Introduction to Themselves

Memorial photos of kamikaze pilots, Yasukuni Shrine. Courtesy of the Y the of Courtesy Shrine. Yasukuni pilots, kamikaze of photos Memorial 38 The Asia-Pacific War Sixty Years On

Nations in the looking-glass: the war in changing retrospect, 1945-2005

pp.26-40 Ethan Mark dom, and progress, war with the Western Allies and resist- guest editor ance from the peoples of Asia had been the only possible recourse. n the beginning, it was simple. Or at least it seemed that Iway from so many different national vantages that it was There were, of course, from the beginning, major differences hard to dispute. The war in Asia had been a war between in how the war was narrated, interpreted, and explained. The pp.24-25 ‘good guys’ and ‘bad guys,’ and while opinions in different early, momentous decision of the American occupation places varied on who exactly to count among the good guys, authorities to retain the Japanese emperor, with a correspon- in places as politically and socially diverse as China, Indone- ding narrative that essentially included him as one of the war’s sia, the Soviet Union, India, the United States, Korea, and ‘good guys’, provoked dissent worldwide, and - as noted by sev- the Netherlands, there was strikingly little disagreement over eral of the contributors to this special issue - left a deeply who the bad guys had been, at least at the national level. Even ambiguous legacy on the question of Japanese war responsi- as the fragile ‘anti-fascist’ alliance of the wartime Allies (and bility within Japan itself. Another area of immediate dis- their colonial subjects) gave way to the stark global opposi- agreement involved characterizations of Japan’s Western oppo- tions of the Cold War, even as bitter colonial wars flared up nents. In such venues as the Tokyo war crimes trials, in Vietnam, Indonesia, and elsewhere, anti-colonial nation- spokesmen for the victorious Western powers - carrying on in alist leaders, (former) imperialists, peasants, government the vein of Allied wartime propaganda - comfortably cast the officials, businessmen, capitalists and communists around Asia-Pacific War in the black and white terms of a struggle of

ICAS4 in Shanghai, On the Institute’s activities, the globe - including a substantial number of Japan’s own ‘civilization’ versus ‘barbarism’, of ‘democracy’ versus ‘fas-

> > citizens - could agree on this as few other things: Imperial cism’, of ‘freedom’ versus ‘tyranny’. But while they largely Japan had been the villain of wartime Asia. Promising to lead agreed with Allied characterizations of wartime Japan, many Japan and Asia to a brighter future free of Western domina- outside the West, as well as those to the left of the political tion, but harbouring a hyper-imperialist and ‘ultra-nation- spectrum the world over, were more skeptical regarding the alist’ sense of racial and cultural superiority and a brutal West’s own aims and motives in Asia before, during, and after indifference to human life and dignity, the marauding Japan- the war. Missing from this story, for them, was an acknowl- ese - like their fascist allies in Europe - had brought only edgement of the fundamentally imperialist identity of the The Asia-Pacific War: history & memory 1-23 pp. world, the changed that conflict a on retrospective sixty-year a special issue special oppression, death and destruction to Asia and, ultimately, combatants on both sides, and the fundamental nature of the continued on page 4 Introduction to themselves. Against these enemies of civilization, free- > Asia scholars as Contents #38 intermediaries between The Asia-Pacific War: history & memory 1, 4, 5 Nations in the looking-glass: the war in changing retrospect, 1945-2005 / East and West Ethan Mark 3 The politics of memory / Takeo David Hymans 6 War and the colonial legacy in recent South Korean scholarship / Kyu Hyun Kim ntil very recently, many scholars had the idea that Asian Studies was a west- 7 Between the national and the transnational: Li Xianglan/Yamaguchi Yoshiko and Uern endeavour. However, looking at the origin of the participants at ICAS we pan-Asianism / Yiman Wang see that half of them were from Asia and the other half from the rest of the world, 8 On occupied China / Poshek Fu living proof that Asian Studies is and will increasingly become an Asian exercise. 9 The lament of progressivism: voicing war responsibility in postwar Japan / Rikki Kersten One of the most important effects of the return of Asian Studies to its source is that 10 Workers at war: class formation in wartime Chongqing / Joshua H. Howard several research traditions which have strong regional anchoring, the Anglo-Saxon, 11 Neither victors nor victims: transplanted/suppressed memories of the South Asian, Chinese and continental European, will meet in Asia on a level the Sino-Japanese War in postwar Taiwan / Mike Shi-chi Lan playing field. The founding of an agile and mobile Asian Institute for Advanced 12 Memorializing the Tokyo air raids / Cary Karacas Studies in Beijing could lead to a platform in which new ideas emanating from the 13 The memory wars: Japan, China and Asia’s future / Peter King fusing of these rich research traditions can blossom. To give a higher profile to Asian 14 A slow remembering: China’s memory of the war against Japan / Rana Mitter Studies in Asia, I hope that the initiative of CASS to form an Asian Alliance for 15 Militarization of nutrition in wartime Japan / Katarzyna J. Cwiertka Asian Studies will materialize in the course of next year. 16 The nation’s path interrupted: the Pacific War in Philippine history textbooks / Portia L. Reyes Looking at the situation in Europe, a complicated picture presents itself. Recently, 17 Catastrophe on Peleliu: islanders’ memories of the Pacific War / Stephen C. Potocnik, the Euro-Commissioner of Research, pleaded for a European approach Murray and cooperation in all fields of study. Some representatives from Asian Studies in 18 A nightmare in the making: war, nation and children’s media in Japan, 1891-1945 / Europe have tried hard in the past decade to make this come true, but if we look at Owen Griffiths the reality, we see the crumbling of Asian Studies at universities all over Europe. 19 Anatomy of the Ytshtkan war museum: educating Japanese youth? / Takashi There is still not enough willingness to view Asian Studies at a European, let alone Yoshida global, level. 20 Negotiating colonialism: Taiwan literature during the Japanese occupation / Lin Pei-Yin What we see, just as in the US and Australia, is a mad scramble for Asian students 21 Connecting the experiences of the Sino-Japanese and Asia-Pacific Wars / note Director’s who are shortsightedly considered as means to prop up the budgets of universities. Ethan Mark Actually, the number of students from Asia in the western world has reached its 22 Borneo constituencies: Japanese rule and its legitimation / Remco Raben zenith and their numbers are dropping. Within one or two decades Asia will be more 23 ‘If the self is cultivated, ...’ - some remarks on philosophy and politics in wartime than self-sufficient in educating not only its own intelligentsia, but also many other Japan / Christian Uhl students from the rest of the world who will find the high quality and low cost of education in Asia most attractive.

International Institute for Asian Studies We, as Asia scholars, never had to be convinced of the importance of Asia. Our role 24 - 25 International Convention of Asia Scholars 4 in Shanghai will be to act as intermediaries between East and West amidst converging research 24 - 25 The future of Asia: cross-cultural conversations in history / Barabara Watson traditions in the emerging global research space of the 21st century, which will Andaya encompass all disciplines. In that way, Asia scholars can be considered avant garde. 26 - 27 IIAS fellows The mainstream will doubtlessly catch up in the not too distant future. < 28 IIAS research programmes, networks & initiatives 28 Energy Programme Asia / Mehdi Parvizi Amineh Wim Stokhof 29 Socio-Genetic Marginalization in Asia / Margaret Sleeboom-Faulkner Director, IIAS 30 Seeking knowledge unto Qum: the education of Indonesian Shi’i ustadhs / Zulkifli 31 The heart of Borneo: a challenge for social scientists / Manon Osseweijer and Gerard A. Persoon 31 Towards social stability and democratic governance in Central Eurasia: challenges to regional security / Irina Morozova 32 Illegal but licit: transnational flows and permissive polities in Asia / Willem van Schendel 33 Books received The International Institute for Asian 34 The future of rural income and rice production in China / Marrit van den Berg, Studies (IIAS) is a postdoctoral research Huib Hengsdijk, Wang Guanghuo, Joost Wolf, Martin van Ittersum, centre based in Leiden and Amsterdam, Reimund Roetter the Netherlands. Our main objective is 35 European Alliance for Asian Studies to encourage the interdisciplinary and 36 - 37 Announcements comparative study of Asia and to pro- 38 - 39 International conference agenda mote national and international cooperation in the field. The institute focuses on the humanities and social sciences and their interaction with other sciences.

IIAS values dynamism and versatility in its research programmes. Post-doctoral IIAS Newsletter research fellows are temporarily employed by or affiliated to IIAS, either within the framework of a collaborative research programme or on an individual basis. In its The IIAS Newsletter is a forum for authors from around the world to share commentary and opinion; short aim to disseminate broad, in-depth knowledge of Asia, the institute organizes research essays; book, journal, film and website reviews; fiction and artwork; and announcements of seminars, workshops and conferences, and publishes the IIAS Newsletter with a cir- events, projects and conferences with colleagues in academia and beyond. As the gap grows between www.iias.nl culation of 24,000. specialist knowledge and public discourse, we hope this newsletter will fill a science journalism niche within Asian studies. IIAS runs a database for Asian Studies with information on researchers and research-related institutes worldwide. As an international mediator and a clearing- We welcome contributions from our readers. Please send your copy and queries to the editors at: iias- house for knowledge and information, IIAS is active in creating international net- [email protected] works and launching international cooperative projects and research programmes. In this way, the institute functions as a window on Europe for non-European schol- Become one of our 24,000 readers worldwide and have the IIAS Newsletter arrive in your mailbox, four ars and contributes to the cultural rapprochement between Asia and Europe. times a year, free of charge: [email protected] IIAS also administers the secretariat of the European Alliance for Asian Studies To advertise in this newsletter: attn. Natasja Kershof, [email protected] (Asia Alliance: www.asia-alliance.org) and the Secretariat General of the International Convention of Asia Scholars (ICAS: www.icassecretariat.org). Our guideline for contributors, advertisement specifications, upcoming deadlines, and current and pre- Updates on the activities of the Asia Alliance and ICAS are published in the vious issues can be seen at: www.iias.nl IIAS Newsletter. <

2 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory The politics of memory

So that in the nature of man, we find three principal causes of quarrel. First, competition; secondly, diffidence; thirdly, glory. The first, maketh men invade for gain; the second, for safety; and the third, for reputation. The first use violence, to make themselves masters of other men’s persons, wives, children, and cattle; the second, to defend them; the third, for trifles, as a word, a smile, a different opinion, and any other sign of undervalue, either direct in their persons, or by reflection in their kindred, their friends, their nation, their profession, or their name. – Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, 1651

Sixty years after the collapse of the Japan- better. Thus all seemed well, at least at Fujioka Nobukatsu of the private but to bolster legitimacy for himself and his ese New Order in East Asia, the ghosts of the level of official diplomacy. officially well-connected Japanese Soci- reform agenda because the ‘old guard’ empire and war continue to haunt the ety for History Textbook Reform: ‘Our in the People’s Liberation Army – still region. As Tokyo lobbies for a permanent Silence on the war did not extend to history education is wrong. Since the in position to block Deng’s final consol- seat on the United Nations Security Japanese domestic politics, especially fol- end of World War II, we have been idation of power – were blasting his Council, demands for apology, compen- lowing rapprochement with the PRC and taught that our country was a villain in pragmatism as harmful to ideology, dis- sation and the forthright teaching of his- the escalation of the US war in Vietnam. the war. The Japanese have lost confi- cipline, and morale, and the foreign pol- tory simmer in the media, courts, civil The post-war battle over remembering dence in their ability to determine what icy that accompanied the four modern- societies and legislatures of affected and forgetting the war pit the Japan direction the country should take’. The izations as subservient. ‘By taking tough nations. With the region’s future once Teachers Union against the Ministry of Ministry’s approval of the Society’s text positions, Chinese leaders demonstrate again uncertain, the conflict of six Education; pacifists in the Socialist and for school use led to South Korea recall- their nationalist credentials and win decades ago is assuming greater signifi- Communist parties against proponents ing its ambassador and placing an vitally important domestic political sup- cance in its international relations. of big power status in the Liberal Demo- embargo on Japanese pop culture in port.... No Chinese politician can afford Editorial cratic Party; students’ and citizens’ 2001. History textbooks ‘offensive to to appear soft on “hegemony” or “impe- Much of the current acrimony has its groups and much of the intelligentsia Chinese feelings’ were at the core of the rialism” and expect to stay in power’ roots in the imperious nature of the against the established centre of political petition signed by over twenty million (David Shambaugh on PRC succession post-war settlement. As the authors in power. What was contested – as always – Chinese to deny Japan a seat on the UN politics, International Security, 21-2). this sixty-year retrospective point out, was contemporary: the security alliance Security Council in 2005. those wishing to reopen the book on with the United States, rearmament, revi- Reputation. Moral authority is essential wartime history and post-war official sion of the constitution’s war-renounc- Why is a war that ended sixty years ago to political power; governments want memory must first dig through succes- ing Article IX, control over education, so prominent on the international stage? historiography to foster pride in the sive layers of political imperative: super- political careers that reached back into We’re back to Hobbes. nation and loyalty to the state. Nor is it power confrontation, civil war, decoloni- wartime. Recalling the history of Japan- simply a matter of top-down manipula- sation, nation-building. Suffice to note ese aggression in Asia aided neither the Gain. In staking its claims for future tion. As Ernest Renan observed: ‘Getting here that many Asian grievances went LDP government’s legitimacy nor its regional leadership, Beijing has found history wrong is an essential part of unheard at the International Military Tri- cause of rearming Japan in the Cold War in the legacy of invasion and atrocity a being a nation’. The problem for inter- bunal for the Far East, dubbed by one – a point not lost on the left opposition. moral club to beat down its rival. national events such as war is that more critic ‘a white man’s tribunal’; that west- Around the region, competing versions than one nation will get the shared his- ern governments waived their citizens’ Beijing entered this heated debate in of the war buttress claims to territory tory wrong, while narratives for domes- rights to compensation in the 1951 San 1982, precipitating the first in a long and energy reserves disputed by Japan, tic consumption rarely please audiences Francisco Peace Treaty, where Japan series of diplomatic incidents between Russia, the PRC and South Korea. One abroad. Here theorists of globalisation emerged as the essential Asian ally in Japan and its East Asian neighbours also suspects indigenous competitors to overlook an important border-crossing containing communism; and that the over ‘the correct interpretation of histo- Hello Kitty to be active in any boycotts. commodity: offence. With the media’s reestablishment of official ties between ry’. At issue in 1982 was a Ministry of interest in sensationalism and the polit- Japan and the Republic of Korea (1965) Education ‘recommendation’ to replace Safety. The war’s use as domestic political utility of enemies real or imagined, and the People’s Republic of China ‘invasion’ with ‘advance’ (into China) in ical foil extends well beyond Japan. Car- it bodes ill for the future. < (1972) focused on diplomatic recogni- a high-school history textbook; textbooks oline Rose presents evidence in Inter- tion (exit Taiwan) and what Japan could have been central to the controversy ever preting History in Sino-Japanese Relations Takeo David Hymans do to aid economic development – the since. ‘Why does our nation stray from that Deng Xiaoping raised the stakes on Managing editor, IIAS less said of the ‘unfortunate period’ the the world stage during big events?’ asks Japan’s whitewashing of history in 1982 [email protected]

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IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 3 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory

war in Asia, as such, as a showdown between imperialists over The first of these was a general tendency to explain Japan- with the war in any unambiguous sense, problems that con- territories and peoples that neither side in fact had a right to ese wartime actions in terms of Japan’s presumed ‘excep- tinue to dog Japan’s relations with its immediate Asian claim. tional’ nature and/or cultural and institutional ‘immaturi- neighbours in particular. ty’. Even among the most thoughtful and informed observers This difference in perspective reflected stark divisions between in different parts of the world – at different ends of the polit- Yet as Rikki Kersten also observes in this issue, the distress- the worldviews of (former) Western colonizers – who preferred ical spectrum – there was a common assumption that Japan’s ing dominance of this official conservative line should not be to treat imperial Japan as a purely exceptional case, thus main- behavior in Asia had been, first, unusual in its oppressive- allowed to obscure the longstanding existence of less visible taining a healthy distance between its aggressive history and domestic voices of opposition on the war responsibility front, their own colonial pasts and presents – versus (former) Asian including progressive intellectuals who sought, from as early colonized, who could not help noting the ironies of such an nationalist elites seeking to throw off colonial as the 1950s, to transcend the troubling passivity common to exercise. It was also a reflection of the gap between the world- domination and consolidate their political hegemony both right and left-wing historical paradigms and seek the way views of liberal capitalism dominant in the Anglo-American forward to a more responsible and autonomous public life metropoles, versus those of Marxism-Leninism (in particular favoured stark, heroic narratives through a discourse of individual subjectivity. Still, until more its critique of imperialism) more influential elsewhere, includ- recently, the main subjects of these debates on subjectivity ing much of the colonized world. ness and brutality; and second, that this had been fostered remained Japan’s intellectual elite, with the implied immatu- by a certain ‘incompleteness’ in Japan’s development as a rity and passive victimhood of the Japanese masses in the war In the aftermath of the war, there were also profound dif- modern nation-state and society, a situation that had allowed, period remaining an inevitable byproduct. ferences between societies’ relative emphases on the war even encouraged, the persistence of certain ‘pre-modern’ or experience and its meanings. In places such as Indonesia ‘semi-feudal’ cultural peculiarities distinctive to Japan. Qual- Loaded narratives and Vietnam, armed conflicts with returning Western colo- ities frequently mentioned in this context included blind Whatever their shared shortcomings and omissions, these nizers and the priority on national unity very quickly made obedience to authority, racism, xenophobia, provincialism, competing historical narratives were invested with an energy the Japanese occupation period seem yesterday’s news, rel- conformism, anti-individualism, readiness for self-sacrifice, and urgency that betrayed them as much more than a simple egating its historical significance to that of a mere interlude and a tendency to violence. academic exercise. Indeed it can be argued that where the Asia- or preliminary to what now came assuredly (back) into focus Pacific War was concerned, the difficulty in moving beyond as the ‘main story’ in national terms: the ongoing, ultimately Within this general interpretive pattern, dominant around the starkly opposed, simplistic narratives of villains and victims - triumphant, struggle for independence against Western globe at least through the 1970s, there were, of course, great or, in the case of state-approved textbooks, beyond a deafen- domination. Portia Reyes’ contribution to this issue reveals differences of emphasis. Most scholars of Japan agreed, for ing silence on the whole subject – was testimony not to any how the Japanese occupation period was soon represented example, that the imperial state had been a major culprit in characteristic Japanese inability to deal in a sophisticated way as an ‘interruption’ in the dominant Philippine national determining Japan’s disastrous course, monopolizing and dic- with the past, but rather to the continuing, profoundly con- story, and as Rana Mitter observes in his essay, a similar tating the terms of national loyalty, militarizing Japan’s mass- tentious political implications carried by these narratives in the process of narrative backgrounding occurred in postwar es, and inhibiting the development of independent institu- making of postwar Japan and its national identity. In sum, how China, albeit with largely internal causes: the great domes- tions of bourgeois civil society and independent thinking as you characterized the prewar order - who your victims and vil- seen in more advanced parts of the world – assisted in this lains were, what aspects of the system you identified as the aim, again, by the persistence of ‘feudalistic’ attitudes among true culprits of the war – was also, inevitably, a commentary the war in Asia was a showdown between imperialists the Japanese people. Japanese scholars generally saw the war on the postwar order, on where Japan should go from here. over territories and peoples that neither side had a as an inevitable consequence of fundamental social deficiencies dating back to the nature of the 1868 Meiji Restoration, All the more so in a cold war world in which stark national right to claim and indeed continuing into the postwar present. Reflecting a choices had to be made. If the global capitalist system in gen- dominant Marxian bent, most of these did not stop at the vil- eral and Japanese capitalism in particular had been at the heart tic showdown between the communist and nationalist forces lainy of the state or the military as such, but attempted to of the wartime fiasco, for example, then it hardly made sense that followed on the heels of the Japanese occupation quick- explain Japan’s disastrous imperial course by focusing on the to maintain a close postwar alliance with the capitalist U.S., or ly pushed the events of the Sino-Japanese war period to the specific needs of an expanding but immature Japanese capi- to be content with the relatively cosmetic changes the U.S. had sidelines of historical narrative. This does not mean that the talism and its interdependent relationship with ‘semi-feudal’ made to the Japanese capitalist system during its occupation – Japanese period was forgotten, but rather that its narratives landed and military interests from the time of the Meiji set- all the while continuing to maintain a dangerous distance and meanings were subordinated, reduced and compressed tlement onwards. They saw the military showdown with the between Japan and its Asian neighbours, most importantly into a national history whose main thrust and climax lay else- Western powers in the Pacific as a reactionary attempt to shore China. And vice versa. Thus were postwar politics and histori- where. In Japan itself, in contrast, the war remained ‘the’ up this ‘emperor system’ (tennôsei) in crisis, in the context of cal narrative inexorably intertwined, leaving very little room for inevitable turning point in narratives of identity and histo- a global crisis of capitalism. In contrast, mainstream Anglo- nuance or ambiguity, a situation in which the state and its rep- ry, perennially marking the boundary between past and pres- American scholars of the 1950s-70s such as Edwin O. Reis- resentatives often took the easiest path by saying little or noth- ent in national as well as individual terms. This is not to say chauer were more sanguine, arguing that Japan’s prewar devel- ing at all. Cary Karacas’ essay here, sketching the convoluted that stories of the war in Japan were any less simplified, opment had shown signs of promise in a healthy, democratic, history of a monument to the victims of the 1945 Tokyo fire- reshaped, suppressed, or otherwise subordinated to postwar liberal capitalist direction, only to be hijacked by militarist bombing, is a vivid illustration of the tortured, contested nature political considerations, but rather simply to highlight the thugs who took advantage of a subservient public, social insta- of such attempts at representation in postwar Japan. relatively heightened degree of narrative and political weight bility due to the growing pains of economic development, and attached to such retellings. as-yet insufficiently autonomous public institutions. While fingers thus remained for the most part deservedly Probing Western pointed at Japanese for failing to take an objective reckoning Postwar pathologies weakness: a racy Whatever the great differences between these dominant Japan- of their wartime past, however, it was also difficult to see the Amidst these and other local variations, around the globe Japanese propaganda ese and Anglo-American storylines, one ironic correspondence global postwar landscape of history and memory as an entire- there remained certain striking formulaic similarities in how leaflet attempts to between them was that by placing the onus of the war on ly level playing field where ‘coming clean’ was concerned. For the story of the Asia-Pacific War was told in the postwar, undermine Allied Japan’s ‘ruling classes’ (variously defined) in combination with while many eyes focused on Japan, distortion, manipulation spanning every manner of political and cultural boundary. soldiers’ will to fight nslat.htm a certain general social and cultural underdevelopment, both and simplification of the wartime experience for political pur- narratives in their own ways carried on in the vein of the Tokyo poses – albeit with varying levels of devotion to scholarly ‘objec- war crimes trials in casting the Japanese people as victims of tivity’ – was in fact globally endemic in a postwar, cold war a sinister state, effectively absolving the mass of the Japanese world of nation-states attempting to (re-) establish legitimacy people from direct responsibility for the war. The war and superpowers battling for new influence. The Tokyo war remained not so much something that ordinary Japanese had crimes trials offered a blatant early example – even now pro- done to others, but rather something that had been done to, viding ammunition to Japan’s revisionist right wing – by insist- or happened to, ordinary Japanese. Throughout the postwar ing, against most of the historical evidence, on the existence period, this problem of what Carol Gluck has called ‘history of a long-term prewar Japanese plot to take over Asia and ulti- in the passive voice’ helped undergird a pervasive Japanese mately the world, while refusing to acknowledge any wrong- reticence regarding questions of war responsibility. The fact doing or culpability for the war on the side of the Western that Japan’s citizenry remained the only people of the world powers. subjected to the unspeakable horror of two atomic bombings added ammunition to a sense of general victimhood. But there were more subtle transgressions as well. As historian John Dower revealed in a feisty 1975 critique of the post- Further to the political right, the tendency to reticence on war American Japan studies establishment, for example, it Japan’s own war culpability was also fueled by conservative was more than coincidental that American scholars such as domestic interests including politicians and bureaucrats as Reischauer had offered a narrative of Japan’s war as a mis- well as veteran’s and ‘bereaved family’ groups – important taken detour on an otherwise steadily ascending path towards constituencies of the ruling Liberal Democratic Party – who a successful, democratic modernity. For, as Dower showed, maintained that the vilification of wartime Japan at the hands these scholars were convinced of the merits of the American of historians, social activists, and governments the world (liberal capitalist) social model, eager to see it fostered in Japan, over represented a distortion of history, little more than ‘vic- and thus determined not to leave the writing of Japan’s mod- tor’s justice’, propaganda spread by Japan’s enemies both ern history to ‘ideological’, ‘biased’ left-wing Japanese schol- internal and external. As Peter King’s essay here further ars who, they believed, sought to employ history to undermine explores, the combined result has been a Japanese state and the U.S.-sponsored postwar order, the U.S.-Japanese alliance,

Courtesy of Hans Moonen’s collection of propaganda leaflets of the second world war at http://members.home.nl/ww2propaganda/tra at war world second the of leaflets propaganda of collection Moonen’s Hans of Courtesy society that has had notorious problems in coming to terms and, ultimately, the American position in Asia.

