . Without the mold board the plow simply runs through the ground and stirs it 7 8 THE PLOW

- up . With the mold board o f the Dutch plow ( Fi g . 9 ) the sod was turned completely over and the weeds and grass were covered up . This w a s the kind o f

w a s plow tha t needed , for i f the weeds and grass are not covered up the best effects o f plowing a re

So - w a s lost . the m old boa rd a gre at improvement and its invention m arks a grea t event in the h is t orv o f the plow . The Dutch plow w as taken as a mod el f o r English

f o r plows and , in fact , the plows o f all nations . The

F I - G . T H E L \ \ TH E . . 9 DUTCH P O V SHO VING MOLD BOARD mold - board grew rapidly into favor and by the end o f the eighteenth century it w a s found on plows in

a s all civili zed nations . But the plow w still made

o f 1 0 a s mostly wood ( Fi g . ) and it w still a n awk ward and a p oorly constructed a ffa ir . The method o f m aking plows about th e yea r 1 8 0 0 has b een “ described as follows : A mold - board w a s hewed from a tree with the grain o f the timb e r running as nearly along its shape a s it could well be obtained .

m - ou t On to this old b oard , to prevent its wearing 7 9 STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

too rapidly , were na iled the blade o f an old hoe , 1 0 thin strips o f iron , or worn out horseshoes ( Fig . )

w a s o f The land side wood , its bas e and sides shod o f with th in plates o f iron . The sh are was iron with wa s a hardened steel point . The coulter w a s tolerably well made o f iron . The b eam n usually a stra ight stick . The ha dles , like

- the mold board , were split from the crooked trunk o f a tree o r a s o ften cut f r o m i t S

branches . The b e a m was s et at any p itch that

fancy might dictate , with —A F I G. . I O COLONIAL PLOW . th e handles fastened on almost at right angles with it , thus leaving the plow m an little control over his implement , which did its ” work i n a very slow and most imperfect manner . But about the end o f the eighteenth century the world wa s beginning t o need a plow that would do

a s its work rapidly and well . Population w every wh ere increasing and it was necessary to till more ground than h ad ever b een tilled i n former times . Especially was a good plow needed in the Unite d States where there were vast areas o f new ground to b e broken . And it was in the United States that the

first great improvements in the plow were made .

' Fo rem os t a m ong those wh o helped to make the plow a b etter implement was the statesman , Thom as Je f f er on s . This great man while traveling in France 8 0 THE PLOW in 1 7 8 8 w as struck by the clumsiness o f the plows

: used in that country . In h is di ary he wrote The awkward fig ure o f their mold - boa rd le ads o ne to ” f consider what should b e its form . So Jef erson

- turned h is attention to mold boards . H e saw that the mold - board ought t o be s o sh aped that it would move through the ground and turn the sod w ith the least possible resistance and he planned f o r a mold 1 board o f thi s kind . By 7 93 he h a d determ ined

’

1 1 . FIG . DANIEL WEBSTER S PLOW . what the proper form o f a mold - board should be and had in actual u s e o n h is estate in Virginia several

- plows which ha d m old boards o f le ast resistance . ’ f o f - o f M r . Jef erson s patterns the m old board have , course , been improved upon , but h e has the honor o f having invented the first m old - board that was constru cted according to Scientific and mathematica l 1 principles .

1 Dan i el W eb s t e r w a s anoth er gr eat s tat es man wh o turn e d h is e th e k o f w s H e e w att ntion to ma ing plo . plann d a plo 1 1 ( Fig . ) and had it mad e i n h is w ork s hop on h is farm at M a r hfi eld h s . e t e w w a s e u s e e s e Wh n plo r ady for , W b t r h im s e f w a s th e fi s m a k f n s l r t n to ta e hold O th e h a dl e and try it . Th e plo w work ed w ell and th e gr eat m a n is s aid to h av e b ee n 6 8 1 STO R IES O F USE FUL IN VENTIONS About the time Je fferson was working upon the

- o f mold boa rd , Charles Newb old , a farmer Bur

u lingto , New Jersey , w as also doing great things f o r the improvement o f the plow . We have seen that the plow o f this time was a patch work of wood and iron . Newbold thought the plow ought t o b e m a de wholly o f iron and about 1 7 9 6 h e made one o f - cast i ron , the point , Sh are , and mold board all

’ 1 8 1 1 2 W ooD s . FIG . . J ETHRO PLOW , 9

one N ew being cast in p iece . But the Jersey farm ers di d n o t take kindly to the iron plow . They sa id that iron poisoned the crops and caused weeds to

SO grow faster than ever . Newb old could not sell his plows and h e was compelled t o give up the busi ness in despa ir .

o But soon th e iron plow was t h ave its day . In

1 8 1 o f N ew ou t 9 Jethro Wood Scipio , York , took a s much d elight e d w ith h is achi e v em ent a s h e w a s w ith any o f s h is triumph s in public lif e at Wa hington . 8 2

STO R IE S O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

— 1 . B Y FIG . 4 PLOWING STEA M .

Th e plow is dra w n acro s s th e fi eld by m ean s o f cabl es . e i es i i h w Som t m a tract on eng n e mov es along w ith t e plo .

o f But th e plow Jethro Wood , as excellent as it w a s not o f , di d fully meet the needs the western

s o d no t farmer . The of the vast prairies could be broken fast enough with a plow of a single share . SO about the m iddle of the nineteenth century the

a n lo w f o r b e g g p , a h int which ha d been given long 8 fore ( p . 7 ) was invented , and as this new plow moved along three or four o r five furrows were turned at once . At first th e gang plow was drawn

1 by horses ( Fig . 3 ) but later it was drawn by steam

( Fi g . The great gang plow drawn by steam marked the

o f last step in the development the plow . The forked stick drawn by human hands and making its feeble scratch on the ground h a d grown until it had become a mighty m achine drawn across th e field by an unseen force and leaving in it s wake a broa d belt

- - o f deeply plowed and well broken soil . 8 4 THE REAPE R

FT E R m an ha d invented his rude plow and had

learned h ow to till the soil and raise the gra in , it became necessary f o r him to learn h ow t o h arvest h is crop , how to gather the growing gra in from the

o f fields . The invention the plow , therefore , must have soon been followe d by the invention o f the r ea er p . The first grain was doubtless cut with the rude straight knives used by primitive man . In time it was found that i f t h e kni fe were bent it — 1 , FIG . . PRIMITIVE SICKLES W O u ld cut the o f w a s grain better . So the first form the re aper a curved o r bent kni fe known as the sickle o r reaping

o ne hook ( Fi g . The kni fe was fastened a t end to a stick wh ich served as

a handle . When using the sickle the harvester held the gra in in o ne hand

and cut i t with the other .

( Fig . t en the Sickle first

2 — FIG . . REAPING WITH THE b egan t o be used is o f SICKLE . 8 5 STO R IE S O F USE FUL INVENT IONS

o f course unknown . Among the remains the stone age ( p . 3 9 ) are implements of fl int which resemble

o f s o - the sickle , while among the rema ins the called bronze age many prim itive sickles m ade o f bronze

N o r e w h er e have been found . do w know the sickle w a s t o first used , although E gypt seems have been the first home o f the sickle j ust as it was th e firs t

o f o f home o f the plow . Upon the wall a bu ilding ancient Theb es is a picture o f a n Egyptian harvest

T o . scene . w men with sickles are cutting the wheat

lea min A man following the re apers seems to be g g , tha t is , picking up the wheat that the reapers have cut . Other harvesters are carrying the gra in to the threshing place where it is tramped ou t by the slow feet o f oxen . A primitive Sickle such as w as used by the Egyptians w a s used by all civili zed nations in ancient times , by the Hebrews , by the Greeks , and by th e Romans . The first Improvement upon the primitive sickle

w a s . made by the Rom ans About the year 1 0 0 A .

h o . w D the Roman farmers , were at the tim e the

u s e o f best farmers in the world , b egan to a kind scythe for cutting grass . The Roman scyth e was simply an improved form o f the sickle ; it was a

o n broad , heavy blade fastened a long stra ight

o f t o - handle , resembling th e pruning hook day ( Fig . The scythe w as swung with both hands and it w a s used chi efly for cutting grass .

Fo r more than a thousand years, a fter the appea r ance o f the Rom an scythe agriculture in Europe was 8 6

STO RIES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS was improved by lengthening the fingers and increasing th eir

numb er . A t the time o f the Revolution the i m p r O v e d A m e r i c a n

I . OF TH E . F G 5 . EARLY FORM CRADLE SCYTHE c r a d l e was coming into use and by the end ' o f the eighteenth

ou t century it was driving the Sickle . But even the excellent American cra dle - scythe could

o f not meet the needs the American farmer . The cast iron plow which w a s brought into use in the

o f 8 2 early part the nineteenth century ( p . ) made it possible to raise fields o f whe at vastly larger tha n ha d ever been ra ised be fore . But it was o f no use to ra ise great fields o f gra in unless the crop could b e prop erly h a r v e s t e d . Wheat must b e cut just when it is ripe and the ha rvest s ea son lasts only a few days . I f the broad American fi e l d s were to be plowed

6 E D S and planted there FIG . . THE I MPROV D CRA LE CYTHE . 8 8 THE REAPE R would have to be a reaping machine that would cut the grain faster than human hands could cut it with the scythe ( Fig . So about the yea r 1 8 0 0 inventors in Europe and in America took up the task o f inventing a new kind o f reap er . The first attempts were m ade i n Eng land where populati on w a s incre asing very fast and where large quantities o f gra in were needed t o feed

F I G . T H E 0 . D . 7 FIRST REAPING MACHINE , 7 A .

the people . The first hints f o r a reap er were from a machine which w as used in G aul nearly yea rs

h o . w f o r ago Pliny , described us a wonder ful plow used in his time ( p . also describes th is ancient reaper o f the Gauls . I t consisted o f a la rge hollow

o fram e mounted n two wheels ( Fi g . At the front o f the frame there was a s et o f teeth wh ich

o ff caught the heads o f gra in and tore them . The heads were raked into the box by an attendant . The

o f machine was pushed along by an ox . This kind 8 9 STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS m ach ine w a s doubtless used i n Europe for a while but

ou t it w a s not a success . It passed o f use and for

w a s . m any centuri es it entirely forgotten Still , the first English reap ing m achines were made a fter the

o plan o f this interesting old reaper f ancient Gaul . The m ost remarkable Of the early reapers w a s o ne

o f Rem in invented by Henry Ogle , a schoolmaster g 2 t on . 1 8 2 , England In Ogle constructed a model f or a reaper which w a s quite different from any that had appeared be fore and which bore a close t e semblance to the im proved reapers o f a

’ Ogle s reaper ( Fig . 8 ) the h orse walked ah ead beside t h e

standing grain , j ust

a s n ow it does , and

8 ’ the cutting appara . . 1 8 2 2 FIG OGLE S REAPER , . w a s tus at the right , a s is no j ust it w . The cutter consisted O f a frame at the front o f which w a s a b ar of iron

armed with a row of teeth proj ecting forward . D irectly under the teeth lay a long stra ight edged kni fe which w a s moved t o and f ro by means o f a crank and wh ich cut the gra in a s i t came between the teeth . A reel push ed the gra in toward the kni fe and there was a platform upon wh ich the ’ m i h t ~ f a l gra in when cut g l. Ogle s machine did not meet with much success yet i t holds a very h igh place 9 0

STO RIE S OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS took out a patent f o r a reaper that was successful and that w a s in many respects a s famous a m achine ’ ik M c Co rm ick w a s a s M c Co rm c s . So while the first in the field with h is invention , Hussey was the first

t o s ecure a patent . The ma chines o f M c Co rmick and Hussey were very much alike :

both ha d the platform , the iron b ar armed with guards and the long kni fe moving to

and fro . The most remark n o . KNIFE ' ’ BLADE or H USSEY S able feature o f Huss ey s ma

RF‘ A PER ‘ chine was the kni fe which con siste d o f thin triangula r plates o f steel sharpened on two edges and riveted side by side upon a fl at b a r ’ s a w- ( Fig . The like teeth o f Hussey s kni fe caught the wheat b etween the guards and cut it b et ter than any kni fe that ha d as yet app eared . B oth the M c Co rm ick reap ers and the Hussey reapers were practical and success ful and each of these inventors performed a noble p art in giving the world t h e

reaper it needed . The M c Co rm ick and the Hussey reapers gave new

m a s li fe to far ing in the United States . Especi ally w

the reaper a blessing to the Western farmers . In

1 8 M c Co rm ick 4 4 took a trip through the West ,

p assing through Ohio , M i chigan , Illinois , and I owa . As he passed through Illinoi s he s a w h ow b adly the

reaper was needed . He s a w gre at fields o f ripe wheat thrown open to be devoured by hogs and cattle 9 2 THE REAPE R because there were n o t enough laborers to harvest the crops . The fa rmers ha d worked day and night and thei r wives and children ha d worked but they could not harvest the gra in ; they ha d ra ised mor e

M c Co rm ick than the s cythe and sickle could cut . s aw that the West w a s the natural home f o r the reaper and in 1 8 4 7 h e moved to Chicago , built a

t o . factory , and began make reapers In less than a year he h a d orders f or 5 0 0 machines and be fore ten years ha d p assed he h a d s o l d nearly

reapers . It w a s these reapers t h a t caused the frontier l i n e t 0 move westward at the rate o f thirty m iles a year . 1 1 — T I m p r o v e m e n t s FIG . . REAPER PROVIDED WITH SEA F OR T H E RAKER . upon the machines

o f Hussey and M c Co rmick came thick and fast . One o f th e first improvements was to remove

the gra in from the platform in a better way . With the first machines a man followed the

reaper ( Fi g . 9 ) and removed the gra in with a

rake . Then a seat was provided and the man

1 1 o ff . sat ( Fi g . ) on the reaper and raked the grain

- Finally the s elf r a king reaper was invented . I n this

machine , as it appeared in its completed form about 6 1 8 . 5 , the reel and rake were comb ined The reel 93 STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTION S

consisted o f a numb er o f revolving a rms each o f

which carried a rake ( Fig . As th e arms r e volved they not only moved the standing grain to ward the kni fe , but they also swept the platform and raked o ff the wheat in neat bunches ready to b e bound

- into sheaves . So the self raking reaper s aved the

F I 2 — G 1 . . SELF RAKING REAPER

labor of the man who raked the wheat from the plat

form . B ecause it saved the labor o f o ne man the sel f- rak ing reaper w a s for a time the king o f reaping ma

f o r chines . But it did not rem ain king long , soon there cam e into the harvest fields a reaper th at s aved

l - o f . s e b nd er the labor several men This was the f i .

With the older machines , as the gra in was raked off the platform it was gathered and bound into sheaves 94

STO R IE S OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS this gi ant reaper travels over the field one see s on one side the cutting b ar 1 5 t o 2 5 feet in length slic

its on ing way through the wheat , while the othe r

F — I I . G. 4 A CO MBINED HARVES TER A N D THRESHER side of the mach ine streams o f gra in run into sacks t which , as fas as they are filled , are hauled to the

o r c om b arn to the ne a rest ra ilway station . The — p let e harvester is either drawn by horses 3 0 o r

0 o r 4 in numb er by a p owerful engine . It cuts and threshes 1 0 0 acres of wheat in a day and the

i 0 a s cost s less than 5 cents an acre . It does much work in a day a s could h ave been done by a hundred

C r men be fore the days o f M c o m ick . O f all the wonder ful m achines used by farmers the most won d er f u l is the complete ha rvester , the latest and the greatest o f reapers . THE M ILL

HE firs t m ill w a s a hole made in a stati onary

rock ( Fig . The grain was placed in the hole and crushed with a stone held in the hand . On C e n t r e street in

Trenton , New Jer

s e y , not many years a go o ne o f these primitive m ills could still b e seen and there are evi dences that such mills once F I H G I . T E . FIRST MILL . existed in all p a rts o f the world . In those places where the earth di d not supply the stationary rock , stones were brought from a fa r and hollowed ou t into cup -like form and in these the grind

ing wa s done . The mill which consisted o f a hole in a rock and a stone i n the hands was f o l lowed by th e knocking

2 stane and mallet ( Fig . ) — The knocking - stane was . 2 T K FIG . HE KNOC ING - ST , , AN “ a mortar or cup shaped 97 STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS vessel ma de o f stone ; the mallet was usually made of wood . Th e grain was placed in the mortar and struck repeatedly with the mallet , the b eating b eing kept up unti l a co arse fl our was produced . Th is is

o f an exceedingly rude method crushing gra in , yet this is the w a y the people in some parts o f Scotland grind th eir barley at the present time . At a very early d ate the knocking s t a n e was la i d aside f o r the morta r

and pestle ( Fig . 3 )

almost everywhere . In this mill the grain instea d o f b e i n g struck with a ham mer was pounded

with a pestle . The bottom o f the pestle was frequently c o v ered with iron in

F I wh ich grooves were G . D AN . . 3 MORTAR PESTLE MILL

cut . AS the man pounded he found that when he gave the p estle a twirling or rot ary motion a s it fell it ground the gra in much faster . We may be sure that a fter this w a s learned the twirling motion was always given . Th e mortar and pestle were followed by the slab mill ( Fi g . 4 ) Here the gra in w a s ground by b eing t o w . rubbed between stones D r . Livingstone , the 98

STO R IES OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS in a s g motion , why not have much of the twirling mo ti on a s possible ? Why not make the upper stone go round and round ? T hi s w as wh at wa s done . The upp er ston e wa s caused to turn r ound and round .

- o f The wheel m ill , the mill the upper and nether mill

a s . stone ( Fi g . w invented When and where it was invented we cannot tell f o r it was in use among all civilized peoples b e for e history began to be writ

ten . There were many kinds o f w h e e l m i l l s a mong the na

tions o f . a n t iq u ity and in principle t h e y were a l l alike

F . U IG THE PPER AND NETHER MILL in construction STONE . How they work ed may b e learned by studying Figure 5 which rep r a esents m ill used in ancient India . The upper stone is placed upon the p ivot proj ecting from the r o f cente the lower ( nether ) stone , and caused to

o f revolve by means the h andle . The gra in when placed in th e hollow at the center o f the upper stone

its ( Fig . 5 ) works way down b etween the stones and comes out at the circum ference ground , bran and

w a s flou r together . The m ill fed with gra in by the

w a b n . s a d operator The first hopper a human . 1 00 THE M ILL

6 . . FIG . AN ANCIENT J EWISH M ILL

FIG . 7 . AN OLD ROMAN M ILL. I O I STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

IVe o f c h ave here several pictures an ient mills . 6 is Figure an ancient Jewish mill . As w e look at it we may recall the W o r d s T w 0 w o m e n shall be

grinding at a mill , t h e on e Shall b e

taken , and the other ” 1 le ft . Figu re 7 is an old Roman mill ‘ b earing a strong r e

0 — semblance t t h e 8 A . FIG . . SCOTTIS H QUERN coffee mill that is

used in ou r kitchens . Figure 8 is a Scot l tish quern , a mil t h a t may still b e

f u e ound in s , it is

said , in some parts, of Scotland . Figure 9 is an old flour mill dug from the ruins o f the city o f Pom pei i which wa s de stroyed by an eru p tion in the year 7 9

A . D . Fi gure 1 0

. . 9 O OUR 79 . . shows the construe FIG P MPEIAN FL MILL , A D

1 w x x e 1 . e es e h Matth i v , 4 In anci nt tim n arly all t e grinding a s e w e w don by om n . 1 0 2

STO R IE S O F USE FUL IN VENTIONS

ST - . . 0 B C. FIG I I THE FIR WATER MILL, 5 .

