Supplementary Information

SI Fig. 1. Male ibex on the cliffs of the Ramon Crater, central highlands (Photograph by U. Avner, 2012).

SI Fig. 2. Ibex hunting scenes in neighboring deserts: A. Sakaka, Sa‘udi ‘Arabia (‘Abdul Nayeem 2002:202), B. Najran, Sa‘udi ‘Arabia (courtesy of Christian Robin), C. Wadi Abu-Qwei, Eastern desert, Egypt, late Predynastic (Redford & Redford 1989:13, c.f. Morrow et al. 2010:218), D. Wadi Abu-Wasil, Eastern desert, Egypt (Morrow et al. 2010:189).

SI Fig. 3. Ibex with dogs and hunters in Near Eastern art: A. Susa, Iran ca. 4000 BC. (Clark 2001:69), B. Iran, ca. 800 BC (Kist et al. 2003: Fig. 11), C. Saqqara, Egypt, ca. 2320 BC. (Malek 2001:83), D. Hierakonopolis, Egypt, ca. 2990 BC, lower part of palette (Malek 2001:32, Ashmolean E.3924).

SI Fig. 4. Saving the ibex: A. Achaemenid seal impression, Persepolis, ca. 600 BC (Root 2002:182), B. Mesopotamian seal impression, ca. 4th millennium BC (Amiet 1961: No. 698). C. Dilmun, Ba rain (Højland et al. 2005: Fig. 17).

ḥ

SI Fig. 5. Seal impressions with ibex up and down: A. Akkad, ca.1800 BC, (Hartner 1965: Fig. 25), B-D. Cyprus, ca.1600 BC (Kenna 1967: Figs. 15, 28, 29).

SI Fig. 6. Metal object from Nabataean temple at Jebel Serbal, Sinai, 1st century BC-3rd century AD (Avner in press: Fig. 13).

SI Fig. 7. Susa, Iranian bowl, ca. 3400 BC (Pope & Ackerman 1938: Pl. 3c).

SI Fig. 8. Ibex with celestial symbols: A. Ramat Matred, central Negev Highlands, B. Har ‘Arqov, central Negev Highlands, C, D. Har Karkom.

SI Fig. 9. Ibex with celestial symbols in Near Eastern art: A. Iranian Goblet, Tepe Sialk, ca. 3300 BC. (Woolley 1961:39). B. Pottery decoration, Susa, ca. 4000 BC (Pope & Ackerman 1938: Fig. 32j,k), C. Tepe Gian, ca. 4000 BC (Amiet 1961: No. 85), D. Early Assyrian (Ward 1910:181, No. 494), E. , Jordan (Timm 1993:192, No. 6), F. Proto-Elamite (Amiet 1961: No. 537), F. Iron Age II (Sass 1993: Nos. 59/158).

SI Fig. 10. Sky-map with reconstructed the ibex constellation (Hartner ,1965: Diagram 1).

SI Fig. 11. Star constellations: A. Bronze astral bowl, ca. 700 BC (Lemair 1999: Fig. 1), B. The constellation of Orion (following the astral bowl) with Lepus below him. C. Reconstruction of ibex below Orion (following the astral bowl).

SI Fig. 12. Middle Bronze Syrian seal impression, an ibex with ‘rabbit ears’ in the mid lower part (Collon 1982: Fig. 3f; Zevulun & Ziffer 2012: Fig. 24).

References for SI Abdul Nayeem, M. 2000. The Rock Art of Arabia. Hyderabad. Amiet, P. 1961. La glyptique Mésopotamienne archaique. Paris Amiet, P. 1966. Elam. Paris. Anati, E. 2015. The Rock Art of the Negev and Sinai. Capo di Ponte. Avner, U. 2015. The Nabataeans in Sinai. ARAM 27: 389-421. Clark, T. 2001. The dogs of the ancient . In, Brewer, D.J., T. Clark and A. Phillips (Eds). Dogs in Antiquity, Anubis to Cerberus. Warminster. Pp. 49-79.

Collon, D. 1982. The Aleppo workshop- A seal cutter’s workshop in Syria in the second half of the 18th century BC. Ugarit Forschungen 13:33-43. Hartner, W. 1965. The earliest history of the constellations in the Near East and the motif of the Lion-Bull Combat. Journal of Near East Studies 24:1-19. Højland, F., P. Bangsgaard, J. Hansen, N. Haue, P. Kjaeum and D. Danner Lund. 2005. New Excavations at Barbar temple, Ba rain. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 16:105-128.

Kenna, V. 1967. The seal use of Cyprusḥ in the Bronze Age II. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique 91: 552-557.