4 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory

Meanwhile, in the many new Asian nations emerging from formerly excluded from view. This has included increased the wartime wreckage, the subordination of historical narra- attention to cross-border, ‘transnational’ historical processes tives of the war period to political considerations and the and interactions, to the lives of ordinary people, to moral ambi- ‘national interest’ was, if anything, more pronounced. For guity, and to identity as shifting, multiple, negotiated, inter- nationalist elites seeking to throw off colonial domination and dependent, and contingent. consolidate their political hegemony in societies in which the colonial period, the war, and its aftermath had left socially divi- Nationalism remains, of course, a profoundly powerful force nslat.htm sive legacies along lines of class, culture, ethnicity, and poli- in a world of competing nation-states, no more so than in the tics, there was a high premium on stark, heroic ‘us’ versus postcolonial world. But even here, postcolonial nationalism’s ‘them’ accounts of Japanese ‘oppression’ versus national failure to fulfill its early transcendent, unifying promise and ‘resistance’. The heady optimism of independence – along the passing of the old guard has encouraged a new willing- with the near universal postwar equation of anti-colonial ness to critique and transgress the rigid, static boundaries and nationalism with the world-historical forces of human liber- categories of orthodox nationalist thinking, and nationalist ation and progress – only provided further ammunition to the histories. Indeed, given the special vantage of postcolonial creation of black-and-white narratives, with the emergent anti- social contexts on the colonial relationship and its ambiguous colonial nation as their heroic subject. transnational legacies, it is perhaps not surprising that the expanding field of postcolonial studies, pioneered and spear- Within this uncompromising framework, there was little room headed by scholars of the South Asian subcontinent, has been to contemplate the war’s more ambiguous, multiple experi- at the cutting edge of many of these historiographical inno- ences, meanings, and legacies. In places such as Indonesia, vations. scholars and popular interpreters alike incorporated the Japan- ese occupation period into the new national mythology as a These developments have had important implications for the sort of divinely ordained national trial-by-fire, from which the study of modern Asian history, including the Asia-Pacific War nation was destined to emerge like a boomerang against the period. One result has been the highlighting of interactive, returning Western imperialists, stronger and more united transnational workings of social and cultural formation in than ever. Prominent people who had openly supported the Japan’s colonial encounters, moving beyond stark categories Japanese and were politically expendable, like Jorge Vargas in of oppression, resistance, and ‘collaboration’ to discover interests and processes that embraced people and institutions on both sides of the line dividing nation from nation and colo- the overall trend has been a slow but nizer and colonized. In the case of modern Japan specifically, steady de-mythologizing of the nation growing scholarly skepticism regarding nation-centered narratives generally has been expressed in a growing identifica-

as historical subject tion of, and assault on, ‘Orientalist’, exceptionalist assump- http://members.home.nl/ww2propaganda/tra at war world second the of leaflets propaganda of collection Moonen’s Hans of Courtesy tions about modern Japan that were, as noted above, the Philippines, faced condemnation as ‘traitors’ and ‘collab- near-universal to the discipline through the early postwar ‘Shock and awe’ circa nuanced and sophisticated perspectives on the Asia-Pacific orators’. But as Kyu Hyun Kim observes in this issue in the period. 1945: a chilling Amer- War and its legacies. But around the globe, contemporary pol- case of South Korea, the compromisingly close wartime asso- ican propaganda itics and worldviews have always intervened, and will ciation of many members of now dominant social classes with Studies such as Louise Young’s path-breaking Japan’s Total leaflet ticks off inevitably continue to intervene, in shaping depictions of this the Japanese ‘enemy’ – including subsequent national lead- Empire, for example, offered an exploration of Japan’s 1930s islands already cap- most profound of modern conflicts. The ratcheting contem- ers such as Suharto and Park – was a subject that most con- and 40s colonization of Manchuria, not as a result of Japan’s tured and warns porary tensions between Japan and China over the wartime temporary students of history preferred to shy away from. inherently exceptional, aggressive, underdeveloped qualities Japanese on the past indicate that Chinese and Japanese neo-nationalist sen- Where the nationalist interaction with the Japanese had been as a ‘late modernizer’, but rather as a result of Japan’s very mainland that timents may be at a postwar peak. Of course this development too prominent to be ignored – as in the case of Sukarno and modernity. Manchukuo thus appears as an illuminating local ‘the time is nigh’. says much more about changing contemporary domestic and Hatta in Indonesia – nationalist interpreters often sought to inflection of the modern processes and inter-workings of regional power balances than about the war experience itself. turn this sort of potentially divisive historical legacy into anoth- industrial capitalist development, the state, mass society, and And indeed, if there is any clear ‘take home’ message to be er nation-building strength, by presenting wartime associa- empire-building - in sum, as a site of modern global history in learned from examining the changing, varied, but also some- tion with the Japanese as a purely strategic and ultimately fruit- the making. Here, as in Yoshimi Yoshiaki’s path-breaking times similar ways of telling the story of the war around the ful maneuver, proof of the infallible political and historical Grass-Roots Fascism: The War Experience of the Japanese People globe over the last six decades, it is to confirm Benedetto sense of the nation’s leadership. The narrow, unforgiving (Kusa no ne no fashizumu: Nihon minshû no sensô taiken ), the Croce’s timeless maxim: All history is, in the end, a history of parameters of ‘collaboration’ and ‘resistance’ allowed little history of the war is told from the social ‘bottom up’ as well as the present. < room for anything in-between. from the ‘top down,’ revealing Japanese from all walks of life not only as passive victims, but also as active participants in Ethan Mark (Ph.D. Columbia University 2003) is Netherlands Insti- But how to contain the problem of ‘collaboration’ and secure the war effort, thus treading a field of moral and political ambi- tute for War Documentation/Ailion Foundation Postdoctoral Research nation-building lessons from the war experience when, at least guity previously off-limits on both right and left in Japan. Fellow in the Department of Korean and Japanese Studies, Leiden from the standpoint of the postwar rulers, the entire nation University. He is author of ‘Suharto’s New Order Remembers Japan’s itself had been on the ‘wrong side’ in the war? As Mike Lan- Whether focusing on the war experience itself, or on ways in New Order’ in Remco Raben, ed., Representing the Japanese Occu- shih Chi demonstrates here in the case of Taiwan, the answer which that history has been narrated in the postwar, many of pation of Indonesia (full cite below). His monograph The Limits of was to import a nationalist mythology from the mainland, the essays collected in this special issue reflect the contem- Liberation: Negotiating a New Asian Order in Occupied Java, effectively erasing the Taiwanese people from their own porary trend of strategically focusing on history’s hidden ‘grey 1942-1945 is forthcoming, as is ‘“Asia’s” Transwar Lineage: Nation- wartime history in the process. Ironically, the exigencies of areas’, ‘margins’, ‘intersections’ and ‘border crossings’. In alism, Marxism, and “Greater Asia” in an Indonesian Inflection’ in nation-building seeped into wartime narratives across the geo- their own ways, Owen Griffith’s consideration of prewar Japan- the Journal of Asian Studies. graphical and political divide of the Taiwan Straights as well: ese children’s literature, Yiman Wang’s essay on the actress [email protected] As Joshua Howard observes in his contribution to this issue, Li Guo Ren/Yamaguchi Yoshiko, Katarzyna Cwiertka’s dis- even in the ostensible ‘workers state’ of the People’s Repub- cussion of the war’s legacy to Japanese eating habits, Remco For further reading: lic of China, narratives of unified national resistance against - Brook, Timothy. 2001. ‘The Tokyo Judgment and the Rape of the Japanese served to obscure a dynamic wartime history of Nanking’. Journal of Asian Studies 60:3, pp. 673-701. class struggle and contestation in the urban areas under many of the essays collected here reflect the - Dower, John. 1987. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacif- nationalist control. contemporary trend of focusing on history’s grey areas, ic War. New York: Pantheon. - ______. 1999. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War The war in the post-postwar margins, intersections and border crossings Two. New York: W.W. Norton Co. In more recent times, as the standpoint of Chi, Kim, and other - Fogel, Joshua A., ed. 2000. The Nanjing Massacre in History and His- contributions to this special issue illustrate for different Raben’s assessment of Japanese attempts to establish legiti- toriography. Berkeley: University of California Press. national contexts, the passage of the wartime generation from macy in Borneo, Christian Uhl’s considerations on the ‘Kyoto - Gluck, Carol and Stephen Graubard, eds. 1991. Shôwa: The Japan of the political stage, the end of the Cold War and concomitant School’, Steven Murray’s analysis of Pelilieu residents’ mem- Hirohito. New York: W. W. Norton Co. weakening of political orthodoxies, and the transition from ories of the Asia-Pacific War, and Pei Yin-Lin’s treatment of - Raben, Remco, ed. 1999.Representing the Japanese Occupation of postwar to ‘post-postwar’ national orders in more general polit- unheralded Taiwanese wartime literature, highlight the logic Indonesia. Zwolle, Netherlands: Waanders Publishers. ical, economic, social, and cultural terms, has brought a new of this shift in emphasis. Each represents an attempt not sim- - Yoshiaki Yoshimi. 1987. Kusa no ne no fashizumu: Nihon minshû no openness to re-interpretations of ourselves, societies, and the ply to illuminate areas and linkages excluded from view in con- sensô taiken. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. world, inevitably opening up new angles and vantages on his- ventional, nation-centered narratives, but to offer, in so doing, - Young, Louise. 1998. Japan’s Total Empire: Manchuria and the Cul- tory as well. Across the globe, rising demands for social and new angles on, and constructions of, the ‘main story’ of the ture of Wartime Imperialism . Berkeley: University of California Press. political inclusion among newly assertive groups traditional- war and its aftermath in the Asia-Pacific. ly left out of the nation-building game, such as women and minorities, have prompted the construction of more inclusive Sixty years on - with the arrival of the post-postwar order, and and heterogenous histories. While varying widely from place the consequent, inevitable loosening of the postwar order’s to place, the overall trend has been a slow but steady de- political and cultural hold over our view of the world - it might mythologizing of the nation as historical subject, and the pur- not perhaps be overly optimistic or self-absorbed to argue that suit of alternative historical narratives, processes and actors these are encouraging times for the fashioning of new, more

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 5 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory War and the colonial legacy in recent South Korean scholarship For much of post-1945 or post-liberation history, Koreans have religiously celebrated August 15, commemorating the spontaneous outburst of joy that greeted the Showa Emperor’s declaration of surrender. And yet, remembrance of the liberation and its unfulfilled promise has engendered its own kind of selective amnesia, not unlike that among Japanese regarding their own war experience.

Kyu Hyun Kim Korea, inculcating Korean youth to state. Scholarly interpretations of Silla’s vigilance and neurosis about their own minority, but growing in importance, throw away their lives for the glory of the unification (668 A.D.) of the three moral uprightness. Moreover, this which tackle the difficulties and prob- n the mainstream Korean narrative of Japanese empire, or fictional works ancient kingdoms (Koguryn, Paekche dynamic of mass mobilization via moral lems of accessing memory of the colo- Ithe wartime period (1941-1945, or enveloped in a sheen of patriotic fervor and Silla), for instance, have always vigilance and constant differentiation is, nial period. Critical of the ‘nationalist’ more accurately 1937-1945, dated from and serene acceptance of the Holy War, assumed that unification was a desirable Sin suggests, in essence indistinguish- perspective that, in its extreme but by no the outbreak of the continental war looking to a future when Japan would goal, opening the way for ethnic con- able from Japanese wartime practices means atypical form, has cast the colo- against China), Koreans are relegated to emerge triumphant in the titanic strug- solidation of the Korean peoples. Im and discourses that Koreans have been nial-period experience as a shameful the position of victims. It was during this gle against the venal white races.1 asks whether any student of ancient educated and conditioned to negate and legacy to be discarded from the master period that Japanese exploitation of Kore- Greece would adopt a similar logic and reject, at least on the surface, as alien narrative of Korean ethnos/nation, these an socio-economic resources, both mate- By the mid-1990s, this newfound free- criticize the leaders of Athens, Sparta and evil. In Sin’s view, even the discov- scholars have found anti-colonial nation- rial and human, reached its height. It was dom in exposing the past sins of the and Thebes for not creating a ‘unified ery of ‘the people’ (minjung ) by alism to be ‘implicated’ in post-1945 also during this period, according to fathers and the scholarship it engendered Greek empire.’2 He finds similar eth- progressive scholars and intellectuals North and South Korea’s war mobi- most Korean scholars, that the Japanese moved into a new phase. While the dem- nocentrism and teleological drive did not fundamentally challenge the lization programs, which have ironi- colonizers tried to eradicate Korean cul- ocratically elected regimes of Kim Dae- towards reifying a proto-nation-state in entrenched discursive system of total cally shared important features with ture by forcing Koreans to worship at jung (1997-2002) and Roh Moo-hyun much of the academic discourse on early mobilization.5 Those who fell outside those implemented by the wartime Shinto shrines, by banning the Korean (2003-present) have continued to strug- modern and modern Korean history. the master narrative of ethnos/nation Japanese government. These works language from official use and designat- gle with ‘the dark legacy’ of the colonial And yet, Im’s book argued that nation- were at best ignored, at worst oppressed suggest that both unreflective rejection ing Japanese as the ‘national language’ period, South Korean scholars, now rel- alism in the Korean historical under- and regarded as ‘enemies’, again paral- of the colonial legacy in its entirety and (kokugo), and by adapting Korean family atively unencumbered by the desire to standing could be rehabilitated as criti- lel to the way the Japanese empire des- whitewashing of the collaboration and lineages into the Japanese household sys- subordinate such reflections to the polit- cal discourse. Korean nationalism could ignated critics of the state as ‘non- wartime mobilization among colonized tem, compelling the latter to choose ical objective of overthrowing military be reformulated as ‘civic nationalism’ (in nationals’ (hikokumin ). Koreans are inadequate for initiating Japanese-style names. Koreans have dictatorship, have begun a long and ardu- his English usage), decoupled from its the process of exploring postcolonial come to refer to this set of policies, pro- ous process of parsing through the lega- racist, chauvinistic and ethnocentric fea- Nationalism as phantasm Korean identity. Together with honest moted under the ideological campaign of cy of the colonial period, engaging in tures, dynamic and constantly forward- Yun Hae-dong, a historian of modern and thorough re-examination by Japan- naisen ittai (Japan and Korea long-overdue reflection on the possibili- looking towards active participation in Korea and author of the provocatively ese, Chinese and other East Asian as One) as ‘ethnocidal policies’ (minjok ty of post-colonial identity for Koreans. democratic citizenship.3 titled book The Colonial Grey Zone (2003), scholars of the colonial experiences and malsal chNngch’aek ) is even more skeptical than Im Chi-hynn wartime legacies of their respective through which the Japanese colonizers The process, however, turned out to be In his more recent essays, however, Im on the possibility of rehabilitating Kore- peoples – as colonizers and colonized, sought to eradicate Korean identity alto- anything but easy. It alerted many Kore- has moved further in his critical reflec- an nationalism into a democratic, civic aggressors and victims, ‘collaborators’ gether, absorbing it into the ontological an scholars in a variety of fields includ- tion on the variegated features of Korean form. Yun implicitly rejects the premise and resisters - we can hope, in the very category of the Japanese imperial subject ing history, literature, political science nationalism and has come to see signif- of many progressive nationalist intellec- near future, to encounter many chal- (kMkoku shinmin). and women’s studies, to the complex icant problems and antinomies in the lat- tuals that until the unification of North lenging and illuminating works of and intertwined relationships between ter’s legitimacy as an ideology of resist- and South Korea is achieved, the objec- scholarship on Korea between 1937 and Era of darkness colonialism, nationalism and moderni- ance, for instance, against the colonial tive of Korean nationalism remains 1945. < The wartime period was characterized ty. Some scholars have questioned, at the regime. Im asks, ‘Is it not possible that, unfulfilled. He suggests that in the post- as a pitch-black vacuum (amhUggi risk of disrupting one of the most deep- even for the nationalism of resistance liberation period Korean nationalism has Notes , the ‘era of darkness’) in which seated and unquestioned assumptions itself, the discourse of power had already fallen into a state of perpetual implosion 1. Cf. Koen De Ceunster. ‘The Nation Exor- only certain elite members, the ‘pro- shared by both North and South Kore- been its component, camouflaged under (naep’a ), unable to overcome the cised: The Historiography of Collaboration Japanese’ traitors (ch’inilp’a ), ans, the ways in which the relentless the discourse of liberation?’4 Here Im tendencies toward hierarchy and exclu- in South Korea,’ Korean Studies, Center for were allowed to profit and flourish at the focus on ethnos/nation (minjok ) turns toward the significance of the ide- sion inscribed on it during the colonial Korean Studies, University of Hawaii, 25-2, expense of the majority of Koreans. has suppressed subaltern narratives and ologies and discourses of mobilization period. Korean nationalism has become 2001: Kyu Hyun Kim. ‘Reflections on the However, this characterization of the the identity formations of women, local- employed by the North and South Kore- a phantasm, a projection of the national- Problems of Colonial Modernity and ‘Col- wartime period has also suppressed ism of resistance, which in turn has laboration’ in Modern Korean History.’ Jour- frank, open-minded investigation of the undermined possibilities for open-mind- nal of International and Area Studies, Grad- actual circumstances involving Japan- colonialism and anti-colonial nationalism ed understandings of the colonial expe- uate School of International Studies, Seoul ese colonialism’s infiltration into Kore- mirror each other in a disturbingly complementary rience’s complexities.6 Can Syngman National University, 11-3, Winter 2004. an culture and society. Studying the Rhee’s hypocritical use of virulent anti- 2. Im Chi-hynn. Minjok chuUi nUn panyNgida. colonial-period ‘collaboration’ between relationship Japanese sentiments among the Korean Seoul: Sonamu, 1999. pp. 60-66. Japanese and Koreans was anathema for populace, while staffing his government 3. Im Chi-hynn. Ibid. pp. 7-8. many years, especially under the dicta- ities, ethnic and other minorities in an regimes, and how they in fact shared with unreconstructed ‘collaborators’ 4. Im Chi-hynn. ‘Hanbando minjok chuui wa torial regimes of Syngman Rhee (1946- modern Korean history, as well as the epistemological grounds in claiming from the Japanese colonial government, kwnllynk tamnon: pigyosajnk munje chegi.’ 1960) and Park Chung-hee (1961-1979). ways in which colonialism and anti-colo- themselves legitimate heirs of the Kore- be swept under the category of ‘false Tangdae pip’yNng. Spring 2000. Reprinted in Indeed, President Park, who seized pres- nial nationalism – the teleological an ethnos/nation, which has always been nationalism?’ Has ‘good’ nationalism, InyNm Ui soksal. Seoul: Sam’in. 2001. p. 112. idential power through a military coup unfolding of which constitute the foun- a historical fiction. rejecting practices and discourses of 5. Sin Hynng-gi. Minjok iyagi rUl nNmNsN. d’etat, was a direct progeny of Japanese dational narratives of both North and exclusion and differentiation based on Seoul: Sam’in, 2003. wartime militarism, a graduate of the South Korea as they stand today – mir- We can observe a similar engagement bloodline, ethnic purity and Volksgeist, 6. Yun Hae-dong. ‘Naep’a hanun minjok Manchurian Military Academy. ror each other in a disturbingly comple- with the problematique of ethnic nation- really existed in modern Korean history? chuui.’ In Singminji Ui hoesaek chidae: mentary relationship. Indeed, these alism in the literary studies of Sin HanguggUi kUndaesNng kwa singminjuUi Democratization and rehabilitation of scholars point out, the North and South Hynng-gi, originally a specialist in North Yun also acknowledges the extent to pip’an. Seoul: Ynksa Pip’ynngsa, 2003. the South Korean public sphere in the Korean regimes have independently of Korean literature. Sin points out that the which war mobilization penetrated Kore- 7. Cf. Yun Hae-dong. ‘Ch’inilp’a ch’nngsan late 1980s and early 1990s, following one another employed war mobilization master narrative of ethnos/nation in both an society in the late 1930s and 1940s. kwa t’alsingmin ui kwaje.’ Tangdae monumental protest and resistance strategies, first imparted on Koreans by North and South Korea has never been Many Koreans, he points out, sincerely pip’yNng. 10. March 2000. against Park’s junta successors, finally the Japanese colonial empire, to push free from the influence of the ‘grammar’ believed in the cause of the Second Sino- opened the space to examine the collab- forward their respective programs of of total war mobilization inscribed by Japanese War and the Pacific War. Can Kyu Hyun Kim orationist activities of the Korean colo- state-led modernization. the Japanese empire in the 1930s and Koreans, he asks, be truly free from the Associate Professor of Japanese History nial elite. ‘Progressive’ scholars and crit- 1940s. Despite the evocation of the sup- question of ‘war responsibility’ that the University of California, Davis ics, riding the surf of democratization Nationalism as treason posedly inclusive language of ‘unifica- Allied Powers have thrown down on the and liberalization and embracing hith- Im Chi-hynn, a former student of East- tion’, he argues, nationalist rhetoric con- Japanese? How many Koreans ‘actively’ erto-forbidden Marxist and radical-pop- ern European history, was among the stantly re-introduces and recreates participated in the Pacific War? Does the ulist perspectives, challenged the white- first Korean scholars to present far- internal ‘enemies’ to be discriminated fact that Korea was colonized by the washing and exposed the lacunae found reaching criticism of Korean nationalist against and censured from within. In Japanese in 1910 automatically exempt in historiography, literary collections historiography. In his groundbreaking the process, the Korean ‘people’ are ren- Koreans from the responsibility of active and the biographical data of ‘collabora- and controversial book Nationalism Is dered faceless and anonymous: the lan- participation?7 tors’. Scholars excavated shrill pro- Treason (1999), Im criticized what he guage of moral judgment becomes all- nouncements written by prominent saw as submission of historical per- powerful, and creates the state of Im Chi-hynn, Sin Hynng-gi and Yun writers, intellectuals, educators and gov- spectives and interpretations to the tele- communal resonance that paradoxical- Hae-dong’s works reflect a new type of ernment leaders of post-liberation South ology of creating a single ethnic nation- ly compels Koreans toward unending scholarship in Korean studies, still in the

6 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory Between the national and the transnational: Li Xianglan/Yamaguchi Yoshiko and pan-Asianism Li Xianglan, nicknamed ‘the Manchurian orchid’, was actually a Japanese actress named Yamaguchi Yoshiko, who had several names at different stages in her life. Her shape-shifting names are symptomatic and constitutive of her legendary and controversial life shaped by her tumultuous times: here I examine Yamaguchi/Li’s wartime double identity as a Japanese national born and raised in 1920s northeast China and a Chinese starring in a number of Japanese films, as well as her postwar ‘afterlife’.

Yiman Wang nation-states were still in the making in wartime China, Japan, Encore Li Xianglan and other parts of East and Southeast Asia. Li’s political and entertainment value underwent further re- he lingering controversy over Li Xianglan for over half a signification during the 1980s and 90s, when her wartime Tcentury signals our unaccomplished task of coming to The Chinese audience’s reconstruction of Li as Manchuri- love songs were re-released as part of the nostalgic recon- terms with her ambivalent historical legacy. My task here is to an/Chinese suggests their awareness of the importance of the struction of pre-1949 Republican Shanghai that swept post- reassess the ramifications of her ‘theater of identity’ (Robin- national divide. By refusing to acknowledge her Japanese socialist China and post-colonial Hong Kong alike. Two major son 1994:716) and to emphasize the dialectical relationship nationality (Yamaguchi and Sakuya 1989:232), thus disavow- works rehearsed Li’s legendary life: the musical Li Xianglan between national affiliations and transnational mobility, both ing her ‘enemy’ quality, the audience tried to keep the popu- and the four-episode TV show Sayonara Ri Ko-ran (Bie’le, Li during and after the period of Japanese colonialism. lar star on their side. By cultivating the star’s ‘fictive ethnici- Xianglan), both appearing in the early 1990s and adapted ty’ (Balibar and Wallerstein 1991:49), the Chinese audience from her autobiography. The Japanese musical was staged fif- In her most intriguing essay, Shelley Stephenson argues that sought to construct an imaginary nationhood. The sign of ‘Li teen times in Beijing, Changchun, Shenyang, and Dalian to Yamaguchi failed to continue her wartime success as Li Xianglan’ did not simply facilitate Japanese cultural propa- a Chinese audience of twenty thousand. The musical attrib- Xianglan after 1945 because she became reified as a Japanese. ganda, but enabled the Chinese audience to stake their cul- uted Li’s repatriation not simply to her Japanese nationality, ‘…Yamaguchi’s movement re-inscribes the boundaries tural-political claims. but to the Oriental virtue of repaying hatred with benevolence between screen, off-screen, nation, and race, as firmly as these (Yide baoyuan), the same virtue said to underlie the restora- boundaries were once blurred in the elusive career of Li Postwar ‘cultural traitor’, diplomat tion of the Sino-Japanese diplomatic relationship. Xianglan’ (Stephenson 2002:12). Stephenson is correct to Efforts to mobilize and code ‘Li Xianglan’ continued beyond point out that the concept of nation was in flux during her repatriation in 1945 and 1946. As she was able to prove Deviating from the political gloss, the China-Japan co-pro- wartime. This, however, does not mean that concern with her Japanese nationality – thus evading the label of hanjian duced TV show Sayonara Ri Ko-ran ends in a most ironic nation was lacking - both Japan and China in the 1930s and which by definition referred to Chinese (Han) collaborators – moment: the Japanese ship is slowly pulling away from Shang- 40s vigorously championed nation-building projects, albeit hai with Li and other repatriated Japanese on board, when Li’s with very different motivations and stakes. It is therefore cru- famous song ‘Yelai xiang’ (Night fragrance) is aired by the cial to politicize and historicize Li Xianglan’s pan-East-Asian Shanghai People’s Radio Station. Swayed by her own voice, mobility within the context of nation/empire-building. I argue an emotional Li bids farewell to China and to ‘my Li Xianglan’. that Li’s wartime success was premised upon her performa- The title ‘Sayonara Ri Ko-ran’ thus shifts from the Chinese tive suturing into variant national, ethnic imaginaries, as audience’s perspective (bidding farewell to one of its favorite much as it suggested her pan-East Asian mobility; that wartime stars) to hers (bidding farewell to her now for- is, the national and the transnational are mutually mer self). The irreversible change from past glory to constitutive, not contradictory. present guilt and humiliation, from Li Xianglan to Yamaguchi Yoshiko, however, is compro- Wartime ‘Manchurian Orchid’ mised by the persistence of her singing that The rise of Li Xianglan as a star in the mid- supposedly belongs to the past. The return late 1930s was directly linked to Japan’s of her voice uncannily suggests her colonial policy in Manchukuo, China, Tai- omnipresence in ordinary Chinese wan and other East and Southeast Asian urbanites’ lives – so much so that the dis- countries. The colonial climax, the avowal of her complicity is hardly suffi- expansionist project of the ‘Greater East cient to dispel her ‘cultural capital’. Asia Co-prosperity Sphere’ between 1940 and 1945, coincided with Li’s pan- My analysis demonstrates that Li’s East Asian stardom. Li became ‘a repre- transnational mobility ultimately sentative worthy of the name ‘Happy hinges upon the national divide. Given Asia’ (xing ya)’ (Stephenson 1999:241). her built-in dual identity and the historical moment when she began her singing Li’s Manchukuo-Japan films, or the ‘Chinese and acting career, Li served and continues continental friendship films’ include The Song to serve as a privileged embodiment of nation- of White Orchid (dir. Kuio Watanabe 1939), China al politics as well as transnational fantasy. With Night (Osamu Fushmitzu 1940), Suzhou Night trans-nationalism and globalization becoming our (Hiromasa Nomura 1941) and Winter Jasmine (Yasushi contemporary catchphrases, national politics that ulti- Sasaki 1942). In these melodramatic narratives, Li routinely mately weighed down Li’s transnational mobility are, per- plays a young Chinese woman falling in love with a Japanese haps, escaping our radar. My goal, therefore, is to reassess man (a doctor, clerk, or soldier). The new emotional allegiance the role national politics plays in both producing and con- parallels her linguistic shift from Chinese to Japanese, in straining trans-nationality – a dialectic Li has lived out her speaking and singing. The political agenda of expansionism Yamaguchi Yoshiko entire life. < and assimilationism was packaged in the form of depoliticized, playing a Japanese Li was chastised as a cultural traitor, a living embodiment of sentimentalized romance which, combined with Li’s musical girl, the adopted guilt and remorse. The postwar suppression of hanjian Works cited interludes, won her pan-East Asian appeal. Such films struc- daugher of a male launched by the Chiang Kai-shek-led Kuomintang (KMT) gov- - Balibar, Étienne and Immanuel Wallerstein. 1991. Race, Nation, turally excluded national borders by naturalizing political and Russian opera singer, ernment aimed to isolate and cleanse the Other, to reclaim ter- Class: Ambiguous Identities. Trans. Chris Turner. London: Verso. gender hierarchies; the hierarchies nonetheless remained singing ‘My Nightin- ritorial control and reinforce the boundary between victorious - Robinson, Amy. 1994. ‘It Takes One to Know One: Passing and Com- indelible. Li’s border-crossing trajectories on and off screen gale’ in Russian. The China and defeated Japan. If Li Xianglan’s wartime pan-East munities of Common Interest’. Critical Inquiry 20: 715 - 36. are thus rifted and problematic, as much as they are made out still is from the Toho- Asian appeal ostensibly erased national conflicts, her postwar - Stephenson, Shelley. 1999. ‘Her Traces Are Found Everywhere: to be smooth and successful in publicity writings and film Man’ei production repatriation and degradation brought ever-existent national Shanghai, Li Xianglan, and the ‘Greater East Asia Film Sphere’’. diegeses. The importance of the national divide is illustrated My Nightingale boundaries back to the foreground. Zhang, Yingjin ed. Cinema and Urban Culture in Shanghai: 1922 - in an incident that Li narrated in her autobiography. (directed by Shimazu 1943. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford UP. Yasujiro, 1943). After more than three decades’ hiatus, the sign of ‘Li Xianglan’ - ————. 2002. ‘A Star by Any Other Name: The (After)Lives of Li When studying at a Beijing high school under the Chinese re-entered the spotlight in the theater of the Sino-Japanese Xianglan’. Quarterly Review of Film & Video 19: 1 - 13 name Pan Shuhua, Li once attended a students’ meeting where relationship. Her visit to China in 1978 allowed Chinese peo- - Yamaguchi, Yoshiko and Fujiwara Sakuya, eds. 1989. My Days in each had to express how he/she would fight the invading Japan- ple to witness her deep-felt guilt for ‘deceiving’ them during China - Li Xianglan: My Half Life (Zai Zhongguo de rizi). Translated ese army. Her contribution, Li said, would be to stand on the the war, and to accept her profuse apologies. Once again ‘Li by Jin Ruojing from Ri Koran - Watashi no hansei. Hong Kong: Baix- Great Wall and be shot by either side. The image of standing Xianglan’, the name and the body, had to bear the crimes that ing wenhua shiye youxian gongsi. on the Great Wall, which the ancient Chinese empire erected Japan’s militarist government committed in East and South- to ward off the Other, functions as a powerful trope for the east Asia, and to convey the sincere apology that ‘her’ gov- Yiman Wang is currently a Global Fellow and Visiting Assistant Pro- ambivalent valences of border-crossing. While it may contain ernment owed to its ex-colonies. Only this time, her apology fessor at International Institute, UCLA. Her research and teaching a de-territorializing, utopic vision, it also entails the risk of being served to facilitate the establishment of Sino-Japanese diplo- interests include early cinema, transnational Chinese cinemas, and disowned and victimized by both sides. Li’s transnational posi- macy. The cultural ‘traitor’ thus became a cultural ‘diplomat’, film remakes. tion thus assumes the persistence of borders as well as politi- yet another figure who traverses borders to better serve nation- [email protected] cal and cultural investment in them, made more significant as oriented interests.

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 7 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory On occupied China* The Japanese occupation of China during World War II had a lasting legacy on the subsequent development of modern China and the Sino-Japanese relationship. Historians in the English-speaking world have recently begun to re-examine the history and meanings of Japanese-occupied China. Works such as John Boyle’s China and Japan at War, 1937-1945 (1972), Frederic Wakeman’s The Shanghai Badlands: Wartime Terrorism and Urban Crime (1996), Parks Coble’s Chinese Capitalists in Japan’s New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi (2003) and Christian Henriot and Wen-hsin Yeh’s In the Shadow of the Rising Sun: Shanghai Under Japanese Occupation (2004) challenge the nationalist paradigm of moral dichotomy (resistance vs. collaboration, patriotism vs. betrayal) that has dominated the historiography. These works present to us, in different ways, a complex world of political intrigue, urban terrorism, and ambiguous business strategies.