F I G 1 2 . T H E OF T H E T . SHOWING INTERIOR FIRS

- WATER MILL .

1 0 4 THE M ILL

Here w a s a gre at saving i n human labor and a

great advancement in mill m aking . A R oman writer ’ o f C aesa r s time appreciating h ow great a blessing was the inventi on o f the water - mill excla imed

Y e m aids w ho t oil ed s o f aith ful a t t h e m ill N ow c ea s e f rom w o rk a n d f rom th es e t o il s b e s till ; Sl eep now till d aw n a n d let th e bi r ds w it h gl ee

S n t o the r dd m om on b s h a n d ree i g u y , u t ;

For w ha t o r h n ds er f orm ed s o on s o r e y u a p l g , t u , 1 C eres h a s cha r ged t he w a t er - nymph s t o do ;

T h e om e th e m d s s ers t o h er c y c , l i pi i t , all , An d on th e w h eel w i th da s hi n g f u ry f all ; I mp el th e axl e w ith a w hi r li n g s ou n d An d m ake t h e m as s ive m ill s t on e r eel a rou n d

And b r n t he fl o r he r n t o t h e ro n d i g u y ap luxu i a t g u .

Nothing can b e simpler than th e water - mill de scribed above ; it was the old m ill o f the upper and

old nether millstones , the hand m ill turne d by w ater .

. a s a s That was all Yet , as simple it w , many cen

tu r ies passed a fter it s invention b e fore a new princi ~

n ple in fl ou r m aking was discovered . There were i v entions for lowering and ra ising th e stone s o as to

o r a s grind finer coarser might be desired , and there were imp rovements in the kind o f water wheels em

ployed , and better m ethods o f si fting the fl ou r from the bran were dis covered from time to time , but the water -mill invented in th e time o f Julius C ae sa r r e ma ined practically unchanged until the early part o f

1 Cer es w a s th e godd e s s o f grain . 1 0 5 STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

the nineteenth century , when the last step in the 1 development o f the mill w as taken .

1 1 About 8 0 millers in Austria , more p articularly

those in Vi enna , began to grind their grain by passing it between tw o hori zontal rollers ( Fig . The rollers were sp irally g r o o v ed and turned toward each

other . There was a wide di fference between this proc ess and the on e to which the

w a s world accustomed , yet the new method was found

t on e o b e better than the old . 1 1 0 ° FLOUR Austrian fl our and Austri an

brea d b ecame famous . The delicious Vienna brea d on o u r tables o f course h as “ ” never seen Vienna . It is called Vi enna bread because i t is made ou t o f a kind o f flour which was first ground in the Austri an cap ital . The Austri an way o f grinding grew rap i dly into favor among millers everywhere . In the United States Where there was s o much wheat to b e ground the roller process wa s taken up eagerly and improved upon as only Americans know h ow to improve upon

o an idea . In the fl our m ills f the West the gra in wa s soon passing through a seri es of rollers . By th e first pa ir of rollers the gra in w a s simply cracked

1 I n th e th irt ee nth c entury w ind - po w e r b egan to b e u s ed for s s e es w s w e e a s turning m ill , and in om countri indmill r common

s w e - s a at r mill . 1 0 6

STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS app eared there was always bran in the flour and

flour in the bran .

- The inventi on o f the fl ou r roller mill ( Fi g . 1 4 )

o is the last step i n the development f the mill . The roller process has almost enti rely driven ou t all other

ee processes . Now and then we s by th e roa dside an old fashi oned mill with th e upper and nether

s ee on e stone , but we seldom that is prosperous

and thriving . M illers , like everybody else in these

on t o days , do business a large scale and m ake flour

o - n a large scale they must u s e th e roller mill . Thus the hole in the rock in which a handful o f gra in w a s

laboriously crushed has , through long ages of growth , b ecome the great factory in which thous ands o f b ar

o f rels fl our are made in a day .

1 0 8 THE LOO M

? AVE you ever seen a loom It would not be a

wonder i f you have not . In thes e days th e

on e average person s eldom sees . Everyone knows in a vague sort o f way that clothes and carpets a re made

o f o r wool or silk cotton , as the case may b e , and

that they a re woven upon an instrum ent called a loom . This is about as much as we usu ally know about the

o clothes we wear r the carpets we walk upon . We buy thes e things from the store and that is all there i s . s o to it I n the olden times , and not very long

ago either , everybody knew something about weaving , at least every girl and woman knew something o f

w a s a s the art , and a loom famili ar an obj ect in the household then as a sewing machine i s now

M a t rons a n d m ai d ens s a t in s now - w h it e cap s a nd in ki r tl es

Sc r et a n d b e a n d reen w h d s ff s nn n t h e o den a l lu g , it i t a pi i g g l

F x f or th e os s n oom w h os e n o s s h e w h n doo rs la g ipi g l , i y uttl it i M i n gl ed th ei r s ou n ds w ith th e w h ir of t he w heel s a n d th e

on s of h e m en s g t ai d s .

This picture o f home li fe in Aca di a two hundred y ears ago would have served as a picture o f home li fe almost eve rywhere in the civili zed world . From the b eginning of history until modern times most of 1 09 STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS the weaving w a s done by the women in the home . The earliest pr actical weaver o n record is the spider and it may be that man learned his first lesson in Weaving from this skill

ed little workman ( Fig . or the beauti ful nest o f the weaver - b ird may have given to hu man b eings the first hints in th e weaving

a rt . Whoever m a y

have b een his teacher , it is certain that man learned h ow to weave

I — I FIG . . THE F RST LESSON IN in the earliest stages O f A I NE VI N G. i ex stence . It IS thought that his first effort in this direction consisted in making cages f o r animals and wiers ( traps ) for

2 catching fish ( Fi g . ) by interlacing vines or canes o r slender boughs . The next step was taken when women began to make baskets and cradles and m ats by interlacing long slender strips o f wood ( Fig .

B asket weaving led to cloth weaving , and this

led to the loom . In Figure 4 we see the simplest

and oldest form o f the loom . It consisted o f a single

o f stick ( yarn beam ) wood about four feet long . This w a s the first form o f the loom j ust a stra ight

stick of wood and nothing more . From the stick the threads which run lengthwise in the cloth were s u s 1 1 0

STO R IE S O F USE FUL I NVENTIONS

h e w a r t . pended . These threads are known as p The threads wh ich run breadthwis e in the cloth are ’

w e t w o o . known as the f , or f As the woman s de ft

T P FIG . 4 . HE RI M ITIVE LOOM .

fingers pass along with the we ft she carri es the thread ’ r over the first wa p th read , under the second , over

s o . the third , under the fourth , and on Here we h ave not only the simplest form o f the loom but the simplest kind o f cloth .

In the loom worked by the Pueblo woman ( Fi g . 5 )

is a new p iece appears . This the frame through which the threads o f the warp pass and which the

is woman holding in her right hand . The frame

i or h ed dle . 6 i s called a heald , ( Fig ) The heddle s o f the greatest importance in the construction of th e 1 1 2 THE LOOM

B FIG . 5 . THE PUE LO LOOM . loom and it i s well worth while t o understand what it does . In the loom operated by the Ch ilcoot woman

( Fi g . 4 ) you noticed that the weaver pass ed th e we ft threa d above and below the alternate threads o f the

r warp . This required a sep arate movement f o every threa d o f the warp ; i f there were a hundred threads a hundred movements were required to pass the we ft

across once . Now the heddle used by the Pueblo woman separated the fi fty w arp threads that were to p ass above the weft thread from the fi fty that

were to p ass below it , making an opening called a

s hed . When the shed was m ade the we ft threa d

could be passed across at one movement . One move ment inste a d o f a hundred ! H ow w a s this a c c om p lis h ed ? Fi fty alternate warp threa ds were pass ed through the holes in the bars o f the heddle

one frame , thread through each hole ; the other fi fty alternate threads passed b etween the b ars 8 1 1 3 STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

o o f the heddle frame . N w suppose the enti re w arp O f a hundred threads is stretched tight and ’ firm between the woman s body and the y arn

s h e r a is es beam . With her right hand the heddle and thus li fts the fi fty threads which pass through the holes in the b ars , while the other fi fty threads rema in

. o r unmoved . This movement makes the passage

6 FIG . . THE HEDDLE . shed through which she passes the we ft with the le ft

hand . After beating the weft threa d close to the cloth either with the fingers o r with a sword - like

s h e stick , lowers the heddle with its fi fty threa ds , the

other fi fty still remain fixed and unmoved . Another

shed is formed and the we ft is passed through again . Thus with the raising and lowering o f the heddle the we ft is p assed backward and forward and the wea v 1 1 4

STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS — mans call it wh ich carries the we ft across

( Fi g . The loom described ab ove seems to be clumsy and

o f rude when compared with a loom the present day , yet it is really the kind o f loom which was used by

—A 8 . . FIG . PRIMITIVE SH UTTLE nearly all civilized people from the dawn o f their civ iliz a ion t o t the middle of th e eighteenth century . It

o f is the loom history and poetry and song . Upon a loom o f this kind was woven Joseph ’s coat with its many colors and the garment which the fa ir Penelope

h e m ade when s deceived her su itors . O f course as the centuries passed the parts o f th e loom were better made and weavers became more skil ful . In Fi gure 9 w e have the loom as it appeared in the sixteenth cen tury . I f we inspect it closely we shall find it to be merely the old A frican loom mounted on stout u p right timbers instea d o f being mounted on a tripod

o made f poles . With her feet the weaver works the

s h e heddle , with her right h and throws th e shuttle , with her le ft She draws toward her the swinging batten and drives the we ft home with the reed . The year 1 7 3 3 is a m ost important date in the

o f Ka development the loom for in that year John y ,

lo o mm a k er ln a practical o f Lancashire , England , vented the flying shuttle and thus did more f or the

1 1 6 THE LOOM loom than any man whom we can distinguish

T o o name . appreciate the great service f Ka y must recall how the shuttle was operated be fore

You time . rememb er it was thrown through

— A . FIG . 9 . LOOM OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

’ shed by one o f the weaver s h ands and caught and

returned by the other h and . Sometimes it was

o caught and returned by a b y . This was at best a slow process and unless the weav‘ er had an assistant 1 1 7 STO R IE S O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

' to return the shuttle only n a r r ow p iec es could be

o f - woven . The common wi dth cloth , three fourths

o f . w ea v a yard , ha d its origin in necessity The ’ er s arms were not long enough to weave a wider “ ’ o f K p iece . Th e essence ay s invention was that the shuttle w a s thrown from side to side by a me c h a n ic a l devi ce instead o f being passed from hand

w a s to hand . One h and only requi red for the shuttle while the other w a s le ft free to beat up the cloth

’

FI G 1 0 . . . KAY S FLYING SHUTTLE

( with the batten ) a fter each throw , and the shuttle ” would fly across wi de cloth as well as narrow . ’ You will b e able to understand Ka y s invention by studying Figure 1 0 which shows h ow the flying shuttle

- o worked . G is a groove ( shuttle race ) n which th e Shuttle runs as it crosses through the shed leaving I I its thread b ehind it . and are boxes which the

1 1 o . shuttle ( Fig . ) enters at the end f the j ourney In each box is a driver K sliding freely on the

r od F p olished . The weaver with his righ t hand 1 1 8

STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

o f work . All this was changing the face the civ iliz ed world . H itherto weavers and spinners ha d worke d f o r th emselves in their homes o r in their own shops ; now they were gathered in large factori es where they worked a s wage earners for an employer . H itherto industry ha d been carri ed on in sm all vil lages ; the great fa ctori es drew the people t o large

' industrial centers and the era o f crowded cities b e gan . Following the invention o f the power - loom in the latter h al f of the eighteenth century came the in

tion o f v en . of Joseph Jacqu ard Lyons , France This very ingeni ous m an in 1 8 0 1 invented a substitute for h the eddle . We cannot readily understand the ’ workings o f Jacquard s wonderful attachment , as

is his substitute for the heddle called , but we ought a to know what the great Frenchm n did for the loom . In Figu re 1 2 you s ee that the cloth which is ex pos ed shows that b eauti ful designs h ave b een woven

is into it . Th is what Jacqu ard did for the loom .

He made i t weave into the cloth whatever design ,

o r color tint one m ight desire . He made the loom a mech anical artist rivaling in excellence the work o f a human artist . The Jacqu ard loom has brought ’ ’ about a revolution in man s , and especially in wom an s dress . With the old loom , colors and designs could

r b e woven into cloth but only ve y slowly , and goods with fancy patterns were made a t a cost that w a s s o f bu great that only the rich could af ord to y . I n the olden times , there fore , almost everybody wore 1 2 0 THE LOOM

1 2 FIG . . THE J ACQUARD LOO M . I 2 I STO RIES O F USE FUL I NVE NTION S

’ pla in clothes . With Jacqu ard s attachment the most b eauti ful figures can b e cheaply woven into the com monest fab rics . As fa s as we aving is conce rned , it costs no more to have b e auti ful figur es in cotton

e goods than it do es to have them in silk . As a t sult the poo r a s well as the rich can dress a s the ir taste and fancy may suggest . The last century brought improvements in the we aving art a s every century b e fo re it brought im ’ ro v em ent s p , but the changes made since Ja cqu ard s

s time ne ed not conce rn u . Th e story o f th e loom ” ends with the Jacqu ard attachment . Perhaps no oth er o f m an ’s inventions h a s a more interesting de

v elo m ent . s ee p than the loom We can it grow , p iece by p iece . First a simple stick from wh ich dangle th e thre ads o f the wa rp ; then the heddle , then th e shut

- tle , then th e re ed , then the shuttle r ace and the ’ swi ftly flying shuttle , and last the Fr enchman s won d er f u l device fo r weaving in colors and fancy figu res . At the time when Ka y and Arkwright gave thei r inventions to the world the fabrics o f the loom were

n e m a de ch i efly o f wool . But the w p owe r looms worked so fast that all th e she ep in the wo rld did not carry on the ir b acks enough wool t o keep the

e u s e we avers busy . So manu fa ctur rs b egan to cot ton in la rge r qu antities than it ha d ever b een used

diflicu lt b e fore . But it wa s soon found to get enough cotton for the looms . Cotton , it was tru e , could b e ra ised in ve ry la rge qu antiti es but i t could be cle aned and m a de ready fo r the loom only in small 1 2 2

STO RIES O F USE FUL INVENTION S

for the effect o f the cotton - gin upon the production

o f 1 1 cotton was enormous . In 7 9 th e cotton crop

’ I A TH F G I . N D E . 4 WHITNEY S FIRST COTTON GIN GREAT COTTON OF - DA Y GIN TO . o f the United States w a s only p ounds ; ten yea rs late r t h e crop w a s ne a rly pounds !

1 2 4 THE NE E DLE

S soon a s men ha d learned h o w to we ave i t h e

came necessary fo r them to learn how to s ew . The cloth m a de at the loom ha d to be cut into p i eces fo r the m aking o f ga rments that would fit the h u man body and th e different p i eces o f cloth ha d to b e fa stened together . The instrument invente d for fastening together two p ieces o f cloth o r leathe r wa s

the Needle , one o f the ea rli est and most simple

’

o f on e . inventions , and o f the most u se ful In very ea rly time s garments wer e o ften m ade o f large leaves 1 fastened together by m e ans o f thorns

- o r by slender sha rp po inted rods o f wood . H e re the

o b e s ewing wa s done with ut the th re a d , the needle ing a kind o f a p in wh ich serve d a s b oth needle and

F I G I T H E . . FIRST NEEDLE .

thread . But primitive people were o ften clad in

garments made o f the skins o f wild b ea sts . Where this was the ca s e the skins we re sewed togethe r with

o r the S inews o f animals with thin strips o f le athe r . By me ans o f an awl holes were m ade n e a r th e edges

1 8 ee G e es s n i , Chap . III , 7 . STO RIES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

o f the two skins that were to b e j oined and the w sine o r leather strip was passed through the holes , running first through a hole in one skin and then

through a hole in the othe r . Here wa s the needle

I n I t s first form ; it was simply an awl ( Fi g . A s long a s the needle w a s enti rely sep arated from the thre a d the making o f a s e am wa s a double task : first th e holes had to b e p i erce d with the awl and then the threa d had to b e p atiently p assed through

. a the holes At a very e a rly p eriod , however , way

F I G. 2 . BONE NEEDLES WITH EYES . was found by which needle and threa d could b e

on o f worked together . At first e end the needle was sharp ened into a fine point wh ile the other end wa s s o notched , the notch being made tha t the thread

could b e ti e d to the needle . With th e n eedle and thread thus fastened together th e sewing could go

on much faster , for as soon as a hole was p i erced th e o f threa d could b e drawn through without loss time . But the needle with the notch w a s a clumsy affa i r

and it wa s not long b e fo re a hole , known a s the eye ,

w a s made for holding the thread . Sometimes the eye w a s at th e blunt end o f the needle and some

time s it w a s at the center . N eedles with eyes were invented at a very e a rly 1 2 6

STO RIES O F USE FUL I NVENTIONS the bronz e needle gradually disapp ea red a nd needles were everywhere made o f fine ste el . The Simple steel needle with it s sha rp po int and

S FIG . 5 . NEEDLE WORK OF THE MIDDLE AGE .

( An embr oid er ed cop e . ) its neatly drilled eye was for m any thousands o f yea rs the only instrument with which sewing was done . But no invention wa s b rought into mor e con stant u se than the ne edle , fo r in the olden times every fem ale memb e r o f the household l ea rned the

o f a rt o f sewing . The daughters the rich and gre at a s well as the daughte rs o f the poo r and lowly were care fully taught to u se the needle with skill . Prin cesses and high born ladies did not always le arn to 1 2 8 THE NEE DLE

s ew rea d but they a lways learned to , and learned to

f h o s ew well . Women o rank w we re not compelled to do pla in s ewing sp ent much o f the i r time in em broide ring and thei r de ft , swi ft fingers p roduced many be auti ful and wonde r ful designs ( Fig . But the tim e came when human finge rs could no longer p erform all the sewing that wa s to b e done , no matter how swi ftly s eamstresses pli ed the needle o r how long we re the hours th ey sp ent a t thei r task . For the wonderful we aving ma chines invented in the latte r pa rt o f the eighteenth century were soon turning out more cloth than could b e sewed

- into garments by the old time n eedle . So inventors s et to work to m ake a needle th at would keep pace with the loom : they unde rtook to make a machine that would sew .