Kist, J., Collon, D. and Wiggermann, F.A.M. 2003. Ancient Near Eastern Seals from the Kist Collection: Three Millennia of Miniature Reliefs. Leiden. Lemaire, A. 1999. Coupe astrale inscrite et astronomie araméenne. In. Y. Avishur and R. Deutsch (Eds). Michael. Historical, Epigraphical and Biblical Studies in Honor of Prof. Michael Heltzer. . Pp. 195-211. Malek, J. 2003. Egypt, 4000 Years of Art. London. Morrow, M., M. Morrow, T. Judd and G. Phillipson (Eds). 2010. Desert RATS, Rock Art Topographic Survey in Egypt’s Eastern Desert, Site Catalogue. Oxford, BAR International Series 2166.

Pope, A. U. and P. Ackerman. 1938. A Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Time to the Present. Vols. I-VII. London and N.Y. Redford, S. and D.B. Redford. 1989. Graffiti and petroglyphs old and new from the Eastern Desert. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 26:3-49. Root, M,C. 2002. Animal in the art of ancient Iran. In, M. Collins (Ed). A History of the Animal World in the Ancient Near East. Leiden, Brill. Pp. 169-209.

Sass, B. 1993. The pre-exilic Hebrew seals, iconography and Syro-Palestinian religion of Iron Age II: Some afterthoughts and conclusions. In, B. Sass and C. Uehlinger (Eds). Studies in the Iconography of Northwest Semitic Inscribed Seals. Gottingen. Pp. 194-256. Timm, S. 1993. Das ikonographische repertoire der Moabitischen sieglel und seine enwjcklung: von maximalismus zum minimalismus. In, Sass, B. and C. Uehlinger (Eds). Studies in the Iconography of Northwest Semitic Inscribed Seals. Gottingen. Pp. 161-193. Ward, W. H. 1910. The Seal Cylinders of Western Asia. Washington.

Woolley, L. 1961. The Art of the . New York: Crown Publishers. Zevulun, U. and I. Ziffer. 2012. Back from the hunt: A pictorial Tell El-Yahudiyah juglet in the Eretz Museum, Tel Aviv. Egypt and the Levant 22:431-447.

Journal of Arid Environments 143 (2017) 35e43

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Journal of Arid Environments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jaridenv

Symbolism of the ibex motif in Negev rock art

Uzi Avner a, *, Liora Kolska Horwitz b, Wayne Horowitz c a Arava-Dead Sea Science Center, Israel b National Natural History Collections, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel c Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel article info abstract

Article history: The male ibex is the dominant zoomorphic motif in rock art of the Negev desert, Israel. It recurs in Received 13 October 2015 thousands of petroglyphs, either alone or in association with several recurring images; commonly with Received in revised form dogs or other predators but also with hunters. These associations occur in all chronological phases of 27 March 2016 Negev rock art, implying that they had an enduring symbolic significance. Here we address only some Accepted 22 November 2016 aspects of ibex iconography, focusing on its association with dogs, hunters and astral symbols. We discuss Available online 9 December 2016 the possible meaning of these associations with regard to the ritual hunting of ibex and connection to deities associated with rainfall, seasonal cycles and celestial constellations. Keywords: © Petroglyphs 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Rock engravings Nubian ibex Dog Ritual hunting Celestial constellations

1. Introduction millennium BCE (Eisenberg-Degen and Nash, 2014:16). However, in many rock art sites, more exact dating of engravings is possible Thousands of rock engravings are found in the Negev desert of when comparing their patination to that of adjacent inscriptions Israel. In a few areas of this desert they have been systematically (Fig. 1aed), written in Thamudic (1st and 2nd centuries CE, Halun, recorded; at Har Karkom (Anati, 1993:61e91, 1996, 2001:121e128, 1990:36), Nabataean (2nd century BCE to 4th century CE, Negev, 154, 2015), Timna (Rothenberg, 2001, 2003), Har Miḥia, ‘Ezuz and 1991:209; Healey, 2007) and Early Islamic (7th-8th centuries CE, Ramat Matred (Eisenberg-Degen and Rosen, 2013; Eisenberg- Sharon, 1990:9*). As a result, we learn that much of the Negev rock Degen and Nash, 2017), while in the broader region, surveys are art is only 1000e2000 years old, while the remainder is either currently being undertaken by members of the Negev Rock Art earlier or later. Center (Razy Yahel of Sde Boqer and Lior Shwimer of the Israel The identification of ibex amongst the zoomorphs depicted in Nature and Parks Authority). Though absolute dating of petro- Negev rock art is unambiguous, due to its portrayal with extremely glyphs is problematic, relative chronology is possible based on arched and large horns, often exaggerated (Figs. 1 and 2). Given the superimposition and varying shades of patination of engravings on current situation of petroglyph surveys in the region it would be a given panel. Additional information regarding their date can be premature to present detailed statistics for the region as a whole, obtained from the presence of period-specific images such as do- but the impression is that the adult, male ibex is the most mestic animals. Since the approximate time of appearance of do- commonly depicted zoomorphic motif. For example, according to mestic animals in the region is known from archaeozoological Anati and Mailland (2009:25) ibex account for 57.5% of all studies and other sources, they can supply a terminus post-quem zoomorphic elements at Har Karkom. They comprise 74% of horned for these images. Based on these parameters, different times have ungulates depicted in all engraving phases at Har Miḥia; 78% of all been suggested for the beginning of the Negev Rock art; the Early horned ungulates portrayed at Giva't HaKetovot (Eisenberg-Degen Neolithic, ca. 10,000 BCE (Anati, 2015:16, 58) or from the 6th and Rosen, 2013:245e246); and ca. 40% of all zoomorphic motifs in the Naḥal Nizzana catchment (Schwimer, 2015: calculated from Fig. on pg. 113). Moreover, as noted by these researchers, on many panels, images of ibex have been reworked, indicating their * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (U. Avner), [email protected] (L.K. Horwitz), importance throughout the entire chronological span of the Negev [email protected] (W. Horowitz). rock art. In contrast, depictions of female ibex and domestic goat http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.11.009 0140-1963/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 36 U. Avner et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 143 (2017) 35e43