Poshek Fu How did the Japanese organization of intelligence information and oppression he new scholarship both changes in villages differ from the cities? In what Tand complicates the ways we under- ways did the experiences of occupation stand the occupied territories of wartime in rural China differ from urban expe- China, which included all the major riences? These questions point to the cities and cultural and commercial cen- need for more studies on the histories tres along the eastern seaboard - Beip- of the Japanese-ruled countryside and ing, Shanghai, Nanjing and Guangzhou. its multi-leveled connections with the We now know that occupied China was cities. a colonial world ruled by brute force and propaganda, a dehumanizing world Third, research on occupied China has racked by hunger, violence, and corrup- tended to focus largely on men, public tion. But even as the Japanese army tried life, and elite culture. These are impor- to impose a Manichean world upon the tant subjects, but equally important are people under its domination, responses the subjects of women, domestic life, to Japanese rule were far from gender relationships, and popular cul- Manichean. There were few resisters or tures. New studies by, for example, Nor- traitors; most people fell in-between man Smith, Susan Glosser and Allison these polar opposites. They tried to Rottmann open new perspectives on the make the best of the situation, strug- ways in which literary discourses in gling to survive the difficult times with Japanese sentry on occupied China were shaped and rede- as much dignity as possible. guard on Nanjing fined by women (e.g., Zhang Ailing and Road in occupied Su Qing), and on the changing func-

Surviving involved everyday negotia- Shanghai Shanghai Century, XXth The tions and cultural meanings of cinema tions with the occupying force which in the everyday life of Chinese living brought with it wrenching moral con- China’s cultural, social and economic Chinese capital, the exchange of people decidedly urban (and focusing especial- under occupation. But we still know lit- flicts and life-and-death consequences. life. For example, the economic pros- and technology with Hong Kong, and ly on Shanghai). This tendency is impor- tle, for example, about any changes in In the occupied cities along the eastern perity of wartime Shanghai was insep- the structural changes of the global pan- tant as well as understandable as occu- the roles of women (e.g., the idea of ‘new seaboard, for example, Chinese were arable from its access to technology Chinese market? These connections in pied China was made up of all the major woman’) and the ways in which domes- required to bow to Japanese sentries and capital from Hong Kong and Sin- turn helped shape the forms and con- cities that had played significant roles in tic life was organized in occupied cities, posted at every street corner. If they did gapore, while Cantonese opera troupes tent of occupied popular culture. Or how China’s harrowing negotiation with or in what ways the struggle of ordinary not bow ‘properly’ they would be traveled constantly around the Pearl do we map Chinese literary culture dur- colonialism and modernity in the last people, men and women, to create nor- slapped in the face, hit with a rifle butt, River delta for performances that ing the war if we do not know its intri- century, and many of these cities had mality in the midst of Japanese terror or forced to kneel for the day. To bow helped sustain the consumer economy cate interconnections with exiled Chi- been subjected to massacre, terrorism, changed the discourses and practices of ‘properly’ to the enemy was a symbol of of the region. nese communities and publishing and all kinds of atrocity by the Japanese urban popular cultures. We need to absolute submission. Should Chinese industries in, for example, Hong Kong army. Also, archival materials on the his- expand into these important subjects in have allowed themselves to be humili- How much more do we need to learn in and Singapore-Malaya? This was also tories of these occupied cities are more order to push our understanding of ated every time they walked to work or order to have a deeper, more nuanced the case in manufacturing and financial easily available. However, we know that occupied China to another level of com- to the grocery store, or should they have and multi-faceted view of Japanese-occu- industries, as many factories and banks only part of occupied China was urban. plexity and multiplicity. < refused to leave their houses to avoid pied China? I want to suggest three (both state-run and private) moved parts An urban focus occludes the vast terri- humiliation? What should they have areas for further research. of their operations to areas outside the tories made up of small cities, town- * My thanks to Mark Leff and Wen-hsin Yeh done if Japanese called them dogs and mainland during the war, in part to ships and villages under Japanese con- for their helpful comments. kicked them in the groin when they First, most of the research on occupied spread investment risk. So we need to trol. How did landownership patterns bowed ‘improperly’? These kinds of China has been focused on the main- expand our research focus by situating and local leadership structures change? Poshek Fu, born and raised in Hong Kong, is banal, daily negotiations with the enemy land. Understandable as this is, the the history of occupied China in the larg- In what specific ways did the occupying Professor of History and Cinema Studies at involved various degrees of complicity focus carries with it limitations and defi- er, more complex context of greater forces squeeze local resources and con- the Unviersity of Illinois at Urbana-Cham- and accommodation that put enormous ciencies. How can we make sense of the China. trol the circulation of goods? Was there paign. He is the author of Passivity, Resis- psychological strain on people in occu- blossoming of wartime Shanghai popu- resistance by local communities and tance, and Collaboration: Intellectual pied China. lar culture and its entertainment econ- Second, excepting recent work by how was it organized and mobilized? Choices in Occupied Shanghai and omy without exploring their connec- Timothy Brook and Keith Schoppa, our How did the Chinese Communist Party Between Shanghai and Hong Kong: The We also know that we should not con- tions with, for example, Southeast Asian research on occupied China has been and the Nationalist Party operate there? Politics of Chinese Cinemas. fuse the space in which individuals and organizations were situated in occu- [advertisement] pied areas with the location of their political loyalties. Indeed there were various spaces in occupied China that existed both within and outside the Japanese war machine. For example, Shanghai cinema was an organizational part of the Nanjing regime, yet it produced popular entertainment that was irrelevant to the legitimization efforts of the occupying force. At the same time, we know that the boundaries between occupied and unoccu- pied (Chinese-ruled) areas and those between occupied China and Chinese communities beyond the border (especially Hong Kong and Macau) were more porous and fluid than we thought. People, ideas, goods and capital traversed these borders throughout the war. This boundary-crossing traffic had an enormous impact on occupied

8 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory The lament of progressivism: voicing war responsibility in postwar Japan Every decade since August 1945, the world has scrutinized anew the manner in which Japan chooses to remember WWII. Invariably, microscopic attention is paid to semantics: does the word ‘sorry’ appear at all in official statements, and if so, is it qualified by self- congratulatory statements about how Japan ‘liberated’ Asia? Is the horror of the Nanjing Massacre relativised by the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki? Are Japan’s war dead - including designated war criminals - acknowledged through visits by serving Cabinet members to the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo?

Rikki Kersten ful of communists had been the last to For progressive thinkers, the normative ity’ by highlighting the great disparity book campaigners (such as Net 21) insist hold out against the wartime state, and association between constructing post- between the objective promotion and on detailing the facts of Japan’s war or the past sixty years international the liberation of surviving communists war democracy and defending individ- facilitation of war and fascism, and the atrocities in high school textbooks, and Finterrogation of Japanese war guilt from Japan’s jails in September 1945 ual subjectivity was crucial. Within the subjective awareness of having done so. continue to sustain citizen’s movements has assumed the worst: Japan, taken as ushered in an era where socialism and rubric of democracy and pacifism, Yet the ‘duty’ of progressive thinkers was against textbook censorship. Japan’s a moral monolith, is consistently found communism flowed seamlessly into the thinkers such as Tsurumi Shunsuke, to render visible and comprehensible courts are bursting with former vicitms to be wanting in its historical memory promotion of democracy. The reality of Maruyama Masao, Hidaka Rokuro, the ‘mechanism that led the ruling class of wartime Japan demanding compen- and political commitment to denounc- the Cold War descended onto this lib- Kuno Osamu and Shimizu Ikutaro to perpetrate the war even though they sation, supported by citizens groups and ing past wrongs. While obfuscation and eral intellectual scene as early as 1947, (amongst many others) constructed the were wailing all the while about how teams of pro-bono Japanese lawyers. inconsistency have typified official gov- leaving us with one of the great ironies foundation of war responsibility dis- awful it all was’.4 Committees of intellectuals form bilat- ernment statements on the war (and of postwar Japanese discourse on course. In the process, they shaped the individual conservative politicians have WWII: U.S. occupation policies stig- very contours of postwar politics. for the past sixty years international interrogation of provoked outrage through their episod- matised and marginalised the very flag- ic revisionist statements), official state- bearers of war responsibility debate. Postwar Japanese politics, and war Japanese war guilt has assumed the worst ments do not represent the full range of Similarly, the retention of the emperor responsibility discourse, is in large feeling in Japan concerning WWII. This in postwar political life (as a symbol of measure a product of discord between In Tsurumi and Maruyama, we see in eral research groups with counterparts is even more marked when the topic the unity of the nation) and his exclu- disparate forces, not the monopoly of a cameo the dilemma that confronted in Korea and China, digging ever deep- becomes Japanese atrocities in that war, sion from indictment as a war criminal conservative regime – the longevity of postwar progressive thinkers on respon- er into the history of Japanese atrocities and how these atrocities should be led to a selective narrative on Japanese postwar conservative political leadership sibility for the war. Confronting the per- in those countries. And they have had remembered. war guilt. does not represent the dynamism and sonal failure to resist the wartime state some successes. So-called ‘comfort breadth of the struggle for political ideas and its ideology was stark and unflinch- women’ were finally acknowledged by Beneath the hail of international accu- Guilt allocation also omitted the major- and ethics, but the outcome of the strug- ing, but it was inner-directed, almost the Japanese government in the early sation, the past sixty years have also ity of the Japanese population. With gle for power. quarantined, from the postwar present. 1990s when a progressive thinker, featured the dogged persistence of a responsibility for the war pinned on mil- If there was any continuity between war Yoshimi Yoshiaki, exposed documentary countervailing voice within Japan. itary leaders and those in official Collaboration and and postwar, it was the implicit acknowl- evidence of official complicity. Collectively known as ‘progressive wartime positions (the July 1945 Pots- enlightenment edgement that intellectuals had an thinkers’, these individuals have cam- dam Declaration had declared the Japan- In January 1956 Tsurumi Shunsuke pro- enlightenment mission within society. All of these movements feature thinkers paigned on the margins of political rel- ese people ‘deceived and misled’ by ‘self- voked a turn in the discourse on blame After 1956, war responsibility discourse and activists of a progressive bent, in that evance since 1945. Their voices have willed militaristic advisors’) war guilt and guilt in his essay ‘The war respon- became focused on postwar responsi- they are self-consciously anti-state, barely been audible in the angry discourse was marginalized from the sibility of intellectuals’.2 Progressive bility, on intellectual leadership of anti- engaged in active resistance, putting cacophony that dominates those coun- project of postwar democratization. intellectuals had, according to Tsurumi, state and pacifist movements. their ideas to the people. It is an intel- tries touched by atrocities, while the While the U.S.-led occupation’s censor- failed to identify the actual nature of col- lectual life on the periphery, far from the international anonymity of Japanese war ship, education and propaganda wings laboration and their own complicity. He Tsurumi stood at the forefront of a bowels of power in the Diet. Yet it is responsibility discourse further suffers tried to correct this disassociation of argued that through their own efforts, major study of war-time intellectual col- inherently, necessarily a peripheral exis- from the lack of translation into more democracy and war guilt, there is little neither compelled by force nor con- laboration, the three-volume Kyodo tence, where ideas of accountability and accessible languages. Borrowing the doubt that war responsibility discourse vinced by love of country, thinkers had Kenkyu Tenko study, convinced that subjectivity exalt in their marginality words of one significant progressive was ethically distorted thereafter. divested themselves of the power to dis- exposing the structure of war-era intel- from the conservative mainstream. The thinker and activist, Tsurumi Shunsuke, pel myths, thus facilitating deception by lectual weakness would bolster pro- pulse of progressivism is its normative the voices of guilt, acknowledgment and This ethical twisting even flowed into the state: ‘[intellectuals] actually decid- gressive thinkers in the postwar world. commitment to opposition and resist- memory have become the ‘voiceless the minds of postwar ‘progressives’. In ed to distort the functioning of their own Tsurumi’s approach infuriated other ance, placing progressives heroically on voices’ of postwar Japan.1 the postwar period, Japan’s progressive minds while facing the forces that they thinkers such as Yoshimoto Takaaki, the periphery of political efficacy, where thinkers positioned themselves against knew in their minds to be wrong’.3 Intel- who would become the nemesis of pro- they represent the ethical core upon Marginal yet relevant the conservative-led state and occupa- lectuals should now ‘confess that in the gressive thinkers in the 1960s. The elit- which meaningful war responsibility dis- Seen from the standpoint of 2005, we tion as well as the war-time state. Fol- past they did not personally resist’, and ism implicit in the enlightenment course ultimately depends. The lament could be forgiven for declaring that this motive seemed to Yoshimoto a transwar of postwar progressivism is that its ethics strain of opinion in Japan has been inef- phenomenon, with intellectuals contin- ensure continued political marginality, fectual. Yet, it would be facile to argue uing their belief in enlightened leader- in a setting where the conservatives in that marginality equals irrelevance. ship of the people without realizing how power show little inclination to absorb Operating on the political periphery has alienated they were from them. and own the progressive agenda of war been both a historical necessity and a responsibility discourse. < deliberate ethical choice on the part of Yoshimoto referred to postwar progres- progressives. As we can see from the sive discourse on the war as ‘the flip-side Notes fate of the Social Democratic Party of of a counterfeit coin’, where both sides 1. The ‘voiceless voices’ (Koe Naki Koe no Japan (formerly the Japan Socialist shared the fatal flaw of an experiential Kai) was a citizens’ movement that arose Party), occupying the pinnacle of politi- gap between theory and reality, between in 1960 during the protests against the cal power can be fatal for progressive perception of reality and actual reality. He renewal of the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty. forces. Soon after Murayama’s prime maintains that intellectuals facilitated the Tsurumi Shunsuke was a key figure in this ministership in 1995, his party almost state’s deception of the nation during the movement, and a major proponent of its fell off the political spectrum. And while war: ‘if we examine the history of revo- activities. Murayama provided subsequent Japan- lutionary movements in Japan, we can 2. Tsurumi Shunsuke, ‘Chishikijin no senso ese governments with a linguistic for- say that the absolutist authorities utilized sekinin’, Chuo Koron No. 71, January 1956,

mula for war apology (repeated again in www.eroseffect.com this dark zone that existed between the pp 57-63. 2005), it came at a high price. To posi- Students of the new left parallel layers of vanguard consciousness 3. Tsurumi, ‘Chishikijin’, 61. tion their man within the governing and popular consciousness, and 4. Maruyama Masao, ‘Senso sekinin ni coalition in that crucial war memory lowing the logic of deception and vic- place their energy instead into the post- absorbed it’.5 While progressive thinkers tsuite’, Shiso no Kagaku No. 16 (part 1 of year of 1995, the socialists effectively timhood, progressive thinkers engaged war peace movement. were focused on preserving society from three parts), 1956, p 3. ditched every other progressive policy with war guilt by allocating responsibil- the clutches of the postwar state, their 5. Yoshimoto Takaaki, ‘Geijutsuteki teiko to position they had held since 1955. They ity to the imperial state and its emperor- Tsurumi’s essay unleashed a fury of critics were focused on what they saw as zasetsu’ (Artistic resistance and disillu- lost moral suasion as a result. system ideology. The state had deceived recriminations exposing the complexi- the yawning gap between thinkers and sionment), Yoshimoto Takaaki Zen- the people in war-time; intellectuals had ties that festered beneath the vibrant ordinary people. chosakushu Vol. 4 (Tokyo: Keiso Shobo, Marginality has thus been historically been unable to resist the apparatus of intellectual culture of the postwar era. 1969), p. 165. essential for those promoting discussion police terror and blind patriotism; thus The explosion of debate saw Maruyama Heroic periphery, ethical core of Japanese war guilt. In 1945, ‘progres- accepting war responsibility in the early Masao, a leading progressive thinker, The legacy of the postwar progressive Rikki Kersten sive’ meant being on the Left, and in postwar years meant engaging in active follow up with ‘The blindspots of war movement is ever-present in contem- Professor of Modern Japan Studies 1945, this carried moral force. A hand- opposition to the state. responsibility’ and ‘On war responsibil- porary Japan. The tireless history text- University of Leiden

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 9 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory Workers at war: class formation in wartime Chongqing War, as historian Gabriel Kolko notes, has had profound social and revolutionary effects. ‘More than any other single factor, the overwhelming and direct consequences of war have shaped the human and political experiences of our century and have become the motor of change within it, creating political and ideological upheavals - revolutions being the most important of them - that otherwise had scant possibility of occurring’.1

Joshua H. Howard affirms Benedetto Croce’s maxim ‘All War created a work regime that empha- and bonuses, all of which pitted the two telecommunications bureau recalled, ‘I history is contemporary’. China’s ongo- sized discipline, strenuous work, and groups against each other. was ridiculed, and this hurt me both he War of Resistance against Japan ing market reforms, efforts at rap- productivity. Production increases over physically and psychologically. I often Tunleashed social changes that set prochement with Taiwan, and repudia- the 1940s were not simply the result of Class consciousness, wondered, was I not a person? I also the stage for both civil war and socialist tion of the Maoist emphasis on class technological and managerial reforms demanding dignity wanted to enjoy people’s rights. Why did revolution in China. Since the revolu- struggle have reinforced a revisionist introduced a decade before, but built on For certain workers, moral injustices I have to do corvée labour like a beast of tion was primarily rurally based, histo- trend in mainland Chinese scholarship the backs of labour. Sheer exhaustion translated into consciousness of class. burden and be yelled at to work?’6 rians have duly explained how the that has emphasized the Nationalist was one reason so many workers suc- Workers expressed their grievances in Communists mobilized the peasantry regime’s contributions to the war effort cumbed to disease and injury. ‘You ate terms of a producer consciousness, Arguably, only a militant minority, those during the pivotal 1937-45 period. This against Japan, the importance of united on the job so that the machines kept stressing the moral value of labour and who envisioned a radical restructuring focus has, however, impeded our under- front work, and the patriotic unity of the running,’ one factory director recalled. using the language of rights and class. of society, promoted the Communist standing of social change and conflict in Chinese people. ‘You did not sleep until late at night, or One anonymous worker questioned the press in wartime Chongqing. But the the Nationalist-controlled urban territo- volunteered to extend [your] working monthly rationing of sugar after being popularity of Xinhua ribao among work- ries, most prominently Chongqing, Chi- On an experiential level, the devastating hours to over fourteen hours with no informed that only staff members could ers indicates that their ideas did resonate ang Kai-shek’s wartime capital between air raids on Chongqing no doubt fos- rest at all.... Exhaustion spread among purchase a catty. ‘I’m also human and with many workers’ sense of injustice 1938 and 1946. Not even a handful of tered workers’ visceral hatred of the those relying on this death-defying, also Chinese. Why does even the appre- and desire for equal treatment. By the studies in English exists on the social ‘Japanese devils’. Management capital- sweat-drenched spirit of dedication to ciation of food have to be divided by mid 1940s, the impulse toward a class and political history of Chongqing. With ized on these sentiments by using patri- our country’.4 Respiratory disease was class? Is it possible that workers are con- movement and class organization their focus on government elites and otic slogans to spur production over the the most common sickness. Workers stitutionally different from staff offi- among Chongqing workers underlay institutions, the standard explanations course of gruelling twelve- to sixteen- grinding and buffing mortar shells on cers?... The lack of workers’ rights to this process. Through the dynamic of for the Nationalist collapse - government hour shifts. Qi Wu premises his lathes inhaled particles of dust and ran purchase white sugar is only one [form the labour movement, workers’ view of factionalism, hyperinflation, military argument, however, on the relative qui- the risk of being hit in the face by metal of] inequality between staff and work- the world increasingly made class their blunders, and malfeasance - have ren- escence of labour during the Anti-Japan- shavings. Packing cartridges and shells ers. There are countless others...’5 point of reference. This was most evi- dered invisible the role of urban social ese War, compared with the surge in exposed workers to noxious fumes. dent in the concentrated, violent, and classes as agents of historical change. labour militancy during the immediate Accumulation of dust in the lungs Paradoxically, non-class relations served often coordinated struggles of workers postwar years. Although persuasive in a caused scarring and increased suscepti- to heighten workers’ sense of class in the aftermath of the Anti-Japanese In part, the marginalization of social class general way, this interpretation uncriti- bility to trachoma and respiratory infec- polarization between themselves and War. It was also apparent in workers’ and the absence of class analysis derive cally takes the ideas supporting the CCP- tions. Tuberculosis, induced by dust, tor- staff members. Although ethnicity has increasing demands for unionization from the Nationalist government’s efforts GMD alliance and the United Front as rid heat, and sudden changes in usually been viewed as a barrier to class and the leftward push of corporatist to exclude class from its language to main- historical reality and ignores the social temperature, cased the greatest number formation, regional rivalries between labour organizations, most notably the tain social order and stifle political dis- dislocation, grievances, and tensions of fatalities in the steel mills. extra-provincials (often referred to as Chinese Association of Labour. sent. Fearing its subversive quality, Guo- ‘downriver people’) and Sichuanese mindang officials censored any word that standard explanations for Nationalist collapse – shaped workers’ perceptions of class. At the very least, bringing class back in resonated with the labour movement. Throughout much of the 1940s, ‘down- may cause us to rethink our view of pol- Even the word ‘labour’ became politically factionalism, hyperinflation, military blunders, river people’ played the dominant role itics in wartime Chongqing, and by suspect. By 1940, General Yu Dawei, malfeasance – have rendered invisible the role of in Sichuan society, anticipating the extension Nationalist China. From the director and architect of the Nationalist quasi-colonial relationship between very first press reports issued from the arms industry, the largest wartime urban social classes as agents of change mainland Chinese and Taiwanese dur- hilly city, journalists described the employer in Nationalist territory, banned ing the late 1940s and 1950s, when Nationalist regime’s inexorable decline the term describing offices dealing with created between workers and managers In response to low wages, oppressive mainlanders occupied elite positions in as a result of its own endemic sickness- production because, as he warned, ‘The by the war. Demanding greater human work conditions and the exodus of thou- Taiwan’s economy and political system. es-corruption, bungled fiscal policies, word “labour” is a term used to connote dignity and improved social status, sands of employees, wartime factories and factionalism. Conversely, while his- conflictual labour-capitalist class [rela- workers also engaged in strikes and sit- instituted elaborate social welfare meas- Repression in the form of severe mili- torians continue to debate how the Com- tions]’.2 In place of a class-based language, downs during the Anti-Japanese War. As ures to secure their workers’ loyalty. tary discipline, the intensity of the munists mobilized peasant support in officials substituted a discourse based on many as 300 labour disputes occurred Promotion of industrial welfare - com- Nationalist’ political program (workers their ascent to power, they have unwit- patriotism and anti-imperialism. Accord- during 1944. pensation plans, savings schemes, sub- in the defence industry were subject to tingly minimized the CCP’s popular ing to Guomindang labour leaders, sidized housing, medical care, rationing factory cell meetings), and its total sep- appeals in urban China prior to 1949. China’s predominantly agricultural econ- Wartime proletarianization of staple goods and low-priced food, cul- aration from the reality of workers’ daily To be sure, Chongqing was not ‘Red omy precluded the formation of distinct Several factors facilitated working-class tural and athletic programs - reached life struggles further alienated workers Chongqing,’ but its political colours social classes, and the country thus did formation in wartime Chongqing. By new heights during the war period. The from Nationalist ideologues. While the were undoubtedly more vivid than its not share the injustices associated with late 1937, the brutal occupation of the distribution of these services and bene- Guomindang lost support among work- infamous grey fog. < the ‘abnormalities’ of Western capitalism. industrial and commercial centres of fits to factory employees, however, priv- ers, both underground Communist Imperialism was the real culprit behind coastal China by Japanese troops had ileged management. Intended as a form Party members and non-Communist Notes whatever oppression and suffering work- forced an unprecedented mass migra- of social control, welfare programs back- working-class activists consciously pur- 1. Kolko, Gabriel. 1994. Century of War: Poli- ers endured. And once the union formed tion. Several million migrants fled to the fired by polarizing the factory commu- sued and shaped workers’ class con- tics, Conflicts, and Society Since 1914. New between workers and their employers hinterland of southwestern China along- nity. These provisions reinforced the sciousness. Communists moved from York: New Press, 220. helped defeat the Japanese, the ‘labour side the relocation of industrial plants. social divisions between staff personnel mobilizing workers en masse during the 2. Howard, Joshua H. 2004. Workers at War: problem’ would dissipate. The rapid and forced industrialization (zhiyuan) and production workers National Salvation Movement, a patri- Labor in China’s Arsenals, 1937-1953. Stan- of Chongqing during the late 1930s (gongren), a social gulf premised on the otic movement that swept urban China ford: Stanford University Press, 2. Most of Ironically, Chinese historians have changed the river port entrepôt into division of mental and manual labour. during the mid to late 1930s, to devel- the following discussion is based on my accepted at face value the wartime southwestern China’s centre of heavy Daily reminders of their subjugation oping a clandestine force. By the early research of labour in China’s wartime Nationalist official discourse, according industry. Large-scale modern factories and segregation brought production 1940s, underground networks, reading defense industry, which was representative to which the United Front - a multi-class, depended on the labour of thousands of workers from different skill levels into societies, and the Communist press had of Chongqing’s heavy industry. multi-party alliance committed to resist- Sichuanese assembly workers and the labour movement. The extreme become crucial links between workers 3. Qi Wu. 1986. Kang Ri Zhangzheng shiqi ing Japanese imperialism - rendered labourers working alongside a core of range of material and symbolic dispari- and the CCP. The Communist daily, Zhongguo gongren yundong shigao [A draft issues of class subsidiary to patriotic skilled workers from China’s central and ties heightened workers’ sense of injus- Xinhua ribao, in particular, served as an history of the Chinese labour movement goals. Labour historians have widely coastal provinces. At the same time, tice and united workers against their important forum in which to criticize during the War of Resistance against adopted the view that nationalist senti- mass production and the pressing social superiors. Workers in large-scale social relations within the factory and to Japan]. Beijing: Renmin chubanshe. ment subsumed class tensions during wartime demand for labour accelerated industries, where staff members were a question the legitimacy of the National- 4. Howard, Workers at War, 134. the Anti-Japanese War. In the most the process of proletarianization, by substantial minority and social welfare ist government. Workers’ grievances 5. Ibid., 160. authoritative work to date on wartime which numerous workers without practices were more extensive, fre- and demands for better treatment, or 6. Ibid., 244 labour, the historian Qi Wu argues that resources entered a class relationship by quently voiced grievances over unequal daiyu - a term implying higher pay and social contradictions did not emerge selling their labour power to survive. access to reading rooms, rationing, social status - stemmed from their own Joshua Howard during the war because of the relative This process forged increasingly com- housing, consumer cooperatives, and work experiences and the prevalent Croft Institute for International Studies unity between labour and capital in mon industrial conditions and experi- entertainment; separate use of canteens social stigma associated with manual University of Mississippi resisting Japan.3 Such an approach ences for skilled workers and labourers. and latrines; and disparities in salaries labour. As a former labourer in the

10 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory Neither victors nor victims: transplanted/suppressed memories of the Sino-Japanese War in postwar Taiwan Taiwan was a Japanese colony between 1895 and 1945. During the 1937-1945 Sino-Japanese War, the people of Taiwan, as subjects of the Japanese Empire, fought alongside the Japanese against China and the Allied forces. At the end of the war, Taiwan was turned over to its wartime enemy, the Chinese Nationalist (KMT) government. Overnight, wartime enemies became postwar compatriots and fellow citizens. How did the Taiwanese, transformed from Japanese colonial subjects to Chinese citizens, remember the war after 1945?