A s a s 1 0 e arly 7 7 Thomas Alsop , an Engl ishman , patented a machine fo r doing emb roidery wo rk . ’ The needle o f Alsop s m achine wa s doubl e - pointed ’ in and its eye was located in the cente r . Alsop s v ent io n le d to the m aking o f ma ch ines that would

- emb roider in excellent fa shion , but the s ewing ma chine the ma chine tha t would make a seam wa s still to h e invented . The first important step in the invention o f the sewing - m achine was taken in 1 7 90 when Thoma s

Sa int , an English cab inet m aker , s ecured a p atent

for a m achine ( Fig 6 ) wh ich ha d many. o f the fea tu res found in the famili a r sewing- machine o f to I day . t ha d an overhanging a rm a t the end o f 9 1 2 9 STO R IE S O F USE FUL I NVENTIONS

which w a s attached a needle which moved up and do wn ; i t ha d a thre a d spool from which the th re a d was wound continuously ; and it ha d a device f o r

’ 6 S A I N T s FIG . . SEWING MACHINE .

a moving the cloth along a fte r it w s stitched . But

the invention of Sa int existed only on p ap er . No machine under h i s p atent wa s ever made and even the drawings and the description o f the m achine lay fo r many years bu rie d in the E nglish p aten t o flic e

h a s unknown to the world . N everth eless S a int the hono r o f having b een the first inventor to plan for s ew a connected p i ece o f machine ry th at would , and his invention must b e regarded a s the forerunner o f

- - the sewing m achine o f to day . The first sewing- m achine eve r made and put into 1 3 0

STO R IE S O F USE FUL I NVENTIONS

h m flle destroyed . So T i onier wa s b a d in hi s plans by the very people whose labors he was trying to

- make lighter . H e di ed broken hearted in a poorhouse but his name will never b e fo rgotten , for h e wa s the first to Show the world that stitches could really b e m ade without the a i d o f human fin gers . While invento rs in England and France were try

s ew rs ing to make a machine that would , invento in ou r own country we re also busy at work along the 1 sam e line . Ab out 8 3 3 Walte r Hunt o f N ew Yo rk built a ma chine which had an eye -po inted needle and a shuttle wh ich worked s o a s t o m ake a lo ck s t tc h : - o ne i that is , th e eye po inte d needle carried threa d through the fab ri c to b e sewed while the shuttle carried a second thre a d through the loops formed by the first and thus locked the thre a ds t o

wa s - gether ( Fi g . This the fi rst lock stitch ma

— 8 S S S . FIG . . ECTION HOWING LOCK TITCH

chine eve r made . But Hunt did not make a success o f his invention . H e l a id his mach ine a side b e fore he h a d fully completed it and h e fa iled to secu re 1 8 a patent fo r it . H e appli ed fo r a patent in 5 4

a n but he was then too late , for eight years be fore othe r invento r had secured a p atent on a s e wing machine which possessed the ma in fe atures of th e 1 3 2 THE NEE DLE

Hunt m achine . So Hunt wa s re fused a patent and like many another invento r h e reaped no reward f o r h i s invention . The invention which stood in the w a y o f Hunt wa s a s ewing - machine invented in 1 8 4 6 by Eli a s

- H owe . The sto ry o f Howe and hi s sewing ma ch ine i s one o f the most interesting in all the history o f

. M a s s a ch u invention Howe wa s born in Sp encer ,

1 8 1 . w a s setts , in 9 H is fathe r a fa rme r and a mille r . As soon as h e wa s old enough y oung Howe b egan to wo rk on th e farm but he soon found that he wa s t oo fra il in body f or the h eavy wo rk o f the farm . So at the age o f sixte en he s ecu red work in a m achine shop a t Lowell wh ere he rema ine d for two ye a rs and then found employment in a shop in

1 8 B oston . In th e yea r 3 9 , while a t wo rk in the

w a s shop , h e hea rd a man say that a fortune in store fo r the m an wh o would invent a sewing - ma chine . This chance r ema rk s ank de ep into his mind and h e b egan t o wonder i f h e could not invent such

b e a m achine . Fo r several yea rs fixed his m ind

o f upon the a rt sewing , watch ing ca re fully the pro cess a s it w a s p er fo rmed by the hand . The more h e thought about th e matte r the mo re firmly he h e came convinced th at sewing could b e done by m a

o f chinery . So about 1 8 4 4 he undertook the task

- w a s m aking a sewing machine . H e now m a rri ed and wa s very poor . H is weekly wage was only nine dollars yet out o f this sum five mouths had to b e fed and five b a cks had to b e clothed . There 1 3 3 STO R IES O F USE FUL I NVENTION S

were strong re asons , th ere fore , why the invento r

h is should go about wo rk in e arnest .

And Howe did go ab out his work in earnest . In 1 8 D ecember , 4 4 , he b egan to make th e p arts o f

1 8 . hi s ma chine and by M ay , 4 5 , it wa s completed The new machine s ewed p erfectly at th e rate o f two

hundred and fi fty stitches a minute , which wa s about seven times a s fast as the wo rk could b e done by

hand . In order to show wh at his machine could do Howe challenged five o f th e swi ftest s e amstresses

that could b e found to sew a race . Ten s e ams o f w equal length were pr ep a red for se ing , five o f which we re la i d f o r the machine and the other five give n

to th e girls . M r . Howe finished hi s five seams a

little soone r th an the gi rls finished the i r five , and the work done on th e m achine was the neatest and ” the strongest . H ere a t last wa s a m a chine that would m ake it possible fo r the needle to ke ep pace with the loom ! Fo r sever al years it seemed that H owe would have no b etter luck with h is machine th an p oo r

T him o nier h a d ha d with his . In spite o f the fact that the Howe m achine could ply th e needle five

times a s fa st as i t could b e pli ed by the h and , no

a s machines were bou ght . In America in France it wa s fea red that a sewing - machine would take b read

from the mouths o f those who s ewed by hand . Then — — th e cost o f the m achine about $ 3 0 0 was s o gre at th at the o rdinary ta ilor or seamstress Could not affo rd t o buy one . 1 3 4

STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS Ac' cordingly Howe brought su it a ga inst the m en who were manu factu ring the m ach ines and a fte r a long battl e he won his su i t ; th e courts decided that Howe had invented and p atented th e sewing - machine and tha t no on e could m ake or sell the s ame kind o f ’ ma chine without the inventor s consent . A fter this victory in th e courts Howe b egan to reap a golden

- ha rvest . Sewing m achines were manu factured by the hundreds o f thousands and upon every m achi ne sold th e inventor rece ived a handsome s u m . I n on e yea r Howe rece ived an income o f and altogether his p rofits from the machine amounted to mo re than Few inv en tors have endured gre ater h ardships than Howe and few have b een s o richly rewarded .

1 3 6 THE GUN

HILE the women in e arly times were work

ing at the loom and with th e needle , the men we re occup ie d almost enti rely in hunting and fighting : hunting fo r the b easts and b i rds that might serve as food ; fighting in de fense o f thei r own p er

o r sons in b ehal f o f the family o r trib e . B oth in the ch a se and in war ther e wa s ne ed o f a we ap on that

could be hu rled through the a ir , and success O ften

dep ended upon the kind o f weapon that wa s u sed .

The grea t p roblem , there fore , which the first hun ters and warriors h a d t o solve wa s th e problem o f the Gun and all through history the s ame p roblem

- has pr esente d itsel f . To day every powe r ful nation is trying to make a gun b ette r than can b e m ade by

any othe r nation . Indeed , the ve ry li fe o f a n ation

o ften dep ends upon the kin d o f gun its soldi ers use .

n o w Since the gun h a s played , and is playing , such a n important part in human a ffa irs its story i s well

worth le a rning .

o f The first gun , course , wa s the hum an hand and th e fi rst bullet was the crude stick or stone which I m was hurled by the fo rce o f the human a rm . p rov em ent s in the sticks o r stones whi ch we re to be used a s weapons began to b e m ade in the ea rli est I 3 7 STO RIE S O F USE FUL I NVENTION S

age . A stone which was sharpened proved to b e more effective than on e which w a s blunt ; a stick with a he avy knot at one end proved to b e b ette r for throwing and cracking skulls than a stra ight on e

( Fig . One o f the first we apons invented by man is still in u s e among s avages

in Austral ia . This

‘ is the curved throwing stick known a s the

boomerang ( Fi g . — 1 G . FIG . . THROWIN CLUBS This curiou s weapon i s about two feet long and i s fl atter on one side than o n the other . I t makes a winding p ath through the a i r and can b e m ade to fall behind the one who throws it . When hu rled at a retreating enemy it first p ass es b eyond the one at whom it i s thrown and th en t circles and re urns , striking its V ictim

in front . I f we define a gun as a machine for hurling wea p ons through the a i r the first a rtifi

2 . . OO G . c ial gun was doubt FIG B MERAN S 1 3 8

STO R IE S O F USE FUL I NVENTIONS — throw large stones better than other p eople . They atta in this dexterity by constant practice from

o f their youth up , for the mothers fix a loa f bread on the top o f a high pole and the boys must sta rve ” until they have hi t a nd knocked down the bread . The sling - stones o r bullets used in th e sling we re sometimes fashioned with

grea t ca re . In Fi gure 5 w e have a sling -bullet o f

the anci ent Greeks . On the bullet is inscrib ed a Gre ek “ - FIG . 5 . SLING BULLET WITH word meaning show I N S CIH PTI ON ” ' in yourself , evidently tended to taunt the on e at whom the bullet was h t rown .

Following the throwing - stick and the sling came the b ow and a rrow , the we apon through which we must tra ce the development o f the mode rn gun . In its simplest and earli est fo rm the h ow was a strong ela sti c strip o f wood with a string stretche d b etween its two ends ( Fig . Side by side with the sling the h o w wa s use d in cha se and in war all ove r the ea rth among anci ent trib es and p eoples and c on t inu ed to b e used fa r into modern times . In th e hands o f the English it w a s a most dangerous weapon . A story is told o f an English bowman who

h is 1 2 0 tied son , a l ad o f seven ye a rs , to a stake yards o ff and sent an arrow through an apple placed f o n his head . A simila r story is told o the Swiss

p atri ot Willi am Tell . 1 4 0 THE GUN The force and fl ight o f the a rrow wh ich sped from the simple b o w dep ended upon th e una ided strength o f the human a rm. It was no u se to m ake a bow stronge r than the wa rri o r o r hunter who w a s to b end i t . Ab out the beginning o f the th irteenth

6 BOW FIG . . AND ARROW .

- o r - centu ry the cross bow , gun b ow began to b e used

- a s in Europ e . The cross bow o f th e middle ages w bent by machinery , by a leve r or a windla ss ( Fig . The b ow wa s attached at righ t angl es t o a wooden stock ( stick ) in which ther e wa s a gro ove o r b arrel to di rect the fl ight o f th e a rro w . \Vhen the b o w w a s prop erly drawn the string cau ght in a notch ma de in the stock and rema ined th e re until

b o w released by a trigger . A fter b ending h is the bowman removed the windla ss and when he w a s re ady to sho ot placed the arrow in the groove , took a im and pulled the trigger . Now that th e b ending o f the h o w could b e done by m achinery b ows o f gre at firmness and toughness 1 4 1 STO RIE S OF USE FUL I NVENT ION S

o f wer e ma de , and they were m ade steel a s well

- a s o f wood . A good cross bow could hurl an a r 0 0 — row 7 ya rds nea rly h al f a mile . I t p roved to b e such a de adly we ap on that its u se wa s for b idden by th e chu rch and in some countries it wa s

. T forbi dden by l aw his opposition , however , h a d

' - S W . F I G . . 7 WARRIORS ARMED WITH CROS BO S

h i b ow m e s ( Th e s oldi e r in th e c ent er is b ending s by an o f a s s w indla . )

but little eff ect . Soldie rs will always have the b est o f possible gun . In sp ite o f the law and the b an the church the bow - gun continu ed to b e improved upon and used until it wa s displaced by a b etter gun .

The cross -b ow was good fo r fighting in the op en 1 4 2

STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

w a p owder that would explode ith great violence . One o f the first th ings done with the powder w a s t o i exp eriment with it n hu rling m iss iles . When p la ced in an iron or b r a ss tub e b ehind a stone or a bulle t the powder explode d and drove the m issile ou t with

8 . . FIG . AN OLD CANNON

tremendous force . When it was le a rned that the new p owder could b e used for discharging a gun the

o r name o f g u np wd e was given to it . The first gun in which gunpowder was used was the cannon . A large tub e o r b a rrel made o f strips o f wood or o f i ron ba rs wa s j oined togethe r lengthwise and around th e - tub e on the outside was wrapp ed a rope or wire to giv e strength ( Fig . 8 ) Such a can non wa s used ln the famous battle o f C res sy ( 1 3 4 6 )

o f o r At first the cannon b all , m ade s tone l ead ,

o f weigh ed only thre e or fou r pounds , but by the end the fou rteenth centu ry cannons were throwing b alls 2 0 0 weighing mor e than pounds . H e re wa s the gun that was to destroy the p ower o f th e barons . The huge cannon leveled the ca stle walls and in do ing this changed the fa ce o f civiliz ation . With cannon at the ir command the p e a sants - could de fy 1 4 4 THE GUN the nob ility and success fully cla im thei r rights as

freemen . O f course great imp rovements h ave b e en made upon the rude cannon used in the b attle o f

Cressy . As centu ry a fter century ha s p assed the cannons h ave b een made to thro w la rge r and large r b alls and to throw th em further and fu rthe r and

o f faster and faster . One the greatest triumphs in the art o f cannon m aking is se en in the b ig g un on

Sandy Hook . This monste r o f destruction and de f ens e wi ll throw with a velocity o f feet a sec o nd a b all weighing a t on through a distance o f 2 0 m iles . Although gunpowde r wa s first used for firing heavy cannon it wa s also gradually b rought into use

— A - F I G. . OF T H E 9 CROSS BOW SIXTEENTH CENTURY .

for fi ring lighte r guns . In Figu re 9 we see an im

- o f proved cross bow the sixte enth centu ry . I ts sh ap e reminds us o f a long - ba rreled gun o f the pres ent time . Indeed it was but a short step from th e

-b ow u n cross to the g in which powder wa s used . 1 4 5 STO RIES O F USE FUL I NVENTION S

- b ow Th e imp roved cross h a d a stock , a b arrel and

a trigger . The chie f difference b etween the cross b o w and the gun wa s this : in the cross -b ow the force which hurled the m issile was suppli ed by the bow and string ; in the gu n this force was suppli ed by the

- gunpowder . The fi rst hand p i eces a s the lighter — guns were called were extremely clumsy ( Fig . 1 0 ) In the early days o f the powder gun a soldier wa s lucky i f he could loa d , fire and relo ad his gun

— I G TO A GU N OF T H E . F . . SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

in t hre e minutes . But improvements were con s t a ntly m ade and the loading and firing o f the gu n wa s made easie r a nd easier . 1 4 6

STO R IE S OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS THE HOUSE

house o f all primitive people wh o lived where there

was plenty o f wood .

In many regions , especi ally in parts o f northwest

o r not ern Europe , the Wigwam hut w as always the most su itable dwelling place for early m an . In hilly and mounta inous districts and along streams where shores were overhung by rocks o r p ierced by caverns the first inhabitants found tha t a hollow in

— - F I G 2 . A D\VELL I N G. . CAVE

s the earth was the best kind o f house . Sometime the house o f the cave - dwellers w as ma de by N ature

2 - ( Fi g . ) sometimes it was an artifici al living place

r dug in the side o f a hill o mounta in . The cave was truly a rude and gloomy home , yet there wa s a time e when large numbers o f the human race lived in cav s . The ! uni Indians o f Ari zona in seeking a re fuge from thei r enem ies bui lt their homes far up in steep 1 4 9 STO RIES OF USE FUL INVENT IONS cliffs where i t was almost impossible for a stranger t o go . Coming down from the h ighlands to the lowlands where there were swamp s and marshes or where in land lakes were numerous , we find that the first houses were built upon p iles driven in the water or in t h e m u d F ig 3 These 1 a k e

dwellings , as h ouses o f this kind were call

ed , were gener ally connected — - S FIG . 3 . LAKE DWELLINGS , RE TORED . with the main ( From Troyon . ) land by gang o f - ways wooden piers , although sometimes they could b e approached only by boat . I n the floors o f some o f these curious dwellings were trap doors through which b askets could b e lowered for catching fish in the lake b elow . The chil dren o f the lake - dwellers were tethered by the feet t o keep them from falling into the water . The b eauti ful city o f Venice in it s infancy was a

o f - community lake dwellers . Th e rough canoe o f the lake - dwelling time h a s developed into the grace ful gondola , and the rude wooden p ier has grown to be the magnificent R ialto . In many regions the most convenient building m ateri al is stone and all over the earth there are 1 5 0

STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

The illustrations o f early building which have been given will make pla in the truth that the people o f a p articular country have taken the materi als nearest at hand and have constructed thei r homes according to thei r particular needs . Now since the beginnings o f h ouse bu ilding have been different in f o f o f dif erent p arts the earth , the story the house will not be the same in all countri es . I n China and

h a s Japan , wh ere the light b amb oo always fl ourished

h a s h a s and always been used in building , the house h ad one development ; in countries where granite and marble and heavy timber abound it has h a d a n other and an enti rely different development . What then is the story o f the house as we s ee it in ou r ? country Can this story be told ? As one passes through an American city looking at the public build ings and churches and stores and dwellings can one go back to the beginning and trace step by step the growth o f the house and tell h ow these came t o b e

ee what they are ? Let us s i f this cannot b e done . Ou r story takes us b ack many thousands o f years

o f . to Egypt , the cradle civili zation From Egypt

t o i t will take us to Greece , thence Rome , thence to

the countri es O f Northern Europe , thence to Amer

o f ica . What kind h ouses di d the Egypti ans first ? build They built a s simple a structure as can be imagined ; they erected four walls and over these

a s they placed a fl at roo f ( Fig . The roof w m ade fl at because i n Egypt there is scarcely any

rain and there w a s no need for a roo f with a slant . 1 5 2 TH E HOUSE

. F I . G. 5 AN EGYPTIAN HOUSE

. FIG . 6 . AN ANCIENT H EBREW DWELLING 1 5 3 Althou gh thei r bu ildings were simple in construe ti on the E gyptians le ft behind them most rem ark ’ o f able specimens the bu ilder s art . Their pyr a 1 5 4

STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS an invention o r an i dea the y nearly always im

i o f proved upon t . Instea d slavishly imitating the Egypti an columns they tried t o make b etter ones and they were s o success ful that they soon became the teachers o f th e world in column m aking . The Oldest and strongest o f the Greek columns

8 . FIG . A GREEK DWELLING .

belong to wh at is known a s the D ori c order ( Fi g . a nam e given t o them becaus e they were first

s s made by the D ori an , the ori ginal Greek dweller

or in Europe . As i de from the flutes channels which ran throughout its length the D ori c column was perfectly plain . In the older Dori c columns even 1 5 6 THE HOUSE

c a ta l the flutes are absent . Its p i or top , was with o u t ornament . Later the grace ful a nd elegant

F I T H G . E OF . . 9 THREE ORDERS COLU MNS

Ionic p illa r ( Fig . 9 ) came into fashion . We can always distinguish an I onic column by the volute or

o f scroll a t its capital . The latest the G reek

w a s . columns the C orinthi an ( Fig the lightest , the most slender and the m ost richly decorated o f all . A cluster o f acanthus leaves at its capital is the most prominent ornament o f the C orinthi an

o column . The Greeks ca rried the art f column m aking to such perfecti on th at even to this day w e imitate their patterns . A column in a modern building is almost certa in to be a Greek column . It 1 5 7 STO R IES OF U SE FUL INVENTIONS

’ is worth one s while , there fore , to be able to tell

o e n Greek column from another . One can do thi s by remembering ( 1 ) that the Dori c column is per f ectly plain and has n o cap ital ; ( 2 ) that the I oni c column has a scroll at the capital ; ( 3 ) that the capital o f th e C orinthian column is a dorned with a cluster o f acanthus leaves .