Fig. 1. Rock engraving with inscriptions: A. Har ‘Arkov, central Negev Highlands, ibex and dog are patinated to the same degree as the Nabataean inscription (ca. 2000 years old). B. Be'er ‘Ada, southern Negev, extensive patina of dog and ibex petroglyphs indicates they are somewhat older than the Thamudic inscription (ca. 2000 years old). C. Netafim Passage, Eilat region, ibex and dog have the same patina as the transitional Nabataean-‘Arabic inscription (ca. 1500 years old, Avner et al., 2013). D. Har Eldad, Central Negev Highlands, ibex is later than the ‘Arabic inscription, ca. 1000 years old. are extremely rare. Interestingly, irrespective of period, the male 1991:180e83; Habibi, 1994:46e54, 63e69). Ibex in the Negev and ibex recurs with the same combinations of motifs. For example; surrounding areas were almost decimated due to massive hunting ibex attacked by dogs or other predators - either from behind or in with firearms following World War I (Yom-Tov and Mendelssohn, front (Anati, 1999:26e27; Degen-Eisenberg and Nash, 2015: Fig. 7); 1988; Paz, 2001), but since then greatly recovered due to prohibi- ibex hunted by archers and/or riders (Rothenberg, 1972:120; Anati, tion of hunting in Israel. In the past, the numbers of ibex in the 1999:26; Eisenberg-Degen and Nash, 2014: Fig. 5); ibex with hu- Negev desert were probably higher than today, given the abun- man footprints (Anati, 1999:32; Degen-Eisenberg and Nash, 2017); dance of their remains in prehistoric archaeozoological record. For orante figures (anthropomorph with raised arms) (Eisenberg- example, in three Natufian sites (14,000e9500 BCE) in the Negev Degen and Nash, 2014: Fig. 6); male and female fertility symbols Highlands, ibex bones are dominant and comprise 26% of the (Schwimer, 2015:113e114), amongst others. All these associations osteological assemblage from Upper Besor 6, 36% from Rosh Ḥorsha are meaningful, especially since they are common in both rock art and 66% from Rosh Zin (Butler et al., 1977; Horwitz and Goring and the general art of the greater Near East (e.g. Porada, 1948: No. Morris, 2000). In the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (ca. 8500e6400 BCE) 600, Plate LXXXIV; Anati, 1972: Fig. 26; Clark, 2001:60; Abdul site of Naḥal ‘Issaron in the southern Negev, again ibex bones Nayeem, 2000:202; Schmidt, 2009: Figs. 4, 5 and 9; Vahdati, comprise the majority of animal remains (Goring-Morris and 2011: Fig. 6:9). In this paper, only two associations are addressed, Gopher, 1983). From the Late Neolithic (6400e4600 BCE) on- the ibex-dog or ibex-dog-hunter, and ibex with celestial symbols. wards, however, the composition of archaeo-faunal assemblages in the Negev changes drastically, with ibex bones absent or very 2. Background to the Negev ibex scarce. In the Southern Negev, a small faunal assemblage from the Late Neolithic cemetery of Eilat contained no ibex bones (Horwitz The species of ibex found today in the Negev desert, and most and Avner, in press) as was the case in the 5th-3rd millennia BCE ‘ probably in the past, is the Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana, SI Fig. 1). sites in the Uvda Valley (Horwitz, unpublished data). In the This species is well adapted to arid and hyper-arid environments, northern Negev, no ibex bones were found in sites (ca. e but restricted to steep mountainous terrain (Harrison and Bates, 4600 3600 BCE; e.g. Grigson, 1987, 1995), nor in any 3rd .Anre l ora fAi niomns13(07 35 (2017) 143 Environments Arid of Journal / al. et Avner U.