Mike Shi-chi Lan nese view of recent history was intensi- sonnel (taiji ribenbing) who had fought was the benevolence of the Allies. Most ous recovery’ continues to prevail in fied as the KMT government retreated against the Chinese and Allied forces, notably, the 1943 meeting between Roo- Taiwan today. n the study of historiography, it is and consolidated itself on Taiwan in and the resulting Chinese hostility sevelt, Churchill and Chiang Kai-shek Iwell-argued that a common flaw of 1949. To mold patriotic Chinese out of towards Taiwanese, was nowhere to be in Cairo and the resulting joint state- As a result of the aforementioned history writing is anachronism - writing former colonial subjects, KMT govern- found between 1945 and 1990. ment (known as the ‘Cairo Declaration’ processes of transplantation and sup- history based on the present day view ment policy propagated as orthodoxy its in postwar accounts) was featured and pression of historical memory, Tai- instead of what actually happened in the own view of the war. In history textbooks Stories of Taiwanese casualties and suf- highly celebrated. wanese largely forgot their own wartime past. If anachronism represents a tem- and official accounts, the war only con- fering in the war against the Allied history of fighting and suffering as part poral issue in historiography, the trans- sisted of events that did not take place in forces, such as the aborigines who per- The most notable example of false mem- of the Japanese wartime empire. What plantation and suppression of wartime Taiwan: the 9/18 or September 18 Inci- ished as Japanese military conscripts ory was the account of China’s commit- the Taiwanese remembered about the memories in postwar Taiwan points to dent (jiuyiba shibian) in Shenyang (Muk- and who were subsequently enshrined ment to recover Taiwan. Between 1895 war was, instead, mainland China’s a neglected spatial dimension in history den) of 1931, the 7/7 or July 7 Incident in Japan’s Yasukuni Shrine, did not fit and 1942, Chinese authorities never chal- wartime history. But while remember- writing. (qiqi shibian) or Lugouqiao (Marco Polo the history of the ‘War of Resistance’. lenged the status of Taiwan as prescribed ing the transplanted Other’s war histo- Bridge) Incident of 1937, and others. Thus, stories of Taiwanese being in the Treaty of Shimonoseki. It was not ry of glory and triumph, Taiwanese were Transplanted memories The war as a whole was known as the wartime victims were rarely included in until 3 November 1942 that the then Chi- continuously reminded that they did not Under KMT rule between 1945 and ‘Eight-year War of Resistance (against postwar accounts. It was not until the nese Foreign Minister Song Ziwen (T.V. win the war. It was often asserted in his- 2000, the people of Taiwan were taught the Japanese) (banian kangzhan)’. Mem- 1990s that oral history by Taiwanese vet- Soong) stated China should ‘retrieve tory textbooks and official accounts that a war history transplanted from main- ory of the war based on these events did it was the Chinese, contrary to the Tai- land China while having their own and not take into account what happened in China’s takeover of Taiwan was depicted as a glorious wanese who sided with Japan, who their ancestors’ war histories suppressed Taiwan and to Taiwanese, and subse- fought the ‘national war of resistance from public memory. Immediately after quently contributed to a view of the war recovery, discounting the sense of loss, fear and (minzu kangzhan)’. As a result, the Tai- the war, Taiwanese who had worked with that was entirely China-centered. As a uncertainty that many Taiwanese felt when they wanese hardly recognized themselves, the Japanese were indiscriminately result, postwar Taiwanese absorbed the or were recognized by others, as victors accused of collaboration and/or prose- transplanted perspective of the victors, learned of Japan’s defeat of the war. At the same time, since Tai- cuted as Hanjian or Chinese traitors. which was the opposite of the true wan’s own wartime history of fighting Even leading anti-Japanese figures such wartime experiences of Taiwanese. erans (Zhou 1997) and films like Hou (shouhui) the four provinces of the North- and suffering was largely suppressed in as Lin Xiantang were once considered by Hsiao-hsien’s 1995 Good Man Good east (Manchuria), Taiwan, and Liuqiu public memory, Taiwanese hardly rec- the KMT government as Hanjian (Qiu Suppressed memories Woman (haonan haonu) - which briefly (Okinawa)’ (Zhang 1990, 3-4). Before ognized themselves, or were recognized 1962:317). The KMT view of Taiwan’s As the KMT government transplanted touched upon Chinese wartime hostili- this point, the KMT government never by others, as victims of the war. wartime experience not only conflated the mainland Chinese view of the war to ty towards Taiwanese who went to the placed the recovery of Taiwan on its pol- voluntary and forced cooperation with postwar Taiwan, it suppressed memory mainland to join the ‘war of resistance’ icy agenda. But in postwar accounts, it Taiwanese postwar memories of being the Japanese; more significantly, it proof what did happen in Taiwan. Before - began to rescue Taiwanese wartime was widely asserted that China had neither victors nor victims challenge the jected the postwar condition of Tai- 1945, China was at war with Japan; as experiences from postwar Chinese always been committed to recovering conventional epistemological paradigm wanese being Chinese nationals back- subjects of Japan, the people of Taiwan Nationalist representations. Taiwan, and that the recovery of Taiwan that categorically identifies victors and wards into wartime and asserted, were at war with the people of China. was a goal, if not the goal, of China’s victims in wartime history. Further- anachronistically, that Taiwanese were However, memory of this experience was Whose memories? ‘war of resistance’ against Japan. As one more, the transplantation and suppres- Chinese nationals during the war. largely suppressed. For example, the his- This transplantation of memory from account stated: ‘The KMT Party, under sion of Taiwanese wartime memories, tory of more than 200,000 Taiwanese- mainland China and the suppression of the leadership of Sun Yat-sen and Chi- as discussed in this paper, point to a spa- This transplantation of a mainland Chi- native Japanese soldiers and military per- memory from within Taiwan comple- ang Kai-shek, has set the recovery of Tai- tial dimension in history writing that mented and reinforced one another to wan as the goal of revolution and (its) deserves more scholarly attention. < [advertisement] construct a false memory of the war. For endeavor since its beginning’ (Zhang example, the people of Taiwan were rep- 1990:i). This fabricated view, under References resented as patriotic Chinese fighting massive postwar efforts to trans- - Qiu Niantai. 1962. Wode fendou shi [history the Japanese, most bluntly in govern- plant/suppress historical memory, of my struggle]. Taipei: Zhonghua ribaoshe. ment-sponsored publications or movies became the prevalent Taiwanese view. - Wang Qingjia (Q. Edward Wang). 2002. such as Victory (or Meihua, plum blos- Taiwan shixue wushi nian (1950-2000): som, 1976) in the 1970s. Contradicting The transplantation and suppression of chuancheng, fangfa, quxiang (original Eng- historical facts, all respectable Taiwanese historical memory has fuelled tensions lish title: Writing History in Taiwan: Tradi- in Victory spoke Mandarin and fought in postwar Taiwan, best illustrated in the tion and Transformation, 1950-2000). China’s ‘war of resistance’ - against controversy over commemorating the Taipei: Maitian chuban. Japanese rule in Taiwan, and against war’s end. October 25, 1945, when the - Zhang Ruicheng, ed. 1990. Selected Impor- Japanese military invasion in China. KMT government began its postwar rule tant Documents on Recovering Taiwan, 1937- in Taiwan, is represented and com- 1945. Taipei: Historical Commission, Cen- Similar processes of transplantation/ memorated annually as the ‘Glorious tral Committee of the Kuomintang. suppression of historical memory and Recovery (of Taiwan) Day’ (guangfu jie). - Zhou Wanyao (Chou Wan-yao), ed. 1997. Taiji constructions of false memory informed Obviously, this is a China-centered view ribenbing zuotanhui jilu bing xiangguan ziliao representations of Taiwan’s wartime that depicts China’s takeover of Taiwan (record from the roundtable discussion by international relations. As a part of the on October 25 as a glorious recovery of Taiwanese-native Japanese soldiers and relat- Japanese war machine, Taiwanese were something that once belonged to China. ed materials). Taipei: Institute of Taiwan His- mobilized to support and consequently However, this joyful commemoration tory Preparatory Office, Academia Sinica. suffered dearly from Japan’s war against discounts the sense of loss, lack of direc- the Allies. Toward the end of the war, tion, fear and uncertainty that many Tai- Mike Shi-chi Lan is Assistant Professor in the Taiwan was heavily bombarded by the wanese felt when they learnt of Japan’s Division of Chinese and Coordinator of the Allied air force. However, this part of defeat. The representation of ‘glorious Master of Arts in Contemporary China pro- wartime history was rarely found in recovery’ suppressed what many ordi- gramme at Nanyang Technological Univer- postwar accounts as it contradicted the nary Taiwanese had themselves experi- sity, Singapore. His research addresses mod- transplanted KMT government’s view enced. The mid-1990s witnessed advo- ern Chinese history - particularly Chinese where the Allies were the saviors of Tai- cacy of the more neutral term ‘end of the nationalism and China-Taiwan relations - wan and friends of China. As a result, war (zhongzhan)’ to replace ‘glorious and the intellectual and social history of these episodes, too, were suppressed recovery’ in commemorating October 25 modern East Asia. He is currently working on from public memory. Instead, what was (Wang 2002, 217). But as testimony to the production and intersection of national emphasized in postwar accounts of Tai- the power of fifty years of official dis- identities, historical knowledge and memory wan’s wartime international relations course, the transplanted view of ‘glori- in China and Taiwan.

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 11 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory photograph by author, 2003 author, by photograph

The ‘Dwelling of Remembrance’ monument dedicated to victims of the Tokyo air raids Memorializing the Tokyo air raids Tokyo occupies a peculiar place in Japan’s landscape of war memory. As capital city and host to Yasukuni Shrine and other national sites of memory, it figures prominently. Yet as a city lived and experienced by its residents, it seems a place where history holds little sway. Where are the memorials and museums that remember the dead and try to make sense of the 100,000 civilians who perished in the air raid of 10 March 1945, which initiated the US government’s embrace of urban terror bombing as a legitimate form of warfare? Where are the places through which Tokyoites have attempted to understand and convey the violence that the Japanese government allowed to be inflicted upon the city’s inhabitants in the closing months of the war?

Cary Karacas project was significant in allowing survivors to recover memories there would infringe on its role as a commemoration ories of the horrific events, and stimulated others throughout space for those killed in the 1923 disaster. Others argued that nlike many places in Japan - most notably Hiroshima, the country to write histories of their own cities’ destruction. placing the structure underground was not fitting for Tokyo’s UNagasaki, and Okinawa - Tokyo to date has not erected a In 1973, a nationwide Society for Recording Air Raids decid- twenty-first century symbol of peace. prominent memorial space to serve as a vital if imperfect ed to build resource centres throughout Japan as a way of reminder of the tragedies inflicted by the war. Indeed, mark- transmitting the experience to future generations. While some As protests against the planned construction of the peace ers of Tokyo being laid waste by incendiary bombs in 1945 are cities made progress toward realizing this goal, Tokyo’s fiscal museum in Yokoami Park continued, another form of oppo- so peripheral that most Tokyoites would be hard pressed to crisis prevented governor Minobe from building what came sition arose, this time against the contents of the proposed locate them. There is, however, a public air raid memorial in to be called the Tokyo Peace Museum. exhibit. Leading the charge was neo-nationalist Fujioka a small park just north of the popular Edo-Tokyo Museum. Nobukatsu, founder of the Advancement of a Liberal View of Constructed by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government and ded- The election of Suzuki Shun’ichi as governor in 1979 further History Study Group, whose purpose was to combat the icated in 2001, the semi-circular, flower-covered granite mon- complicated the task. Suzuki’s conservative leanings and his ‘masochistic historical perspective’ of school textbooks that ument, according to its dedication plaque, is meant ‘to mourn global city vision for Tokyo did not match the evolving included mention of Japanese atrocities committed in Asia. and remember the over 100,000 civilians killed in the air approach of those who continued to lobby for the Tokyo Peace Fujioka also took a strong position against the conciliatory raids, as well as promote the pursuit of peace by acting as a Museum. The Society to Build Peace Museums, in part an out- messages of Japan’s peace museums. To prevent the Tokyo permanent reminder of the tragedy that occurred’. Examin- growth of the Society for Recording Air Raids, took the posi- Peace Museum from being built, he formed the oddly-named ing how this particular structure came into being gives us a tion that any museum meant to transmit the experience of air Citizens Concerned about Peace in Tokyo, organized protests sense of the determinants that have contributed to how the raids on Japan’s cities had to be situated within a broader nar- in Yokoami Park, and wrote many opinion pieces attacking Tokyo air raids have and haven’t been publicly remembered. rative about the war’s causes and effects, and that discussion the exhibit proposals. of Japan’s aggression in Asia and its war responsibility must Let’s begin with where the memorial is located, in Sumida play a key role in any museum meant to promote ‘peace con- Exhibits that mentioned such things as Japanese air raids in ward’s Yokoami Park. On 1 September 1923, after a major sciousness’. China, Fujioka argued, would lead visitors to conclude that earthquake struck the metropolis, tens of thousands of peo- the Tokyo air raids directly resulted from Japan’s activities in ple from a working class quarter of the city took refuge from Asia, and would accordingly ‘trample on the hearts of children the spreading fires by fleeing to the two hectare park, only to and exert mind control over them’. Tokyo, Fujioka insisted, lose their lives as a firestorm swept upon them. Tokyoites came should build a memorial to the air raid victims without delay; to identify the park with this catastrophe and turned it into a the museum could wait until a consensus had been reached sacred space of sorts: the city government and citizens erect- on what ought to be included in the exhibits. ed Earthquake Memorial Hall and a charnel house to hold the , courtesy of the Sumida Ward Resource Center Resource Ward Sumida the of courtesy , m y victims’ remains, as well as a museum and numerous memo- m In 1999, Fujioka’s protests and his alliance with a local politi- rials to remember the disaster and its human toll. Just fifteen cian resulted in a Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly decision to pro- years after the celebration of the capital’s reconstruction and hibit the construction of the museum and to have the monu- Yokoami Park’s inauguration in 1930, catastrophe re-visited ment built in Yokoami Park. Contrary to the original plan, the the city, as incendiary bombs made refugees of millions and monument was not to mention ‘worldwide victims of the war’,

reduced half the metropolis to a wasteland filled with charred K Ishikawa by photograph but refer only to the air raid victims, mourning, and peace. corpses. Remains of woman Governor Suzuki chafed at this approach and refused to build In March 2001, Governor Ishihara Shintar_ presided over the The metropolitan government quickly buried most of the air and infant after the the structure. When a coalition led by the Socialist Party dedication of the ‘Dwelling of Remembrance’ monument, raid victims in mass graves located in parks, temple precincts, March 1945 Tokyo assumed control of the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly in the which eerily resembles the air raid shelters that dotted Tokyo and on private land, where they remained for several years. air raid early 1990s, it forced the governor, now in his fourth and final during the war. Some bereaved relatives were consoled that, Dissention between interest groups on where victims’ remains term, to issue a directive to proceed with the Tokyo Peace after more than half a century, Tokyo had publicly remembered should permanently be stored caused the Occupation’s Gen- Museum. In 1993, a committee returned the design for a those who died in the fire bombings. Other air raid survivors eral Headquarters to order the metropolitan government to 5,000 square meter structure, secured a site for it near the were less impressed, charging that it can never achieve the use the charnel house in Yokoami Park. The government did mouth of the Sumida River, and came up with a guiding phi- goals assigned it. The monument, they argued, because it was so, putting the cremated remains of 105,000 air raid victims losophy for ‘Tokyo’s twenty-first century symbol of peace’. built in Yokoami Park and without the peace museum, can next to the ashes of the 58,000 victims of the 1923 disaster. While mourning the dead and conveying the experience of the never adequately pay tribute to the dead or promote the pur- Since 1950, the city has sponsored Buddhist memorial serv- air raids was its main purpose, the committee asserted it suit of peace. Given the ongoing controversies over the appro- ices for both groups every 1 September and 10 March. should also relate the wartime suffering Japan had caused by priate place to situate the Tokyo air raids, both in the city’s Besides these services, few public remembrances of the Tokyo incorporating an exhibit on Japan’s air raids on Chinese cities landscape and that of Japan’s war memory, we may recall a air raids occurred for 25 years. Censorship during the occu- and creating a memorial dedicated to both Tokyo firebomb- line from Robert Lowell’s poem ‘For the Union Dead’: pation, the exclusive focus on the suffering in Hiroshima and ing victims and ‘worldwide victims of the war’. Nagasaki, Tokyo’s first postwar governor’s desire to reconstruct Their monument sticks like a ‘light’ or akarui Tokyo, and the fact that women, children, Battles over the place of memory and the elderly in a working class part of the city bore the brunt Suzuki, instead of building the structure, allowed his succes- a fishbone of the catastrophe all contributed to this relative silence. sor to inherit the commitment. Controversy erupted when the in the city’s throat governor’s office announced that the site of the museum Remembering catastrophe in Tokyo and Asia would be moved to Yokoami Park, and again when it was In an important shift in 1970, Tokyo governor Minobe declared that the museum would be built underground to pre- Cary Karacas is a PhD candidate in Geography at the University of Rymkichi – a self-described ‘flexible utopian socialist’ – offered serve an early Showa era structure housing exhibits from the California, Berkeley. His dissertation examines how war, occupation, to fund the newly formed Society for Recording the Tokyo Air 1923 earthquake. Many protested that building the peace and reconstruction affected and shaped Tokyo. Raids to publish a multi-volume account of the raids. The museum in Yokoami Park and anchoring Tokyo air raid mem- [email protected]

12 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory The memory wars: Japan, China and Asia’s future In the post-surrender but pre-occupation Japan of August 1945, Japan’s still military-dominated and emperor-led government decreed a new history teaching policy for schools. It became known as suminuru: the ‘blackening over’ of ‘passages deemed to be militaristic, nationalistic, or in some manner undemocratic’ in schoolbooks concerned with modern Japan. The blackening was done by the students themselves with brush and ink, in class - and often several coats of sumi (ink) were required.1

Peter King The suffering and damage inflicted by claims, Japan’s rearmament and its 731, the Nanjing killings, etc., remain nationalist tiger in a more prosperous Japan’s armies have never been ade- deepening strategic ties with the Unit- largely a closed book. The govern- and internationally oriented China. ver since the occupation ended in quately acknowledged in official quar- ed States. It has brought the Sino-Japan- ment’s reflexive habit is to come E1952, an ostensibly purged and pro- ters. But if Japan is to gain acceptance ese bilateral relationship to a postwar clean, albeit reluctantly and partially, Whether the authoritarian legatees of gressive education ministry (Monbusho) as a good regional neighbour and ‘nor- nadir. only under pressure, including the Mao can ride this tiger or will be thrown has regularly carried out a comparable mal’ country in the 21st century, it seems pressure of scholars and journalists off or even eaten by it remains to be ‘whitening over’ exercise (a mixture of to have become imperative to rectify a There are now two competing visions of stumbling across explosive secret seen. In any case, Beijing would do well both outright censorship and national- flawed and failed process of apology. a ‘normal’ Japan. One is a repentant material. to avoid the kinds of pitfalls which the istic whitewash) on the textbooks of the Because the politics of apology have Japan still committed to peace, a serious 3) Compensation of war victims Japanese government has already suc- day. For instance, having conceded in been so excruciating - always hostage to apology process and good neighbourly A proper legal framework for com- cumbed to, including a dogmatic 1997 the existence of the ianfu (‘comfort the electoral and other priorities of the relations in Asia. The other is a Japan pensation would bring to an end the defence of dubious historical positions woman’) system of forced prostitution core nationalist support base of Jiminto which would do away with the restric- stultifying and inconsistent treat- and heedless hypocrisy in demanding run by the imperial army in China and - the apologies themselves have been tions of the US-imposed ‘Peace Consti- ment of the whole issue by the Japan- history-based apology. For instance, the the Pacific theatre of war from 1937-45, largely vitiated by euphemism, half- tution’ of 1947, in particular its war- ese courts. Victims could be reached widely accepted but increasingly dis- the latest history textbooks approved in heartedness, insincerity and conspicu- renouncing Article 9, and free Japanese out to rather than subject to years of credited victim tally of the Nanjing mas- April this year have been obliged to erase ous lack of follow-up. diplomacy to adopt a complete reperto- costly and (usually) fruitless litigation sacre (300,000) is literally inscribed in the whole topic once again. This imme- ry of realpolitik instruments and policy – and regular public relations disas- stone at the Nanjing Memorial Hall, diately created yet another crisis for At the heart of this failure is the preced- approaches. These would range from ters for the Japanese government making any serious Chinese - or, better Japan in relations with Korea and China, ing American failure to set Japan, as it uninhibited armed international peace- avoided. still, joint Sino-Japanese - scholarly whose women were the chief victims of did Germany, on a truly new course in keeping to active prosecution of Japan’s exploration of the 1937 atrocities that the system. And for the first time, too, 1945. This was above all the result of maritime territorial/resource disputes All of this would make for an acceptably much more difficult.3 some of these textbooks also endorse the General MacArthur’s decision to pre- with China and South Korea, and possi- ‘normal’ Japan in China and elsewhere. official Japanese claim to the serve the emperor system and ruthless- bly also a nuclear spear to complement At present, prime ministerial references As for the Chinese government’s own Senkaku/Diaoyu islands in the East ly shield the Showa emperor Hirohito or replace the US nuclear umbrella in to the pain and suffering of Japan’s role in China’s self-inflicted post-1949 China Sea which is hotly disputed by himself from being held responsible as dealing with a nuclear North Korea. wartime victims are negated by persist- disasters, the more said in sincerity the Beijing. commander in chief for Japan’s aggres- There is potential for friction with ing bureaucratic cover-up and judicial better. But so far we - and the Chinese sions and atrocities. Supposing that a Japan’s so far indispensable hyperpow- stone-walling, and also by widespread people - have heard very little from those Whitening over political ‘denialism’, symbolised above currently responsible for coming to Contemporary whitening over is not all by regular prime ministerial visits to terms with those disasters. done by children with brush and ink, of ‘we deeply regret to have caused him [the emperor] honour (among other war dead) the course, but by censorship panels at so much anxiety’ Class A (and B and C) war criminals In a word, Japanese and Chinese gov- Monbusho under relentless pressure memorialised at the notorious Yasuku- ernments and civil societies in various from the reigning bureaucrats at the – Prime Minister Higashikuni, 4 September 1945 ni shrine in Tokyo. combinations must work together to ministry and the ascendant politicians ease the drift into entrenched hostility of Jiminto, the Liberal Democratic Party whitewashed emperor system was er ally in both kinds of ‘normality’, but A sincere policy of apology would make and conflict in the bilateral relationship. (LDP). So one has to suspect that the essential to ensure an easy occupation, its militarised version on the whole for an easier transition to a more diplo- But there is little doubt where the prime whitening out of the comfort women the US passed up the chance to propel seems to entail more active strategic matically and strategically self-reliant, onus for initiating this process should may be followed by similar treatment of the Japanese towards profound reflec- cooperation with the US than ever less Washington-dependent Japan. A fall. Sixty years of prevarication and eva- the forced labour system which saw tion on their fateful adventure of ‘escape before, including potentially a role in the permanent UN Security Council seat sion in Tokyo on its catastrophic Asian thousands of abducted Koreans and Chi- from Asia’, while Washington was soon defence of Taiwan. could ensue, together with an opportu- adventure in lebensraum have been nese slaving in the mines and factories keenly collaborating with most of the nity to negotiate a lasting settlement of enough. < of wartime Japan. Even the more surviving wartime elite in the local and Ironically, this kind of normalisation will the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands/resources famous wartime atrocities, such as the global anti-Communist struggle. further antagonise and intensify dis- dispute with China free of mutually Notes Nanjing massacre of 1937 and the ghast- putes with the very countries that were aggravating nationalistic eruptions. As 1. Dower, John. 1999. Embracing Defeat: ly human experiments and chemical With the war criminal in chief on the the victims of Japan’s first ‘normalisa- things stand, there is little possibility of Japan in the Wake of World War II. New and bacterial attacks orchestrated by imperial throne and the surviving tion’ - as a would-be Western-style impe- clearing the increasingly toxic atmos- York: WW Norton, p 247 Unit 731 in Manchuria, may be slated for wartime elite exonerated, it was always rialist. In other words, Japan will con- phere between Beijing and Tokyo. Yet 2. Reiji Yoshida, ‘Doubts over Tokyo Tribu- this treatment. going to be hard for the Japanese people tinue to be regarded as abnormal by its some kind of strategic understanding is nal’s linger’, Japan Times, 4 August 2005 themselves to contribute to the expiation close East Asian neighbours, and the essential to face the inevitable recon- 3. Depending on decisions about duration, Already the deficiencies of Japan’s edu- of national guilt. But Japan’s civil socie- power-political option will be just as struction of the bilateral relationship as geographical scope, definition of ‘victims’, cational system seem to have had a ty has been struggling valiantly with this fraught with burdens and dangers as the Japan strives to be ‘normal’ and China etc for the massacre, a new consensus determinable and deadly impact on the burden ever since, even while Japan’s post-1931 (or post-1894, if you will) mis- to gain acceptance as a global great among responsible professional historians attitudes of Japanese youth: ‘In a 1982 democratization remains problematical. adventure in China. The road not taken power. The huge continuing flow of is emerging which sets the victim tally at NHK [the national broadcaster] poll of There is no longer (yet) a military caste, - a genuine purge of all the major pro- trade and investment between the two around 100,000. See David Askew, ‘New 2,623 people, 10 per cent of those aged but the bureaucracy and political class tagonists of imperial militarism, and a is clearly now a vulnerable hostage to a Research on the Nanjing Incident’, Japan- 16 to 19, and 11 per cent of those in their have never managed to shed the Showa policy of sincere ‘in-depth’ apology com- dysfunctional relationship. In addition, Focus, No 109, 2004 20s, replied that “they can’t tell” whether legacy, even though its toxic mixture of plemented by an opening of archives Tokyo can look forward to more populist Japan waged a war of aggression [in outright racism on the part of the ‘chil- and compensation of victims -would but officially condoned attacks on Japan- Peter King is an affiliated fellow at IIAS and China and the Pacific]. Those ratios grew dren of the sun god’ and impunity and have made a vast difference to Japan’s ese property and even persons in China a research associate in Government and to 29 per cent and 37 percent, respec- reckless expansionism on the part of the contemporary regional standing. when textbook revision and Yasukuni International Relations at Sydney Universi- tively, in [a] 2000 poll’.2 military have little resonance in con- visit times come around. ty, where he was founding president, later temporary Japan. But the shades of It’s worth spelling out in detail what director, of the Centre for Peace and Conflict Japanese widely regard themselves as Showa - denying wartime atrocity - keep ‘sincerity’ could or should entail in the It takes two Studies. From 1993-96 he was Professor of among the principal victims in World punishing its victims and the victims politics of apology for Japan: But of course it takes two to settle, and Australian Studies at Tokyo University. His War Two - not so much, unfortunately, as keep fighting back. the Chinese government role in recent most recent book is West Papua and Indone- victims of their own government, but as 1) Apology wide and deep eruptions of nationalist resentment sia since Suharto: Independence, Autonomy victims of discriminatory American poli- Politics of apology So far the lawmakers of the Diet have directed at Japan is not encouraging. or Chaos? UNSW Press, Sydney, 2004. cies in the lead-up to war, and of block- China, for instance, is well prepared to been absent from the process. Ad China muddied the whole issue of com- ade, indiscriminate fire bombing and use its UN veto and block Japan from hoc, often euphemistic interventions pensation for Japan’s war crimes and nuclear holocaust towards war’s end. achieving long-desired permanent by emperors and liberal-minded occupation during the 1970s by setting They have a point here, of course, but so membership of the Security Council on (Murayama, Hosokawa) or under- them aside in favour of receiving a large far the US has passed up the chance to the grounds that the war issue remains pressure (Koizumi) prime ministers Japanese aid program immediately. It set Japan a good example. Apparently unresolved. The nationalist eruptions in have proved inadequate. also, for many years, gave no aid and superpowers need never say sorry, even China over the history textbook issue in 2) Coming clean comfort to individual Chinese victims of to close allies, for inflicting needless April 2005 are now fatefully entangled Japanese government archives on imperial Japan. Now all is greatly death, suffering and destruction. with the issue of disputed maritime forced labour, the ianfu system, Unit changed and the government is riding a

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 13 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory A slow remembering: China’s memory of the war against Japan Sparked by accusations that the Japanese Ministry of Education had authorized textbooks that whitewash atrocities committed by Japanese soldiers during the war, China’s public was allowed to vent its rage in April 2005. The Japanese consulate in Shanghai was attacked with stones and bottles, while the authorities warned foreigners of all nationalities to stay away from the demonstrations. Sixty years after the end of the Sino-Japanese war, the history of that period is becoming more, not less prominent in the contemporary politics of both societies.