FI . TO. OLD G AN ROMAN ARCH .

b e Ou r story now takes us to Italy . Greece fell

h e o f 1 6 B . C . s fore the power Rome 4 , but be fore fell s h e had taught her conquerors a great deal about

a rchitecture . Indeed the Rom ans took up the art h o f building where the Greeks le ft it . T ey needed

the Greek gable for they ha d ra ins , and the Greek column recommended itsel f to them o n account o f

is t beauty . They used the best features o f Grecian 1 5 8

STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS slope w a s not suitable for carrying o ff l arge quanti

. 1 2 ties O f water and snow A gable ( Fig . ) with a sharp slant wa s necessary . Hence throughout north

F I G . F S . . I I INTERIOR O A ROMAN CLUB HOU E ern Europe the roofs were built much steeper than they were in Italy and Greece , although in other respects the northern h ouses resembled more or less

o f closely those the older southern countries .

1 6 0 THE HOUSE

The p ointed roo f wh ich w a s made necessa ry by the clim ate o f th e north prep ared the w a y f o r a new

o f o nted o r o th c G . style building , the p i i style This style began to appear in the twelfth century and by — the end o f the thirteenth century that rema rkable

— P FI G 1 2 . A . , DWELLI NG IN NORTHERN EURO E century again — th e bu ildings of all northern

ne Europe were Gothi c . The w style began with a change in th e arch . The Roman arch wa s a semi circle and was there fore described from one center . The Gothic arch w a s formed by describing i t from two centers instead o f o ne and w a s there fore a I I 0 1 6 1 STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

pointed arch . As the pointed arch grew in favor it became the fashion to shape other parts o f the building into p oints wherever it w a s p ossible t o do

this . The rounding dome became a spire point ing h eavenwa rd the windows and doors were pointed and so were the orna ments and dec

orations . For several centuries buildings fairly bristled w i t h

o p i n t S ( Fig . The finest e x a m p l e o f Gothi c a rc hit ec ture is the glori ou s cathedral at

C ologne . During t h e thousand years o f the D a r k Age s 4 7 6 1 4 5 3 ) t h e glori es o f the civili z atio n o f a ncient Greece and RO m C faded 1 . FIG . 3 . POINTED STYLE Typical s ch e m e o f a fully d ev e lop ed Fr ench almost complete h 1 e V cath edral o f t e 3 th c ntury . ( From iol ’ “ 1 - - D iet d e y from human let le Duc s . 1 6 2

STO RIE S O F USE FUL IN VENTIONS

found . The houses of the first settlers in America were o f course rude and ugly but a s the colonies grew i n populati on and wealth more expensive and

As beauti ful houses were built . we should expect ,

I — F G I . . . 4 A RENAISSANCE DWELLING the colonists built th eir best houses in the style that was then in fash ion in the o ld world and that w a s the renaissance style . They did not , however , copy the old world architecture outright . They ha d di f 1 64 TH E HOUSE f er ent f f t materi als , a dif erent clim ate and a dif eren class o f workmen and they had to build according to these changed conditions . Th e result was a style of building that has been called colonial ( Fig .

— . 1 A FIG 5 . COLONIAL M ANSION .

Th e C e e C ew s w e e th e e o f G e liv d n h M an ion , h r Battl rman w w a s to n fought .

C oloni al architecture w a s S imply American rena is

. o sance And th at is what i t is t day . To say that a house is in the colonial style is t o s a y that it rep r e sents a certain architect ’s ideas as to what is best and most be auti ful in all styles . The story o f the house really ends with the peri od o f the rena issance . Since the sixteenth century noth ing really new i n a rchitecture has b een dis covered and men have been wedded t o no particula r

' e style . When w want to bu ild a house we choose 1 6 5 STO R IES OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS

r Our story o f the house , howeve , will not be comp lete

without a bri e f account o f what h as been called ele v a l or architecture . The h igh price o f land in large

C o i 1 ( r h . 1 : p y g 9 1 1 b Un d er wo od 8 Un d e r w o o d , N . Y . )

. 1 6 . E O U FIG LEVAT R ARCHITECT RE .

Th - e w e k e s e th to r li tructur i n e di s tanc e is a building mor e than s es e forty tori in h ight .

an elevator , or li ft , and i f an elevator is to be p u t in , the building m ight as well b e run up nine or ten stori es . American business men le arned this thirty 1 6 6 .

THE CA R RIAGE

E ar e very proud in ou r day o f ou r means o f

transp ortation . I f one wishes t o send a present to a fri end a thousand miles away a few cents spent in p ostage will take the article to its

f or o destination . I f the sake f higher prices a fruit i t o grower W shes sell his crops in a distant city , the railroa d p eople will haul it f o r him at a very small

ou cost . I f y wish to visit a fri end in town several blocks away , there is the electric car ready to take

o i y u for a nickel . I f you r fri end s several hundred

ou miles away , th e steam car will take y in a few hours at a cost o f n ot m ore than tw o o r three cents a mile . I am living i n the country sixteen miles from the city in which my work lies , and for nine cents I am carried t o the place o f my business in less

- a n - O f than hal f hour . What has b een the history the inventions wh ich make transportation s o c om f o rt a ble ? , rapi d and cheap Our subj ect divi des tw o itsel f into parts , transportati on on land and transportati on on w ater or the story o f the Carriage

he and the story o f t B oat . We will have the story o f the carri age first . ’ M an s only carriage at first w a s o f course his own

o t o o f eet . When he wanted to g any place he h ad t

1 6 8 THE CA R RIAGE

’ f take Walker s h ack , i f a play ul expression may

. f m a n be pardoned As a traveler on oot , soon sur

passed all other animals . He could walk down the

deer and wear ou t the horse . When it came to

th e carrying things from place to place , i n begin

o n ning he ha d to rely upon h is w limbs and muscles .

a s I t w not long , however , be fore he learned that there were good ways and ba d ways o f ca rrying

s et things , and he soon ab out finding

the best way . We may believe that he began by making a snug bundle i and carry ing i t on h s shoulder . Then h e found that he could carry a heavier burden upon h is back , and he invented a pack o r frame on which he could carry things on his back

1 o ( Fig . ) a fter the m anner f one of our modern pack

peddlers . In the course o f time man tamed one or more o f th e wild beasts which roamed near h im . Then the burden was shi fted from th e back o f a man to the back

o f a beast . The first beast o f burden in 1 R South America was FIG . . A HUMAN BU DEN BEARER . ( From a Mod e l in Nat ional M u i i i the llama ; n Ind a t s cum . ) 1 69 STO R IES OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS

was the elephant ; in Arab ia it was the camel

( Fig . In Europe and in parts of Asi a and in Egypt the horse first b ecame man ’s burden b earer and the nations wh ich h ad the services O f this swi ft and strong animal outstripped the 0 t h e r nations o f the “ world . Wh ich is the F I 7 H G. OF T E A SHIP DESERT . most use ful o f ani

? o ne o m als asked Egypti an god f another . The

w a s horse , the reply , because the horse enables a ” t o man overtake and Slay his enemy . It is o ften easier to dra g a thing along than it is

to carry it . This fact led to the invention o f wha t we m ay call the first and simp lest form of carriage .

— A FIG . 3 . CART WITHOUT WHEELS .

F om e th e s e ( r a Mod l in National Mu um . ) 1 7 0

STO RIES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS as 1 8 6 0 in some o f the southern States hogsheads o f tob acco ( Fi g . 6 ) were rolled over country roads in the manner j ust described and as late as 1 8 8 0 the

' fishermen o f Nantucket used as a fish cart a vehicle

. . 6 FIG 5 THE FIRST CART . FIG . . HAULING TOBACCO .

e ( From a Mod l in National Mu s eum . )

e f o r . that h a d only a ba rr l its wheel ( Fig . The common wheel - barrow and the one - wheeled carts whi ch a re still used in China and Japan h ad thei r origin in the rolling log .

— . A . FIG 7 . NANTUCKET FISH CART

( From a Mod e l i n th e National Mu s eum . )

We are told by some writers that the rolling log ( the one - wheeled cart ) w a s followed by the tw o on o f wh eeled cart , which the wheels were the ends a log and th e axle w a s the middle portion o f the log 1 7 2 T HE CAR R IAGE hewn down to a proper si ze ( Fig . Here wheels and axle turned together precisely like a modern car wheel . This m a k e s a very pretty story but I am a fra i d — 8 . A FIG . CART WITH WHEELS the soli d two - wheeled AND AXLE IN ONE PIECE . aff a ir represented in 8 Figure is only imaginary , and that in a true account o f the development o f th e cart it has

- no place . The true beginning o f the two wheeled ca rt may b e lea rned from Figure 9 . Here the wheels a re two v ery s h or t logs through the center of which a re holes i n wh ich the round ends ( axles ) o - f a pi ece o f timb er ( the axle tree ) fit . When the cart moves , the wheels turn upon the axle . The one

FI . G 9 . CART WITH A SOLID WHEEL .

I 7 3 STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS wheeled cart ha d at first o ne log turning w i t h the

axle ; the two - wheeled cart at first h a d as it s wheels

o n two very short logs turning the axles . The first two - wheeled carts were a great improve

lo ment upon the s ingle rolling g , yet they were ex

c eedingly heavy and clumsy . The trouble was with

the wheel . This was very thick and with th e ex c ep tion o f the hole in w hich the axle went it w a s

1 FIG . 0 . CART WITH WHEEL PARTLY SOLID . e h ( From a Mod l i n t e National Mu s eum . )

enti rely solid . Wheelwrights at a very early date s a w that the problem was to m ake the wheel light

and at the s am e time to keep it strong . Little by lit

tle this problem w as solved . At first crescent

shaped holes were made in the wheel ( Fig .

This made the wheel lighter , but di d not weaken it . In it s next form the wheel w a s even less solid than 1 7 4

STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTI ONS

o f o r pi eces the felly inner rim . Around the felly i s the outer rim o r ti re made o f wood and fastened

ee ~ felly with thongs . The wh l o f tod ay ha s

1 FIG . 3 . WONDERFUL ONE HOSS SHA Y . s e ( From National Mu um . )

m ore iron in it , and has more spokes and is lighter and stronger than the old Egypti an wheel , yet in its m a in features it is ma de like it

A light running two - wheeled carri age was used by all the civili zed n ations o f the anci ent world . Three thousand years a g o in the great and wicked city o f Nineveh chari ots raced up and down the paved streets “ j ostling against one another in the

o f broad ways , with the crack the whip , the r attle of ” the wheel and the prancing o f hors es . The chariot played an imp ortant part in the li fe o f the

Greeks and R om ans , in their racing contests and in 1 7 6 THE CA R R IAGE

their wa rs , and throughout the M iddle Ages it was the only vehicle in general use in Europe . As time passed i t was o f course m ade lighter and stronger ’ s o and better . The doctor s gi g charmingly de “ s cribed by H olmes in his Wonderful One Hoss Shay m ay b e taken a s an illustration o f the full

- development o f the two wheeled carri age ( Fi g . B ring the hind part o f o ne E gyptian chariot op

T 1 . FIG . 4 . A N ANCIENT ROMAN CHARIO

os it e o f p to the hind pa rt another , l ash the two

o f One o f chariots together , remove th e tongu e the cha ri ots and y ou have m a de a chari ot o f fou r wheels o o r a c o a c h . The form f the most ancient of four wheeled carri ages leads t o the beli e f that the coach was first m ade by j oining together two tw o - wheeled chari ots in the way j ust describ ed . The ancient Egyptians ha d thei r fou r - wheeled ch a ri ots but only their gods and thei r kings had the privilege o f riding I 7 7 STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

F o r in them . centuries none but the great and the powerful rode in coaches . The Rom an chari ot ( Fi g . bad imitations o f which we see nowadays in

ci rcus processions , w as used only in the , splendid triumpha l processions wh ich entered R ome a fter a

e great victory . In the Middl e Ages w get a glimpse

- o f a fou r wheeled carriage now and then , but usually the king or a queen is lounging in i t ( Fi g .

- H F I G. I A OF T E . S. COACH MIDDLE AGES

The coach could not be , generally use d in Europe in medieval times because the roads were so bad . The excellent roads m ade by the Romans ha d not been kept in good condition . Traveling ha d to be done either on horseb ack o r in the tw o - wh eeled car ’ 1 0 th er e er e r ia ge . In 5 5 w but three coaches in

s w a s . 1 6 Pari and in London there but one In 5 4 , however , we find Q ueen Eli zabeth riding in a coach

1 6 w a s ee ( Fig . ) on her y to her lover , Lord

Leicester . Insert more spokes and lighter ones in 1 7 8

THE CA R R IAGE

C o ntinu e d

N the last chapter the story o f the C arriage was brought up to the reign o f Q ueen Eli zabeth o f ’ England . In the century following Eli zabeth s reign a new and most rema rkable step in the develop

o ment f th e carriage was taken . You rememb er that in the seventeenth c entury there was a great deal o f experimenting with stea m ( p . 5 8 ) Among other

one experiments w a s made by Si r I saac Newton . This great philos opher tri ed in 1 6 8 0 to m ake a

- o r lo steam carri age ,

c o m o tiv e , as we call it . Figure 1 Shows the prin c ip le upon w h i c h he tried to make h is car

r ia e g work . Th e steam was t o react aga inst the ’ 1 FIG . . NEWTON S STEAM CAR a s B 1 680 a ir , in the case o f IAGE , . ’ Hero s engine ( p . 5 6 ) ’ ex er i and thus push the carriage along . Newton s p ment was not satis factory but the idea o f a steam - ca r ’ ria g e was now in men s heads and the hope o f m aking

e t 6 Cu not on o . 1 continued be cherished In 7 9 g , a

1 8 0 THE CA R R IAGE

ffi - o f French a rmy o cer , invented a steam ca rriage

2 r o ne . three wheels ( Fi g . ) but it was a ve y poor

’ It traveled only three o r four m iles an hour , i t could carry but three persons , and it ha d

C no t . u to stop every ten m inutes to get up ste am g ,

t o in however , deserves be ranked among the great ventors f o r he showed that a steam - engine could be

’ 2 U N OT M 1 6 . C G S . FIG . STEA CARRIAGE , 7 9

attached t o a carri age and could push it along . In other words he showed that steam could be used for transportati on as well a s f o r working pumps and turning the wheels o f factori es . And that was j ust what w a s needed most in the latter p art o f the eight eenth century . M an needed assistance in traveling ; he especi ally needed help in carrying things from

1 8 1 STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS place t o place The steam - engine was keeping the mines dry and making it possible to m ine great quantities o f coal and was turning the wheels of grea t factori es where the spinning - j enny and the n e 1 1 w power loom ( p . 9 ) were consuming enor mous quantities of cotton and wool . Now i f the steam - engine could als o be made to carry the coa l a nd t o cotton and wool the factory , and th e man u f a c t u r ed t o p roducts from the factory the market , the industri al revoluti on would be complete ln deed . Inventors everywhere put thei r wits together t o construct an engine that would draw a load . The

on e great Watt tried to m ake , but having failed , he came to the conclusion that the steam - engine could do good work only when standing still . Among

‘ those who entered the contest w a s Richard Trevi 1 1 thick , a C ornish m iner , born in 7 7 . Trevithick when a la d a t school w a s able t o work s ix exampl es

ne in arithmeti c while his teacher worked o . He proved to be as qu ick in mechanics as he w a s in mathematics . H e began his experiments with

e b o 1 6 steam when a mer y , and as early as 7 9 h e ha d bu ilt a steam - locomotive which would run on

1 8 0 1 - a table . By he had constructed a steam car r ia e 1 0 g ( Fig . Three years later ( 8 4 ) Trevi thick exhibited a locomotive wh ich carried ten tons o f i ron , seventy men , and five wagons a distance o f nine and one - hal f m iles at the rate o f five m iles an

a hour . Thi s w s the first steam carri age that

1 8 2

STO R IES OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS

e n ot h ca rrying loads , yet men wer satisfied wit it . We never a re s atisfied with ou r means o f transpor

’

. . 1 8 8 2 . FIG 3 STEVENSON S LOCOMOTIVE ,

a ion t t . N o matter h ow com fortably o r cheaply or

e fast we m ay travel w always want something bette r .

F I G. . T H E T H E B T FOR 4 BEST FRIEND . FIRST LOCOMOTIVE UIL

ACTUAL SERVICE IN T H E U NITED STATES .

In the latter part o f the nineteenth century the great

o - citie s f the world were b ecoming over crowded . 1 8 4 THE CA R R IAGE

The people could n o t b e carried from o ne part of a

city to another without great discom fort . Th e street cars drawn by h orses could not carry the c r o w d s and t h e elevated s t e a m c a r s were no t satis

factory . Wits w e r e s e t t o work to relieve FIG . 5 . A TROLLEY CAR . t h e situation

e ec tr c a r and about thirty years ago the l ic ( Fig . 5 )

was invented . Without horse or locomotive this quick - moving car not only success fully handles the crowds wh ich move about the city but it also relieves over - crowding by enabling t housands t o reach o conveniently and cheaply thei r suburban h mes . It also does the work o f the steam ca r and carri es p a s s eng ers long distance s

o from city t city . A late development in ca rriage making i s

seen in the automobile . As far back a s the s ix t eenth century a horse — A A 6 . FIG . HORSELESS C RRIAGE OF less carriage was invent T H E \ SIXTEENTH CENTUR . ed ( Fi g . 6 ) and ‘V a s o n o f operated th e streets a German city . But

here the p ower was furnished by hum an muscle . T he firs t r eal automobile ( Fig . 7 ) was invented in 1 8 5 STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

1 8 0 1 h o , by the man w invented the first successful ’ — locomotive . Trevithick s road locomotive for that i s wha t an automobile really is di d n ot work well because the roads upon which he tried it were

in very ba d conditi on . Inventors a fter Trevithick for a long time p aid but little attention to the roa d loco motive ; they bestowed their bes t thought upo n

F I G T H E . . 7 . FIRST AUTOMOBILE — the locomotive that w a s to b e run upon rails the ra ilroa d locomotive . I n recent years , however , they have been working on the s o - called automobile and they have already given us a horseless carri age that can run on a railless roa d at a rate as great as that

o T o f the fastest railroad locomotives . what ex tent is this newest O f carriages likely to be used ? I t 1 8 6

STO R IES OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS m achi ne s imila r to that shown in the right hand pic

‘ r es nier ture at the top o f Figure 9 . B worked hi s

F I G. 9 . SOME UNSUCCESSFUL FLYING MACHINES OF A HUNDRED

YEARS AGO .

wings with h is feet and hands . Once he j umped from a second story window and fl ew over the roo f o f a cottage . From the days o f Bres nier on to the present time man h as taxed his wits t o the utmost to conquer the air , and in his efforts to do this he h a s invented almost every conceivable kind o f ma ch ine . About the mi ddle o f the nineteenth century

1 8 8 THE CA R R IAG E

t o t o fl in - inventors began apply steam the y g machine , and it is sa i d that i n 1 8 4 2 a man named Ph ilips was

o f able , by the a id revolving fans driven by steam , to elevate a machine to a considerable distance and 1 8 6 two . fly across fields In 9 Pro fessor Langley ,

- - - l . with a flying machine driven by a smal steam engine , made three fl ights o f about three - fourths o f a mile each over the Potomac R iver , near Wash ington .