Fig. 2. Ibex and dogs: A-D. Various compositions from Har Karkom, SW Negev Highlands. E-G. Dogs kill ibex: E, F. Har Karkom, G. ‘Uvda Valley, southern Negev. e 43

Fig. 3. Ibex hunting scenes: A-B. Har Karkom (for B- c.f. Anati, 1996:28), C. Har Eldad. 37 38 U. Avner et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 143 (2017) 35e43 millennium BCE Early Bronze Age sites, even those located in the SI Figs. 2e3). As suggested by several researchers (e.g. Fares, Negev Highlands, despite the latter being the most suitable natural 2006:41e2; Rollefson, et al., 2008:18; Judd, 2011:193; Anati, habitat for ibex herds (Horwitz et al., 2002; Hakker-Orion, 2014). 2015:71e2, 115e142), the hunting scenes reflect economic reality Likewise, ibex remains are absent in Middle Bronze Age (ca. and represent sympathetic magic, intended to ensure a successful 2000e1550 BCE), Iron Age (ca. 1200e586 BCE) and Persian (ca. hunt. However, since ibex did not play a major economic role for 586e332 BCE) period sites in the Negev (Horwitz and Raphael, desert communities after the Early Neolithic, a possible option is 1995; Hakker-Orion, 1999, 2004, 2007; Sapir-Hen and Ben-Yosef, that the hunt depicted was a ritual. A ritual-social explanation, 2014) with a few, tentatively identified ibex bones in only one based on pre-Islamic poetry, has been offered by Corbett Persian period fortress, Ḥorvat Rogem (Hakker-Orion, 2004). With (2010:180e182) who related the ibex hunt to an initiation event the exception of two ibex bones identified among 1300 bones at the from adolescence to adulthood. Late Roman fortress of Yotvata in the southern ‘Araba Valley As will be discussed below, basing ourselves on several different (Halbmaier, 2015), to date, no ibex remains have been found in any sources including artistic iconography of the Near East spanning of the Roman, Byzantine or Early Islamic sites in the Negev (37 BCE- different periods (e.g. Porada, 1948; Keel and Uehlinger, 1998), we 1099 CE, e.g. Horwitz, 1995, 1998; Horwitz et al., 1997; Kishon et al., propose that the ritual nature of the ibex hunt as depicted in Negev in press). The paucity of ibex bones in sites post-dating the 6th rock art holds greater symbolic dimensions. Two examples of rock millennium BCE is further highlighted by the opposite picture for engravings support this impression. Fig. 4a appears to represent a gazelle, a species whose remains are present in many ancient Negev person holding an ibex by the horns while another is shooting an sites, albeit in low percentages (e.g. Hakker-Orion, 1999, 2004, arrow at the animal. Given this interpretation, the ibex appears to 2007, 2014). However, depictions of gazelles are extremely rare in have been captured sometime before, while the scene focuses on the Negev rock art (c.f. Eisenberg-Degen and Rosen, 2013; the very act of the kill. In the second (Fig. 4b), the hunter seems to Schwimer, 2015). be shooting an arrow through the ibex's horns to kill the dog The faunal data clearly demonstrates that from the 6th millen- behind it and so ‘saves’ the ibex. This scene is not common, but is nium BCE onwards, the ibex played a negligible economic role for also not an isolated occurrence. In additional examples from Negev the Negev inhabitants despite being present in the region, as evi- petroglyphs, the dog depicted as behind or in front of the ibex is denced by their occasional remains in archaeological sites and its upside-down i.e. dead (Fig. 4c, d). This theme is paralleled and well continued presence in the Negev up until today (Yom-Tov and illuminated in examples from the greater Near East (listed in Mendelssohn, 1988). The main reason is undoubtedly the adop- ascending chronological order). For example, an Achaemenid seal tion of animal husbandry by the desert populations around 6000 impression from Persepolis (5th century BCE, Iran), presenting a BCE, a mode of subsistence which replaced hunting (Avner, hunter shooting arrows at a lioness attacking an ibex- and so 1990:127, 1998:152; 2002:12, 32, 152; Rosen et al., 2005; Babenko ‘saving’ the ibex (SI Fig. 4a). Another parallel is an Akkadian seal and Khassanov, 2007). However, as noted in the introduction, the impression (ca. 1700 