Rana Mitter ists were corrupt fools who cared only tions, and civic associations can be seen performance with the Japanese consulate In China, there has been a genuine and for themselves and little for China; the as part of ‘civil society’ when their agen- in Shanghai. undeniable opening up of discussion t the start of the twenty-first centu- collaborators were worse, traitors das remain constrained by state and party. about the war years. Yet much of it is still Ary, Japan would like to be seen as a beyond redemption. While the Japanese Nevertheless, the state has been unable Prospects tied to an explicitly political, rather than nation-state looking to the future. Even themselves were not forgotten, and the wholly to control the consequences of its It is clear that sixty years after the end of historical agenda: the signs outside the in recession, it remains an economic Cultural Revolution in particular gave decision to allow public expression of World War II, positions in China and museums in Nanjing and Beijing pro- superpower, its popular culture rise to writings and cartoons that por- anger against the war. Opinion polls have Japan over the meaning of the war have claim proudly and honestly that they are (whether in the shape of anime, Hello trayed them in savage caricature, much shown that the younger generation is, if hardened. While there are entrenched ‘sites for the encouragement of patriot- Kitty or Beat Takeshi) globally signifi- of the Chinese historical discussion of anything, more inclined to harbour hos- positions on both sides, the space for ic education.’ This approach has meant cant. In many ways the country’s recent the war seemed to regard the enemies tile feelings against Japan due to the war, public discussion of the wartime expe- that the changes in history still, sixty attempt to seek a permanent seat on the within as more important than the dan- while events exacerbating the wounds rience remains more multifaceted in years on, look monolithic rather than UN Security Council reflects a justified gerous neighbours who had come flare up regularly. In 2003, a public out- Japan. There, polemicists of the far right nuanced; for instance, Chiang Kaishek’s belief that Japan has earned a place at across the sea of Japan. cry was engineered because of an ‘orgy’ take ludicrous negationist positions, record of patriotism has been reassessed the top table. Yet, the continuing divide held by Japanese businessmen in Zhuhai arguing that atrocities such as the Nan- more positively (just as he has fallen in the way Japan sees its postwar iden- A new war history on 18 September, supposedly a deliberate jing massacre never took place, or else from favour in Taiwan), but collabora- tity (primarily as victim), and the way The 1980s marked a turning point in insult to the anniversary of September 18, were wildly exaggerated. A quick glance tion still remains a difficult subject to other Asian nations see Japan (largely as the Chinese treatment of the war. A 1931, the date of the invasion of at, for instance, diaries and letters from broach. The contrast with Taiwan is evi- an aggressor), shows no sign of fading. combination of factors led to a change Manchuria. In 2004, there was public third-country missionaries suggests that dent, where democratization and liber- The Chinese decision to bring its war in the way both academic and public his- condemnation of Japanese chemical and this is historically untenable. Then alization have led to much more com- against Japan back to the centre of its torians dealt with the conflict. In the bacteriological warfare in the Northeast, again, a significant proportion of the plex and ambivalent responses to the nationalism is not a temporary phe- early Cold War period, one of the moti- sparked by the discovery of long-hidden mainstream of Japanese historians as period of Japanese rule. As long as the nomenon, and reflects a determination vations for the People’s Republic to soft- bombs from the war years. And, spring well as public discussion acknowledges CCP remains unwilling to allow simi- to force Japan to define its present in pedal the Japanese war record was a 2005 saw permission granted for demon- Japanese wartime guilt, and regards it larly nuanced discussions of China’s terms of its past. desire to detach Japan from the Cold strations against any Japanese attempt to as a reason why the country should not own war experience, it will continue to War embrace of the US, and achieve gain a permanent seat on the UN Securi- seek full rearmament. Indeed, it was provide fuel for the most unsavoury ele- The disappearing war diplomatic recognition. With the open- ty Council. But it seems unlikely that the leftwing Japanese journalists who were ments of the right in Japan. < In one sense, China’s new awareness of ing of full relations between China and government was enthusiastic about the instrumental in drawing attention to the its anti-Japanese conflict is part of a Japan in 1972, this was no longer an sheer violence of the demonstrators in Nanjing massacre in the early 1970s Rana Mitter process by which its attitude toward its issue. Then, the deaths of implacable Beijing, who brought bottles and stones when the subject was hardly discussed Institute for Chinese Studies own history is becoming more normal. enemies Mao and Chiang stimulated to shower the embassy, or by the repeat in China itself. University of Oxford For all other major powers involved in the reformist Chinese government to the Second World War, victorious or find ways to woo Taiwan into reunifica- [advertisement] defeated, engagement with their war tion. Finally, the CCP’s domestic legiti- experience was a crucial part of creating macy came under serious pressure in postwar identity, whether it was Britain the reform era as old Maoist economic coming to terms with the loss of its certainties were abandoned.

the younger generation is, if anything, more inclined to harbour hostile feelings against Japan due to the war empire, France and Germany seeking a New sources of legitimacy were needed, new type of European union, or Japan and among the sources of that legiti- turning from strong-armed empire to macy was the restoration of official demilitarized economic powerhouse. Of interest in the war against Japan. Offi- all the major powers, only China failed cially-endorsed versions of the new his- as a society to engage with the meaning toriography appeared in many media: of its anti-Japanese conflict. This was in films, books, and perhaps most con- large part due to the way China moved cretely (in all senses of the term), three from world war to Cold War. The Nation- massive museums in Nanjing, Beijing, alists and Communists were at war by and Shenyang, respectively on the sites 1946, while the eventual victory of the of the Nanjing Massacre, the Marco Polo Communists in 1949 meant that a bal- Bridge incident that marked the out- anced consideration of the earlier war break of all-out war, and the invasion of was impossible, even though it had Manchuria in 1931. There was also a ended less than four years previously. marked growth in scholarly interest in Through most of the Cold War, the the period, the most notable example aspects of the War of Resistance to Japan being the journal KangRi zhanzheng discussed and féted in China mostly yanjiu (Research on the War of Resis- related to the experience of the Commu- tance to Japan), published since 1991 by nist base areas, in particular the Shaan- the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, GanNing base with its capital at Yan’an. which deals with topics on the period that could only have been dreamed of a This concentration meant other issues decade or two earlier. were absent from discussion: there was little engaged analysis of the role of the Public responses Nationalist government, Chinese col- The war also provides some of the more laboration in occupied areas, or activi- worrying phenomena which stem from ties in Communist base areas outside the new space for discussion and argu- the Mao-dominated Northwest. Where ment in Chinese society One of the most the first two were discussed, it was gen- contentious discussions in the field of erally in the monochrome terms of a contemporary Chinese politics is the classic Confucian history: the National- extent to which the media, demonstra-

14 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory Militarization of nutrition in wartime Japan

Food assumes strategic significance in wartime, due to its basic role in strengthening the troops and enabling the productivity of workers, but also in its potential effect on population morale. Hunger can undermine people’s trust in their government and threaten public order. Measures implemented in wartime Japan to maximize the efficient use of food resources aimed at both, but their consequences went far beyond their intended goals.

By the 1930s, army catering turned into RyMyTkai aimed at persuading the gen- pre-war urban gastronomy. Further- a model of efficient mass catering, with eral public to embrace the military more, the militarization of nutrition, specialized equipment, motivated and model of efficient nourishment repre- and the chronic shortage of rice, set the well-educated personnel, and exciting sented by hearty stews and curries and stage for the post-war transformation of menus that included Japanese-Western industrially processed provisions. How- the Japanese diet, represented by the and Japanese-Chinese eclectic dishes. ever, as the war progressed, nutritional diminishing quantitative importance of Japanese authorities had three impor- advice for civilians inevitably shifted rice and increased consumption of tant reasons for incorporating foreign towards relief food. The severe food bread, noodles and industrially- dishes into their menu. First of all, the shortage was caused by the disruption processed food. Wartime issue of the Japanese cooking repertoire did not of food imports from the colonies, on magazine Katei to include meat dishes, while meat was which the home islands were heavily Most importantly, however, the work ini- RyMri (Home and considered essential for the strength of dependent, and the build-up of man- tiated by the Army Provision’s Depot and

I am most grateful to Prof. Ayako Ehara for providing the illustration. the providing for Ehara Ayako Prof. to grateful most am I Cooking) the troops. Second, foreign cooking power for the Japanese army and navy. supported by the wartime government techniques such as stewing, pan-frying As provisioning the troops was consid- continued. Military menus were repro- and deep-frying used fat – another food- ered the priority, the home front had to duced in restaurants, canteens, schools Katarzyna J. Cwiertka a token of solidarity with the troops fight- stuff that was lacking in Japanese cui- make do with what was left. For exam- and hospitals where cooks and dieticians ing in China. By 1939, the idea was sine – and provided a cheap source of ple, between 1940/41 and 1944/45, the educated during wartime found employ- longside the industrialization of adopted by schools all over the country, calories. Strong flavouring agents, such amount of rice supplied to the armed ment. Gradually, the militaristic conno- Aproduction and the commercialisa- and during subsequent years the ‘flag as curry powder, helped to hide the forces rose from 161 to 744 thousand tation of the innovations implemented tion of consumption of food, many soci- lunch’ rose to a symbol of national unity smell/taste of stale ingredients. Third, tons, making it impossible to retain by the armed forces disappeared, amal- eties over the past hundred years have (Kosuge 1997:169, 178). stews, stir-fries, curries and croquettes rationing standards for civilians (John- gamated into the mainstream civilian seen increased government intervention were not only hearty, relatively inexpen- ston 1953:152). culture of the post-war era. Nutritional in their diets. The dissemination of Yet, despite its symbolic potential, hino- sive and convenient to make, but also research was carried on in the institutes nutritional science through state insti- maru bentM was by no means represen- unknown, and therefore equally uncon- Yet, the government’s confidence in a sci- that had been established during tutions denoted newly-emerging con- tative of the general approach to nutri- troversial to all soldiers regardless of entific solution for food shortages wartime, and military experts on nutri- nections between power, welfare and tion in wartime Japan. Knowledge of their regional taste preferences. By the remained strong until its very end. Spe- tion continued to educate the public. In knowledge within the workings of the how to make maximum use of limited time the Sino-Japanese war broke out, cial campaigns advocating methods to February 1946, the popular magazine nation-state. The most direct interven- resources was seen as essential for these dishes had become soldiers’ economize on rice through careful chew- Shufu no Tomo, (Housewife’s Friend) tions by the state were seen in times of national security, and therefore the favourites and had acquired a clear mil- ing, and mixing it with vegetables and began publishing a series of articles deal- war, when accountants and dieticians authorities propagated science-based itary connotation (Cwiertka 2002). other grains, were carried out through ing with scientific aspects of cookery by determined the diets of hundreds of practical advice on nutrition. Like other posters and pamphlets. Consumption of the former member of staff of the Army thousands of drafted individuals, and projects undertaken after 1937 for the The home front more efficient staples that contained Provision’s Depot, ex-Major-general when civilian consumption was restrict- sake of improving the health and wel- The Army Provisions’ Depot was from the more calories and were cheaper to pro- Kawashima Shirm. < ed by food shortage and policy-making fare of the populace, military initiative late 1920s also increasingly involved in duce, such as sweet potatoes and squash, (Bentley 1998, Helstosky 2004). This was responsible for placing nutrition reforming civilian mass catering. Its influ- were propagated as well. As the moment Bibliography was also the case in wartime Japan, high on the agenda of policy makers. ence was channelled through the umbrel- of capitulation approached, public cam- - Benedict, Ruth. 1990 (1946). The Chrysan- where the involvement of the state in la organization of RyMyTkai (Provisions paigns shifted to instructions on main- themum and the Sword. Tokyo: Charles E. public nutrition became particularly pro- Feeding the troops Friends Society). Officially, RyMyTkai was taining vegetable gardens and brewing Tuttle Company. nounced after 1937. In line with the new Efforts to improve the army diet could be not part of the military. However, its head- soy sauce out of fish bones. - Bentley, Amy. 1998. Eating for Victory: Food doctrine of ‘total war’ emphasizing the observed since the turn of the twentieth quarters were established at the Central Rationing and the Politics of Domesticity. total mobilization of the civilian popu- century, but thorough reforms began Army Provisions Depot in Tokyo, its proj- Food shortages remained a major prob- Urbana/Chicago: University of Illinois lation, nutritional knowledge was rap- after World War I. The objective behind ects were supervised by the depot’s peo- lem in Japan after 1945 despite US food Press. idly transformed from a scientific these reforms was to maintain soldiers’ ple, and its board included high-ranking relief programmes. On the top of mil- - Coveney, John. 2000. Food, Morals and domain of specialists into practical bodies and morale in the best possible officials of the army. lions of hungry Japanese in the home- Meaning: The Pleasure and Anxiety of Eat- advice for the people. State institutions land, over six million military men and ing. London: Routledge. singled out diet as an important home- civilians who were by 1948 repatriated - Cwiertka, Katarzyna J. 2002. ‘Popularizing front weapon essential for preserving drafted peasants’ sons became acquainted with from the colonies and occupied territo- a Military Diet in Wartime and Postwar order and productivity, and actively ries had to be fed. This situation led to Japan’. Asian Anthropology 1: 1-30. participated in popularising nutritional multicultural military menus drawn on pre-war several hundred victims of starvation - Cwiertka, Katarzyna J. 2005. ‘Culinary Cul- knowledge. urban gastronomy and widespread malnutrition during the ture and the Making of a National Cuisine’. second half of the 1940s (Dower Jennifer Robertson, ed. A Companion to the This claim stands in sharp contrast with 1999:54, 89-97). Anthropology of Japan. Oxford: Blackwell. the image of wartime Japanese society condition at minimum cost. In other The major activities of RyMyTkai was - Dower, John W. 1999. Embracing Defeat: sketched by Ruth Benedict in her best- words, food served to the troops needed publishing of the monthly magazine However, long-term consequences of Japan in the Wake of World War II. New seller The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, to be nourishing, tasty and cheap. Inno- RyMyT (Provisions Friend), which includ- the food shortage on the Japanese diet York: Norton/The New Press. where she argues that ‘the Japanese do vations to achieve this goal involved a ed practical advice on civilian mass went beyond hunger and deprivation. - Helstosky, Carol. 2004. Garlic and Oil: Food not recognize the one-to-one correspon- wide-ranging educational program for catering and accounts of various activi- The wartime experience wrapped up the and Politics in Italy. Oxford/New York: dence which Americans postulate army cooks, as well as the introduction ties coordinated by RyMyTkai, such as construction of the Japanese national Berg. between body nourishment and body of modern cooking equipment to econo- educational courses for caterers at hos- diet – a process that replaced the diver- - Johnston, Bruce F. 1953. Japanese Food strength’ (Benedict 1990:182-183). Sound mize on human labour (meat grinders, pitals, schools and factories. After more sified, class and community-tied prac- Management in World War II. Stanford: nutritional policies of the wartime gov- vegetable cutters, dish washers) and than a decade’s experience in training tices of the pre-modern era with homog- Stanford University Press. ernment were also overshadowed by the ingredients with long shelf life (dehy- its own personnel, in 1939 RyMyTkai enous consumption practices that the - Kosuge, Keiko. 1997. Kindai nihon patriotic symbolism of the ‘Rising Sun drated vegetables, powdered fish stock, opened the School of Provisions overwhelming majority of postwar shokubunka nenpyM. Tokyo: Ytzankaku. Lunch Box’ (hinomaru bentM), whose tinned food). In 1929, further reforms (ShokuryM gakkM), which provided prac- Japanese could identify with (Cwiertka - Yasuhara, Miho and Miki Imai. 2002. nutritional value can easily be ques- were implemented at the organizational tical education in nutrition and cookery 2005). The austere diet that had contin- ‘Zasshi “Rymyt” ni miru kindai nihon no tioned. Hinomaru bentM consisted of level – the assignment of kitchen per- for approximately 500 civilians yearly. ued for more than a decade bridged the heishoku no hatten: Rikugun to shu to plain boiled rice and plum pickle (ume- sonnel was changed from a shift-based Graduates of the school were offered gap between urban and rural areas so suru dantai suiji no hensen’. KyMdM kenkyT boshi) placed in the centre of a rectangu- to a permanent system, and the delivery employment in institutions related to characteristic of the pre-war period. joseikin kenkyT seika hMkokusho. Tokyo: Aji- lar lunch box, which together resembled of provisions was extended to include all mass catering, food processing, food While city dwellers experienced the nomoto Shoku no Bunka Center. the Japanese flag. The origin of the hino- ingredients. Thus far, only staple foods rationing and public nutrition, as hand-to-mouth existence of farmers, a maru bentM is attributed to a 1937 initia- (rice, barley, wheat) had been delivered well as RyMyTkai’s own infrastructure great number of drafted peasants’ sons Katarzyna J. Cwiertka tive of a girls’ school in Hiroshima pre- by the depot while remaining provisions throughout the empire. enjoyed the luxury of having rice three Research School CNWS fecture, where this patriotic lunch box were purchased locally by each unit times a day and became acquainted with Leiden University was consumed by pupils each Monday as (Yasuhara and Imai 2002:9). At first, activities coordinated by multicultural military menus drawn on [email protected]

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 15 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory The nation’s interrupted path: the Pacific War in Philippine history textbooks For Filipinos, the Pacific War is the Japanese Occupation. Bayonet-bearing Japanese soldiers, traitorous local spies, heroic Filipino guerillas, victory ‘Joes’ (Americans), and the triumphant return of General McArthur are the dominant historical memories associated with this horrific war. Popularized by the mass media, these images in part originate from history textbooks, and are primary sources of people’s war-time imagination.

Portia L. Reyes the narrative, Agoncillo interspersed his also set up neighborhood associations with McArthur’s help - sought political In such a context, Filipinos fit awkward- text with colorful stories about the harsh- where Filipinos had to police Filipinos. or economic gain upon their favored col- ly at best. Left largely under-explored, the ere we examine three better-known ness of the occupation, anecdotes to pro- Most importantly, the military regime onizers’ return by exploiting the issue of Filipino experience is tailored to rein- Htexts: History of the Filipino People vide glimpses of how the poor sought to ruthlessly extracted war needs and sup- collaboration to rid the post-war govern- force the centrality and universality of (Agoncillo 1960), The Philippines: the get by. Agoncillo subscribed to the phi- plies from the archipelago in the hopes ment of unwanted (read: left-leaning) European thought and history. Continuing Past (Constantino and Con- losophy of historians Becker and Beard, of forming what the Japanese leaders. All told, for the Constantinos, Fil- stantino 1978) and The Pageant of Philip- who campaigned for a ‘subjectivist-prag- euphemistically called the Greater East ipinos let the opportunity provided by the For Agoncillo, the Constantinos and pine History (Zaide 1979). These have matist-presentism’ (Strout 1958: 28-29) Asia Co-prosperity Sphere. war to attain a truly independent Philip- Zaide, the outbreak of the Pacific War been required readings for fourth year to counter the then dominant ‘objectivist’ pines pass by. Instead, they basked in the interrupted an American imperial proj- high school and first year college stu- approach in the discipline. For Agoncillo, darkness prevailed not glow of post-war American influence, ect to transform the Philippines into a dents for decades, and have simplified only because of the regime’s atrocities, leaving the independence granted in self-governing polity. Deserted by their the complex realities of war-time Philip- Agoncillo’s writing moved succeeding but also because of the loss of social and 1946 a hollow shell. colonizers, Filipinos succumbed to a pines by depicting Filipinos as either war historians, not least the husband and moral balance among Filipinos. Physi- dark Japanese rule characterized by arbi- heroes or victims. In either conception, wife team of Letizia and Renato Con- cians denied suffering patients treat- Projected nation trary arrests, torture and killings from Filipinos are denied an independent stantino. Opting for a political economy ment; graves were desecrated for Characteristically, these texts figured the 1941 to 1945, only to be ‘liberated’ by the agency in their own history. perspective on the occupation, the Con- corpses’ gold fillings; and crimes against Pacific War as a stepping stone on the bravery of McArthur’s American forces stantinos saw economics as the driving persons and properties multiplied. More path towards shaping the archipelago with assistance by Filipino guerillas. Despite years of scholarly criticism and force behind Japan’s conquest of the ashamedly, a new economic elite arose into an ideal nation. Heeding historicist Agoncillo, the Constantinos and Zaide ridicule, textbooks remain vital for both Pacific. Like Zaide and Agoncillo, they and prospered amidst widespread von Ranke’s philosophy of telling histo- regarded the war as a military exercise, teachers and students in educational conceived the occupation as an experi- immiserization. As Agoncillo saw it, this ry as it really was, Zaide brought a a venue for social denigration, a missed environments. The Philippines is no dif- ence that shattered the comfort of the collaborating bourgeoisie amassed its mechanical approach to narrating the opportunity towards an ideal polity - all ferent, where texts play critical roles in Filipinos’ tranquil colonial world, dis- wealth through graft and corruption. A war, featuring names, dates and places, told, another trying episode in the coun- constructing what Anderson famously rupting the path to American-engi- particularly lucrative racket was mis- while clumsily seeking to relate the inde- try’s march towards nationhood. calls an ‘imagined’ national communi- neered ‘independence’. Four decades of managing the distribution of relief fatigability of the Filipino spirit. In its ty (Anderson 1991). Indeed we could American colonial rule had conditioned goods, which continued until the dispo- wake, regular folks were either swept Ample space for re-interpretation exists. link the nation’s historical conscious- Filipinos to be loyal to their American sition of equipment and materials upon aside or characterized with platitudes. The heavy use of American or English- ness with the production and reception masters; as the Constantinos pointed the Americans’ return. And instead of inviting readers to recog- language sources has left Filipino of history texts (Rüsen 1998: 3-16). This out, Filipinos even forgave McArthur in nize and understand a painful part of sources under-utilized. Comparisons of essay concentrates on the former, con- December 26, 1941 for declaring Mani- A new beginning? their past, Zaide enjoined them to con- memoirs of Filipino soldiers, which start- textualizing the creation of historical la an ‘open city’, which in effect handed These authors differ on what the imme- centrate on the larger project of (their ed coming out in the 1990s with other knowledge and the messages and mean- the nation’s capital to the Japanese. Fil- diate post-war situations in the Philip- leaders in) building a nation, thereby act- military accounts, would be illuminating, ings it strives to convey. ipinos continually resisted the Japanese pines stood for. Zaide considered the ing as a hand of the state, campaigning as would narratives and monographs on for their American colonial masters, occupation as a mere interlude in the for its pathway to order and modernity. forced prostitution to shed light on the An intrusion even as these colonizers abandoned the country’s inevitable march towards state of women during the war. Now Agoncillo, the Constantinos and Zaide Philippines during the war. independence, where ‘liberation’ by US Agoncillo’s text took no part in this mostly declassified, Japanese documents contributed to the entrenchment of pos- forces restored the Filipino common- nationalist charade. Having experienced might provide clues about Filipino chil- itivism in historical scholarship in the The dark years wealth government. In Zaide’s account, the war as a boy, he well understood the dren, Chinese, Muslims, indigenous Philippines. They relied heavily on writ- These texts use darkness as the primary bitter in-fighting amongst Filipino lead- daily lives of those toughing out the communities and others whose histori- ten sources to shape their arguments metaphor to describe the situation Fil- ers for the spoils of profitable political occupation, and thus strove to bring cal agencies have been left wanting. Oral and interpretations, including memoirs ipinos found themselves in from posts went unnoticed, as did the con- forth the nuances of local culture in a history, through interviewing survivors of American soldiers, a handful of December 1941 to February 1945. Zaide tinued American air raids that levelled war-time context. For example, he relat- and their descendents, would go a long accounts of select Filipino leaders, Eng- lays bare the brutality of Japanese rule: Manila although the Japanese had ed why Filipino men detested the fre- way in accounting for these ‘missing’ Fil- lish-language compilations of docu- thousands who refused to cooperate already surrendered. quent slapping by Japanese soldiers. For ipinos. Their incorporation would pro- ments, monographs and newspaper Filipinos, only women could (be) vide a historian wider access to a people’s reports on the Pacific War. Invariably, Filipino men detested the frequent slapping by slap(ped); they would rather be hit than personhood under desperate conditions, military personnel and politicians were slapped by another man. Although such bringing life to a people’s history of the the main actors in their narratives. Japanese soldiers. For Filipinos, only women could stories gave colour to an otherwise ter- war in their own terms. < (be) slap(ped); they would rather be hit than slapped rifying account of the Pacific War, it also Zaide saw the war as a distant European led to simplifications. Agoncillo charac- Works cited drama that almost accidentally disrupt- by another man terized Filipinos as consumed by either - Agoncillo, Teodoro. 1965. The Fateful Years. ed the lives of idyllic Filipinos, who were unreasonable volatility or treachery, Japan’s Adventure in the Philippines, 1941-45. 2 then preparing for independence as were tortured and killed. Meanwhile, the In Agoncillo’s eyes, Japanese rule meant thereby stripping them of human depth vols, Quezon City: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co. promised by their American colonizers. regime coerced Filipino leaders to col- heroic resistance of ordinary Filipinos, and complexity. To be sure, Filipinos - ----. 1990. History of the Filipino People. Within hours of the attack on Pearl Har- laborate in a puppet government that whose guerilla units incapacitated Japan- were afforded historical agency in Quezon City: Garotech Publishing, 1960. bor, however, Japanese air squadrons brainwashed Filipinos with Japanese ese war efforts. For example, reports on Agoncillo’s account, but one trapped in - Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined Com- began bombing the Philippines. In wartime propaganda. Unlike scholars the kempeitei that guerillas collected and the good/evil binary. munities, 2nd ed. London; New York: Verso. Zaide’s eyes, surprised and over- and politicians who depict this elite as submitted to McArthur’s headquarters - Constantino, Renato and Letizia Constan- whelmed Filipino and American forces traitorous leeches duplicitous with in Australia greatly assisted his return- A similar duality confounds the Con- tino. 1997. The Philippines: the Continuing put up a gallant fight, but were forced to Japanese rule, Zaide paints them as ing forces in 1944. In all, Agoncillo stantinos’ work. Polemically, they fea- Past. Quezon City: Foundation for Nation- surrender following a last stand on Cor- faithful servants carrying out the wish- sought to enliven the ways in which Fil- tured Japanese, Filipino, and American alist Studies, 1978. regidor Island. On the subsequent five- es of the Commonwealth President in- ipinos struggled to purge the Japanese elites as the occupation’s true adver- - Rüsen, Jörn. 1998. ‘Historical Consciousness day ‘Death March’, more than a quarter exile, Manuel Quezon, who urged offi- from the homeland. Lost in Agoncillo’s saries. Meanwhile, poor Filipinos were as a Matter of Research on History Textbooks’. of the 76,000 US soldiers perished due cials to soften the blow of the occupation populist zeal, however, are the burning depicted as either fighters or victims, Chang Yuan and Liang-Kai Chou, eds. Proceed- to hunger, illness and fatigue. Still, for on ordinary Filipinos. questions of rivalry, competition, and anonymous ‘masses’ that perpetually ings of the International Conference on Methodo- Zaide, defeat was in name only, as sur- deceit amongst guerilla fighters that struggle to be. For the Constantinos, gies: Historical Consciousness and History-Text- viving Filipino soldiers and other civil- The Constantinos characterized the burst onto the scene after the war. these struggles constituted the driving book Research. Taiwan: Tsing Hua University. ians formed guerilla units to wage a peo- occupation as ‘martial law: Japanese Agoncillo brooked no ambiguity and con- forces of change in a nation’s history, - Strout, Cushing. 1958. The Pragmatic Revolt ple’s war against the Hapon (‘Japs’). style’. With the assistance of the remain- tradiction for his valiant guerillas. from which empowered masses would in American History: Carl Becker and Charles ing Filipino elite, General Masaharu emerge to claim and build a nation in Beard. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Like Zaide, Agoncillo saw the war as an Homma and his army (kempeitei) It was left to the Constantinos to cast their terms. What the Constantinos - Zaide, Gregorio. 1979. The Pageant of intrusion upon preparations for Philip- repressed all freedoms, detained Fil- shadows across the guerillas’ bow, hoped for was a people’s revolution a la Philippine History. Manila: Philippine Edu- pine self-rule. Yet Agoncillo shifted the ipino men arbitrarily, mercilessly although in this case perhaps overly so. Russia or China; the Philippine scenario cation Company. theatre from a European-dominant con- quelled revolt, and severely punished The Constantinos indubitably stamped was interpreted not on its own terms, but text to one zeroed in on home. Quoting those cooperating with Americans. the underground fighters collaborators, forced into an ideal, linear progression Portia L. Reyes Filipino and American leaders to empha- Alongside a determined propaganda those who preferred American colonial towards enlightenment/ maturity, which International Institute for Asian Studies size their agency and simulate action in campaign against the US, the Japanese masters over the Japanese, and who - long ago had been achieved in Europe. [email protected]

16 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory Catastrophe on Peleliu: Islanders’ memories of the Pacific War The American invasion of Peleliu in September 1944 was one of the bloodiest and hardest-fought battles of the Pacific War. The 11,000 Japanese defenders dug over 500 caves into the island’s mountains and forced U.S. forces to spend 73 days blasting them 134°30’E out. In the end, only 300 Japanese survived and the island lay shattered and burned. The 850 native inhabitants had been evacuated before the fighting, but were devastated to find upon their return that their homeland had been churned into a wasteland.