— - A F I G . A L OF D Y . . I O SUCCESSFUL F YING MACHINE TO

Th is was the first time a fl ying - ma chine was propelled a long distance by it s own power ; it was the first a eri a l automob ile . But the a eri al steam carriage was never a success ; the steam engine was t o o heavy . In the early years o f the twenti eth century inventors began to use th e light gasoline engine to drive thei r fl ying- machines and then real progress in the a rt o f

flying began , and so great has b een that progress that the automob iles o f the a ir a re becoming rivals of tho se on th e land . 1 8 9 THE B OAT

T first , when a man wanted to cross a deep

stream , he wa s compelled to swim across . But

his w a s man a t b est is a poor swimmer , and it not long be fore he invented a better method o f traveling

o n water . A log dri fting in a stream furnished the h i hint . By resting s body upon the log and plash ing with h is hands and feet h e found he could move

along faster and easier . Thus the log wa s the first

Ex e boat and the hum an a rm was the first oa r . p r ienc e soon taught ou r prim i tive boatman to get on

o f top th e log and paddle along , using the limb of a tree for a n o a r

( Fig . But the round log would turn with the least provocation and it s passenger su ffered m a n y u n c e r e m o

n io u s duckings . So

F I T H E the boatman made G . I . FIRST BOAT .

his log fl at on top .

no t o It now floated better and did turn over s easily .

Then the log was m ade hollow , either by burning

. o f ( Fig or by means a cutting instrument . Thu s I 90

STOR IE S O F USE FUL IN VENTI ONS

o the canoe was invented . Very often i f the nature f

o f the tree p ermitted it , the log was stripped its bark ,

a s a and this bark w used s a canoe . one o f Th e canoe wa s o f the e arliest boats , but

no it is t in line with the l ater growth . The ancestry o f the modern b oat begins with the log and is traced through th e ra ft rather than through the canoe . By lashing together several logs it was found that larger burdens could b e carried . Therefore the b oat — o f a single log grew into one o f several logs a

t o ra ft ( Fig . By the time m an had learned make a ra ft he ha d learned something else : he ha d learned to r ow h is boat along by pulling at an o a r instea d o f pushing it along with a

paddle . But in order to row there must b e some thing aga inst which the oa r may rest ; s o the oar

wa s lock ( Fig . 4 ) invent

ed . R a fts were used by nearly all the nations o f

— antiqu ity . Herodotus , the . A FIG 4 . PRIMITIVE OAR u s father o f history , tells LOCK . that they were in u s e i n C anci ent haldea . In Figure 3 we have a kind o f ra ft that m ay still be seen on some of the rivers of

South America . Here a most important step in

- boat building has been taken . A s a il has b een hoisted and one o f the forces o f nature h a s b een b i d t o den assist m an in moving his boat along . 1 9 2 THE BOAT

The ra ft was bound t o develop into the la rge

lo boat . The central g wa s used as a keel and abou t

o f this was bu ilt a boat the desi red shape and si ze .

Stout timbers , called ribs , slanted from the keel , and o n the ribs were fastened planks running length

o Wise with the vessel . To keep u t the water the seams

fi o r between the planks were lled with p itch wax .

F RE W - . C IG . 5 THUS THE RAFT INTO A LARGE , SPOON SHAPED ’ VE S S EL fi

Thus the ra ft grew into a large spoon - shaped ves

sel ( Fi g . The early boat was usu ally propelled

by oars , although a single sail sometimes invoked

the assistance o f the wind . It ha d no rudde r and

w a s w a s no deck , and i f there an anchor it only a

heavy stone . I n the early history o f the boat there w a s no such

thing as a rudder . The oarsman ha d to steer h is ‘3 1 93 STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

i

‘ o f cra ft as b est he could . With the appearance

V . la rger boats , however , a steersm an comes into iew He steers by means o f a p a ddle held over the stern o f the boat . Within h istori c times , probably ab out th e time o f Homer ( 1 1 00

B . the rudder app ears a s an oar with a bro a d blade protruding through a h ole in the side o f the b oat well

to th e stern ( Fig . Throughout the w h o l e p eriod o f ancient history boats were steered by rud

ders o f this kind .

- I I 6 . POS T ON FIG . THE OF Th e anch or came later T F UDDER IN ANCIENT frfi ES than th e rudder . O f course even in primitive times there were methods o f securing the vessel to the

ground under water but they were very crude . Some

o f a s times a sack sand was used an anchor , some times a lo g o f wood covered with lea d wa s thrown overboard to hold the boat ’ in its place . In Homer s time the anchor wa s a b ent

rod with a single fluke .

. S . G 7 . N O 6 0 0 FI ANCIENT A CH R . . Ana c h a rs is About B C ,

on e o f o f the seven wise men Greece , gave a p racti c al turn to his wisdom and invented an a n

t a r e chor wi h two fl kes ( Fi g . The invention 1 94

STO R IES O F USE FUL IN VENTIONS

Occasi onally a sail w a s hoisted when the wind was ’ favorable but the main reliance w a s the rower s a rm . M en had not yet learned to u s e the sa il to the b est a dvantage Th e older galleys ha d one r ow of oars men ( Fi g . but as the struggle for the mastery o f the s ea b ecame keener the b oats were ma de larger and more rowers wer e necessa ry . G alleys with two and three , and even four rows o f oarsmen were built

a s by the Roman n avy . Wh en there w more than one r ow of oars the rowers s a t on benches one above another . The oarsmen were slaves or pris

w a s oners captured in war , and their li fe most 1 on wretched . They were cha ined to the b enches

s a t a s which they , and were compelled to row long as

o f a spark li fe w as le ft . Sometimes they dipped their

o f o ' oars to the musi c the flute , but m re o ften it

was to th e crack o f the lash . Figure 9 shows us how the Roman galley looked when Rom e w a s at the 1 height o f her p ower ( 0 0 A . Here is a vessel ab out 4 0 0 feet long and ab out 5 0 feet across its

d ec k o f w a s , a part the boat , by the by , which not

to be seen in the earlier galleys . The boat is a tri

f o r o f reme , that is , it has openings three ti ers oars ,

and i t is propelled by several hundred oarsm en . For

on steering purposes it has four stout p addles , two

T o o o ne e ach side nea r the stern . w masts instea d f

i o f carry the sa il which , consider ng the si ze the boat ,

fi o would seem to be insuf cient . Th is galley f the firs t

1 A spirited a cc o un t o f li f e o n a Ro ma n galley i s f o und i n VVa l ’ ” B en H u r lac e s . 1 96 THE BOAT century o f o u r era represents the full development o f the boa t in ancient times .

o f D . A fter the down fall Rome ( 4 7 6 A . ) i t was a long tim e be fore there w a s any real progress i n boat

e n o m aking . The glimpses w get w and then o f ves

— 7 F I “ 1 T H O F . G . A . 9 ROMAN CALLEY THREE BANKS OARS sels in the M iddle Ages almost m ake u s feel that boat - building w a s going b ackward rathe r than for

a s . ward . But such w not the case The ship i n

I O which William o f Norm andy sailed ( Fi g . ) when he crossed over the Channel to give b attle to Harold

1 0 n o t ( 6 6 A . D . ) was so impressive as a Roman I n galley , yet i t was , nevertheless , a bette r boat . the ’ first place William s boa t w a s a better s a iler ; it relied more upon the force o f the wind and less upon the oa r . In the second place , i t could be steered better , f o r the rudder ha d found its way to its proper place and was worked by a tiller . Finally , the shape o f I 97 STOR IE S O F U SE FUL IN VENTIONS

F I W . o I N IG . THE SHIP HI C H WILLIAM THE CON UEROR 1 066 Q CROSSED THE CHANNEL IN . the Norman boat fitted i t for fier c er b attles with the waves . I f we should p a S S ’ f r om the English Channel to the Adri atic we should find that boat - mak ing had undergone

the same ch anges . A M editerranean galley o f the four t eenth c e n t u r y

I ( Fi g . I ) shows FIG . I I . A MEDI TERRANEAN GALLEY OF T f e W THE I 4TH CEN URY . e r oars and 1 9 8

STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

C no t in this , as in many other instances , the hinese di d profit by their knowledge . Sailors h ave always sa iled at night by the North star ; but be fore the use o f the comp ass was understood they could little more than guess thei r w ay when the night w a s dark and the stars ’ could not b e s een . With a m ariner s needle on b oard they can tell the direction they are going no m atter

how dark the night . We can easily understand that sa ilors pri z ed very highly the discovery o f the com

o f pass . With the appearance this fa ithful guide they b ecame bolder and bolder and were soon ven

o o turing u t upon the trackless expanse f the ocean . It w a s the compass that led t o the discovery o f the

new world , for without i t no sailor could have held his course du e west long enough t o reach the Amer

ican coast . A fter m en h ad learned t o carry their burdens on

o f - the broa d back the ocean , b oat building took

o n o f new li fe . All the great nations Europ e wanted a share in the new world that ha d j ust been f ound ; but no nati on could hop e to profit greatly by the dis c ov ery o f Columbus i f its vessels were not swi ft and

r strong . So there arose a grim contest f o the mastery

o f a s the Atlantic , j ust in anci ent times there ha d been

f or o f a struggle the mastery the M editerranean .

Sp a in , France , Portugal , Holland and England all

ee o j oined in the battle . When we s the kind f b oats she sent ou t up on the oce ans we are not surprised that

on C w . o f England ompare the heavy , angular galley the first century with the grace ful ship o f the sixteenth 2 00 THE BOAT century and we s ee at once the progress the boat ma de in the M i ddle Ages ( Fig .

lo - The g , the ra ft , the galley , the sailing ship , these were the steps i n the development o f the boa t up to the end o f the seventeenth century . In the eight ee a s Yo u r e nth century another step w taken . member that in that century inventors were every where trying to make a steam ca rriage . They were

F I G. I T H E . 4 . GREAT HARRY

at the same time trying to make a stea m b oa t . Their efforts to use steam to drive boats were rewarded with success earlier than were their efforts t o use i t to draw

- carri ages . Thi s was to be expected . B oat build ing h a s always moved along faster than carriage

- c a building . M en were gli ding ab out in well built

noes b e fore they ha d even the cl u msiest o f ca rts . The L ondoners wh o ga zed with admirati on upon the

2 0 1 STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

Gr ea t H a rr y a s it sailed on the Thames , ha d never

s o seen a s much as a lumb ering coach . And with the steamboat ; it had crossed the Atlantic be fore the locomotive could carry p assengers from one town to the next .

France , England , Germany and America were all eager to have the first steamboat . In this race

w on America , although France and England came out 1 with thei r colors flying . As far back as 6 63 the

o f M arquis o f Worcester , whom we have heard be fore ( p . described a vessel that could be “ ” ° r ow eth m oved by steam It , h e s a id , it draw L eth , it driveth ( i f needs be ) to pass ondon bridge

S lo a s on e w . w aga inst the tream at water It thing , however , to describe a steamboat , and quite another ’ - thing to make one . Worcester s steam vessel existed only in the imagination o f the inventor . D enys

s o f or - Pap in , who di d much the steam engine , fitted out a boat with revolving pa ddles wh ich were turned

a s . by horses . This w nothing new The ancient Roman galley was sometimes propelled by paddle

is wheels turned by horses o r oxen . I t sometimes claimed th at Papin turne d the paddle - wheels o f

o f his boat by means steam , but there are no grounds for the claim . I f France w ants the honor o f having ma de the first steamboa t s h e would do better to turn from Papin and look to M arquis o f Jou ff roy o f

L . yons This nobleman , i t is claimed , built a steam

1 on boat ( Fig . 5 ) wh ich made a success ful trip the 1 8 river Soane , in the year 7 3 , be fore a multitude of 2 0 2

STO R IES O F USE FUL IN VENTIONS

Soon s th a rm Un o n d St m hall y , c q ue re ea , afa r

D t he s ow b a n d d w t h e d ra g l ar ge ra rapi car ,

O r on w d w v n w n s x n d d b i e , a i g i g , e pa e ear

T h e fl n C ot o th e fi d s o f y i g hari th r u gh el ai r .

For the most part the prophesy has been fulfilled although the steam flying - machine is not y et an a c

h o complished fact . Among those w h elped to make

o f w a s o f good the words the poet James Rumsey ,

. 1 8 6 Sh epp ardtown , Virginia Rumsey in 7 p ropelled ,

on by means o f steam , a b oat the Potoma c River

o f moving at the rate five miles an hour . I t is almost certain that this w a s the first b o at ever drawn by ? steam . How di d Rumsey drive his b oat A piston

w a s r - in a cylinder wo ked by a steam engine . When the piston w a s ra ised it brought water in and when it was push ed down i t forced the water out b ehind and

o o the reaction f the j et pushed the b at along . A remarkable revival o f a very ancient idea ! Just as

Hero turned h is glob e by reaction , j ust as Newton

n s o pushed the first steam carriage along by reactio ,

Rumsey pushed the first steamboat along by reaction . I f you will look on a m ap o f th e United States and observe the vast network o f waterw ays which come to the different p arts of the country y ou will under stand h ow important a subj ect steam navigation must have been to the people o f America in the latter p art

o a s f the eighteenth century . Here w a tract o f land

conta ining m illions upon millions o f fertile acres , but l it acked good roads , and without roads it could not

2 04 THE BOAT

be developed . It was , however , traversed by thou sands o f miles o f excellent water - roads and it w a s pla in th at i f steamboats could be put upon these riv ers the ga in would b e incalculable . The m ost press

o f w a s . ing need the time , there fore , a steamboat

No o ne s a w this more clea rly than John Fitch . Thi s talented but eccentric man served his country i n the

Revolution , and a fter the wa r was over roamed hither an d thither f or several yea rs a s a soldi er o f

1 8 t o h fortune . About 7 5 he went Ph iladelphi a wit

or a plan f a steamboat . H e organi zed a com p any , and secured enough money to enable him to

h is a carry out plans . His bo t was rea dy by August , 1 8 7 7 , and he made his tri al trip in Philadelphi a when

C C l\'I a n the onstitutional onvention was in session . y o f the members o f tha t distinguished body went down

e to the river to s e how the new inventi on worked . It

em worked fairly well , but di d not arouse much

hu ia sm I s a s t s . t speed w only three or four miles

an hour and its movement w a s exceedingly awkwa rd .

o f o n e en It was pushed along by two sets oa rs , set

tering into the water as the other came out . The steam rowboat o f 1 7 8 7 proved at least to be a fa il

a s ure , and w ab andoned a s worthless . Fitch a fter ward built another steamboat , but it als o m et with

o accident and came t naught . Heartbroken by h is m any fa ilures the poor fellow at last ended h is li fe

f o r own . with h is hand He deserved a better fate , his experiments taught the world a great deal about s the teamboat . 2 0 5 STO R IE S O F USE FUL IN VENTIONS

While Rumsey and Fitch were m aking their boat s in America , Eu ropean inventors were not i dle . On th e contrary they were s o very active that they a l most won the honor o f making the first successful boat . One of these , William Symington , an E nglish

a man , built boat that may , with much j ustice , b e called the first practical steamboat that was ever

r D Ch a lo t te u nd a s . launched . This was the ( Fi g 1 6 ) wh ich made its

Clyde an d F i r t h C 2 anal in 1 8 0 . On the Ch a r lo tte was a p a ddle- wh eel i n ’ stea d o f Fitch s two 1 6 T H E ( j RL OTTE . . U , FIG D NDAS o f I gog sets pa ddles . The wheel w a s placed at the rear o f the boat and was drawn by means o f a crank wh ich w a s turned by a ro d attached

- r o his o - d . c to the piston Watt and workers , a few

h ow - years be fore , ha d shown the steam engine could b e made to turn a wheel and Symington in the con

o f struction his boat put this principle to good use . Th e Ch a r lo tte di d so well that the Duke o f Bridge water ordered eight m ore b oats like her t o be built

o for use n the canal . Symington wa s elated f or he

thought he ha d at last made a success ful steamb oat ,

t o its that is , a steamboat that woul d give owner a profit ; but he was doomed t o disappointment for the owners of the canal refused to allow steamb oats t o be

2 0 6

STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS ton ’s day who di d not believe the wh eels ought to

o o L n f . b e the si des the boat ook at waterfowl , they sa i d , look a t the grace ful swan ; its feet do not

ou t . work at its s ides , hal f under the water and half Every anima l th at swims prop els itsel f from behind and its propellers are entirely under the water . So ,

- thought these engineers , the paddle wh eel o f a b oat

c ov should b e placed b ehind , and should b e entirely ered by the water . John Stevens , an engineer o f

1 8 0 a c Hoboken , New Jersey , in 5 built a steamboat

. 1 S S 8 . FIG . THE BOAT OF TEVEN

t o 1 cording this notion ( Fig . 8 ) A close inspection o f the wheel o f the b oa t would show that it is sp iral ’ o r - screw like in sh ap e . Stevens b oat made a trial trip on th e Hudson and worked well ; but a fter Ful ton ’s grea t success the little steamer with its sp iral shape d wheel in the rear wa s soon forgotten . The

- i dea o f a screw propeller , however , was not lost .

en It was taken up by John Ericsson , a Swedish

ineer Wh o 1 8 g , , in 3 9 , built , in an English ship yard for an American capta in , the first screw

2 0 8 THE B OAT

2 09 STO R IES O F USE FUL IN VENTIONS — propeller that crossed the Atlantic the Rob er t

t o c t o n S k . F . Thi s wa s the la st step in the de

elo en o 1 v p m t f the boat . Since 8 3 9 there has been

- marvelous progress in ship bu ilding , but the progress h a s consisted in improving upon the inventi on of E r

c s on is rather than in making new discoveries . With th e screw - prop eller in its present form we may close our story o f the boat . The homely log propelled by ru de paddles has become the magnificent floating p al ace .