BCE, Mesopotamia), presenting two scenes (SI bulk of the Negev rock art appears to have been engraved by the Fig. 4b). In the upper one the dog kills the ibex, as in many other agro-pastoral inhabitants of the Negev and not by earlier hunter/ examples (Fig. 2 and SI Figs. 2e3), while in the lower, the snake kills gatherers. the dog, thereby “saving” the ibex. In a third example, a seal from In light of the above data, the dominance of the ibex in the Dilmun (ca. 1800 BCE, Baḥrain), the ibex and the snake are both Negev rock art is remarkable and clearly not a naturalistic depiction above the dog, i.e. defeating him (SI Fig. 4c). Further examples are of an important dietary element. Due to its power, large horns, found on glyptics from Iran (ca. 1800 BCE) and Cyprus (ca. 1600 unique climbing ability and adaptation to a variety of harsh envi- BCE) where the ibex is often depicted both upright and upside- ronments, it has been suggested that the ibex was impressive down (SI Fig. 5aed) which, following this reasoning, means that enough to stimulate artistic depictions (c.f. Keel and Uehlinger, the ibex is depicted both alive and dead. 1998:20). Another suggestion is that for Negev herding societies The assemblage of examples from rock art and from the general the ibex symbolized wildlife and virility (Eisenberg-Degen and art of the Near East illuminates the symbolic association of the dog Nash, 2014). As valid as these arguments are, they do not seem to and the ibex. Since the dog so often attacks the ibex and also kills it, explain the ibex's dominance in rock art. This impression is we suggest that the dog probably represents death and the un- enhanced by the fact that ibex engravings are prominent even in derworld, similar to Anubis (the jackal god) in ancient Egypt (Hart, steppe zones, away from their natural, mountainous habitat, e.g. at 1990:21e27; Altermüller, 1975) or Cerberus in the Greek mythol- Giv‘at HaKetovot (NW Negev, Eisenberg-Degen and Rosen, 2013)or ogy (Bloomfield, 1905). The ibex, on the other hand, depicted both in the sandy steppe of southern Sinai (U. Avner, personal observa- alive (upright) and dead (upside-down), may represent a cycle of tion). So, the question remains, what was the source of the life and death, possibly a dying and resurrected god such as Dumuzi importance of ibex? in Mesopotamia, Ba‘al in Cana‘an, Osiris in Egypt and Adonis in (Frazer, 1913: Vols. IV, V, VI, VIII; Mettinger, 2001). Ample 3. Ibex hunting versus ritual killing artistic representations from the greater Near East support identi- fication of the ibex as a divine symbol that undergoes resurrection In Negev rock art, the most common iconic combinations are (see below). In the context of Egyptian rock art, Huyge (2002:201) ibex with dogs, the latter are depicted attacking the ibex, chasing, similarly interprets the ibex as a symbol of renewal and rejuvena- confronting, mounted on their backs or surrounding them tion. The cycle relates directly to nature and to the change of sea- (Fig. 2aed). In some scenes, the ibex is depicted upside-down next sons, which strongly influences the life of desert societies. The to an upright dog (Fig. 2eeg), while in others the dog is portrayed month of July (Akkadian- Du‘uzu, Hebrew- Tamuz) is the month of upside-down and the ibex upright. We interpret the animal por- the death of the Mesopotamian god Dumuzi. At this time, vegeta- trayed upside-down as representing one that is dead, while the tion is parched, water sources are scarce, animals and humans are upright animal is alive. stressed. In the autumn season (December), Dumuzi returns from In other instances, ibex are shown hunted by archers, with or the underworld, bringing rain that revives the vegetation and re- without the support of dogs (Fig. 3aec). Ample similar associations stores nourishment to animals and humans (Mettinger, 2001: Ch. 7, of the ibex with dogs and with hunters are known from both the with references). The death and resurrection cycle is well repre- rock art and the general art of the Near East (for a few examples see sented in a rock engraving from Naḥal ‘Amram, southern ‘Araba U. Avner et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 143 (2017) 35e43 39