Stephen C. Murray trol of land, the scarcest and most valu- white coral deforested by fire and explo- able resource on any island. Kin groups sives, so barren and altered by military apanese and American perspectives are identified with particular parcels, construction that many refused to Ngaraard Jon the Pacific War and the Peleliu most of which are still held communal- believe it was truly their island. ‘We cried Babeldaob campaign have been recounted exhaus- ly, all of which are named and have sto- and cried’ one woman recalls. Their five tively, but the calamity the war visited on ries behind them: how they were villages and nearly all the tangible the ‘ad ra Beliliou, the people of Peleliu acquired and who lived on them. One’s reminders of their former lives - homes, - eviction from their homeland, their identity and history are inextricably con- council houses, burial platforms, olang’, struggle to survive the war, their efforts nected to place, to land, and to the tales piers, farms, even parcel boundary to rebuild and their painful postwar of that land. The landscape itself serves markers - had been demolished. Within memories - has largely been ignored. as the repository of a group’s history, the caves in the mountains lay thou- Koror My research in 2002-03 thus sought to through its named parcels and beaches, sands of unburied Japanese, whose spir- document the experiences of the gener- landmarks, and olang’. These are natu- its, Palauans believed, could harm the ation of Peleliu residents who survived ral or man-made features - stones, trees, living. With so much of Peleliu’s past Ulong Koror N the war, and to understand how they stone burial platforms, a garden - that residing in the human and natural land- remember that era and interpret its his- serve as mnemonic devices to recall scapes, their destruction meant that the torical meanings. important stories. It’s not surprising, war was not just one more stratum of Urukthapel then, that the war memories of the ‘ad history laid down on the previous 3,000 Rock Islands To do so one must first appreciate that ra Beliliou are strongly coloured by their years’ worth. Instead, it abraded much the people of Peleliu conceive of his- perspectives on what happened to their of the history that had come before; it Eil Malk tory differently from Japanese and lands as productive resources, as the obliterated everything except what sur- Americans, and use different meth- foundation of their social organization, vivors carried in their memories. ods to retain and transmit it. Second, and as bearer of their past. Palau because land is such a vital element in The American forces provided the the culture, people’s conceptions of War and survival returnees with quonset huts and food in land and the ways it was affected by For most of the 30 years that Japan ruled a new settlement, gestures much appre- 7°N the war provide the primary frame- Palau and Micronesia (1914-44), its ciated after the year of hardship. But the Peleliu work through which they structure interest in the colony was the exploita- Americans abandoned the airbase in their memories of war and consider tion of local resources. But as war 1947, leaving the people to fend for its aftermath. Their memories con- approached, Japan made the fateful deci- themselves on an island whose fishing trast markedly with those brought to sion to locate Palau’s main airfield on grounds had lost productivity and whose Angaur 1 5 10 15 20 km the island today by tourists from the Peleliu. Authorities uprooted two of the meager soil had been paved over, poi- two former belligerents. island’s five villages and seized their soned, and washed away. Gardening was lands for the facility. Two other villages confined to taro swamps, and fish were globalized economy today. Yet only the war, curious about a site where its scars Peleliu is one of the traditional political accepted these refugees, whose way of less plentiful than before the war. actual return to place will provide the remain so evident, an island once divisions of the Palau archipelago, life had so abruptly been wrenched from opportunity to renew ties to the one site deemed worthy of great sacrifice but which lies in the Pacific Ocean just them. Clans gave home sites and garden Postwar memories each person considers his true home, now insignificant to ‘history’. The native north of the equator and 550 miles east plots to the newcomers, and everybody Much of postwar life on Peleliu is com- the repository of his family’s history, and inhabitants and what the war meant to of the Philippines. Palau is a sovereign made awkward accommodation amidst prehended in residents’ vexations over source of his identity. them are superfluous to these pilgrim- nation that in 1994 signed a 50-year this unprecedented misfortune. land tenure systems disrupted by colo- ages, an attitude the islanders are well compact of free association with the nialism and war. Japan and the suc- After the United States opened Microne- aware of: ‘We’re invisible to outsiders’, U.S. Sixty years after the invasion, evi- Nobody anticipated the same fate would ceeding U.S. administration both sia to tourism in the 1960s, Peleliu one chief put it. dence of the conflict on Peleliu remains befall the whole island, but as American claimed half of Peleliu as government quickly attracted Japanese veterans and more visible than on any comparable air attacks mounted in intensity in mid- land. The U.S. effort to relinquish this bereaved families, who were particular- Japan and the United States have raised site in the Central Pacific. Today’s 575 1944, the entire population of Peleliu land to the public was done in a manner ly anxious to cremate the thousands of monuments honouring their dead and residents are clustered in a single village was evacuated. They were taken in by blamed for creating endless disputes remains in the caves. The island also declaring commitments to peace. The (an equal number live in Palau’s urban the people of Ngaraard, a village on a among clans, lineages, and individuals. became a magnet for right-wing nation- ‘ad ra Beliliou describe them as the olang’ centre, Koror), and to an outsider’s eye large island to the north that escaped This Gordian knot is slowly being alists, who erected a Shinto shrine and of the foreigners, stones that encode the rest of the island appears to be large- invasion. For the next 12 months the ‘ad untangled by Western-style Palauan monuments praising their fallen heroes. their memories of the war, their versions ly unused. Beneath the re-grown forests ra Beliliou hid in the jungles to escape courts that are now the sole source of Ever sensitive to matters affecting fam- of the past. The islanders respect those dotted with small gardens and taro pad- American air patrols that attacked all vis- legal title. People complain that deeply ilies, the islanders express great sympa- memories and grasp well their essence dies lie guns, fortifications, caves filled ible targets; gardening, gathering, and private family histories have to be thy toward those who lost kin there. - what the Imperial Army and the U.S. with weaponry (and in some, the fishing at night kept them one step revealed in public court proceedings to Nonetheless, off and on since the late Marines did to each other, and to Peleliu, unburied dead), and tons of unexplod- ahead of starvation. Some trekked to bolster land claims. 1960s they have prohibited the collec- in the autumn of 1944. Travellers to the ed ordnance. It is this seemingly ‘pris- other villages seeking relatives and food. tion of remains out of fear that once all island, by contrast, understand little of tine’ quality of the battlefield that draws This dark year is remembered as a phan- The five ancient villages have never been had been taken away, Japanese tourism, what happened to the native population history-minded travellers. tasmagoria of fear, hunger, illness, and rebuilt, a source of great distress to the and the vital income it produced, would engulfed by that catastrophe. Address- occasional sudden death, made all the elders as time removes the last people stop. When Japanese Diet officials ing the ignorance of such visitors, anoth- History and land worse by the uncertainty over what had who can remember the way of life and pressed to reverse the prohibition, the er chief, Obakle’ol, noted that ‘they are In the kin-based society of Palau, happened to their homeland in battle. the all-important physical features of the magistrate Saburo seized the chance to only here for a short time’. This gentle, knowledge of the past centres on his- communities. The reasons for delay are voice Peleliu’s resentment at the cava- considerate comment reveals Palauans’ tories of families and clans, especially The succour they received from other many, lack of capital for reconstruction lier treatment its citizens had endured particular conception of history and its on how they came to hold power or communities in Palau is not forgotten. (war reparations from both combatants from the two nations that had so afflict- transmission. He was saying this: ‘To be own certain lands. These histories are The women of Peleliu still perform a were niggardly) and despoliation of ed them. In fluent Japanese he demand- understood, our histories depend on the kept very private, and stories main- dance in which they name and thank the farmlands commonly cited. But resi- ed, ‘Did you Japanese and Americans prior creation of personal relations tained by other kin groups are granted villages that aided their kin. Before dents acknowledge that the underlying get an invitation from us to come fight because the stories are private, about our respect. People accept that differing, departing Ngaraard in 1945 the refugees explanation is the risk of building a on our island of Peleliu? You destroyed families and our lives. They can only be competing versions of stories are ten- erected a stone olang’ to commemorate home without secure title to land. Every everything and then went away and left shared with, and become meaningful to, dentious, designed to promote the their bond, one maintained and taught to ‘ad ra Beliliou still identifies himself as us with nothing’. those who have learned who we are and interests of the group holding the story. the young through periodic great feasts coming from one of the five villages, have grown to care about us’. < Although Palau is now a fully literate hosted alternately by the two villages. whose sites are proudly shown on the Few Americans reach Peleliu today, and society, these stories continue to be map given to tourists. Chiefly titles con- many of those who do, particularly vet- Stephen C. Murray transmitted orally, while more public When they returned to Peleliu in early tinue to be passed down, and oral histo- erans and their families, share with their Department of Anthropology tales may be related in song, dance, 1946, the islanders were stunned by ries and parcel names are taught to the Japanese counterparts a sense of per- University of California at Santa Barbara chants, or the visual arts. what they encountered: uniformly they young. The way of life of the 1930s is sonal quest. Other tourists have suc- [email protected] Kin relations are organized around con- describe desolation, an island of glaring gone forever: Palau’s is a monetized, cumbed to our prurient fascination with

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 17 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory A nightmare in the making: war, nation and children’s media in Japan, 1891-1945 Those in the field of Japanese and Asian studies are undoubtedly familiar with Japan’s wartime propaganda of ‘human bullets’ (nikudan), group suicide (shûdan gyokusai), and the ubiquitous ‘one hundred million’ (ichioku), but readers may be surprised to learn that none of these tropes of national unity through sacrificial death were unique to the war years themselves. Nor were they primarily directed at adults.

Owen Griffiths media in the 1890s. Second, I argue this sacrificial death was often portrayed The culpability of adults in creating a development was not particular to through futuristic stories of mass anni- manly world of sacrificial death and rom the earliest beginnings of mod- Japan. Without question, the process by hilation in the context of Japan at war unquestioning loyalty is clear. Their Fern Japanese children’s media in the which Japanese children were enjoined with other great powers. Painfully motives are less so. Until the late 1930s 1890s, war and heroic, sacrificial death to glorify and eventually prepare for prophetic, these tales reflected a genuine no writer or publisher was compelled to occupied a central place in the stories their own sacrificial deaths during the adult dissatisfaction with the outcome produce these kinds of stories. Even dur- and imagery children consumed as Pacific War was rooted in historical and of the naval treaties Japan had signed in ing the worst years of censorship from entertainment. These representations contemporary practices specific to the wake of WWI. Between the early 1941 onward, children’s media contrib- collectively formed one of the most Japan’s own development. However, the 1920s and the early 1930s numerous utors retained a degree of relative free-

enduring themes in Japanese children’s utilization of war as a tool of nation Trino-Molenkamp Iben stories appeared in which Japan’s mili- dom not enjoyed by those who produced media throughout the first half of the building was not. War and its remem- Momotaro, the peach boy tary was pitted against one or more of media for adults. Perhaps we can say 20th century. Decades before publishers brances are central to the identities of all the great powers in a fight to the death. with the great Arab philosopher Ibn of the 1930s and 1940s were compelled modern nations and the media pro- sioned officer to die in the Sino-Japan- The storylines were remarkably consis- Khaldun that they were as much a prod- to represent war as a sacred undertak- duced by a rising new middle class has ese War, the resolute Mitsushima Kan, tent. Japan’s military would first ‘reluc- uct of their times as they were of their ing of national survival and Asian liber- been a key player in this process. and the indomitable bugler Kikuchi tantly’ engage the enemy and be anni- fathers. ation, children’s media producers had Kôhei joined this pantheon of selfless hilated due to their foe’s superior been creating adventure stories and The birth of children’s print patriots (Kuboi 1997; Kuwahara 1987). technology. Then, at the end, a mysteri- The last half of the 19th century through morality tales based on the heroic and media Their lives, or rather deaths, and the ous piece of new technology would the interwar years were times of nation- selfless patriotism of men in battle, Historians generally identify the early cause for which they fought became the appear, usually commanded by child or building, based in part on reinventing dying, not for themselves, but for the 1890s as the birth of modern Japanese templates for innumerable other char- adolescent warriors, to destroy the traditions from a usable past. War and greater good of the emperor/nation or children’s media, the very moment that acters whose exploits were reborn in the enemy and save the nation. Drawing on its remembrances were integral to this for the liberation of the ‘lesser peoples’ the Meiji government embarked on its pages of children’s magazines through- the ‘adventure novel’ genre (bôken shoset- process, driven by a social Darwinesque of Asia. Thus, the increasingly single- first expansionist war against China in out Japan’s age of imperial expansion su) pioneered by Oishikawa Shunrô in worldview of struggle and conflict. In minded glorification of manly, sacrifi- 1894 (Hasegawa 1999; Futagami 1978). and war. the post-Russo-Japanese War era, these Japan, as elsewhere, this world was cial death in war – what I have called the Although not arising in direct response stories were frequently first serialized in almost exclusively a masculine one. ‘culture of death’ – we see building from to the Sino-Japanese War, early Japanese Underlying all of these stories lay anoth- magazines like Shônen sekai (Children’s With very few exceptions, men have ini- 1937 to 1945 must be understood in this children’s media readily embraced war, er consistent theme of ‘rewarding good World) and Shônen kurabu (Boys’ Club) tiated and prosecuted war. They have broader context of children’s media con- as did most members of Japanese soci- and punishing evil’ (kanzen chôaku), and then published in book form (Kuwa- also developed the tools of war from structions of gendered nationalism that ety, and represented it to children as a now reworked in modern form with the hara 1987; Katô 1968). which nations and empires have been date back to the Meiji years (Griffiths masculine, heroic, and patriotic under- emperor/nation at its heart. This con- forged. From the stirrup and the long 2002). taking. The Sino-Japanese War present- cept had been rooted in Japanese folk- Collectively, these tales of adventures, bow to napalm and the atomic bomb, ed the first opportunity for war and tales for centuries, but its most imme- heroism, and death provided young men have been the principal agents in The anniversary of Japan’s defeat in the emergent nationalism to be ‘textualized’ diate influence on the early producers of boys, and some girls, with powerful creating the technologies of war. In the Pacific War gives us pause to reflect on specifically for children (Hasegawa modern children’s media can be traced didactic models with which children modern world these technologies, to the incredible human suffering gener- 1999: 9) and provided much of the lan- to the gesaku (playful composition) tra- could imagine their future roles in the borrow Marx’s phrase, ‘weigh like a ated by that conflict and to examine once guage and imagery with which adult dition of Takizawa Bakin and other Japanese empire. And children’s maga- nightmare on the brain of the living’. again the mechanisms by which people producers created Japan’s first truly famous Edo-era writers. Even Momo- zines were the perfect medium through can be socialized to kill and die in the ‘child-centred’ media. The pioneer in all tarô, one the most beloved Japanese which these stories could be transmit- Men also created the print media tech- name of sovereign, nation or god. Sadly, of this was Iwaya Sazanami who wrote fairy tales, was subject to this modern ted. Due to their low cost and portabili- nologies that enabled generations of such an assessment holds profound rel- the first modern children’s story Kogane process of reinvention. (Namekawa ty, children’s magazines transcended Japanese children to consume a fifty- evance to our contemporary world when maru in 1891 and began Japan’s first 1981) Beginning with his thorough geography and class and therefore per- year diet of vicarious war and sacrificial national and religious leaders continue modern children’s magazine Shônen ‘Japanization’ in the Meiji era, Momo- formed an important mediatory func- death as an always noble, always male, to enjoin their followers to slaughter sekai (Children’s World) in 1895. As an tarô was by the 1930s transformed into tion linking home, school and play- and oft-times glorious adventure. We others for allegedly moral causes. I am elite product of the new Meiji state, a military patriot fighting, not for a pot ground. Moreover, because children cannot say for sure exactly what impact particularly interested in analyzing the Iwaya saw war as an appropriate theme of gold or the old couple who raised him, consumed this media by choice rather this diet had on the young men who formation and role of mass print media with which to entertain young boys but to rid the world of ‘evil-doers’ in the than by fiat, magazines reflected chil- fought and died while brutalizing the and its use of war and remembrance as while simultaneously instilling in them name of the emperor. dren’s subjective preferences to a degree peoples of Asia during the Pacific War. tools in the socialization and education a sense of loyalty and devotion to their that purely educational materials did Sixty years after the fact, answers to of Japanese boys and girls until the end new nation. This seamless blending of contempo- not. Thus, the power of children’s these questions still remain elusive. Fur- of the Pacific War. rary, historical, and mythical figures was media, even when not overtly didactic, ther analysis of those who created it, In the hands of Iwaya and those who fol- another enduring theme in modern stemmed from its uniquely commercial however, may bring us closer to under- Together with the formal education of lowed him, particularly the founder of children’s stories from the Sino-Japan- impulse, its function as entertainment standing the relationship between the the classroom and the non-formal edu- Kodansha Publishing Noma Seiji, we ese War onward. Grounded in the con- and its interplay with other forms of consumption of war as education and cation of the home, informal education see the development of a number of text of contemporary war and conflict, socialization and education. entertainment and the prosecution of offered through children’s print media martial, manly themes that would the stories adults created for children war as political policy. Analyzing Japan was the principle means by which young endure well into Japan’s years of total blurred the line between fantasy and Media, modernity and as a case study will provide a deeper and Japanese were simultaneously educated war. Among the most prominent was reality by appropriating history and nation perhaps new understanding of its mod- and entertained until the advent of the Throughout this golden age of chil- ern history and the development of its electronic age. Thus, its analysis as the dren’s print media we see the reciprocal own nationalist ethos. I hope it will also product of new commercial and tech- adults, as they always do, transferred their interaction of art and life, fact and fic- serve as a mirror in which we can see nological forces provides insight into the aspirations, fears, and biases directly to children tion, and politics and entertainment. our own reflection as we memorialize process by which gendered identities are Here I have offered only a small sam- and remember the great tragedy of six created and maintained within a larger through the narratives they created for entertainment pling from an amazingly rich and decades past, while we struggle with yet national discourse. It also allows us to diverse body of material to argue that the another kind of war in the young 21st examine how the adult producers, as the excavation of Japan’s past for the myth and then rendering them into ‘culture of death’ so prevalent in the century. < members of the new middle class, con- great martial heroes from history and hyper-fictional tales of patriotism, loy- years of Japan’s total war was in fact a structed the world of modern children myth. From the first Emperor Jimmû alty and, above all, sacrificial death. With work in progress, rooted in the earliest Owen Griffiths teaches Japanese and Asian and by what rationale they transmitted and Yamato Takeru to Minamoto Yoshit- the exception of Momotarô, who always days of modern children’s magazines. History at Mount Allison University in their fears and aspirations to them. sune and Kusunoki Masashige, all of lived to fight another day, virtually all the Adults, as they always do, transferred Sackville, New Brunswick, Canada. His inter- Japan’s great military heroes regularly adult and child heroes in these stories their aspirations, fears, and biases ests include the history of the black market, My purpose here is two-fold. First, I galloped across the pages of children’s died bravely and happily, content in the directly to children through the narra- the problem of forgetting in historical writ- maintain that much of the gendered magazines as paragons of loyalty and knowledge that they had done their duty tives they created for entertainment. In ing, and the centrality of war and its remem- rhetoric of manly, sacrificial death we sacrifice. As Japan’s modern wars were and would be rewarded in another life. doing so, they provide us with a differ- brances in national discourse. Please see the see emerging during Japan’s years of fought and simultaneously historicized, ent view of Japan’s modern history, cen- online version at www.iias.nl for full source total war (1937-1945) can be traced back new heroes like Captain Matsuzaki This theme remained consistent tring on war, as it might have been seen citation. to the earliest days of children’s print Naomi, said to be the first commis- throughout the 1920s and 1930s when through the eyes of children. [email protected]

18 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory Anatomy of the YTshTkan war museum: educating Japanese youth? In celebration of its 130th anniversary, the Yasukuni Shrine renovated its war museum Y tshtkan. Reopened to the public in July 2002, the new museum features an exhibition space twice its previous size. The shrine hopes that the museum will play a central role in educating Japanese youth, as it did during wartime. But can it?

Takashi Yoshida modern Japan (Yasukuni Jinja 2003:2). The lobby contains the June 1934 issue of Boys’ Club (Shmnen kurabu) informed symbolic artifacts of the Pacific War, such as a zero fighter. The its readers of the opening of the hall and its popularity among uring the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877, members of the panel that explains the fighter reads: ‘With its excellent maneu- the visitors. Indeed, the wartime years were the heyday of these DJapanese nobility donated approximately 30,000 yen to verability and long range, the Zero was the best carrier-based facilities, which enjoyed a substantial number of visitors and the military for the care of wounded soldiers. Some money fighter in the world’. The panel fails to mention a major rea- played a significant role in educating youth. was left over, and the nobles agreed to allocate the remainder son why the Zero was so light and maneuverable: the design- to build an Exhibition Hall of Weapons. Giovanni Vincenzo ers had reduced the plane’s defensive armor, leaving pilots The Ytshtkan never recovered its prewar popularity. Although Cappelletti (1843-87), an architect employed by the Japanese highly vulnerable to enemy gunfire. the current museum seems to attract more visitors than the pre- government during the early Meiji period, designed a two- ceded one, from its opening in July 2002 till May 31, 2003, story Romanesque-style exhibition hall. It was named the As typified by the laudatory description of the Zero, the muse- 226,000 individuals visited the museum, while both the Ytshtkan, or the hall in which one may study under and com- um is filled with erroneous and manipulative representations Hiroshima Peace Museum and the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb mune with a noble-minded soul. The medieval Italian castle- of Japanese history. Near the entrance of the exhibition halls, a Museum have received more than one million visitors every year like the Ytshtkan, a symbol of modernization, coexisted theater continually runs a fifty-minute film entitled ‘We Will for over two decades. A leaflet available at the entrance of the alongside the traditional Shinto-style Yasukuni Shrine. Never Forget: To Thank, To Pray, and To Be Proud’. The female Ytshtkan urges visitors to encourage their children and grand- narrator condemns the International Military Tribunal for the children to join a club called the Friends of the Ytshtkan. In 1923 the Great Kantm Earthquake destroyed much of the Far East (1946-48) which found Japan guilty of ‘crimes against Rightwing According to the leaflet, schools in Japan do not teach the ‘true’ building, and the government decided to build a new exhibi- humanity’ and ‘crimes against peace’ and claims the empire nationalists outside history of modern Japan and often dispense a masochistic view tion hall of weapons. The design of the hall was no longer acted justly in seeking to liberate Asia from Western aggression. Yasukuni Shrine of history that demonizes Imperial Japan. European, but was instead crafted in ‘a modern Asian style’ (Yasukuni Jinja 1983:70-72). In 1931, the new Ytshtkan was Can the Ytshtkan play as powerful a role in conveying its view opened, and, in 1934, the annexed Kokubokan (National of modern Japanese history to young Japanese as it once did? Defense Hall) was added. It seems that the Ytshtkan’s influence will remain limited, mainly due to its extremely negative, nationalistic image and The focus of the new museum was no longer limited to the the association that exists in the public mind between the wars against Qing China and Russia. In the 1938 arrangement, shrine and right-wing extremists. Indeed, the Ytshtkan con- visitors were first conducted upstairs to see artifacts from pre- tinues to serve as a Mecca for ultra-nationalist groups, who history through to the late Tokugawa period (1600-1868). They arrive at the shrine in trucks armed with loud speakers and were then guided to the first floor, where they saw materials who rarely hesitate to resort to violence and intimidation in related to the Meiji Restoration (1868), the Sino-Japanese War pursuit of their political goals. (1894-95), the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), the armed conflict in north China (1928), and the Manchurian Incident As the editor of the conservative journal Seiron regretfully (1931). At the end of tour, the visitors saw cannons, shells, pointed out, many Japanese are allergic to the Yasukuni paintings, and fighter planes placed in a large exhibition hall. Shrine, and few teachers would advocate including the Shrine as a part of a school excursion. Indeed, Japanese high schools In contrast, the annexed Kokubmkan was exclusively dedicated now often choose overseas destinations for field trips. In 2002, to modern warfare. One of its objectives was to enable visitors for example, more than 38,000 students visited South Korea. to experience modern warfare. It not only exhibited high-tech Although exact figures are unknown, some schools have vis- weapons of the time, such as radio, radar, fighter-mounted ited such places as the House of Sharing and the Seodaemun

machine guns, anti-aircraft guns, and chemical agents; visitors (www.isett.com) Isett Stuart ©2005 Prison History Hall, both of which condemn Japanese colo- were able to shoot air rifles at small tanks, fighters, and enemy nialism in Korea. combatants. These were real rifles modified to use compressed The new Ytshtkan has 20 exhibition halls, starting with ‘Spir- air instead of gun powder. Elsewhere, patrons were invited to it of the Samurai’ on the second floor. Artifacts suggest that the It seems unlikely that, at least for the present, the Ytshtkan don gas masks before being subjected to an actual tear gas nation was created by Emperor Jinmu in 660 BCE and that will be able to play as significant a role as it did during the assault. The Tmkym Gas Co. was in charge of building the room, many samurai had fought against foreign enemies to defend war in spreading a heroic and ethnocentric narrative of the while the Institute for Science supplied the necessary equip- the nation since then. The second floor covers the passage of war among Japanese youth. Japanese peace education has ment (Ytshtkan, 1938:161, 183, 306, 308). time from the Stone Age up to the full-scale war against China often been criticized for focusing on Japan’s own victimhood that started in 1937. Nearly the entire ground floor is dedicated rather than the destruction and atrocities inflicted by Japan The Kokubmkan’s emphasis on entertainment and hands-on to the ‘Greater East Asian War’, including 3,000 individual pho- on other nations. Nevertheless, Nikkymso (Japan Teachers experience was maintained in other sections. Visitors, oper- tographs of the ‘enshrined gods’. All of them are said to have Union) teachers and anti-war activists deserve credit for ating a control stick, were able to drop virtual bombs from a fought and died for the empire, and their letters and wills are inspiring Japanese citizens with a sentimental aversion to heavy bomber. Once they had selected a target and pushed a exhibited. The large hall featuring kamikaze pilots and human war and right-wing extremism. Conservative politicians, button, a flashing light appeared to indicate where the bomb torpedoes remains virtually unchanged from its predecessor. including prime ministers and senior politicians, visit had hit. The model bomber also had a seat for a gunner, who In general, the Yushukan’s version of true Japanese history is Yasukuni Shrine and try to imbue the site with a more posi- was able to operate a mounted revolving machine-gun and a three-dimensional rendering of the views expressed in tive image. However, the public relations problems of the shoot enemy fighters. In sum, by the late 1930s, both the Kobayashi Yoshinori’s On War (Sensmron) and Nishio Kanji’s Ytshtkan are unlikely to be neutralized by such appearances. Ytshtkan and Kokubmkan had taken on the function of rein- History of the Nation (Kokumin no rekishi), both of which argue So long as the public continues to identify the Ytshtkan with forcing nationhood, explaining the technology of modern war- that Imperial Japan liberated Asia from Western aggression. the groups of violent reactionaries, the shrine stands little fare, and inspiring visitors to join the military. The shrine con- These volumes are available in the museum shop. chance of appealing to the Japanese mainstream. Nor are the tinued to perform these functions until Japan’s defeat in 1945. new Ytshtkan’s attempts to attract youth with pre-war like Can the YTshTkan accomplish its mission? hands-on attractions likely to have much impact in further- During the Occupation, the Supreme Commander for the The popularity of the Ytshtkan museum rose on several occa- ing its interpretation of Imperial Japan. < Allied Powers closed the museum. In 1961, however, the sions prior to Japan’s defeat, particularly in periods of war and administrators of the Yasukuni Shrine began to display a lim- imperial expansion. After the museum began to exhibit con- Works cited ited number of artifacts from the museum, though it remained fiscated weapons from the Qing military, visitors skyrocketed - Yasukuni jinja. 1983. Yasukuni jinja hakunen shi (One Hundred-Years trivial in scale compared to its predecessor. In 1986, the from 50,000 to 250,000 a year. In 1905, the year that the of the Yasukuni Shrine). Vol. 2. Tokyo: Harashobo. restored Ytshtkan and Kokubmkan were opened to the pub- Russo-Japanese War ended, more than 480,000 people visit- - _____. 2003. YTshTkan zuroku (Pictorial Records of the Ytshtkan lic as the Ytshtkan museum. In 1999, the Yasukuni Shrine, ed the museum. After the war began with China in July 1937, Museum). Tokyo: Yasukuni jinja. celebrating its 130th anniversary, decided to renovate and visitors again increased significantly, with more than 910,000 - Yushukan. 1938. YTshTkanshi (The History of Ytshtkan). Tokyo: expand the antiquated museum, leading to the opening of a visiting the museum that year (Ytshtkan 1938:477-89). Yushukan. new and larger museum in 2002 featuring visual libraries and devices more attractive to young visitors, trying to entertain Particularly after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the Takashi Yoshida is assistant professor in the Department of History them as it once did during the pre-war period. Ytshtkan museum became popular among children. The at Western Michigan University. His research has focused on war and average annual number of juvenile visitors between 1894 and memory in East Asia and the United States. His book The Making of The current Ytshtkan has two major goals. First, it is 1930 was 21,474, while in 1937 more than 110,000 children the Rape of Nanking: The History and Memory of the Nanjing designed to honor and comfort the souls of the ‘enshrined passed through. Young visitors especially liked the participa- Massacre in Japan, China, and the United States will be published gods’. Second, it is designed to convey the ‘true’ history of tory features of the Kokubmkan (Ibid.: 484-89). For example, by Oxford University Press in October 2006.

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 19 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory Negotiating colonialism: Taiwanese literature during the Japanese occupation Research on the Japanese colonial period in Taiwan (1895-1945) has been booming in recent years, especially since the lifting of martial law in 1987. Scholarship on the period’s literary production, however, focuses on works containing explicit anti-colonial stances to such an extent that writings in other styles and those less critical of colonial rule have been disregarded.