2 1 0

STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

been in the water long enough ? A man ou t hunting wished to get b ack to his family b efore dark : how ? was he to tell when it wa s time t o start homeward

o f o f Pla inly , the measurement small portions time was a very practical problem from the b e

ginning . The first attempt to solve the problem n consisted in observing sha dows cast by the s u . The changing sha dow o f the human form w a s doubtless

ob the first clock . As the sha dow grew shorter the server knew that noon was approaching ; when he could re ach out one foot and step on the shadow o f his hea d he knew it was time for dinner ; when his sha dow b egan t o lengthen he knew that evening w a s

coming on . Observations o f this kind led to the s h a d ow c loc k or s u n- dia l

“ 1 ( Fig . ) You can make

on e f o r yoursel f . On a per f ec tly level sur face exposed

— “ F I G I A PRIMITIVE S U N all day to the sun , place in DIAL .

an upright position ( Fig . I ) a stick about three feet long , and trace on the surface the shadows as they appear at different o f times the d ay . A little stu dy will enable y o u to

- use the sha dows for telling the ti me . Sun di als have been used from the b egi nn i ng o f time and they have

ou o f not yet passed t use . They m ay still be s een in 2 1 2 TH E C LO C K

a few publi c places ( Fig . but they a re retained rather a s curiosities than as real timekeepers . For the sun - dial is not a good timekeeper for three rea sons : ( 1 ) it will not tell the time at night ; ( 2 ) i t fails in the daytime when the sun is n o t shining ; ( 3 ) i t can never b e used insi de o f a house . The sun - di al can hardly b e called a n invention ;

i t is rather an observation . There were , however , inventions for m ea s u r ing time in the earli est ’ period o f m an s h istory . Among the oldest o f

fir e- these was the clock , which measured time by the burning away o f a

stick o r a candle . The Pacific i slanders still use

o a clock f this kind . - - I A U N . F 2 . S G. MODERN DIAL On the mi drib o f the long palm - lea f they skewer a number o f the oily

- - nuts o f the candle nut tree and light the upper one .

o ff o n e As the nuts burn , a fter another , they ma rk

o o is the passage f equ al portions f time . Here a clock that can be used at night as well as i n the day

in ou t o f . . time , the house as well as doors M r Walter Hough tells us tha t Chinese messengers wh o have but a short peri od t o sleep place a lighted pi ece o f j oss - stick between thei r toes when they go t o bed . The burning stick serves both as a timepi ece

- and as an alarm clock . 2 1 3 STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

Fi re - clocks o f one kind o r another have b een used among primitive people in nearly all parts o f the glob e , and their use has continued far into civilized times . Al fred the G reat ( 90 0 A . D . ) i s sa id to h ave “ measured time in th e following way : He pro cured as much w ax as weighed seventy - tw o penny

t o s ix wei ghts , which he commanded b e m ade into candles , e ach twelve inches in length with the divi

o f sions inches distinctly marked upon it . Thes e

on e being lighte d a fter another , regularly burnt four h ours each , at the rate of an inch for every twenty

s ix - m inutes . Thus the candles lasted twenty fou r ” 1 hours . ’ We a ll rememb er Irving s account of time - measure ment in e arly New York : The first settlers di d not regulate thei r time by hours , but p ipes , in the s am e m anner a s they measure distance in H olland at this very time ; an admirably exact measurement , as the pip e in th e mouth o f a true - b orn Dutchman is never liable to those accidents and irregularities that are

ou t o f . continually putting our clocks order This ,

n o t o f o f course , is seri ous , yet it is an account a kind

- t o - o f fir e clock th at has been widely used . Even day the Korean s reckon time by the number o f p ipes smoked . I f we could step on board a M alay proa we should s ee fl oating in a bucket o f water a cocoanut shell having a sm all perforation through wh ich the water by slow degrees finds its way into the interior . This

1 f o k W s Wo o C o e o C . d , uri siti s l c s and atche 2 1 4

STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

while did not rise a s fast as it ought to . A fter centuries o f experience with the tw o - vessel arrange

w a s . ment , a third vessel brought upon the scene

w a s now This placed above the upper vessel , which became th e m i ddle vessel . As fast as w ater fl owed f r 0 m the middle vessel it w a s r ep la c ed by a stream fl ow i n g from the on e

above it . The depth o f th e water in the m iddle vessel di d

not change , and the water fl owed int o the lowest vessel at

a u n i f o r m rate . Finally a fourth ves s el w a s brought into u s e The Chinese water - clock shown

h a s in ( Fig . 4 ) been running in the city

- AT FIG . 4 . CHINESE WATER CLOCK o f Canton f o r near

CANTON ' ly six hundred years . 1 2 1 Every a fternoon at five , since 3 , the lowest j a r has been emptied into the uppermost one and the

o r clock thus wound up f another day . To follow the further development o f the wate r C clock we must pass from hina to Greece . In thei r early history the Greeks ha d nothing better than th e

2 1 6 THE CLO C K

- s u n dial with which t o me asure time . About the

middle o f the fi fth century B . C . there arose at Athens

a nee d for a better timepiece . In the public assembly the orators were

t o o consuming much time , and in the courts o f law the speeches o f

the lawyers were t o o long . It was

t o a common thing for a l awyer I F G. EARLY r ha rangue his au dience for seven o GREEK CLEPSYDRA .

T o ei ght hours . save the city from being talked to

- death a time check o f some kind b ecame necessa ry .

s u n - f o r s u n The dial would not answer , th e di d not

s o o f always sh ine , even in sunny G reece ; the i dea

- the water clock w a s borrowed . A certain amount o f wa s water placed in an amphora ( urn ) , in the bottom o f which was a small hole through which the

o a m water might slowly fl w ( Fi g . When the phora w a s empty the speaker ha d t o stop talking .

- c le s d ra Th e G reeks called the water clock a p y , which “ ” means the water steals away . The orator whose time was limited by a certa in amount o f water would keep his eye on the clepsydra , j ust as a speaker in our time keeps his eye on the clock , and i f he were inter

r u t ed t o p he would shout the attendant , You there ,

o r s a t o one stop the water , would y the who inter ” r u t ed o u . p h im , Remember , sir , y are i n my water The story goes that upon o ne occasion the speaker stopped every now and then to take a drink ; the ’ orator s speech , it seems , was as dry a s his thro at , and

: o f a bystander cried out Drink out the clepsydra , 2 1 7 STOR IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS and then y ou will give pleasure both to yourself and to your audience . At first the Greeks used a simple form of the clepsydra , but they gra dually a dopted the improve C ments made by the hinese , and finally added others . The great Plato is sa i d to have turned his attention to commonplace things long enough to invent a clep sydra that would announce th e h our by playing

the flute . However this may have

w a s u s e b een , there in in the

0 0 . C . Greek world , about 3 B , a clepsydra someth ing like the one

shown in Fig . 6 . This b egins to

look something like a clock . As the water drops into the cylinder E F G the fl oat rises and turns , which carries th e hour hand

o around . Inside f the funnel A F I G I I L CYED is a cone B which can b e ra ised CRSETCELE PS TBRA or D lowered by the b ar . In this

o f way the dropp ing the water is regulated . H Water runs to the funnel through , and when the funnel i s full the superfluous water runs o ff 1 through the p ipe , and thus the depth o f the water in the funnel rema ins the same and the

no pressure does t change . Notice that when the han d in th is o ld clock has indicated twelve hours

it begins to count over again , j ust a s it does on our

- clocks to day . How easily it would have been to

- a s have continue d the numbers on to twenty four ,

2 1 8

STO R I E S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

wa s worke d by water . The di al was composed of twelve sm all doors which represented the divisions o f the h ours ; each door opened at the hour it was

ou t o f intende d to represent , an d it came the same

o f one on e numb er little b alls , which fell , by at equal

o f on . distances time , a brass drum It m ight be told by the eye what hour it w a s by the number o f doors ' th at were open ; and by the

ear by the number o f b alls that fell . ’ When i t was twelve o clock , twelve horsemen in mini ature issued forth

a t the same time , and , marching

round the dial , shut all the doors . L ess wonderful than the clock o f the

ob emperor , but more useful as an

ect o f e c le s j stu dy , i s the medi val p y

dra shown in Figure 7 . This looks more than ever like the clock we are

ee accustomed to s . It h as weights A as well as wheels . As the fl oat rises with the water i t allows the

— ‘ ‘ F i - 7 - I E weight C to descend and turns the gAL CEEQS YSEE spindle B on the end o f which is the hand which marks the h ours . Notice care fully that this is p a rtly a water - clock and partly a wei h t - g clock . The weight in its descent turns the spindle ; the water regulates the rate at which the weight m ay descend . The water - clo c k j ust described led easily and di r ectl - C y to th e weight clock . lockmakers in the M i d

2 2 0 THE CLOC K dle Ages for centuri es tried with more o r less success to make clocks that would run by means of 1 0 weights . In 3 7 , Henry De Vick , a German succeeded in solving the problem . De Vick was brought t o Pa ris to make a clock f o r the tower o f ’ the king s p alace , and he made on e that has b e come famous . In a some what improved form it can still be seen in Paris in the Pala is de Justice . L et us remove the face o f this celebrated timep iece and take a look at its works ( Fig . It ha d a striking p art , and a timekeeping p art , each distinct from the other . The figure shows only the timekeeping part . The ’

D . 8 . E FIG . VICK S CLOCK THE o f 0 0 weight ( A ) , 5 1 0 FIRST WEIGHT CLOCK . ( 3 7 ) pounds , is wound up by a

- A P . crank ( the key ) at . O i s the hou r hand I f

s ee is allowed to descend , you can easily how the — whole system o f wheels will b e moved and that T . d [ very rapi dly But i f something oes not prevent ,

- will descend faster and faster , the hour hand will run

e faster and f a ster and the clock will run down at onc .

2 2 1 STO RIES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

I f the clock is to run at a u nif r om rate and for any

o f o f length time , the power the weight must escape

1 o f gradually . In th e clepsydr a ( Fi g . ) the descent the weight wa s controlled by the si ze o f the stream o f fl owing water . De Vick invented a substitute for

the stream o f fl owing water . Fasten your attention upon the workings o f the s a w - toothed wheel [I and

K on l the upright post , which moves the pivots and

le , and you m ay learn what he did . Fixed to the

o f K is or L L upper part the post a beam balance , at the ends of which are two small weights m and

m f direc , and proj ecting from the p ost in dif erent h tw o i . tions are p allets or lips and Now , as the

t o o f [1 on e o f p the wheel turns toward you , its teeth catches the p allet iand turns the post K a p art

o f t owa r d the way round you . Just as the tooth es c a p es from i a tooth at the bottom o f [1 ( moving from you ) catches the pallet h and checks the r e

r o 1 1 volving post and turns it f m you . Thus as

- - f r o t o K turns , it gives a to and moti on the post and ,

- - t o t o L L . consequently , a and fro motion the balance [1 i s called th e es c a p em e nt because the power o f the

es c es descending weight gra du ally a p from its teeth . — In the clepsydra the trickling o f w a ter regulated the ’ descent o f the weight ; in D e Vick s clock the trickling o f p ow er or f or c e from the escapement regulated the

descent o f the weight . The inventi on o f this escape

m ent is the greatest event in the history o f the clock . ’ The king w a s much pleased with De Vick s in

e io k v nt n . He gave the clockm a er three shillings a

2 2 2

STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

resembling small table clocks but by the end o f the sixteenth century small watches with works of b rass and c a s es o f gold or silver were

m anu factured ( Fig . The last important step in the development of the clock w a s taken when the p end u lu m was

o f brought into use . The history the pendulum will always include — A . FIG . I O . WATCH a story told by G alileo Thi s : 1 6T H o TTN TFJIIT great astron mer , the story runs , while worsh iping in the cathe

one dral at Pisa day , found the service dull , and began to observe the swinging o f the lamps which U Were susp ended from the ceiling . sing his puls e as a timekeeper he le a rned that where the cha in s were o f the same length the lamp swayed to and fro in

o f equal length time , whether they traveled through a short

o r ob space a long sp ace . This servati on set the philosopher t o experimenting with pendulums

o f f dif erent lengths . Among the many things he learned one o f the most important w a s th is a pendulum th irty - nine inches in length will make one vibration in

just one second o f time . Now , i f the pendulum could only b e F I S I G . I . GALILEO 1 6 0 kept swinging and its vibrations PENDULUM . ( 5 ) 2 2 4 THE CLO C K

counted it would serve as a clock . G alileo , o f course , saw this , and h e caus ed to be made a machine 1 I for keeping the pendulum in motion ( Fi g . ) , but he did n ot make a clock ; he di d not connect his pendulum with the works

h ow o f . a clock This ,

w a s ever , done about the middle o f the seventeenth century , although i t is somewh a t diffi cult to tell who was the first to do it .

’ The h onor is Claimed by F an Englishm an , a rench

a n . man , d a Dutchman

c lo ckm a k The truth is , ers throughout Europe were try ing at the same time t o make the b est of the discoveries o f Gali

o f leo , and several them about the same time con structed clocks with pen I w M d l F G“ F l ’N DU u u m s . one Th e who fifgsgi seems to have succeeded

w a s C first hristian Huygens , a Dutch astronomer , wh o 1 6 6 , in 5 , constructed a clock , the motions o f which were regulated by the swinging o f a

pendulum ( Fig . The weight was attach ed to a cord passing over a pulley and gave motion to ’ L all the wheels , as in De Vick s clock . ike De ’5 2 2 5 STOR IES OF USE FUL I NVENTIONS

’ ’ Vick s clock also Huygens s clock ha d its escapement ’ wh eel acting upon two p allets . In the Dutchman s

o f clock , however , the escap ement , instea d tu rning a balance b eam to and fro , acted upon th e p endulum , giving it enough motion to keep it from stopping . We need not carry ou r story further than the in

ention o f v Huygens . Timepieces are cheap er and b etter made and more a ccurate than they were two

no hundred years ago , but really important discovery a s h as been made since the p endulum w introduced .

2 2 6

STO R IE S OF USE FUL IN VENT IONS dition to record and preserve the th ought which they

. s a di d not wish to perish We m ay y , then , that the

1 . FIG . TRADITION .

A M D e o o th e L r f ural c rati n i n i b ra y o Co ngre s s .

first book w a s written on the tablet o f the hum an memory . The first step in th e growth o f the book w a s taken

m em or a id s when y were invented . Sometimes we tie a knot i n a h andkerchie f to help u s to remember

. w a s something Now , i t j ust by tying knots that primitive man first lent assistance to th e memory The first m ateria l b ook was doubtless a series o f k no ts u i u 2 o f w ell represented by the q p ( Fi g . ) the

- ancient Peruvians . Th is curious looking book was written ( tied ) by o ne known a s the o flic er o f the

o f knots . It contains an a ccount the strength o f the

Peruvian army , although it is con fessed that its exact meaning cannot be ma de out . It was not. intended to

2 2 8 TH E B OO K

one a s n o t o f be rea d by any who w a keepe r the knot s . B ooks m ade o f knots were used by nearly all the ancient peoples o f South America and by som e o f those o f Asi a . Akin to the knotted co rd is the no tc h ed s tic k , which is still used in Australi a by the savages to assist the memory o f one who h a s a mes

s o sage t o carry . Figure 3 hows a vari ety f such

- o n e— a message sticks . The lowest crooked b ranch — o f a tree contains an i nvitation to a dancing pa rt y .

The notches are rea d by the messenger . The notched stick as an a i d t o memory is not confined to sava ge races . M any a highly civili zed baker has

F I — G . . . F I G , TH E . 2 QUIPU 3 MESSAGE STICKS T H E PERUVIANS . kept h is accounts by making notches in sticks and so h as many a modern da iryman , as he has delivered milk from door to door .

- M emory a ids were followed by p ic tu r e wr iting . T o express thought by means o f pictu res is an in s tinct shared alike by the lowest savage an d the most enlightened people . All over the ea rth we find ex 2 2 9 STO R IE S O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

o f - amples early picture writing . A beloved chie f ha d died , a fierce battle ha d been fought , an exciting chas e ha d occurred : promptly the event was p ictured on o r on a stone the skin o f some animal . Pages might b e filled with illustrations o f these primitive

- p icture b ooks , but we must b e content with a single specimen

( Fig . Th is w a s found pa inted on a rock I n Ca lif o r nia ' We s elec ted this a s a

c a m in la c e b u t we h a t e e g b h i d a p g p , c ou nd no th in s a h u f g , y the I F . G. 4 PICTURE WRIT h i. man figu res f, g , , The ING . s a upturned p alms y pla inly ,

O ne o o u r c o r es . m a d d nothing , nothing f ( ) h a s d ied o s ta r va tion s a f , y the three lank figures

c e d ee l at pointing to thei r own lean b o dies . W p y ” m o u r n h is los s - a We , says the sorrow stri cken . ” h a v e one nor th w a r d g , says j, his distinguished a rm

o extended t th e north . Practice in p ictu re - m aking was bound to lea d to

o f a s shorter m ethods expressing ideas . I t w soon

ic tu r e-s i ns found that reduced p ictures , or p g , would

s u flic e . o f to express i deas Thus , i f the i dea sorrow was to be expressed it w a s not necessary t o draw an elaborate p ictu re o f a sorrow ful looking man like a in Figure 4 ; a weeping eye would express the idea

o f e j ust as well . Instea d numerous figures ( , f , g , h i “ ” , ) weeping and saying , noth ing here , a single p ai r o f emp t y palms would s a y the same thing j ust 2 3 0

STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

h e ti it p assed into th e a lp a b c stage . Since the alpha bet i s certainly the most wonderful and perhaps the E most use ful of all inventions , and since it is an gyp

is tian invention , i t well worth your wh ile to learn how the Egyptian p icture - signs hieroglyph ics they — are called grew into letters , but i f you wish to understand the change y ou will h ave to give the s u b

e ~ j c t very close attention .

Well , here was the Egypti an system of picture signs cons isting o f several thousand pictures of b irds ,

o f beasts , reptiles , insects , trees , flowers , and objects

N o almost every description . w suppose you were employed in writing E ng lis h by means o f several thousand picture - signs and i n the course o f an hour

ma n ma n would have to write the words age , sion ,

m a n m a n t o tle , date , m ight i t not occur you that it would b e a goo d th ing i f that s ound m a n could be

represented by th e p icture - sign for man

tr ea tr ea tr ea And i f you ha d to write cle , son , ty , might y ou not feel like beginning these words with a tree ( I At some tim e in the remote past Egyptian scribes — priests they usually were — no ticing that syllables i dentical in s ound were c on

s t a ntl f y recu rring in th e dif erent words , b egan to represent thes e s ylla ble-s o u nd s that occurred most 1 r - - s u b frequently by p ic tu e s ig ns . The picture s ign stituted for a syllable - sound was placed in the word

’ “ 1 D Th e illust rati o n i s tak en fr om Keary s awn of H ist o ry . 2 3 2 THE B OO K

id ea o not because i t stood for an , but because it st od

s o u nd v for a , j ust as in th e case supposed abo e you would use the or the I not because it r ep r e

sented a thought , but because it ha d a certa in sound . So certa in Egypti an picture - signs began t o b e used h to represent t e sound o f certa in syllables . The

- o r a s picture signs thus chosen were called p h nog m .

The phonogram led t o th e alphabet . The scribes in seeking a way to shorten thei r work found that the syllable its el f could be b roken up into sepa rate sounds . For example , when they came to the sylla ble whose sound is spelled by our th ree letters

a d p , they found th at it h a d thre e distinct sounds , namely : ( 1 one a lip s ound which could be r ep resented by the first sound o f th e p ictu r e sign

( a door ) ; ( 2 ) one an open - throat or v owel sound which could be represented by the fi rst sound o f the

picture - sign ( an eagle ) ( 3 ) o n e a dental

sound which could be represented by the first s ound

- in th e p icture sign Q ( a hand ) . So the scribes wr o te the syllable ( p - a - d ) with the three characters

t $ 52 1 . And so wi h all the other

sounds in the Egyptian l anguage ; each w a s r ep r e

n - s ented by o e of the picture signs already used . Sin ce there were only about twenty - fiv e dis tinct ele 2 33 STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

mentary sounds in the Egyptian language , twenty fiv e p icture - signs were su fficient to represent any sound or any word in th e langu age . These twenty fiv e picture - sounds were the letters o f the Egyptian

- fi alphab et . Twenty v e characters inste a d o f thou sands ! Now th e Egypti an youth could learn to

o ld read in three o r four years , wherea s under the

o r system it took fi fteen twenty years , j ust as it takes fi ftee n or twen ty years for th e Chinese youth to learn to re a d well .