(Fig. 5a). It shows two mirrored ibex, the upper one stands nor- with the animals apparently interchangeable in this rite. In the mally, with what appears to be a leopard behind him, while the greater Near East, the use of the name Tamuz indicates an associ- lower animal is depicted upside-down. A horizontal line separating ation with an older tradition relating to the death and resurrection them seems to represent the surface, implying that the lower, cycle of the deity Dumuzi/Tamuz, as has been discussed above. upside-down ibex, is dead i.e. in the underworld. This scene is well An older connection between the ibex and rain may be found in paralleled by the mirrored image of Dumuzi on an Akkadian seal a small Nabataean temple, dated from the first century BCE to the impression (ca. 1700 BCE), depicted both upright and upside-down 3rd century CE, built on the summit of Mount Serbal, southern Sinai between a pair of senior deities (Fig. 5b), and beside them the (2070 m a.s.l.). In the temple, several metal objects were found (SI familiar ibex and dog. Fig. 6), one was a pair of ibex horns cast in copper, 12 cm long, probably from an ibex statue (Avner, 2015). The ibex, as a mountain animal, is the best candidate to represent the main aspect of 4. Ibex and rain Dushara, the chief Nabataean god and a mountain god- “that of the Shara Mountains” (Healey, 2001:87; Zayadine, 2003:59), that brings The ritual nature of the ibex hunt is well attested in the studies rain from the sky, much like the Arabian deity ‘Attar (see above), the of Ingrams (1937) and Serjeant (1976), who recorded such hunting Canaanean Ba‘al (Wiggins, 2000) and other mountain-storm gods expeditions in the 1930's through 1960's in the Arabian Peninsula, (Green, 2003). mainly in the Hadramaut. In all cases, several days of ceremonies The connection of ibex with rain may actually have had much both preceded and followed the ibex hunt. During the latter, hun- older roots. On a pottery bowl from Susa, Iran, ca. 3600 BCE, two dreds of people shared the meat of the hunted ibex, such that no mirrored scenes are depicted (with other motifs, SI Fig. 7). In each, fi direct economic bene t was derived from these hunts. However, an ibex with tree-like horns is shown, with a dog on its back and “ when interviewed, a mansab (spiritual leader) said: If we did not another dog and a bird behind him, all are standing on top of a …” hunt (an ibex) the rain would not come to us (Serjeant, 1976:36). “comb”. Based on parallels, Ackerman (1967: 2920e27) interpreted The connection of the ibex with rainfall is also expressed in the “comb” as a rain-giving cloud and pointed to other examples older Arabian sources. In a Sabaean inscription (CIH547; ca. 8th where the ibex is connected with rain. Due to this association, she ‘ century BCE), the god Attar prevents rain from his tribe since they interpreted the ibex as a symbol of both Anu, the sky god, and Sin, e did not perform the (ibex) hunt properly (Beeston, 1937:50 52; the moon god. Serjeant, 1976:35). Furthermore, the storm gods ‘Attar and Ta‘lab were identified in south Arabia with the ibex (Serjeant, 1976:74e77). 5. Ibex and celestial constellations Rain invoking rituals were still practiced in the mid-20th cen- tury in northern Iraq, preserving the connection to the ibex. This is In the Negev rock art, the ibex occurs sometimes with a star, a illustrated in a Kurdish rain ritual, where the main figure is a male cross, a circular spot or with the sun (SI Fig. 8aed). The same dancer whose costume included a goat beard, while a Yazidi rain symbols recur with the ibex in rock art in other Near Eastern ritual in the same region addressed Malek Ta‘uz (¼King Tamuz), countries, similar to their co-occurrence in other art media of this whose symbol was an ibex or a domestic goat (Frankfort, 1934), region (SI Fig. 9aeg). Repetition and connotations of these symbols

Fig. 4. Dead ibex and ibex alive with dead dogs: A. Killing the ibex, Har Karkom (c.f. Anati, 2015, Fig. 145), B. Killing the dog, Har Karkom, C. Har Miḥia, the dog to the right of the ibex is upside-down, D. Har Miḥia, the dog is upside-down relative to the ibex. 40 U. Avner et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 143 (2017) 35e43