Lin Pei-Yin suicide, highlighting the predicament of ionable student life in 1930s Tokyo. effort, leading to the so-called imperial- new literature. Although these works are the proletariat in colonial Taiwan. Caught between his Japanese lover subject literature addressing Taiwanese mainly love stories, the themes encour- he first two decades of Taiwan’s Kimiko and his old Taiwanese love people’s spiritual distress throughout the aging freedom of love reflect the think- TJapanese period were marked by In 1931, the left-leaning Taiwan People’s Yuzhi, Lin ultimately realises that he is process of imperialisation and the pro- ing on male/female relationship of armed anti-colonial movements that Party was dismissed and its leader Jiang not in love with either and decides to motion of Japan-Taiwan amity. In the urbanites in the 1930s and 1940s. The ultimately failed. The Japanese colonis- Weishui passed away; many leftwing stay in Tokyo to pursue his dream of works of Chen Huoquan and Zhou quasi pro-Japan messages in some of ers’ brutal suppression made the Tai- Taiwanese intellectuals were appre- becoming an actor. Lin’s idle strolling Jinbo, prominent themes were the yearn- these works expanded the horizons of wanese intelligentsia turn to cultural hended. These factors led to the decline into Shinjuku coffee shops, and his ing for the modern, urban, progressive imperial-subject literature which was no movements to remodel the nation’s of socio-political movements in Taiwan; taste for western classical music and Japanese civilisation and the urgency to longer necessarily written in the colonis- thinking as an alternative way to flight writers turned to literary movements foreign plays conveys the modernist reform the vulgar Taiwanese culture er’s tongue. against colonialism. In 1921, the Taiwan and devoted themselves to writing. This temperament of the work. Lin’s ideas through imperialisation. Cultural Association (Taiwan bunka ironically heralded a period of matura- of love are likewise modern; he is a With Japan’s surrender and Taiwan’s kymkai) was established, launching an tion for Taiwan New Literature. In this flâneur constantly seeking his next The support of colonial policy and ‘return’ to China in 1945, the evolution island-wide cultural reform programme second stage, numerous literary soci- object of desire. Caught between two apparent pro-Japan stance in these of Taiwan New Literature was brought to to educate people. To accommodate this eties were established, and literary jour- competing love relationships (cultural works stirred controversies in post-1987 an end. Some writers halted their creative call for cultural enlightenment, a new nals launched. Writers began to explore identities), Lin refuses a fixed identity Taiwan. Scholars held different view- activities, while others took pains to learn strand of literature written in the style new artistic trends and tackle a wider and chooses an ever-changing aesthet- points towards the imperial-subject lit- Chinese and continued to write; the lega- of vernacular Chinese emerged in the range of themes. Yang Kui’s Newspaper ic, urban lifestyle. The emphasis on erature. Some were understanding: cy of literature under Japanese rule was early 1920s. Usually referred to as the Boy (1934), Weng Nao’s Remaining Snow individual perceptions opens new pos- Zhang Liangze called for reading impe- marginalised with only few works such Taiwan New Literature movement, it (1935) and Long Yingzong’s A Small sibilities for Taiwanese literature, free rial-subject literature with ‘a serious atti- as Wu Zhouliu’s The Orphan of Asia played a vital part in Taiwanese people’s Town with Papaya Trees (1937) are three of the tangled question of nationalism. tude of love and sympathy’ (Zhang, being published. Only in the nativist lit- anti-colonial resistance. distinctive pieces written in Japanese 1998), while Ye Shitao declared ‘there is erary debate of the l970s did attempts to from the second stage of Taiwan New Long’s A Small Town with Papaya Trees no imperial-subject literature. All are excavate works of the Japanese colonial Taiwan New Literature Literature. recounts the pessimism of Taiwanese protest literature’. (Ye, 1990: 112). Oth- period begin. Owing to the colonial context, the Taiwan intellectuals. Living in a suffocating ers moralised: Chen Yingzhen consid- new literature movement was from the Inspired by Lai He’s leftwing thinking, small town, the protagonist resents Tai- ered imperial-subject literature an With the lifting of martial law and the very beginning multi-lingual and socio- Yang Kui went further by bringing class wanese-Japanese inequality and the accomplice of Japanese colonialism prevalence of nativist movements over politically engaged. In addition to works analysis and internationalism to his writ- arranged marriage into which his lover (Chen, 1998:13) while Lin Ruiming, the past three decades, the importance of written in Chinese, there were works ing. His award-winning Newspaper Boy is is forced. Its gloomy closing, where the though not as radical as Chen, firmly literature from colonial Taiwan contin- written in Japanese and Taiwanese. The an account of a foreign student’s exploita- protagonist abandons himself to alco- stressed that (imperial-subject) writers ues to grow. Begun as part of the anti- key figures in the first stage of the move- tion by his boss, and his later support of hol, signifies the no-way-out plight of should not ‘shirk their responsibility’. Japanese resistance, it departed from ment, such as Lai He, hailed as the unions as a means of fighting back. Set the colonised. In contrast to Lai He and (Lin, 1996: 322). These debates showed classical Chinese tradition and under- ‘father of Taiwan New Literature’, Chen in a period of economic recession in Yang Kui’s spirited resistance, and nationalist and moralistic literary stan- went its own development and matura- Xugu, and Cai Qiutong, were all active Japan, the student leads a poverty-strick- unlike Weng Nao’s modernist disposi- dards still being applied to the reception tion. This opulent literary legacy illus- members of the Association. With left- en life. When he is about to give up, a tion, Long’s portrait of weak and hollow of imperial-subject works; the imperial- trates the painful process of these writers’ wing ideas ascendant in the 1920s, writ- Japanese worker, Tanaka, offers his help. Taiwanese bourgeois intellectuals is in subject writers were so pressured that constructions of selfhood and negotia- ers in this early stage of Taiwan New Lit- Contrasting the exploitative boss and the itself a sad caricature of Japanese colo- some of them felt the need to justify tion with the colonial condition, provid- erature produced works containing generous Tanaka, the story emphasises nialism. themselves. When invited to translate ing us with a complex picture of the strong nationalistic sentiments and opposition between capitalists and his The Way (1943) into Chinese, Chen workings of colonialism. < humanitarian concerns. Lai He’s short labourers rather than between Japanese Imperial subjects? Huoquan, for instance, not only made story A Scale (1926) for instance portrays and Taiwanese. In fact, Yang does not During the eight-year Sino-Japanese War amendments to the work but also added References colonial exploitation and the longing for divulge until the second half of the story (1937-45), the Japanese propagated the a passage stating that he was forced by - Chen Yingzhen . 1998. ‘Jingshen a fair society. Qin Decan, the protagonist that the student is from Taiwan. Newspa- Imperial-Subject Movement (kmminka the times and circumstances to write de huangfei – Zhang Liangze huangmin of A Scale, is a farmer who maintains per Boy ends with the Taiwanese student undm), a series of assimilation campaigns pro-Japan messages. Yet in recent years, wenxue lun de piping’ – himself by selling vegetables. To please identifying with Japanese labourers and to mold Taiwanese people’s unquestion- scholars have attempted to move away (Spiritu- his customer, a Japanese police officer, joining the union movement, embracing ing loyalty to Japan, which included the from the dichotomy of imperial-subject al desolation – Criticism of Zhang Qin deliberately underestimates their a universal and humanistic compassion establishment of the Imperial-subject and protest literature. Their call for a Liangze’s notion on imperial-subject weight. Unfortunately, the police officer for the proletariat instead of a provincial Public Service Association (kmmin contextual analysis indicates a more literature) in Zeng Jianmin , ed. does not feel grateful at all, and Qin is nationalism. hmkmkai) in 1941. Taiwanese writers were open attitude towards Taiwan’s colonial Taiwan xiangtu wenxue, huangmin wenxue charged for violating the rules of weights requested to eulogise the Japanese past. This can be seen from the growing de qingli yu pipan , and measures. Unable to pay bail, Qin Written in the third person, Remaining national spirit and produce a masculine, interests in Yang Chichang’s surrealist (Clarifica- kills the policeman and then commits Snow recounts Lin Chunsheng’s fash- optimistic literature to assist in the war poetics and popular literature, the two tions and criticisms of the nativist litera- scarcely studied dimensions in Tai- ture and imperial-subject literature of [advertisement] wanese literature under Japanese rule. Taiwan). Taipei: Renjian. - Lin Ruiming . 1996. Similar to Weng Nao’s cautionary atti- Taiwan wenxue de lishi kaocha tude towards embracing national/cul- (A historical tural identity, Yang Chichang declared investigation of Taiwan literature). Taipei: that Taiwanese literature should aban- Yunchen. don its political stance as early as 1936. - Ye Shitao . 1990. Taiwan wenxue Rather than narrating external reality, de beiqing (The sad- Yang concentrated on the distorted ness of Taiwan literature). Kaohsiung: internal violence brought by Japanese Paise wenhua. colonialism. His poems showed his - Zhang Liangze . 1998. ‘Zhengshi attempt to disconnect himself from real- Taiwan wenxueshi shang de nanti – guanyu ity, and are full of non-linear ways of Taiwan ‘huangmin wenxue’ zuopin shiyi’ thinking, fragmentary images as well as – symbolic lexicons - all of them skilfully capture the highly censored life the Tai- (Facing the tough problem in Taiwanese wanese people suffered. As for the rich literary history - Addenda about ‘imperial- heritage of popular literature, it added subject literature’ in Taiwan), supplement an important contribution to the devel- of the United Daily News (February 10). opment of Chinese literature especially after the usage of Chinese was banned Lin Pei-Yin in 1937. These popular novels are National University of Singapore extremely significant as they fill the gap [email protected] left by the intellectual-centred call for a

20 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory Connecting the experiences of the Sino-Japanese and Asia-Pacific Wars How were the Sino-Japanese and Asia-Pacific Wars related to one another? In terms of military strategy, competition for raw materials, diplomacy and the like, historians have long acknowledged connections between the conflicts, and how one prefigured the other. Yet, beyond the obvious military-strategic links, other kinds of inter-relationships between developments in the China theater and in other parts of Asia subsequently occupied by Japan have received much less attention, particularly in terms of transnational cultural history.

Ethan Mark For their part, many Japanese who took fueled by fear of the Soviet Union and many Japanese, something much more Recalling the earlier struggles and frus- part in the invasion were overwhelmed its commitment to exporting commu- noble and profound. This Chinese trations of a Japanese propaganda unit onventional accounts of the two by the Indonesian welcome, and were nist revolution, along with increasing- resistance came as a shock to most in China in a mid-1942 column, news- Cconflicts tend to lump Japanese and quick to see in Indonesia proof of the ly assertive Chinese nationalism. From Japanese, who expected to deliver a paper editor Shimizu Nobuo articulated Asian experiences into one basket with world-historical righteousness of Japan’s 1931, the empire-building project in quick, decisive blow to the ‘renegade’ the sense of relief and newfound confi- the shared labels ‘imperialism versus mission as Asia’s leader and liberator. Manchuria became the focus of Japan- forces of Chiang Kai-shek when the con- dence among Japanese in Java – as well nationalism’ and ‘oppression versus Many went so far as to interpret their ese ambitions, and was billed as a model flict began in mid-1937. But as months as the continuing fixation on resolving resistance.’ To a certain extent this comfort in Java - reinforced by what they solution to Japan’s domestic problems. turned into years, the Japanese found Japan’s ‘China problem’ which prefig- remains accurate, but there were impor- saw as uncanny racial, linguistic and cul- themselves in a military and moral ured the Japanese experience in Indone- tant differences between how Japan’s tural similarities between Indonesians Imperial crisis quagmire; continued mobilization of a sia and elsewhere. Where Chinese occupation of China and its occupations and Japanese - as confirmation of a At the same time, the interwar period tired populace and ‘pacification’ of the resistance had previously left Japan’s in Southeast Asia were apprehended ‘fresh start’ for Asia as well as a ‘home- was a time of crisis in the legitimacy of ‘inscrutably’ resistant Chinese demand- imperial spokesmen ‘wordless’, the and experienced by occupier and occu- coming’ to the long-lost Asian brethren imperialism itself. Chinese nationalist ed a cause that transcended the old jus- warm Southeast Asian reception now pied. At the same time, the two conflicts described in Japan’s own propaganda. resistance to Japanese encroachment tifications for empire - ideally, a cause seemed to provide Japan with a long- were related in complex ways. was a regional play on the global theme that could transcend empire itself. sought ‘reply.’ Northeast Asian roots There is a story of the China Pacification Coming home While Japan’s message was new and the message of ‘Greater Asia’ was originally meant for Unit (Shina senbuhan). The case of Japanese-Indonesian rela- appealing to many Indonesians, for Chi- They argued that Japan and China have tions in occupied Java and their rela- nese, Koreans, and others who bore the Northeast Asian consumption. Wittingly or not, the same script and are of the same race tionship to the Sino-Japanese War serves brunt of Japanese expansionism in Chinese resistance played a critical role in its making, (dôbun dôshu), they are brothers, and as a brief example. When Japanese Northeast Asia, the language of ‘libera- they should proceed with hands joined. forces landed on Java in March 1942, tion’ and ‘return to Asia’ had a familiar elaboration, and radicalization Someone in the audience replied - Alright, they brought with them a stirring, revo- and by now hollow ring. This was no but China is the older brother. lutionary message: Japan’s occupation coincidence, for while it was now direct- of anti-colonialism, which was gaining Yet, despite increasingly sophisticated It is said the members of the pacification of Indonesia represented neither impe- ed at Southeast Asians, the message of the moral high ground as the ‘trend of elaboration, Japanese attempts to justi- unit had no words to answer this for some rialist aggression nor a local version of ‘Greater Asia’ was originally meant for the times’, articulated by such spokes- fy the war as a holy mission to establish time. Western colonialism, but the realization Northeast Asian consumption. And wit- men as Mahatma Gandhi and encour- a ‘Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity How wonderful if they had been able to of a world-historical mission to ‘liberate’ tingly or not, Chinese resistance had aged by the Marxist-Leninist critique of Sphere’ and ‘liberate Asia’ from West- reply immediately. Japan’s Asian brethren from Western played a critical role in its making, elab- imperialism and Woodrow Wilson’s ern colonial domination – ideas that res- It is a problem of history – when you are capitalism and colonialism, and to build oration, and radicalization. acknowledgement of the ‘right to onated profoundly in Japanese society – properly aware of Japan’s history, the a harmoniously ‘Asian’ order tran- national self-determination’. Just as the largely failed to strike a chord among answer is extremely simple. scending modernity’s social ills. In Up to the 1930s, Japanese justifications Great Depression and crisis of interna- Chinese. The shocking brutality of the Japan has always been leader of the Asia- ancient times, Asia had been a unified for imperial expansion and colonial rule tional capitalism made the securing of conflict, continued Japanese racism and Pacific sphere from ancient times – if you and powerful cultural whole; the success had largely mirrored those of the West- empire seem more important than ever arrogance, the complex structure of Chi- know this history, that is enough. of Japan’s new Asia-building project ern powers: the protection of Japan’s to Japan – and to Britain, Holland, and nese domestic social and political rela- Japan has always been constructing depended on a cultural return to the military-strategic ‘spheres of interest’, France – empire as such was becoming tions, and, if this were not enough, the China - if you know this history, that is shared Asian values and unity that the securing of vital raw materials, land, harder to justify, internationally as well accumulated weight of history in the enough. Western imperialism, capitalism, and and markets, and in more idealistic as domestically. form of a common perception of Japan We are now seeing this truth with our individualism had undermined. Japan, and the Japanese as scheming, self- own eyes in the Greater East Asia War. alone among Asian societies in having aggrandizing ‘imperialists’ – in tandem We must be aware that this truth before maintained its political autonomy and with longstanding assumptions of Chi- our eyes has been continuously repeated Eastern cultural essence while master- nese cultural superiority over their geo- in China since ancient times. ing Western science and technology, was graphically smaller, ‘peripheral’ neigh- What is true in China is, again, true in uniquely, ‘naturally’ qualified to lead this bour – inhibited local receptivity to the southern regions. Japanese people, Asian renaissance. Japanese claims of acting as ‘Asia’s lib- take great pride! erator’, let alone any legitimacy as ‘Asia’s Java’s indigenous population had long leader’. It is an irony of history that Shimizu’s been suffering under Dutch colonial closing assertions were eventually to

domination, and many, particularly 1942 sendenhan, Jawa by published , It is only against this highly charged prove correct, albeit hardly in the way that among its educated elite, were in search and contested Northeast Asian forma- Shimizu, and the many Japanese whose of a new post-colonial order. Many tive background that Japanese ideolo- views he represented, might have hoped. Indonesians thus welcomed the Japan- gy and propaganda in Southeast Asia – As Indonesians who lived through Unabara shimbun Unabara ese and were captivated by their prom- with its revolutionary evocation of an Japan’s increasingly exploitative and bru- ises, particularly given that beyond occa- empire that could transcend imperial- tal three and a half-year occupation will sional contact with local Japanese ism, an Asian brotherhood that could attest - and despite Japanese claims and shopkeepers – who had an overwhelm- transcend capitalism, an Asian moder- Indonesian hopes to the contrary - it was

ingly positive reputation – Indonesians in Saseo, Ono Source: nity that could transcend Western inevitable that the imperial chickens had little direct experience of Japan and Mirror image? Cartoonist Ono Saseo’s 1942 depiction of Japanese-Indonesian cultural resemblances modernity – can be understood. For Japan had raised in China would even- its empire. The demonstration of Japan- also seems to suggest a more ‘civilized’ Japan. reasons discussed briefly above, Java’s tually come home to roost in Southeast ese power represented by the rollback of population proved more open than Asia. For all its idealism, the promise of the Americans, British, and Dutch in terms, the bringing of ‘civilization and The Japanese ideology of ‘Greater Asia’ their Chinese counterparts to ideas of ‘Greater Asia’ was no match for the inex- the Pacific between December 1941 and enlightenment’ to ‘backward peoples’, that took shape in the 1930s arose in, a Japanese-sponsored ‘Asian’ alterna- orably imperial political, economic, and March 1942, unprecedented in speed the ‘suppression of disorder’, ‘banditry’ and reflected, this specific ‘late imperi- tive to Western rule and modernity. For cultural logic of Japan’s wartime regime. and scope, was further incentive to fol- and the like. From around the late al’ context. The nominal political ‘inde- their part, Japanese responses to this But more than this: in its very contradic- low Japan’s lead. And while many 1920s, however - alongside increasing pendence’ of Manchukuo, along with its situation – in many ways almost a tions, ‘Greater Asia’ was not only a vivid Indonesians were aware that Japan had calls for domestic social renovation - a rhetoric of ‘racial harmony and broth- sense of religious redemption for sign of its late-imperial times - it was also, been waging war in China for several more aggressive expansionism came to erhood’ - in what was little more than a themselves, their nation, and its impe- in itself, an expression of Japan’s late- years, longstanding class and racial ten- the fore. The push for internal reform Japanese puppet-state - were expressions rial project – must be understood in the imperial logic. < sions between the indigenous popula- and external expansion emerged against of its contradictions. Above all, tenacious context of frustrations built up in the tion and local ethnic Chinese - who the backdrop of socio-economic dislo- Chinese resistance in the subsequent course of the China conflict. They Ethan Mark dominated the lower reaches of the cation in the wake of the Great Depres- full-scale war in the Chinese heartland reflect the degree to which Chinese NIOD/Ailion Foundation Postdoctoral economy and were widely perceived as sion, which brought suffering domesti- produced the social and ideological con- resistance had threatened to under- Fellow capitalist-colonial henchmen of the cally and heightened protectionism and ditions whereby what had started as a mine the legitimacy of Japan’s empire Dept. of Japanese and Korean Studies, Dutch rulers - offset the potential for competition between the imperial pow- relatively straightforward imperialist – and how much Japanese had invest- Leiden University anti-Japanese solidarity. ers internationally. The shift was further mission had to become, in the eyes of ed in the imperial project. [email protected]

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 21 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory Borneo constituencies: Japanese rule and its legitimation Thinking of wartime occupations, we tend to picture suppression, looting, and violent and arbitrary rule. For the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, the prevailing image is one of a brutal regime ruling Indonesian society at gunpoint and spoiling the lives of thousands, while incompetent administrators ruined the country. Or was the Japanese period a prelude to revolution and the harbinger of independence?

Remco Raben without a full measure of legitimation; foster regional identity on the island, as tion and to attach local elites to Japan- more to offer than the continued trum- the build-up of a constituency was thus they did on other islands, the result of the ese rule. Of the maximum total of fif- peting of freedom and Borneo entering t was, of course, both. Trying to avoid essential to the immediate restoration of Japanese wish to avoid premature devel- teen members, about half were elected a new era. Government performance is Igeneralisations which judge a period Borneo’s industrial output, but also to the opment of a truly national Indonesian and the others appointed. Their task a convincing source of legitimacy, espe- by its outcomes, it might be useful to longer-term objective of a pro-Japanese movement, and which also mirrored was purely advisory, but their inaugu- cially in a colonised country where polit- look at the zaman Jepang (Japanese Indonesia. administrative and economic division ration was widely publicized. ical identities had yet to fully crystallize. period) differently, by assessing the into autarkic provinces. The new Borneo With the absence of a large elite holding workings of the Japanese state in A new Borneo was even celebrated by a song of that title, Limits to legitimacy strong nationalist feelings, administra- Indonesia. Instead of looking at the Borneo fell under the command of the while youth recruits in Banjarmasin It remains difficult to assess the precise tive practice was of crucial importance. effects of occupation for different peo- Japanese navy as did all Indonesian wore insignia in the shape of Borneo on effects of Japanese legitimation efforts, Japanese administration, however, ples or classes, one might examine how islands except Java and Sumatra. At the their breast pockets. but avoiding the common branding of proved to be ineffective and harmful, Japanese rule operated as a state, more outset, it was unknown how long the these efforts as sheer ‘propaganda’, it with increasing demands on labour and specifically the way it produced or tried Japanese would stay. As related in his Whatever the claims and aspirations, appears that the Japanese employed a a break-down of local trade and infra- to produce a certain legitimacy. memoirs by Okada Fumihide, minseifu both anti-Allied propaganda and the wide range of tactics. Compared to Java, structure. Evidence abounds of the qual- sokan or chief of the Naval Administra- message of liberation were insufficient some peculiarities catch the eye: one is ity of life in the coastal areas being seri- I am not concerned here with legitimation Government in East Indonesia to inspire Indonesian men and women the marked difference between urban ously affected by the occupation: food cy according to international law, but based in Makassar, the occupation was to embrace the Japanese state in Indone- and rural areas. Organisations of youth and textiles were already scarce by late with the inner workings of the Japanese to be permanent (eikyt senrym). This is sia. Areas under navy command were militia and volunteers existed only in the 1943, while plantations and gardens state in Indonesia. Recent thinking on an interesting remark, as whatever the less exposed to the Japanizing efforts of big towns, where displays of Japaniza- were neglected and unmaintained roads rulers’ legitimacy stresses the mecha- short-term needs of an empire at war, in the new rulers; propaganda means were tion were strongest. Mass-mobilization were overgrown by jungle. nisms by which rulers legitimate their the longer term Japanese rule had to much more limited in Borneo than on movements such as the Three-A move- power and through which they influ- concern itself with the legitimacy ques- Java. Public loudspeakers relaying ment and Poetera on Java had no equiv- Nothing is more delegitimating than a ence their subjects to accept their tion. It did so in all sorts of ways, rang- broadcasts from Banjarmasin, Batavia alents on Borneo. This was also due to failing government. The Japanese state authority - it is the process of legitima- ing from the ideological to the simple and Tokyo were only put up in the big the absence of a large intelligentsia to in Borneo suffered from serious defects tion that is considered crucial to the exercise of authority. Drawing mainly on towns. Borneo newspapers such as Kali- lead these movements. Only on a much and failed to institute or maintain a sta- workings of the state. 1 Borneo poses an newspapers, we might distinguish sev- mantan Raya and Borneo Shimbun, less intensive level, and restricted to ble and reliable civil administration. The interesting case. Few historians have eral strategies of legitimisation.2 however, seem to have been fairly wide- more densely populated coastal zones, mass arrests probably created an impres- given attention to this large island, ly read, as Allied interrogation reports were similar policies of mobilization sion of arbitrariness and a widespread which was of crucial importance to the A first, obvious method was the identifi- of local inhabitants suggest. tried on Borneo. atmosphere of fear. It is interesting to see Japanese. Sources are relatively scarce, cation of a common enemy: the Dutch, that the newspapers changed their tone but Allied intelligence reports and Americans and British. Linked to this Another channel of legitimation was During the latter part of the occupation and subject in the last year of the occu- Malay-Japanese newspapers provide us were Japanese appeals to form a block the bureaucracy. The Japanese had ini- the limits of Japanese legitimation pation. While they had previously given with a fascinating window on the work- against the West and to join the Asian tially proclaimed the continuation of became clearly visible, and political cred- much attention to the old aristocracies, ings and rituals of Japanese rule. forces under Japanese guidance. A sec- Dutch structures of government, and ibility crumbled. Without doubt, this in particular the sultans, by 1945, under ond source of legitimation was in some Dutch administrative labels and terms had to do with intensifying pressures on pressure from the deteriorating war sit- In colonial states, the legitimacy of rule ways more tangible: the old colonial were often retained, such as ‘resident’ the people and economy, and panicky uation, they had shifted to preparation is often translated as the loyalty of colo- power had been defeated and its formal and ‘keur’ (statute), even ‘ambtenaar’ and ruthless reactions to disobedience for independence. As a result, when nial subjects. The Dutch, for instance, presence removed – Indonesia was enter- (civil servant). Taxes remained and anti-Japanese activities. In late 1943, Mohammad Hatta visited Banjarmasin were almost obsessively concerned with ing a new era. The fact of victory was unchanged from prewar days; only the the Japanese discovered a ‘conspiracy’ in May 1945, his speech drew a large and the issue. Japanese authorities showed a accompanied by the profession of Japan- obligatory corvée labour, abolished by in Banjarmasin, allegedly led by ex-Gov- mesmerized crowd. The success of similar preoccupation with the issue of ese liberation ideology: according to the the Dutch, was re-instituted. An impor- ernor B.J. Haga, which was quelled by Javanese nationalists was not just con- loyalty, understandably exacerbated by newspaper Borneo Shimbun, Borneo tant change, however, was the employ- arresting several hundred suspects and sciously created by the Japanese, as many the wartime situation. But their interest had been terlepas dari perboedakannja ment of local personnel in administra- convicting and executing 26 ‘leaders’ Dutchmen assumed after the war, but in the population went further than obe- (freed from its slavery) and was entering tion, with the double aim of efficiency and secretly killing many others. In its was part and parcel of the same legiti- dience and subservience to the Japanese a new phase in history. ‘New’ was the in the use of Japanese manpower and wake, the Tokkei or naval police discov- mation process that had promised a new war cause. Whatever their practical rea- word which, in various forms, loomed ‘gaining confidence of the local peo- ered other plots and cases of disobedi- Borneo in 1942. It was indeed a last sons for conquering the Dutch East large in the newspapers. Masjarakat ples’.3 Only slowly were changes made ence in western Borneo (Pontianak), resort of the Japanese in their attempt at Indies (oil, for one), they came with a baroe (new society) became the miracle in the structure of government. By which resulted in the arrest and killing legitimation. < message (to free Asia from the bonds of word, as it did on Java and elsewhere. December 1943, municipal govern- of probably several thousand people, the western powers) and an aim (to cre- Interestingly, there was also Borneo ments were instituted in Banjarmasin including most of the local ‘Malay’ sul- Notes ate a new Asian society under Japanese baroe (new Borneo), which was thought and Pontianak, and residency and tans and intelligentsia. The motives for 1. See Rodney Barker. 2001. Legitimating identi- guidance). An extended period of rule to inspire inhabitants with regional patri- municipal councils erected, with the the mass executions are not entirely ties. The self-presentations of rulers and subjects. and exploitation would be impossible otism. It seems the Japanese wanted to aim of ‘normalizing’ the administra- clear, but seem to have been triggered Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. by fears of local powerholders.4 The 2. Most of the following has been drawn from [advertisement] combination of a low-intensity occupa- the Kalimantan Raya (5 March 1942-7 Dec. tion (the garrison in western Borneo 1942) and Borneo Shimbun (8 Dec. 1942-15 consisted only of about 500 men), the Sept. 1945), and interrogation reports of THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA complex political dynamics of the region the Netherlands Forces Intelligence Ser- A New History (with Chinese kongsis and semi- vice (NEFIS), held by Netherlands Institute Edited by Norman G. Owen autonomous sultans), and the econom- for War Documentation.