Now that its origin h as been expla ined , the story o f the alphabet m ay b e rapi dly told . Indeed , its

o r wh le histo y can be learned from Figure 5 . In column ( a ) are the th ree Egyptian p icture - signs r e C ferre d to above . olumn ( b ) shows how the rapi d writing of the p ri ests reduced the old h ieroglyphics

t o i $ 1 scr pt , b ecame 5 3 became

niia ns and Fe ! b ecame 4 . The t c wh o were gre at travelers , vis ited E gypt at a very early

o f date and borrowed not only the i dea the alphabet , but also th e forms o f the Egyptian letters , as column c C o f shows . olumn d confirms the words Herod

wh o otus , tells us th at the Greeks borrowed thei r

C e alphabet from th e Ph oenici ans . olumn shows that the Greeks handed the alphabet on to the

Romans , who h anded it on to us . Thus the three

(I letters p , a , come stra ight from the Egypti ans and

d o o r ea le h a nd r e were ori ginally a , an g , and a , 2 3 4

STO RI ES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

to seek a substitute fo r stone . Th is they found in

a r us the p py plant , which grew in great luxu riance in the valley o f th e Nile . They placed side by si de

o f o f strips the p ith the papyrus , and across these at

6 A . N . FIG . ANCIENT VOLU ME

right angles they placed anoth er layer o f strips . The two layers were then glued together and pressed

a one until a smooth surface w s formed . This made

T o o f sheet . m ake a book a number sheets were fastened together end to end . When in b ook form 2 3 6 THE BOO K the papyru s was wound a round a stick and kept in

v o lu me the form o f a roll , a ( Fig . The roll

o r was usu ally eight ten inches wi de , but its length might be upward o f a hundred feet . Thi s papyrus

o f roll was the p a rent ou r modern paper book , as

is o f o u r the word papyrus the original word paper . The pen used in writing upon papyrus w a s a split

c a la m u s o f reed ( ) , and the ink a m ixture soot and gum .

I H F G. . T E H \ N 7 OLDEST BOOK IN T E VORLD . WRITTE NEARLY

YEARS AGO .

The most anci ent volume i n the world is an Egyp

no L ti an papyrus ( Fig . 7 ) w in the N ational ibra ry

f a s o France . I t w written nearly ye ars ago by an aged s age and contains precepts of right living . In this oldest o f volumes w e find th is priceless gem

o v I f thou a rt become great , i f a fter being in p erty thou hast am assed riches and art b ecome the

f o r first in the city , i f thou a rt known thy we alth and a r a no t t be come great lord , let thy heart become 2 3 7 STOR IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

f o r is wh o o f proud , it God is the author them for thee . In Assyria and i n other ancient countries of Centra l Asia letters were engraved on cylinders

o f and thes e were rolled upon slabs so ft clay , mak

o f ing an impression the ra ised letters , j ust as w e make an impression with the seal o f a ring . In the ru ins o f the citi es o f Assyria thes e old clay

r - n books m ay b e found by the ca t loa d . The Assyria

a n cylinder was really the first printing press . In cient G reece and Rome wooden tablets with in which w a s sprea d a thin layer o f wa x wer e used a s a writ

ing su rface in schools a nd in the business world . The writing on the wax w a s done with a s harp p ointe d instrument o f b one o r iron called the s tylus But next to papyrus the most important writing ma t eria l w a s a r c hm ent or o f anti quity p , the prepared skin o f young calve s and kids . The invention of parchment is sa i d to have b een due to th e litera ry

t wo o f ambiti ons o f kings , th e king Persi a and the

o f . king Egypt The king o f Pergamus ( 2 5 0 B C . ) wishing t o h ave the finest and largest library in the world w a s consum ing enorm ous qu antitie s o f p a

o f . wh o pyrus The king Egypt , also wished to have

the finest library in th e world , in order to cripple

o f his e f o r the plans lit rary rival , issued a command

o f b idding the exportation p apyrus from Egypt .

o f t o a The king Pergamus , being unable get p

r py u s except from Egypt , caused the skins of sheep

t o be p rep a red , and on these skins books for h is 2 3 8

STO R IE S O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

0 write neatly and rapi dly . We may imagine 5 or 1 0 0 slaves sitting at desks in a room w riting to the

o f a t en dictation the re der . N ow i f Atticus ha d readers each of whom dictate d to 1 0 0 slaves it took only two or three days for the publicati on o f ’ copi es o f o ne o f h is fri end Cicero s b ooks . O f cou rs e every copy would not be p erfect . The slave would sometim es make blunders and write what the

ou r o n reader di d not dictate . But books in w time a re not free o f errors . An English poet recently wrote

L k d ew - d o s o s b ow n os s i e r p up n fre h l r e . In print the first letter o f the last word in the line appeared as n instea d o f r . This mistake disfigured thousand s o f cop ies . In th e Roman publishing

o ne house such a blunder m arred only copy . You can rea dily s ee that by m ethods j ust described

s o books could b e m ade in great numb ers . And

a nd they were . Slaves were cheap and numerous

o i the cost f publication was sm all . It s estimated ’ that a good si ze d volume in Nero s time ( 5 0 A D . ) would sell for a s hilling . B ooks were ch e aper in those days than they h a d ever been be fore and a l

- t o . most a s cheap as they a re d ay , perhaps The

Rom an world became satiate d with rea ding m atter . “ one h a s Th e poet M a rti al excla imed , Every me ”

' h is . in pocket , every one has m e in h is hand B ooks became a dru g on th e market and could b e sold only to grocers for wr apping up p astry and sp ices . 2 4 0 THE B OO K But a time was to come when books would not be

o f s o plenti ful and cheap . With the overthrow

I - LI A K I N T H E S F G. 8 G . . BOOK IN MIDDLE AGE

Rome ( 4 7 6 A . D . ) culture received a blow from which it di d no t recover for a thousand years . The barb ari an inva ders o f Southern Europe destroyed all the books they could find and caused the writers o f

books to fl ee within the walls o f the churches . Throughout the M iddle Ages nearly all the writing in Europe w a s done in the religious houses o f m onks

o ( Fi g . and nearly all the books written were f a

religious nature . Th e monks worke d with the great

est pati ence and ca re upon thei r manuscripts . They often wrote on vellum ( cal f- skin pa rchment ) and illuminated the p age with b eauti ful colors and

a dorned it with artisti c figu res . The manuscript volum es o f the dark ages were

a s beaut ful and magnificent , but thei r cost w so great I i 2 4 1 STO RIES OF USE FUL IN VENTIONS

that only the most wealthy coul d buy . A B ible would s ometimes cost thousands o f dollars . Along in the 1 4 th and 1 5 th centuries Europ e began to thirst f or knowledge and there arose a dem and f o r cheap ? books . How could the demand be met There were now no hordes o f intelligent slaves who could be put to work with thei r p ens , and without slave labor t he cost o f the written book could not b e

t o greatly reduced . Invention , a s always , came th e rescue and gave the world what it w anted .

w a s In the first place , writing m ateri al made

o - cheaper by the invention f paper making . The wasp in making it s nest ha d given a h int f o r paper m aking , but m an wa s extremely slow to take the C m hint . The hinese h a d done so ething in the way o f m aking paper from th e b ark o f trees a s early as

w a s the first century , but i t not until the m i ddle o f the 1 3 th century that pap er began to b e m a nu f a c

t u r ed . in Europe from h emp , rags , linen , and cotton

l r intin n In the second p ace , p g was inve ted . On a strip o f transparent p aper write the word p os t . Now turn the strip over from right to le ft and trace the letters on the smooth sur face of a block of wood . Remove the pap er and you will have

e th result shown in Figure 9 . With a sharp kni fe cut ou t the wood from

FIG . 9 . around the letters . I nk the ra ised

o f letters and press upon them a p iece p aper . You have printed the word post in precis ely the way t 1 the fi rs books were printed . In the 3 th century 2 4 2

STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

- ing whole pages for block books , and he ha d a rude

- kind o f printing press . The improvement consisted in this : Instea d o f engraving a whole p age on a

o block , single letters were engraved n little blocks

called types , and when a word or a line or a p age

F I G A . I I . N EARLY PRINTING PRESS .

. w a s to be printed these types were set in the position

‘ desired ; in other words , th e improvement consisted

ea b e in the inventi on o f m ov le typ es . The types wer

first made o f wood and a fterw ard o f metal . The gre at a dvantage o f th e moveable types over

- is . the block book easily seen A block conta ining , ” s a is y , the word post useles s except for printing

os t th e word p ; but divi de it into four blocks , each

: os t s o t conta ining a letter now you can print p , p ,

t o s s t o t o s o s o t o t s o t o s o . p , p , p , p , , p , , and forth Th e exact date o f the inventi on o f moveabl e type s 2 4 4 TH E B OO K

cannot be determined . We can only s a y that they 1 0 1 0 were first used between 4 5 and 4 6 . Nor can m we tell who i nvented the . The Dutch claim that L awrence Koster o f Harlem ( Holland ) m ade some

a s 1 0 moveable types early as 4 3 , and that John F aust , an employee , stole them and ca rried them

lVI a enc e to y ( Germany ) , where John Gutenb erg

o f learned the secret printing with them . The Ger mans cla im that Gutenb erg was the real inventor . \ I 4 u ch can be sa i d i n behal f o f both claims . Wh at we really know is that the e arliest complete book printed on moveable types w a s a B ible which came 1 from the p ress o f John Gutenberg in 4 5 5 . Since 1 4 5 0 there h a s b een no discovery that has changed the character o f the printed volume . There have b een wonder ful improvements in the p rocesses o f - making and setting type , and p rinting presses

. I 1 ( Fi g ) h ave become marvels o f mechanica l skill , but the book o f to - day is essenti ally like th e b ook o f

a o o f fou r hundred years g . The tablet the memory , the knotte d cord and notched stick , the uncanny

i - - p cture writing , the clumsy picture sign , the alphabet ,

- the manuscript volume , the p rinted block book and the volume b e fore y ou bring to ’ an end the story o f the book . THE ME SSAGE

EN had not been living together long in a state o f soci ety b efore they found it necessary to communi cate with their fellow - men at a distanc e

and in order to do this th e m es s a g e was invented . 2 o f We have seen ( p . 0 5 ) that among certa in tribes savages notched sticks bearing m ess ages were sent t from one tribe to another . Among the ancien Peruvians the message took the form o f the curiou s in looking qu ipu . A fter the alphabet h a d been vented and p apyrus ha d come intouse as a writing material , the message took the form of a written document and resembled somewhat the modern letter

The ancient Egyptians , as we

t o would exp ect , were the first make use o f the letter in the sending of

mes sages ( Fig . The ancient Hebrews were also familiar with the

! E o f . FIG , I , A LETT R letter as a m eans communication CARRIER OF A N ‘ We rea d in the b ook o f Chronicles CIENT EGYPT . h ow the post went with the letters o f the king and his princes throughout all Israel .

os t The word p , as used here and elsewhere in the

is on e B ible , signifies a runner , that , speci ally trained to deliver letters or desp atches speedily 2 4 6

STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS tions being equ al to the numb er o f days which the j ourney takes , allowing a man and a horse to each day , and these men will not b e h indered from aecom p lish ing at thei r best speed the distance they will

o o r have to g either by snow , o r ra in , or heat , by

Th e the darkness o f night . first rider delivers the message to the second and the second to the third , and s o it is borne from h and to hand along th e wh ole ” line . The p ostal system which H erodotus found in Persi a w a s better than th e system which existed i n his own country for the reason that the Greeks r e lied upon human messengers r ather than upon horses to

carry their messages . Young G reeks were specially tra ined

f o ( Fig . 3 ) a s runners r the p ostal service and Greek his tory contains a ccounts o f the — A FIG . 3 . LETTER CARRIER m arvelous endurance a n d OF ANCIENT GREECE . s wi ftness o f those employed to carry messages . A fter the de feat o f the

Pers i ans by the Greeks a t M arathon ( 4 90 B C . ) a runner carried th e news southwa rd an d did n ot p ause f o r rest until h e reached Athens wh en he shoute d “ ! ” the word Victory and expired , b eing overcome

Ph l e . il i id s by fatigue Another Greek , p by name , w a s desp atched from Athens to Spa rta t o ask the Sp a rtans for a id i n the wa r which the Atheni ans were

r car ying on a ga ins t Persia , and th e distance betw een 2 4 8 THE M ESSAGE — — the two citi es about 1 4 0 m iles w a s a ecom

lis h ed t o p by the runner in less than w days . But the best postal system o f ancient times w as

o ne the which w as organi zed by the Romans . As one country a fter another wa s brought under the do m inion o f Rome i t became more and more necessa ry f or the Roman government to keep in close touch with

* a a a f m w -m o all the p arts o f the vast w e f M a l

F I G 4 ? L l‘3 mm O F emp ire . Accordingly , b y :1 C1 giiofié the time o f Augustus ( 1 4 th ere was established throughout the RO man world a fully organi zed and well - equipped s ys tem o f posts . Along th e magnificent roads which led ou t from Rome there were bu ilt at regula r

or - distances stations , post houses , where horses and riders were stationed for the purpose o f r ec eiv ing the messages o f the government and hurry

ing them along t o th e place o f thei r destinati on . The stati ons were only five or six miles apart and each station w a s provi ded with a large number o f

horses and riders . By the frequent changes o f horses a letter could be hurried along with consider ”

. o f able speed ( Fi g By the help th e relays ,

w a s says G ibbon , it easy to travel a hundred miles

in a day .

h e n . IV Rome fell ( 4 7 6 A . D ) b e fore the attacks o f barb a rous t ribe s her excellent posta l system fell with 2 4 9 STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS her and m any centuri es passed be fore messages could again b e regularly and qu ickly desp atch ed b etween

. C widely sep arated points harles the Great , the

o f F 8 00 A D . emperor the ranks , established ( ) a p ostal system i n h is empire but the service did not

th e 1 long su rvive the great ruler . In 3 th century the merchants o f the Hans e towns o f Northern Ger m any could communicate with each other somewhat

o f regula rly by letter , but the ordinary people these towns di d not enj oy the privileges o f a p ostal service .

th e a s s I n M iddle Ages , in the ancient time , the pub li c post w a s established solely for the b enefit o f the

t o a s government . Private m ess ages h a d be sent best they could b e by p rivate mess eng ers and at p rivate expense . As late as th e reign o f Henry VI I I — ( 1 5 0 9 1 5 4 7 ) the only regular p ost route in England w a s one which . w a s established f or th e exclusive u s e o f the king . Bu t the time w a s s oon t o come when ordina ry citi zens a s well a s o flic ers o f state were to share in o f 1 6 C the benefits a postal system . I n 3 5 harles I o f England gave orders th at a p ost should run night and day b etween E dinburgh and L ondon and that postmen should take with them all such letters as might b e directed to towns on o r ne ar the roa d wh ich 1 c a s onnected the two cities . The rate o f posta ge w

1 I n m n h the pay e t o f t e p o stage no s tamps were a s y et used . I n o o Po s deed the p stage stamp i s a late in v enti n . stage tamps not in E 1 8 0 in th e were used ngland until the yea r 4 , whil e Unit S n o t 1 8 ed tates they were regularly used until 47 . 2 5 0

STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS a letter could be sent to the most distant parts o f the globe . Thus fa r we hav e traced the history o f only one

o f o f kind message , the kind that h as the form a written document and that is conveyed by a human Carri er over land and water from on e place to a n

is o f is not other . But there a kind message wh ich borne along by human h ands and which does not 1 o n o r t ele r a h travel land water . This is the g p , th e message which darts through space and is delivered at a distant p oint almost at the very instant a t which

it is sent . The fi rst telegraph was an a erial message and con

o sisted f a signal m a de by a fl ash o f light . From the earli est times men have used fire s ignals as a means

o f sending mess ages to distant p oints . When th e city o f Troy in Asi a M inor was captured by the

1 1 Greeks ( ab out 0 0 B C . ) torches flashing th ei r light from o ne mounta in t op to another qu ickly car

- ff ried the news t o the fa r o cities o f G reece . The anci ent Greeks gave a great deal o f attention t o the art o f signaling by fire and they invented several

o f very ingeni ous systems aeri al telegraphy . The most interesting of these systems is one invented and

h o described by the Greek histori an Polyb ius , w

fl ourished about 1 5 0 B C . Wh en signaling with fire Polybius arranged for using tw o groups o f

f o r th e torches with five torches in each group , and purpose o f understanding the signals he divided the

1 Th e b e m n to n e o ff v er t el graph ea s w rite at a di sta c a far . 2 5 2 THE M ESSAGE letters o f the alphabet into five groups o f five letters 1 each . The torches were ra ised according to a plan that m a de it possible to flash a signal that would in d ic a t e any letter o f the alphabet that m ight be de

if a s sired . Thus the desi red letter w the thi rd o ne o f a t k o ne the first group th t is , the le ter torch

T Y I O D. C . FI G . B OF . 5 ELEGRAPHING M EAN S FIRE , S

would show which group w a s meant and three torches .

would show which letter wa s meant ( Fi g . I n

a s f o r theory this system w perfect , it provi ded for

sending any kind o f m essage whatever . But in prae

1 r o n 2 e th e G k th e A s there a e ly 4 l ett rs in ree alphabet , last

o o n e o b u t no t e th e gr up wa s lette r sh rt , thi s did inter fe r with h m wo rk i n g o f t e sy ste . 2 5 3 STO R IE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS

tice it ha d little value , for it required s o m any torches and signals that an enti re night w a s consumed in spelling out a few words . Although the elaborate system o f a eri al telegraph proposed by Polybius was not generally adopted ,

f o r s nevertheless centurie , both in ancient times and during th e mi ddle a ges , the fire signal was every where used for the quick desp atch o f important news . I n the seventeenth century inventors b egan to devise n e 1 6 w . 6 systems o f a eri al telegraphy In 3 , the o f o wh o M arqu is W rcester , was always busy with some great invention ( p . announced to the world that he ha d dis covered a plan by which one could talk with another as fa r a s the eye could dis t in u ish c on g between black and white , and that this versation could b e carri ed on by night as well a s by

h th e a s a s day , even th ou g night were dark and

Bu black a s pitch . t the telegraph o f the M arqu is — was like many o f his other inventi ons it w as 1 6 . 8 . chiefly on pap er In 4 , Dr Robert Hooke of England invented a method by which a erial mess ages

o r could b e sent a distance of thirty forty miles . H is plan was to erect on h ill tops a series o f h igh poles connected above by cross - pi eces and by means o f pulleys suspend from the cross - pi eces the letters o f the alphabet which would spell out the messag e

( Fi g . I n order to rea d the letters at such great distances the eye w as assisted by the telescope , an instrument which h a d recently been invented . But th e greatest improvement in aerial telegraphy 2 5 4

STO RIE S OF USE FUL INVENTIONS velocity o f light about m iles a second and i t w a s p ossible f o r the operator to spell out ’ 1 0 0 C about words in an hour . And happe s mes

or sages could b e sent at any tim e , day night , fo r the a rms o f the machine were furnished with Argand lamps for night work . ’ Chappe s invention w a s the greatest which h a d thus fa r been ma de in the history o f th e message . The n ew system o f telegraphy proved to b e entirely success ful and practica l and it was not long b e fore machines simila r t o those invented by Chapp e were in 1 2 8 . 8 use in England and other countries I n , an English writer ha d the following words of pra ise for a erial telegraphy : Telegraphs have now been brought to s o great a degree o f p er fection that they carry in fo rm ation s o speedily and distinctly and are s o much simpli fied that they can be constructed and maintained at little exp ens e . The advantages , too , which result from their use are almost inconceivable . N o t to sp eak o f the speed with which information is communicated and orders given in time o f w ar , by means o f these a eri a l signals the whole kingdom could b e prep ared i n an instant t o oppose a n invading enemy . But the aeri al telegraph was soon to have a most

h e elec t c ele dangerous rival . This rival was t r i t

r h g a p . M any years before the invention o f Chapp e men ha d been exp erimenting with electricity with a V iew o f sending messages by means o f an electric 1 2 current . These experiments began in 7 8 when 2 5 6 THE M ESSAGE a n Englishm an named G ray caused electricity to produce moti on in light bodi es located at a distance

o 6 0 0 . 1 8 f m ore than feet In 7 4 , th e gre at Benj a

wh o s o l min Franklin , conducted many wonderfu experiments in electricity , sent an electric current through a wire which w a s stretche d across the Sc h u yl kill Rive r and set fire t o some alcohol which w as at

o f ' e ma the opposite en d th e wi re . W y regard the

o f fl ash alcohol a s a telegraph , for it could h ave been 1 8 1 used as a signal . In 9 , Pro fessor Oersted of Copenhagen brought a magnetic needle close to a body through which an electric current was passing and he obs erved that the needle h a d a tendency to

t o place itsel f at right angles th e electrified body .