Fig. 5. A. Naḥal ‘Amram, southern ‘Araba, mirrored ibex (alive and dead) with what may be a leopard behind the upper one. B. Akkadian seal impression, ca. 1800 BCE, showing a dead and alive young god between two senior deities, with an ibex and dog and additional details (Ward, 1910; No. 1160; Winter, 1983; Abb. 98). indicate their celestial origin (Henning, 1936:34e36; Van Buren, the cycle of Dumuzi, since the times of the rising and setting of all 1945:82e5, 110e14: Ackerman, 1967:2920e25). constellations changes by one month in every 2106 years due to the Since the ibex is a mountain animal, it may have been perceived sun's precession. As a result, the ibex almost disappeared from as being closer to the sky than humans and their habitations, Mesopotamian-Iranian art, replaced by another celestial drama - located at lower altitudes, but this explanation seems unsatisfac- the combat between the lion and the bull (i.e. Leo and Taurus, tory and simplistic. Some scholars suggested a broader and deeper Hartner, 1965:15e16). Hartner (1965:9), and more recently Dibon- connection, identifying the ibex with the Capricorn constellation Smith (2015:28), further suggested that by the mid-4th millennium (Barnett, 1966:275; Lemaire, 1999:197; Haghighat and Sa‘doddin, BCE the ibex constellation was divided into two- Capricorn and 2010:67e72; Younger, 2012:215). Based on ancient Aquarius. Support for this celestial concept may be found in the Mesopotamian-Iranian art and archaeo-astronomy, Hartner (1965) name of the ninth Sumerian king (ca. 2800 BCE), EN.NUN.DAR- showed that until the 4th millennium BCE an ancient star A.ANNA (Jacobsen, 1939:170, Tables 1 and 2) or EN.DARA.AN.NA constellation was viewed as an ibex (SI Fig. 10). It made a heliacal (Zevulun and Ziffer, 2012:443), translated as “Lord Ibex of Heaven”. appearance in the sky in December and disappeared in June, syn- Indeed, ibex imagery did not totally disappear from the Near chronized with the revival and death of the Mesopotamian deity Eastern art. It was common in Late Bronze-Iron Age seals (e.g. Keel Dumuzi and with the change of the seasons (Hartner, 1965:1e6, and Uehlinger, 1998: Nos. 1a,b, 101b, 152b, 154b; Ornan, 2005: 8e10, Diagrams 1e5; c.f. Rogers, 1998:24 and Fig. 7). Later, the Figs. 33, 42, 43, 122 and 171; Sass, 1993: 224, Figs. 111e113) and very timing of the ibex in the sky could no longer be synchronized with common in the Iron Age metal works of central-western Iran (the U. Avner et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 143 (2017) 35e43 41

