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A Note on the Language A NOTE ON THE LANGUAGE Until the great migration of the 1920s the majority of Charleston’s popula- tion consisted of persons of African descent. European immigrants arriving in the lowcountry prior to this time would have acquired the English spoken by those around them, whether by their dah (nursemaid) or by their neighbors, vendors, or coworkers along the wharves. Housing in Charleston was never segregated by law. The linguist Lorenzo Dow Turner noted that the English ‘th’ sound does not exist in Gullah-Geechee nor in many West African languages. Coinciden- tally, it does not exist in French or German, either. In pronouncing English words containing this sound, both the Gullah-Geechee speaker and the West African substitute voiced [d] and voiceless [t]. For example, “they” is pro- nounced dey, “them” as dem, “with” as wit’. Also, [v] is pronounced [b] or oc- casionally as [w]. Gone may be used for all tenses of go. Gwi is future tense for will. The final “r” is not pronounced. Possession is shown by proximity and not an apostrophe as in English. Auxiliary verbs are often absent; repetition and double negatives are common. Groups of words may be used to describe a characteristic of a thing or person. Tone can be used to convey tense or a spe- cial meaning, and tone does not go up at the end of a question as in English. However, tone does go up at the end of a statement. It has been my observation that in varying levels of intensity and consis- tency, aspects of the West African based Gullah-Geechee language and as- sociated communication styles can be heard in the speech patterns of many older Charlestonians regardless of race or class. Linguistic scholars, including Dr. Katherine Wyly Mille, acknowledge the significant influence of West Af- rican pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary on overall Charleston speech. However, linguists draw a distinction between Gullah-Geechee Creole and Charleston English dialect. The presence of West African–influenced speech is central to this story. Yet, how to portray the language on the page, given the well-known diffi- culties associated with dialect? Foremost among these difficulties, dialect has historically been applied unevenly and used to show condescension. Addition- ally, the typographical oddities and misspellings alienate many readers. The Moore Book.indd 17 11/24/15 9:09 AM poor apostrophe is weary from the load it has too often been forced to carry. Therefore, I have chosen to rely on a different strategy, and whenever possible to give the apostrophe a rest. Dialect is portrayed in snippets—a single word, a random phrase, an occasional paragraph, particularly when a new character is introduced or during an emotional outburst: auditory navigational aids, if you will, bell buoys placed every so often as channel markers within the Gullah- Geechee/Charleston English spectrum. You are invited to listen for the sounds and rhythms of de mores beautiful language whenever a Charleston- born character is speaking. xviii Moore Book.indd 18 11/24/15 9:09 AM GLOSSARY Abbreviations G: West African/Gullah CE: Gullah-influenced Charleston English Adu: Yoruba/G, very black Ajani: Yoruba/G, one who wins after a struggle Andunu: Wolof, we are not united. G, I was not with you Bay-uh: CE, beer and bear; pronounced the same Becuz: G/CE, because Bin yah: G/CE, been here Bo-it: G/CE, boat Buckruh: Ibibio/Efik/G, white man. High buckruh: rich white man Dah: G/CE, nursemaid/nanny or servant. Ewe, mother, elder sister Dayclean: G, the sun has risen/broad daylight; pronounced dey klin De mores: G, the most E/e: G, pronoun for he, she, or it Ebuh: G, ever. Evuh: CE, ever E luke’luke bird: G, a grayish-brown marsh bird E time fuh gone: G, it’s time to go E eye tie up on yuh: G, he/she can’t keep his/her eye off of you Enu fole: Ewe/G, to be pregnant Faw-ibe: G, five. Faw-ive: CE, five Fuh true: G/CE, truthfully Fus’ daa’k: G, first dark, twilight; or may say “sun lean” Gafa: G, evil spirit. Mende, spirit soul, idol Gho-iss: G/CE, ghost Gwi (or gwine): G, going, or would; also, future tense for “will”; “gone” may be used for all tenses of “go” Haint: G, a ghost or restless sprit that will sit on a person’s chest at night, and take the breath away, leaving him exhausted and weak in the morning. Also known as a Boo Hag or a Haint Hag. Harr-y-kin: CE, hurricane Moore Book.indd 19 11/24/15 9:09 AM Head tek way: G, lost his/her mind, or he/she is crazy He’lenga: Mende/G, the period just after dark, the sitting-together time Hol’ um cheap: G, having no respect for someone Kamba’boli bird: G, a speckled bird who sings when the tide is rising. Kofi: Twi/Ewe/Fante/Gold Coast/G, basket name for boy born on a Friday Ma’magole: Mende/G, elderly white woman Marriage’um: G, to mix or blend Mek so?: G, why? Mek so yuh duh worry?: G, why are you so worried? Mores: G, most. De mores: G, the most Noko’noko: G, I’ll have nothing to do with you. Gold Coast, nothing, nothing Oonuh: G, you. Yuh: CE, your, or another form of “you” Olowo: Yoruba/G, a person who commands respect Pawpus: CE, porpoise Pizen: CE, poison Puntop: G/CE, up on top, or on top of Sibi bean: G, lima bean. Sivy: G/CE, lima bean. Seb: Wolof, bean Study e head: G, think hard about something Sun-Lean: G, sun begins to decline Sun-lean-fuh-down: G, sun is setting Sweetmouth: G, flattery, bribery Tana: Yoruba/G, to light a lamp. Bobangi/G, to be beautiful Tangledy: G, tangled; confusing Tata: Kimbundu/Kongo/G, father Tek foot een han’: G, to hurry; take his/her/your foot in his/her/your hand T’engk: G/CE, thank T’ink: G/CE, think Trute: G/CE, truth True-mouth: G, one who will not lie. Sometimes pronounced Trute-mout’ Trus-me-Gawd: G, an undependable homemade boat Tummetuh: G/CE, tomato Wa’yiba: Kimbundu/G, bad person Wuk: G/CE, work Wulula: Kongo/G, to rescue from great danger to life Sources Emory S. Campbell. Gullah Cultural Legacies: A Synopsis of Gullah Traditions, Customary Beliefs, Art Forms and Speech on Hilton Head Island and Vicinal Sea xx Moore Book.indd 20 11/24/15 9:09 AM Islands in South Carolina and Georgia Gullah Cultural Legacies. 3rd edition. Hilton Head, S.C.: Gullah Heritage Consulting Services, 2008. Virginia Mixson Geraty. Gulluh Fuh Oonuh (Gullah for You): A Guide to the Gullah Language. Orangeburg, S.C.: Sandlapper Publishing, 1998. Ambrose Elliot Gonzales. The Black Border: Gullah Stories of the Carolina Coast. Columbia, S.C.: State Company, 1922. Katherine Wyly Mille. “Charleston English.” In The New Encyclopedia of South- ern Culture, vol. 5: Language, edited by Michael Montgomery, Ellen John- son, and Charles Reagan Wilson. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007. Lorenzo Dow Turner. Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect, with an introduction by Katherine Wyly Mille and Michael B. Montgomery. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002. Michael W. Twitty “Quotes Part Two: New Gems.” Afroculinaria. 20 Oct. 2011. Web. Accessed 27 Jan. 2015. http://afroculinaria.com/2011/10/20/quotes-part -two-new-gems/. xxi Moore Book.indd 21 11/24/15 9:09 AM.
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