1 8 2 o f In 5 , Willi am Sturgeon England coiled a copper wi re around a ba r o f soft iron and found that when a current o f electricity w a s sent through the wire the bar o f iron b e cam e a temporary m agnet ;

is o f a t that , the b ar i ron tracte d a needle when the current w a s passing through the wire and ceased t o a t tract it when the current

I N ~ F G 8 . . STURGEO ELECTRO w a s b r o k e n ( Fig 8 ) 1 8 2 . MAGNET , 5 These d i scover i es of Oer sted and S turgeon led to the invention known as the ele c tr o - m a g net and the electro - magnet led rapi dly t o the invention o f the electric tele

- graph , for by m eans o f the electro magnet a sig 2 5 7 STO R IES OF USE FUL INVENTIONS nal can b e sent to a di stance as far as a cur rent o f electri city can be sent along a wire . I n ’ 1 8 1 o ne 3 , Pro fessor Joseph H enry , of Ameri ca s most distingu ished sci entists , discovered a method by

’ — . S FIG . 9 PROFESSOR HENRY ELECTRO M AGNET 1 8 2 3 . which an electric current could b e sent along a wire for a very great distance . The next year Henry constructed and operated an app aratus wh ich was “ essentially an electric telegraph ( Fig . I ar “ ranged , he sa i d , a round one of the upper rooms o f the Albany Aca demy a wire o f more than a mile in length through which I w a s enable d to m ake signals by sounding a bell . The mechanical ar rangement f o r effecting thi s obj ect w as simply a steel

o n ba r perm anently m agneti ze d , supported a pivot and placed with its north en d between the tw o arms o f - a s a horse shoe magnet . When the latter w ex cited by the current the end o f the b ar thus placed w a s attracted by on e arm o f the horse - sh oe and r e 2 5 8

STO R IES O F USE FUL INVENTIONS

system . Indeed some o f the most original and valu ’ able features o f l\I o rs e s system were invented by young Vai l an d not by M orse . I n the face o f much discouragement and ba d luck M orse an d Va il worked p atiently on together and by 1 8 4 3 their inventio n w as completed . ’ The ma in feature o f M ors e s system w a s to use the electri c cu rrent for sending an alph abetical code consisting o f certain combinations o f “ dots and ” ” o dashes . Th e d ts were simply clicking sounds and th e dashes ” were simply intervals between the clicking sounds . The s ounds were made by closing and breaking the current by means of a key

r o f o button ( Fi g . I f the sender the message pressed upon the key and immedi ately released it

F I T H G. O T K E E B Y . . Y USED MORSE he ma de at the other end o f the line a sharp click “ wa s which called a dot , and a single dot accord

o f ing to the code w as th e letter E . I f the sender the message pressed upon the key and held it down “ ” f o r w a s a moment he made what called a dash , and a single dash according to the code w a s the lette r

2 6 0 THE M ESSAGE

T . Thus by means of dots and dashes any letter

of the alph abet could be speed ily sent . M orse appli ed to Congress to a i d him in his plans and in 1 8 4 3 he secured an appropriation o f

’ 1 1 FIG . . MORSE S TELEGRAPHIC INSTRU MENT .

for establishing a telegraph line between B altimore and Washington . M orse and Va il now hurri ed the

lVI a 1 8 h a d great work on and by y , 4 4 , the wi res been stretche d between the two cities and the instru a ments were rea dy for trial . An d such h eavy , clumsy “ 1 1 ! re affa irs the instruments ( Fi g . ) were The c e iv in g apparatus weighed 1 8 5 pounds and it required the strength o f t w o strong men to handle f it . At the present day an equally ef ective magne t

2 6 1 STO R IE S OF U SE FUL INVENTIONS nee d not weigh more than four ounces and mi ght be ” carried in the vest p ocket . But , awkward and clumsy as it was , the new telegraph di d its work

. 2 1 8 well On M ay 4 , 4 4 , M orse s ent from Wash “ in t on g the h istori c message , What hath Go d ” ? 1 2 wrought ( Fig . ) and in the twinkling o f an

w a s eye it received by Va il at B altimore , forty m iles away .

t e a , w a , n

9 7 “ 0

1 2 FIG . . THE FIRST TELEGRAPHIC MESSAGE SENT FROM WASHINGTON M A Y To 2 1 8 . BALTIMORE , 4 , 44

The M orse system prove d t o be profitable as well as success ful and a fter 1 8 4 4 the electric telegraph w a s soon in general us e in all p arts o f the world . I n the United States cities were r api dly connected by wire and by 1 8 6 0 all the princip al places in the country could communicate w ith each other by tele

. 1 8 6 1 a graph In , telegraph line extended a cross the continent and connected N ew York and San

Fi e ea rs . v Francisco y later , thanks to th e perse

o C N ew v er a nc e f V . and energy yrus \ Field , o f

York , the Old World and the New were j oined to gether by a telegraphic cable p assing through the waters of the Atlantic from a point on the coast of

2 6 2

STO R IE S OF USE FU L IN VENTIONS

tion he beheld two i ron d isks , or ear drums , far

apart and connected by an electrifie d wire , catching vibrati ons o f sound a t o n e end and reproducing them ” at the other . With this concepti on in mind he went t o work to construct an app a ratus that would actually catch the sounds o f the voice and reproduce

w a s them at a distance . B ell , like Morse , without

his means to conduct experiments , but fri ends cam e to his a i d and furnished him with the necessary m oney and by 1 8 7 6 his l abors ha d resulte d in m ak ing a m achine that would carry the hum an voice ; he

had invented the telephone . At first the telephone was only a toy an d would op

” ‘ 6 ° 1 3 PROFESSOR ALEXAN er a t e at only short distances , DER GRAH A M BELL SPEAK ING OVER THE FIRST LONG but as improvements were O DE DISTANCE TELEPH NE m d i TWEEN N E W Y ORK A N D a e the d stances grew CHICAGO greater and greater until at last on e could talk in B oston and b e heard in Den o r L ver , talk in New York and b e heard in ondon . The telephone grew rap i dly into favor as a means of communication and in a short time it was used more than the telegraph . I t i s estimated that in the entire world about ten billi on convers ations are held over i the telephone in the course of a s ngle year . ' As wonder ful as the telephone w as i t was qu ickly

followe d by an invention even more wonderful . Al

2 64 THE M ESSAGE

about trying to find a w a y by which m essages could

be sent long distances without any wi res at all . In 1 8 8 9 , H ei nrich Hertz , a Germ an scientist , showed that electri c w aves could be sent o u t in all di recti ons

j ust a s light waves go out in all di rections . H e also showed h o w th ese waves might be produced and h o w they might be detecte d o r caught a s they p assed

. 1 8 6 through spa ce In 9 ,

\Villia m M a r c o n i , a n

Italian electrician , making use o f the facts discovere d by Hertz , sent a message a di stance o f 3 0 0 feet without the use of wires . This was —" wir e e r “ 0 I 4 A E the first l s s teleg a p h . WIRELESS TEL GRAPH STATION . M arconi cont i nued h is ex

er im ent s p , sending wireless messages between places

1 0 1 further and further apart , an d by 9 he was able to signal without cables across the Atlanti c Ocean . And now it seems that the wi reless telegraph is to be followe d by an invention still more wonderful .

r e e e e o ne lVI en a re n o w working up on a wi l s s t l p h . Alrea dy it is possible t o talk without the a i d o f wires between places so fa r apa rt as Newa rk and

Phila delphia , and m any inventors beli eve tha t it i s only a matter of ti m e when the wi reless tele p hone will be use d si de by si de with the wireless telegra ph . 2 6 5

IN DE!

o . Cast ir n , 4 7 Dudley , Dud , 4 9. 1 o Cave dwellings, 4 9 . Dutch pl w , 7 9 .

e 2 . Chapp , Claude , 5 5

o 2 8 . Charc al , 4 , 4 , 4 9 ’

o 2 2 0 . Charlemagne s cl ck , E o T o — dis n , h mas , 3 7 . o 1 1 6 . Chari ts , 7 5 7 E 6 8 1 2 gypt ( ancient ) , 7 , 5 , 5 , lott D u nd a s 2 0 6 . Ch a r e ,

I I 2 2 2 2 6 ° 7 S, 7 7 . 3 . 3 5 , 4 Chemical matches , 9 . E 1 8 . lectric car, 5 Ch oot oom 1 1 3 ° ilc l , E 6 . lectric light , 3 2 1 . Chimneys , E o 2 . lectric st ve , 7 1 Ch a 1 9 2 5 . in , 9, E — 2 6 2 6 . — lectric telegraph , 5 3 2 1 2 1 ° Clepsydra , 7 9 E o - 2 6 ° lectr magnet , 5 Cler m ont th e 2 0 0 , , 7 E o 1 6 6 . — levat r architecture , o o f 2 1 1 2 2 6 . CLOCK, hist ry , E o 1 2 . mbr idery , 9 ff 1 Cli dwel lings, 4 9 . E 2 2 8 2 00 2 0 2 nglan d , , 4 9, 5 9 , 9, , , o 1 C ach , 7 7 . 2 5 1 . o C ke , 4 9 . E i o o 2 0 8 r css n , J hn , . o o 1 C e athe a 6 2 . l gn , c d r l , E 2 2 2 ° scapement , o o 1 6 C l nial architecture , 5 .

o 1 1 . C lumns , 5 5 , 5 7 ’ o 1 C mpass , mariner s , 99 . o t . F o C m e e ha veste , 95 2 . pl r r aust , J hn , 4 5

o 6 . F 1 C e se 9 6 . n d n r , elly, 7

oo 1 1 . F . C , 5 , 9 W 2 6 2 . king iel d , Cyrus , o o 1 . F C th a m 5 . rin i n c lu n , 7 irebran ds , 4 — o o 1 - 2 2 1 2 . F 1 C tt 4 o 2 . n gin , ire cl ck , 3

f or 8 6 . F C a e ( s ythe ) 6 . r d l c , ire drill ,

8 . F fl C a e s ythe , 7 2 8 . r d l c ire ies , o - B — ow 1 1 1 . F 1 C ss , 4 4 3 2 0 . r ireplace , 4 , ’ C u no s - t 1 8 0 . F g steam e e S 2 2 . ngin , ire ign als , 5

f or 0 2 . F o 2 0 Cutter ( reaper ) , 9 , 9 itch , J hn , 5 . F - 1 8 lying machine , 7 . F 1 1 6 . lying shuttle , F R f — b . o o 8 Darby , A raham , 4 9 O CE , hist ry , 3 5 3 .

f o 1 F o 6 2 2 0 2 . Deck ( a b at ) , 9 . rance , 3 , F 2 2 1 2 . De Vick , H enry , . ranklin , Benjamin , 5 7

- - . F o 1 0 . Digging stick , 7 4 ricti n chemical match ,

o F o R o o 1 6 . 2 0 . D ric c lumn , 5 ult n , bert , 7 F 1 1 2 6 . Drag , 7 . urnaces , 5 , 4 268 IN DE !

2 2 . H uygens , Christian , 5

o 1 8 . Hyp caust ,

b 1 1 6 0 . Ga le , 5 5 ,

1 . Ga lley , 9 5

o 8 8 . Gang pl w , 7 , 3

I o 2 1 . de graphs , 3 Gas , 3 5 . I 1 8 ncandescent light , 3 7 . o . Gas line engine , 9 I o o 1 1 1 8 2 ndustrial rev luti n , 9 , 6 2 . Germany , 4 , 4 5 I o o 1 nic c lumn , 5 7 . o 1 6 1 . G th a ch te t e , ic r i c ur — ’ I o 2 . e , 4 4 5 2 . r n Ag Gray s electric telegraph , 3 3 R o o f 1 —6 n 1 8 2 8 6 I ON , hist ry , 4 3 . Greeks ( ancie t ) , , 3 , 5 7 , ,

I o o 8 1 . I 1 I 6 1 2 1 6 2 r n pl w , 39 , 5 5 , 7 . 95 , . 3 9,

2 4 8 . — I G UN o of 1 1 6 . , hist ry , 37 4

o 1 ’ w e , 3 . 1 2 2 G d 4 . unp r Jac q uard s attachment ,

o 2 . G te e , h , 4 5 o 1 2 0 . u nb rg J n Jac q ua rd , J seph ,

r s o T o 1 e e n 8 . J , h mas ,

’

o o . J b s pl w , 7 5

o ff ro u 2 0 2 . J y , Mar q uis , H a im a l 8 u t . scythe , 7

a 1 1 . H rgreaves , 9 o H arvester , c mplete , 9 5 .

K . atta , 7 4 H eating , 7 . K a o 1 1 6 y , J hn , . 8 6 1 0 2 2 6 . Hebrews ( ancient ) , , , 4

K 1 . 1 1 2 1 1 eel , 9 3 Hedd le , 4 . K o - o n cking st ne , 97 . o 2 8 . H enry , J seph , 5 ’ K o 2 2 . o E 1 ster , Laurence , 4 Her s ngine , 5 5 , 7 . K o f o r 2 2 8 n ts ( writing ) , . z 2 6 . Hert , H einrich , 5 o 2 2 H ier glyphics , 3 . Ro 2 H ill , Sir wland , 5 7 . oo R o 2 . e e t , L 1 0 . H k , b r 5 4 ake dwellings , 5 — o f or 1 00 . e m L o o f 2 8 . H pp r ( ill ) , AMP , hist ry , 3 7

o 1 0 . o o 8 se 1 . H r , 7 Langley , Pr fess r , 9

o 1 8 . of oo 1 1 H rseless carriage , 5 Lathe ( l m ) , 5 . H o t . 0 2 6 . bl ast , 5 Letter , 4 H S — o of 1 1 1 . o o OU E , hist ry , 4 7 7 Livingst ne ( q u ted ) , 9 9 . o E 1 —1 6 . 1 6 . H we , lias , 3 3 3 Ll ama , 9

- 1 . o 1 2 . Hub , 7 5 L ck stitch , 3 — 1 2 . o o o 1 8 0 1 8 H unt , Walter , 3 L c m tive , 5 . — y O 1 . L M o y o f 1 0 1 2 2 Husse , bed , 9 OO , hist r , 9 2 6 9 IN DE!

- k 2 2 . Paper ma ing , 4

6 1 2 0 2 . Papin , Denis , ,

M c C o r mic k 1 . , Cyrus , 9 2 6 . Papyrus , 3

1 . Magnetic need le , 99 2 8 . Parchment , 3

o 2 1 . Manuscript v lumes , 4 A . o 1 . Pars ns , C . , 7

o i 2 6 . Marc n William , 5 2 2 . Pendulum , 4 o 1 Mariner s c mpass , 99 . Pe y osta e 2 1 . — nn p g , 5 M o of 1 2 . ATCH , hist ry , 4 o 8 . Percussi n matches ,

o 2 2 8 . Mem ry , aids , of 2 8 Pergamus , king , 3 . M EssAGE o of 2 6 , hist ry the , 4 8 . Pestle , 9 2 6 5 . ili Ph l id es 2 8 . p , 4

2 2 . Message sticks , 9 i t n c ia ns 1 2 . , 9 5 , 34

o o 1 . Mete ric ir n , 4 o o 2 Ph n grams , 3 3 . M o of —1 0 8 . ILL , hist ry , 97 o o 1 1 Ph sph rus matches , .

o 1 00 . Millst ne , 2 0 . Picture signs , 3 o M ta , 97 . r r o . Pig ir n , 4 7

o o 8 8 1 . M l db ards , 7 , o 6 2 . Pist n , B o . F . . . 2 M rse , S , 5 9 o 2 1 8 . Plat ,

o 2 . M veable types , 44 6 8 . Pliny , 7 , 9 o ’ Murd ck , William , 3 5 . o Pliny s pl w , 7 7 . L W o of —8 P O , hist ry , 7 3 4 .

o 1 6 1 . P inted arch ,

o 2 2 . y s , 5 N D o of 1 —1 P l biu 2 6 . EE LE , hist ry , 5 3

o 2 . P st , 6 N o 4 8 2 . ewb l d , Charles ,

o 2 2 . N P stage , 5 o T o 6 2 . ewc men , h mas ,

o 2 0 . N P stage stamps , 5 o . eils n , 4 9 o 2 2 —2 P sta systems , 4 5 2 . N w o I 1 l 8 0 . e t n , S ir saac , o 6 6 P tte , m h ey , . N r r r H u p r 4 , 9 ii e nb u 2 2 . g eggs , 3 - o oo 1 1 . P wer l m , 9

2 2 . Printing , 4 o 2 0 8 Pr pe llers , .

O o 1 2 . arl ck , 9 o oo 1 1 Puebl l m , 3 . O o o 2 ersted , Pr fess r , 5 7 . O 0 . gle , H enry , 9

O r e o 1 . ( ) , 4 ir n 2 2 8 . Q uipu ,

f o r 1 6 . R o 2 . Pack ( burdens ) , 9 adiat rs , 5

- 2 0 6 0 R 1 2 2 . Padd le wheel , , 7 . aft , 9 2 7 0

IN DE!

- \ 1 0 . T o 2 1 . ate m 3 rch , 9 , 3 V r ill ,

\ 6 0 1 8 2 . T o 2 2 . att ames 7 , 7 , rad iti n , 7 V , J ,

- VVe a v e r 1 1 0 . T 1 1 . d , ravail , 7 bir 8 1 T t R 1 8 2 We ste , D a e , . reve hick , ichard , , b r ni l

1 1 2 . T 1 6 . Weft , rireme , 9

- — o 2 2 0 2 2 . T 1 . We ht , 3 urbine ( steam ) , 7 ig cl ck

o o o 2 6 . T o 2 . Wheatst e , P fess , 3 ypes , m veable , 44 n r r o of 1 1 Wheel , devel pment , 7

1 7 5 .

- b o 1 2 . Wheel arr w , 7 U 8 0 1 1 0 6 2 0 2 nited States , , 9 , , , E 1 2 . Whitney , li , 3 2 0 4 . 0 Wicks , 3 , 34 .

1 Wigwams , 4 7 .

2 6 . Wireless telegraph , 5

o 2 6 . Wireless teleph ne , 5 2 . Vail , Alfred , 5 9

oo o 8 2 . W d , Jethr , 2 2 . Vedas , 7 o e of 8 8 1 0 6 W rc ster , Mar q uis , 5 , 7 , Vienna bread , .

2 5 4 . o 2 . V lume , 3 7 o o Wr ught ir n , 4 3 .

\V a lke r o 1 0 , J hn , . Y I I O 1 2 2 arn beam , . Warming pan , 7 , .

\V a r 1 1 p , 2 .

2 2 Watches , 3 .

\ - o 2 1 — 2 1 . ! I ate , 1 . V r cl ck 5 9 uni ndians , 4 9

2 7 2