“Luristan Bronzes”, early first millennium BCE; Amiet, 1976, in the sky, identifying stars and constellations with deities - relating passim). A bronze bowl from Luristan, originated in Syria or Phoe- them to mythological stories and seasons, and decorated numerous nicia and dated around 700 BCE, is important in this context. It artefacts with their images (Evans, 1998; Ruggles, 2005). For the presents a large anthropomorph in the center, striding above an ancient Near East, the most detailed recording of the starry sky is ibex, surrounded by the star-full sky, with the sun, the moon, six that of the series MUL.APIN (the “Plough Constellation”, written zodiac constellations and the planets (SI Fig. 11a, Barnett, 1966; early 1st millennium BCE). It embodies Sumerian and Akkadian Lemaire, 1999; Younger, 2012). The anthropomorph, facing to the traditions of the third and second millennia BCE (probably even the right, is identified by the writers as Orion, the hunter or hero in the fourth), with the addition of new, first millennium ideas concerning Greek mythology, while the ibex, facing left, is identified with the sky (Horowitz and Watson, 2011; Horowitz, 2005). The fact that Capricorn. However, in the sky, the constellation just below Orion is the ibex is not recorded in the mature Mesopotamian stellar Lepus, the rabbit (who is facing right), and not Capricorn (the ibex) repertoire of the second and first millennia BCE, fits well with the (SI Fig. 11b). This, brings to mind the possibility that in the past theory of Hartner (1965) and Dibon-Smith (2015) elucidated above. another tradition existed, one that perceived and drew the celestial constellation Lepus as an ibex facing left, as depicted in the Luristan 6. Conclusions bowl (SI Fig. 11c). This theory may find possible support in a Syrian cylinder seal that seems to present an ibex with rabbit ears, A brief survey of the symbolic role of the male ibex in the Negev combining the two traditions (SI Fig. 12, Collon, 1982: Fig. 4g; rock art shows that the animal was highlighted in most panels. Zevulun and Ziffer, 2012: Fig 24). More so, its recurrence and predominance throughout the rock art The connection of Orion with the ibex, representing the deity chronological sequence is not paralleled by any other zoomorphic Dumuzi/Tammuz, is also echoed in an earlier group of cuneiform image. Though the exact role of the ibex for past desert societies is astronomical texts. “Astrolabe B” from Berlin, a 12th century not fully understood as yet, the evidence presented here seem to bilingual Sumerian-Akkadian hemerology, states the following in a support its identification as a symbol of a dying and resurrected passage for the month of Tammuz: god, related to rainfall, the changing of seasons and the fertility of Translated from Sumerian- “The month of Tammuz, mulsipa.- the soil, animals and humans. This symbolic - iconic linkage was zi.an.na (¼ The True Shepherd of Heaven), Ninsubur, the great vizier apparently adopted by early desert communities and continued of An and Inanna. The month of heaping up seed, taking out seed early. into the Islamic era. The ibex and its combinations with other The wailing of Ninrurugu, the month when the shepherd Dumuzi was motifs also appears in artistic representations from the greater Near captured. (Horowitz, 2014:64). East that are older than the majority of Negev engravings, appar- Translated from Akkadian- “The month of Tammuz (the ently indicating that a shared iconographic tradition (and possibly  constellation) Sitadallu, Papsukkal, the great vizier of Anu and Istar. symbology) spanned large geographic realms and chronological The month of heaping up seed, taking out early seed. The wailing of periods in this region. Ninrurugu, the month when the shepherd Dumuzi was captured” The Negev rock art scenes, whether executed during a ritual or (Horowitz, 2014). not, involving shamans or commoners, were meant to invoke the In the Astrolabe tradition, Orion rises in the month of Tammuz, divine to provide well-being and fertility. The cultic, mythological also named here Ninrurugu, (Horowitz, 2015: 64e68), the fourth interpretation makes better sense when ibex appears with the month of the Mesopotamian year, the height of the Mesopotamian associated elements, but its meaning is more hidden when it was summer, when lamentation rituals were recited for Dumuzi's just engraved individually. Perhaps the ibex alone was an abbre- death. Yet, following the Sumerian tradition and the mainstream viated representation of the broader idea (pars pro toto), known Mesopotamian astronomy, Orion is not a hunter. His Sumerian both to the engraver and to spectators. For example, the ibex could name, mulSIPA.ZI.AN.NA, literally means- “The True Shepherd of be engraved as an act of invoking him to come back from the un- Heaven”. This title suits the Mesopotamian plain, where herding derworld and bring rain, which was obviously crucial for desert sheep and goat was a central pillar of economy, while viewing inhabitants. Orion as a hero or hunter only began with the Greek and Roman Though the precise meaning of rock art is generally obscure to mythology (Pat-El, 2008:564). The Akkadian name for the us, by following associations and repeating patterns, and by using a    constellation, Sitadallu (alternatively Sidallu or Sitaddaru) literally- broader array of sources - artistic, textural, anthropological “The One who is Smitten by Weapon” (Kurtig, 2007: 445) provides a zoological and archaeo-astronomical, some rock art themes may be hint for the possible association between Orion and the ibex contextualized and so deciphered. Our impression is that rock en- tradition, that was known in Mesopotamia. Two additional Akka- gravings contain rich cultural and mythological content which dian texts cited by Horowitz (2014:67e68), also link Orion with require and justify such intensive and broad-spectrum research. Dumuzi. Although many ethically refrain from interpreting rock art, we find In light of the cuneiform texts, we suggest that the iconography it essential, even with the chance of erring. Discussions and cor- of the bronze bowl from Luristan (SI Fig. 11)reflects a tradition rections in interpretation of archaeological artifacts are regularly identifying the hunter/shepherd Dumuzi/Tammuz and the ibex ongoing, so rock art requires and deserves the same approach. with Orion and Lepus - the latter viewed as a left-facing ibex (SI Fig. 15c). Acknowledgements Though the specific role of the ibex in the sky, in different times, is currently not totally clear, the frequent association of ibex with We are grateful to: Christian Robin for providing Beeston's paper the dog, the hunter and stars, in petroglyphs and in the art of the and the text of CIH547 with explanations, and SI Fig. 2b; Dr. Irit Near East in general, seems now well connected to celestial cos- Ziffer for providing a copy of her paper published with U. Zevulun, mology. Indeed, there is nothing new in linking rock art and general and the reference to Jacobsen, 1939; Dr. Mohammad Naserifard for art with astronomy, cosmology and mythology (e.g. Hartner, 1965; sending us the link to his publication and additional Iranian ma- Sognnes, 1996:25e6; Whitley, 1998, 2005; Bradley, 2006; terials; Wienie van der Oord of the Israel Astronomic Association Kristiansen, 2010; Melheim, 2013). The profound interest of past for the suggestions concerning the ibex as a star constellation and societies in the sky is well attested through ample written docu- for preparing the illustration (SI Fig. 11b, c). U. Avner would like to ments of various cultures. They carefully recorded the stars’ timing thank Prof. Tryggve Mettinger (Lund University) for sending him 42 U. Avner et al. / Journal of Arid Environments 143 (2017) 35e43 his book “The Riddle of Resurrection”; Wienie van der Oord and southern Negev: preliminary report of the excavations in 1980. Israel Explor. J. e Dominique Slous for assistance in reading German and French 33, 149 162. Green, A.W., 2003. The Storm God in the Ancient Near East. Eisenbrauns, Winona publications; and the Negev Rock Art Center for support. Photo- Lake. graphs are by U. Avner, unless otherwise stated. Grigson, C., 1987. Shiqmim: pastoralism and other aspects of animal management in the Chalcolithic of the northern Negev. In: Levy, T.E. 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