HAWAI‘I READER IN TRADITIONAL CHINESE CULTURE ic value of the island to the war effort 3. Benda, Harry J., James K. Irikura and Edited by Victor H. Mair made Japanese rule tense and suspi- Kmichi Kishi, eds. 1965. Japanese military Nancy S. Steinhardt & Paul R. Goldin cious. A side-effect of the cleansing administration in Indonesia: Selected docu- operation was the Japanese administra- ments. n.p.: Yale University Southeast Asia HOUSE HOME FAMILY: Living and Being Chinese tion increasingly appointing outsiders Studies, 207. Edited by Ronald G. Knapp & Kai-Yin Lo Spatial Habitus: Making and Meaning in Asia's Vernacular Architecture from South Borneo (Banjarmasin) as 4. Maekawa, Kaori. 2002. ‘The Pontianak Inci- officials. Problems were not only limit- dents and the Ethnic Chinese in Wartime MURÒJI: Rearranging Art and History at a Japanese ed to coastal areas: in early 1945, upriv- Western Borneo’. Paul Kratoska, ed. South- Buddhist Temple Sherry Fowler er Dayak communities in western Bor- east Asian minorities in the wartime Japan- neo rose against the Japanese, staging ese empire. London and New York: Rout- TALES FROM A CHARMED LIFE one of the few large-scale armed actions ledgeCurzon, 153-169. A Balinese Painter Reminisces against the Japanese in the archipelago. Hildred Geertz & Ida Bagus Madé Togog Remco Raben While these ‘incidents’ instilled fear Netherlands Institute for War NIVERSITY OF AWAI I RESS U H ‘ P among the population, Japanese-led Documentation WWW. UHPRESS. HAWAII. EDU newspapers and bulletins had little [email protected]

22 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > The Asia-Pacific War 60 Years On: history & memory ‘If the self is cultivated, ...’ - some remarks on philosophy and politics in wartime Japan ‘And if I were not afraid you would think me drunk, I would have sworn as well as spoken about the effect that [this man’s words] have always had and still have on me.... This Marsyas ... has often brought me to such a pass, that I feel life isn’t worth living, as long as I stay as I am. And you can’t say that isn’t true, Socrates.... For he makes me confess that I have a lot of flaws, but nevertheless I neglect to attend to myself, busying myself with the concerns of the Athenians. So I plug my ears and fly away from him...’.1

Christian Uhl of Nishida’s disciples, who studied in lic’. The modern state lacked a centre of decided by war. For this reason world his- of political thought to a proper under- Germany. One of these parallels might gravity, a centripetal force counteracting tory is the purgatory of humankind’. 5 standing of Nishida’s political philoso- his was how Alcibiades spoke to be a common concern with – or a cer- the centrifugal forces exercised by self- phy, stressing in particular the critical TSocrates and other guests gathered tain resentment against – what we may ish, private interests. ‘The entrepre- The understanding of history as a purge potentials of a Buddhist ‘politics of in Agathon’s house for that dinner party call the ‘ordinary self’, which, as it is, is neur’, maintained a member of the and purification of the sins of the past, awakening’.8 Indeed, the call for an over- known to us as the ‘Symposium’. One incapable of knowing the truth, and has Kymto School, ‘thinks about the econo- the idea of war as an ascetic exercise, or coming of the ordinary, selfish self as a laughs at the performance of the drunk- to be ‘overcome’, so to speak. It was this my, the lawyer about law, and so on, but the Kymto school philosopher Tanabe pre-condition for good government en politician, but Alcibiades is in truth concern, or resentment, which nour- thinking about things in such isolated Hajime’s conviction, that unceasing ‘pen- implies a criticism of the state of mind more a tragic figure. As a boy, he had ished Heideggers’ understanding of the realms has now reached its limits’. A itence’ is the true principle of history – all of ordinary men such as the imperialist told Socrates that he intended to govern national socialist movement as a ‘real renewal’, he continued, had to put this elevates the political philosophising political and military leaders of war-time the polis one day. Socrates wanted to ‘national revolution’ against the ‘hope- an end to the ‘rampant spreading of of the Kymto School into the realm of the Japan. Some have identified a similar know what that meant. Alcibiades had less frenzy of technology’. And it was such narrow subjectivity’ and it was the religious, and, moreover, directly links it kind of criticism in the call of Nishida’s to concede that he did not know – and out of the same concern that philoso- ‘breaking down of these borders’ that with the demand for a transformation or disciples for an ‘overcoming of moder- that, until then, he had not even been phers of the Kymto School embraced the was the task of philosophy. The ‘total overcoming of the ‘ordinary self’. The nity’. Still, ambiguity remains. For embarrassed about not knowing – to war as the most effective means to what war’, therefore, was ‘precisely a ‘philo- question of religion, Nishida Kitarm before the establishment of peace in the which Socrates put to him that before he was propagated in war-time Japan as the sophical war’. Because by compelling writes, ‘is neither limited to the problem world, the salvation of humankind, or set about minding the business of oth- ‘overcoming of modernity’. Moreover, the concentration of forces, the conver- of objective knowledge, nor to the ques- the emergence of a Buddhist state envi- ers, he should first ‘attend to himself’.2 for them – as for Socrates – the problem sion of the modern state into a ‘nation- tion of morals, which concern the Ought sioned by Nishida at the end of his life, During the ‘Symposium’, Alcibiades of the ‘self’ was closely linked with the there was the purgatory of world histo- admitted that he had failed in the face of problem of knowing how to govern oth- ry, the affirmation of the war as an asce- philosophy. And in the end, after a life ers, and might therefore help to illumi- ‘total war’ was ‘the total destruction of the modern tic exercise. And so in the Kymto School’s governed by selfishness and lust for nate the relationship between philoso- state, society, economy, culture and philosophy’, i.e. concern with the overcoming of the power, the Athenian politician and gen- phy and politics in war-time Japan. ‘ordinary self’ we may also find an eral died in disgrace at the hands of a the ultimate ‘overcoming of modernity’ itself answer to the question asked by the Hei- murderer. *** degger expert Otto Pöggeler, ‘how could al defence state’, and teaching the of our willing ego. The questions are the Kymto School get so close to the war Socrates’ end was tragic as well. It was Japan’s officially declared war objective individual ‘asceticism’ and the subordi- rather: What are we? Where are we? What parties’?9 The historical significance of the fulfilling of what Socrates saw as the was the establishment of a ‘New Order nation of his or her private interests to is the essence of ourselves?... What makes this question, however, must not be philosopher’s primary task - to approach in East Asia’ and the defeat of the old the public weal, the war excelled in the self-being the true self?...’.6 Only overestimated: neither Alcibiades, nor young people all over the city and tell world order as represented by the League answering this very demand for the against this background can the call of the Japanese ‘war parties’ ever really lis- them that in order to live a life in light of Nations. The philosophers of the breakdown of borders, the merging Nishida’s disciples for a re-transforma- tened to the philosophers’ advice: ‘You of godly truth, they should first ‘take care Kymto School assessed these objectives together of the disintegrating areas of tion of the modern ‘homo oeconomicus’ have to attend to yourself first!’ < of themselves’ and ‘know themselves’ - positively. The League of Nations, they the military, art, economy, politics, and back into an ‘original human being’ for which his prosecutors attacked him. argued, had been established to ensure thinking etc., and the transformation of reveal its significance and pathos. Notes world peace based upon the ‘abstract the modern ‘homo oeconomicus’ (keizai- 1. Platon, Symposion, 215 d - 216 a, modified *** idea’ of a unity of autonomous peoples, jin) back into an ‘original human’ (hon- Nishida’s metaphysics also explain why by author. upon capitalism and liberalism. In the rai no ningen) . In a nutshell: the ‘total for his disciple Kmsaka the salvation of 2. Platon, Alcibiades 1, especially 128 d ‘Every epoch organizes the censorship of Anglophone world however, freedom, war’ was more than just a struggle for a the ‘small human being’ is linked with 3. Lanord in an interview in Le Monde, quot- philosophy in its own way. Socrates had was just another word for ‘free competi- new society and a new world order in the salvation of humankind as a whole. ed from Jürg Altwegg, ‘Wirkt sein Gift noch to give his life. Descartes was persecuted tion’, meaning ‘repression of the weak’, political terms. It was, at the same time, Within the limited frame of my immer? Frankreich debattiert über Hei- by the Sorbonne’ – thus Hadrien France- and it was this inner contradiction that ‘the total destruction of the modern remarks, however, I shall restrict myself degger als Hitlers Philosoph’, in Frank- Lanord’s disparaging reaction to had finally resulted in the destruction state, society, economy, culture and phi- to a simple illustration of the link furter Allgemeine Zeitung, Samstag, 21. 5. Emmanuel Faye’s recent entry to the and defeat of that world order.4 The West losophy’, i.e. the ultimate ‘overcoming between what we may call the ‘cultiva- 2005, Nr. 116, p. 31. debate on the entanglement of the influ- no longer represented the world; it had of modernity’ itself. tion of the self’ and the ‘salvation of 4. The following quotes are from a series of ential German philosopher Martin Hei- fallen into crisis, and in awareness of humankind’ by quoting some lines from three round-table-discussions (‘Sekai- degger with national socialism.3 The this, had pulled together defensively to *** the Chinese classic The Great Learning shiteki tachiba to Nihon’, Tma kymeiken no unceasing debate on Heidegger’s politics form a particular world, thus facilitating (Daxue). These lines may also shed light rinrisei to rekishisei’, and ‘Smryokusen no frequently appears even on the feature the growing self-confidence of the East. Leaving further consideration of these on a certain understanding of the rela- tetsugagu’), held by four philosophers of pages, and needs no comment here. Less The latter was no longer simply an object ideas to the reader, I shall limit my tion between philosophy and politics, the Kymto School (Nishitani Keiji, Kmyama known is that in Japan too, ever since the of world history. It had woken up to ‘sub- remarks here to the significance of the which one may recognize in Nishida Iwao, Kmsaka Masaaki, Suzuki Shigetaka). end of the Asia-Pacific War, a similar jectivity’ and came forth as a self-aware word ‘asceticism’. Referring to a specif- and his disciples too: These symposia were published in the debate about philosophy’s contamination ‘world-historical subject’. Like those of ic religious exercise or practice of self- popular journal ChMM KMron in January by politics has smouldered. This debate Europe, the peoples of Asia were joining overcoming – i.e. the overcoming of If the things are understood, then under- 1942, , April 1942 and January 1943. was sparked by a series of publications together into a ‘Family of Peoples’, with vices and desires – the word imparts an standing is complete. 5. ChMM KMron, January 1942, p.192 in which the ‘father of Japanese philoso- Japan as its avantgarde. The fulfilment explicitly religious connotation to the If understanding is complete, then the 6. Nishida Kitarm, ‘Bashoteki ronri to phy’, Nishida Kitarm (1870-1945), and of this ‘world-historical mission’ of definition of the war as the ‘overcoming thoughts are true. shmkymteki sekaikan’, in Nishida KitarM zen- thinkers affiliated with him – the so- Japan, however, hinged on a profound of modernity’ per se. This religious If the thoughts are true, then the mind shM, 19 vols., Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1978- called Kymto School - got involved in the self-overcoming of what Japan itself had dimension also manifests itself in the is in order. 80, vol XI, p. 412. political business of ‘Holy War’ waged for been so far. wording of the following statement of If the mind is in order, then the self is 7. Quoted from Peter Pörtner, Jens Heise, Die a ‘Greater East-Asian Co-Prosperity one of Nishida Kitarm’s disciples, Kmsa- cultivated. Philosophie Japans – Von den Anfängen bis Sphere’. For, they noted, the modernisation and ka Masaaki: If the self is cultivated, then the house in zur Gegenwart, Stuttgart: Kröner, 1995, p. industrialisation of Japan under the order. 335-338 (English mine). The debate on Nishida and the Kymto motto of ‘Civilisation and Enlighten- ‘By the way, how should we view the atti- If the house is put in order, then the state 8. Christopher S. Goto-Jones, Political Philos- School has been overshadowed by the ment’ had brought the ailments of mod- tude that regards the salvation of the small is governed properly. ophy in Japan: Nishida, the Kyoto School, and debate on Heidegger. One reason for ern industrial societies to Japan as well. human being as something separated from If the state is governed properly, then Co-Prosperity, London and New York: Rout- this ‘Heidegger-factor’ in the debate on Opposing the power of capitalist world the salvation of humankind as a whole? there is peace in the world. 7 ledge, 2005. This book inspired my remarks. the Kymto School rests with merely civilisation was synonymous with Nishida too recently said that world histo- 9. Otto Pöggeler, Neue Wege mit Martin Hei- strategic considerations of some of the opposing individualism, democracy, and ry is the purgatory of the soul of *** degger, Freiburg i. B./ München, 1992, p. 88. debate’s participants. But philosophical liberalism, i.e. the system of values of humankind, and that war too probably has parallels can indeed be drawn between modern civilisation. A deep rift separat- this meaning.... In this way the soul of Christopher S. Goto-Jones has recently Christian Uhl Nishida and Heidegger, and there are ed the ‘atomized’ individual from state humankind becomes purified. Therefore all highlighted the significance of indige- Dept. of Japanese and Korean Studies also direct links passing through some and society, the ‘private’ from the ‘pub- turning points of world history have been nous Japanese, non-Western traditions Leiden University

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 23 > International Convention of Asia Scholars 4

The fourth International Convention of Asia Scholars was held in Shanghai at the impressive and historical Shanghai Exhi- bition Center. Previous meetings were held in Leiden (1998), Berlin (2001) and Singapore (2003). ICAS is a platform for Asian, Australasian, American, African and European Asianists to study issues pertaining to Asia and find solutions of interest to all.

The ICAS panels transcended the boundaries between disciplines, between nations and regions studied, and especially between the geographic origins of the presenters. The list of institutions par- ticipating clearly illustrates the conven- “The world belongs to the public” tion’s driving force. There were 1200 participants from 52 countries. More than – Dr Sun Yat Sen 450 universities and many more institutes, departments, schools, programmes, and organizations were represented. This year for the first time, Asia scholars from Africa and the Middle East The future of Asia: were at ICAS. All this guaranteed the boundary-crossing discussions the Selec- tion Committee and ICAS had in mind. cross-cultural conversations The convention’s focus is on panels. Only 10 per cent of which were institutional and Scholars who have devoted their academic lives to the study of Asia can play important roles in furthering the vision of organized top down. We thank all partici- universality, partly as researchers whose work can contribute to cross-cultural understanding, but more specifically as pating institutions and hope that more teachers of future generations and sponsors and facilitators of student exchanges. institutions will follow suit to use ICAS as a platform. Likewise we thank the schol- Barbara Watson Andaya There has been a proliferation of programs that allow students ars who organized 30 per cent of the pan- to spend time in another country, as students or for an extend- els. The remaining panels were put ost of us, and particularly historians, are committed to ed visit. The bulk of exchanges have been between the West and together by the Selection Committee on Mthe idea that the past has something to say about the Asian societies, while a significant and growing number of the basis of individual abstracts. These future. Individuals have always played a key role as linguistic young people from Asia spend time in other Asian countries. were grouped under the 13 general themes and cultural mediators, with far-reaching influence - both pos- The knowledge they acquire reaches far beyond the acquisition of ICAS 4 such as Global Asia, Identity, itive and negative - exercised by the written interpretations of language skills; what is important is learning “how things Economy and Knowledge. they produced. People who are well acquainted with cultures are done” in another culture. Ultimately this kind of knowledge that are not their own will be as important in shaping the glob- demands an awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of dif- The 280 panels ranged from Urbanization, al relationships underpinning Asia’s future as they have been ference, and these values can never be learnt too early. If we Megalopolis and Regional Development in the past. accept that the future of Asia, with all its promise, will ultimately to Investigating Law and from the Impact rest with its youth, then the education of a globally perceptive of ASEAN to Bad Girl Writers. On average From early times Southeast Asia, being at the cross roads generation is a matter of the highest priority. a panel consisted of four papers but there between India and China, offers a multitude of examples of were also panels exceeding 10 speakers. visitors who recorded their impressions, sometimes simply Historians of premodern Southeast Asia have learned to dis- In all more than 1200 papers were pre- as an official report, sometimes intended for wider dissemi- tinguish between observers with only a passing knowledge of sented. Out of the sheer number of nation. Few college textbooks on Southeast Asia, for instance, “the other” and those with much greater experience in the abstracts the idea was born to put all would fail to mention the description of Angkor left by Zhou region. Two examples of early “exchange students” whose information pertaining to ICAS 4 on an Daguan, a member of a Chinese embassy who spent a year in experiences continue to speak to us across the years illustrate USB-stick. This made for a portable pro- Cambodia at the end of the 13th century. In a very different the kind of person I have in mind. The first is a young Chi- gramme book and all information readily time, and in a very different place, we can consult the report nese man, Wang Dahai, who spent ten years in Java between accessible. of a Persian scribe included in a mission to the Siamese cap- about 1783 and 1793, and whose account of Java written in ital of Ayutthaya in 1685 who remarked on the willingness of 1791, reprinted at least seven times, was first translated into We were happy to welcome about twenty the Thai ruler “to learn about the kings of the inhabited world, English in 1849. Having apparently failed the examinations, key publishers in the field of Asian Stud- their behavior, customs and principles…. He sent everywhere and anxious to help his debt-ridden family, Wang followed the ies who showcased their latest state of the for pictures depicting the mode of living and the courts of for- path of numerous other young Chinese, and left for the “south- art publications in the exhibition space. eign kings.” ern seas.” He traveled in Java, entered service as a tutor with We thank them for the more than forty a wealthy Batavian Chinese family, and married before even- books contesting for the ICAS Book It is important to recognize that this was a conversation, not tually returning to China. Prizes. a monologue. Over time, individuals from Southeast Asia traveled to distant lands, and detailed their experiences for pos- Despite sometimes caustic comments, Wang Dahai obvious- The ICAS secretariat hopes all participants terity. In the early nineteenth century, for instance, the Riau ly enjoyed living in Java. He appears to have been comfortable enjoyed an inspiring and stimulating con- scholar Raja Ahmad and his young son Raja Ali made the pil- speaking Malay, and his account, Claudine Salmon tells us, vention in Shanghai and invites you to join grimage, not only meeting some of the most eminent Mus- introduces 89 Malay words in Chinese characters. He also ICAS 5 in Kuala Lumpur in 2007! < lim leaders in Mecca but going to Medina with a caravan of knew something of other societies in the region, noting as two thousand camels. One can only imagine the enthralled many as 17 different ethnic groups, and commenting on dis- audiences who listened to Raja Ahmad’s stories following his tinctions between the Malay, Bugis and Javanese language and safe return. Although mental adjustments are impossible to writing systems. He spoke of attending shadow plays and poet- Based on the opening remarks by the Secretary For more information on ICAS quantify, it is not difficult to imagine that such experiences ry recitations; his account of household interiors and the ways General of ICAS Prof. Wim Stokhof during the Contact could reshape an individual’s views of his or her own society. guests were received speaks to his personal relationships, and opening session of ICAS 4 in the Central Hall Dr Paul van de Velde Many of us can attest the subtle attitudinal shifts that travel presumably his own marriage to a local woman. Wang’s pri- of the Shanghai Exhibition Center in Shanghai ICAS Secretary and overseas living has brought about in our own lives. Cross- mary interests revolved around trade, but he seems to have on 20 August, 2005. [email protected] cultural conversations among ordinary people, most notably developed a passion for tropical vegetation, and collected the the young, lie at the heart of international education. names of many plants. The same interest apparently led him

24 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > International Convention of Asia Scholars 4 ICAS Book Prizes 2005 The idea behind ICAS Book Prizes, awarded for the first time this year, is to create international attention and increasing visibility for publications on Asia through a global competition.

All scientific books on topics pertaining to Asia published in 2003 and 2004 were eligible. Three prizes were awarded: best study in the Social Sciences, best study in the Humanities and best PhD study in Asian Studies. The award consists of EURO 2500 for the first and second category while the best PhD study will be published in the ICAS/Brill Series.

The Reading Committee reviewed 38 books (23 Humanities and 15 Social Sciences). In each category three books were nominated as were two dissertations. Thanks goes to the Reading Com- mittee: Anand Yang (President Elect of the Association for Asian Studies), chair; David Hill (professor at Murdoch University), Krishna Sen (vice-president of the Association of Asian Studies of Australia); Dr Guita Winkel (Leiden University) and Dr Mehdi Amineh, (fellow at the International Institute for Asian Studies) and Dr Paul van der Velde (ICAS Secretary).

Citations

The best book in the Social Sciences category is Elizabeth C. Economy The River Runs Black: The Environmental Challenge to China’s Future. (Ithaca NY: Cornell U Press: 2004). The Chinese people have transformed their country from a developing nation to economic powerhouse. Equally striking, howev- in history er, has been the price that China’s environment has paid for this transformation. Elizabeth C. Economy captures extraordinarily well the complex historical, systemic, political, economic, and international forces that are shaping China’s environment. No other volume on this enormously important issue is as compre- hensive, balanced, and incisive. The style is direct, factual, unclut- to compile considerable detail about the collection of certain These contemporaries, Wang Dahai and John Pope, seem to tered by jargon and accessible to the non-specialist. The book rare commodities like bêche de mer, swallows’ nests, birds of me to be prime examples of the expanded outlook that that concludes with scenarios for China’s future. Economy has writ- paradise, bezoar stones, and tortoise shell. His readers would can come about when young people are given the opportuni- ten a well-researched analysis of the environmental degradation have been reminded that such activities were never purely an ty to live for some time in a culture which is not their own. It that happened in China and its implications for the rest of the economic matter. Those collecting birds’ nests, Wang tells us, may be difficult at times, and certainly the writings of both world. must select an auspicious day and success can only be guar- Pope and Wang show that they were by no means immune anteed through the propitiation of spirits in songs and dance. from feelings of frustration, and that they themselves some- The best book in the Humanities category is The special nature of Wang’s observations lies in the fact that times were targets of hostility. But both youths learned that Christopher Reed he was what we would now call a participant observer, and one appropriate interactions with others are always culturally con- Gutenberg in Shanghai: Chinese Print Capitalism, can sense his personal enjoyment of Java. Much of his pleas- tingent and that appreciation of the good in another society 1876-1937 ure he attributed to the emphasis his host cultures placed on enables one to view one’s own more clearly. (Vancouver/ Toronto: UBC Press. 2003) food and rest. “Even if there is an urgent affair, they do not Christopher Reed knits together cultural and technological his- attend to it immediately.” He paid Java the greatest compli- The 21st century offers unprecedented opportunities of com- tories, in a simultaneously readable and erudite text. It is based ment of all: even the rice was superior to that of China! It could municating with other societies on many different levels and extensively on Chinese language documents and is a response certainly be argued that Wang’s gratitude to his rich merchant via many different media. At no point in world history has it to the ‘western’ historiography of print technology and its con- hosts encouraged him to offer an especially positive picture. been more important to educate global citizens who have the sequences in late 19th and early twentieth century China. Reed On the other hand, it is also likely that Wang emphasized the capacity to approach each other as potential friends, regard- describes the existing print culture of China prior to the arrival appealing features of a non-Chinese to encourage his com- less of differences in religion, language, ethnicity and culture. of Guttenberg’s moving letter press machine and shows how patriots to think more deeply about their own. Central to the future of Asia must be a renewed commitment the new technologies had to be embedded into an existing print to sustain meaningful cross-cultural conversations informed culture and technology with its own pre-existing norms. He also My second example of the “inquiring mind” concerns John by the universal and human values of intellectual curiosity, shows that the print-led socio-economic transformations were Adolphus Pope, a fifteen-year-old apprentice born in 1771 in empathy and simple kindness. < equally in the hands of the machinists, who moved the locus of Plymouth employed on an English country ship from 1785 to Chinese publishing from Canton and Hong Kong to Shanghai 1788. His time in Southeast Asia thus coincides with that of Based on the keynote speech of ICAS 4 Shanghai on 20 August, 2005. within the space of about a generation and a half. It is a Wang Dahai, and again what struck me when I read his let- wonderfully detailed history of the press. It will appeal to a wide ters to a friend in Bengal was his intellectual curiosity and his References: range of scholars of China and theorists of culture and genuine interest in his surroundings, The crews of the coun- - Bulley, Anne, ed. 1992. Free Mariner. Addlestone, Surrey: British technology. try ships not only had to be first class seaman, but also need- Association of Cemeteries in South Asia. ed working understanding of local societies so that they could - Chou Ta-Kuan. 1967. Notes on the Customs of Cambodia. Translated The best book dissertation is trade. In this sense, John Pope was an orientalist of the best from the French Version of Paul Pelliot by J. Gilman D’Arcy Paul. Samuel Kwok-Fu Wong type. In the Malay port of Kedah, for instance, he met Dul Bad- Bangkok: Social Science Association Press. Community participation of Mainland Chinese dul, the son of the Royal Merchant; they became good friends, - Graves, Elizabeth, and Charnvit Kaset-siri. 1969. “A Nineteenth- migrants in Hong Kong - rethinking agency, even discussing matters like religious differences. Describing Century Siamese Account of Bali: With Introduction and Notes.” institutions and authority in social capital theory various ports from Yangon to Aceh, Pope’s letters reveal a gen- Indonesia 7, 77-122. (University of Sheffield, 2004) uine pleasure in meeting new acquaintances and in re-visit- - O’Kane, John, trans. and ed. 1972. The Ship of Sulaiman. London: Wong reviews the concept of social capital to question common ing places where he could have already made friends. “Those Routledge and Kegan Paul. assumptions underlying policy prescriptions in pro-social capi- who say the Malays have no virtues,” he wrote, “have never - Raja, Ali Haji.1982. Tuhfat al-Nafis (The Precious Gift). Edited and tal programs. His research is based on fieldwork conducted in lived among them. I have been received by them as a child and annotated by Virginia Matheson and Barbara Watson Andaya. Kuala 2001-2 among poor, newly arrived mainland Chinese immigrants domesticated, I may say in their families as far as the preju- Lumpur: Oxford University Press. to Hong Kong. His well-written thesis is an original contribution dices of religion would allow, universally treated with kind- - Salmon, Claudine. Fall 1994. “Wang Dahai et sa vision des contrées that aims not so much to cast ‘social capital’ away as a theoret- ness and generosity. . . . I shall always think of the inhabitants insulaires (1791).” Etudes Chinoises 13, 1-2. 221-257. ical concept as to soften its rigid use in current development of this spot with complacence and pleasure.” Pope went on to strategies. His study is of wider impact than for Hong Kong immi- become a captain in his own right, and had a long career trad- grants alone and calls for a reconsideration of conventional ing in India, China and other parts of Asia. understandings of development programs. <

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 25 > IIAS fellows (the Netherlands) (the (Indonesia) (France) (Indonesia) (the Netherlands) (the (Malaysia) (UK) (Sweden) (Indonesia) (Australia) (the Netherlands) (the Affiliated fellow Affiliated Research fellow in IIAS programme ‘Indone- programme IIAS in fellow Research nationalization’ and sianisasi 2006 October 1 - 2002 October 1 Affiliated fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow, sponsored by the Swedish the by sponsored fellow, Affiliated Vetenskapsrådet Senior fellow Senior Jajat Burhanudin, MA Burhanudin, Jajat trans- The modernism. Islamic of making The Middle the from reformism Islamic of mission the in archipelago Malay-Indonesian the to East century twentieth early and nineteenth late 2005 September 18 - 2001 September 18 Whah Yee CHIN Dr Malaysia in entrepreneurship Chinese 2006 January 31 - 2005 November 1 Djaswadin Dr devel- the and regulations public law; of study A Technology and Science of opment 2005 November 30 - September 1 Dijk Wil Dr Slaves Asian in trade VOC’s The 2005 December 31 - 2004 October 1 Forth Gregory Prof. anthropology Asian Southeast 2006 May 1 - 2005 September 1 Hägerdal Hans Dr between meeting The Timor; modern Early interests colonial and groups indigenous 2006 July 20 - 2005 July 20 Herdikiagung Dadit Dr the and regulations public law; of study A technology and Science of development 2005 November 30 - September 1 MA Kerkhof, de van Jasper King Peter Dr Indonesia in Disintegrasi 2006 March 1 - 2005 February 28 Lindblad Thomas Dr MacDonald Charles Dr Asia. Southeast in names personal of study A identity. of systems on investigation An 2005 December 14 - September 15 Research fellow in IIAS programme IIAS in fellow Research nationalization’ and ‘Indonesianisasi 2005 December 31 - 2002 October 15 Senior fellow Senior Research fellow within the programme ‘Islam programme the within fellow Research Indonesia’ in Affiliated fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow Affiliated (Thailand) (Nepal) (the Netherlands) (the (Japan) (India) (Indonesia) (UK) stravivarana (India) (USA) (France) PA tanjalayoga A Affiliated fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow and IIAS representative IIAS and fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow, sponsored by NWO by sponsored fellow, Affiliated Affiliated fellow, sponsored by Gonda by sponsored fellow, Affiliated Foundation Affiliated fellow, sponsored by Gonda by sponsored fellow, Affiliated Foundation fellow Affiliated Dr Jyotsna Agnihotri Gupta Agnihotri Jyotsna Dr India: in counselling and genetics Reproductive screening genetic regarding Decision-making diagnosis prenatal and 2007 August 31 - 2004 September 1 Harimoto Kengo Dr the of chapter first the of edition critical A P 2006 March 31 - 2005 November 1 Marianti Ruly Dr Indonesia and Pakistan in women Elderly 2005 December 31 - 2004 June 1 Munshi Shoma Dr television: satellite Indian of world new The society and networks Transnational 2006 November 1 - 2004 November 1 Plofker Kim Dr with CE, 1800 - BCE 500 India, in Mathematics Islamic with relationship its on emphasis special CE) 1800 - (750 mathematics 2006 September 9 - 2004 September 9 Rath Saraju Dr texts Sanskrit collection Catalogue 2006 June 5 - 2004 January 5 Shrestha-Schipper Satya Dr The Himalayas: the in hills the from Migrating Jumli the of organization social the on impacts Nepal) (Western 2005 December 31 - 2004 March 1 Asia Southeast MA Ariyasajsiskul, Supaporn in study A policy: trade foreign Ayutthaya’s Late an with context international and regional its Boromakot king of reign the on emphasis (1733-1758) 2007 September 1 - 2003 September 1 Bankoff Greg Dr haz- natural and Community coping: of Cultures Philippines the in ard 2007 August 31 - 2004 September 1 Berlie Jean Dr Myanmar of Muslims 2006 January 31 - 2005 December 1 Affiliated fellow, sponsored by CNWS by sponsored fellow, Affiliated Research fellow, within the ASSR/IIAS/NWO the within fellow, Research Marginalization ‘Socio-Genetic programme Asia’ in (the Netherlands) (the (the Netherlands) (the (the Netherlands) (the (the Netherlands) (the (Russia) (the Netherlands) (the (New Zealand) (New (Israel) (the Netherlands) (the (Israel) Affiliated fellow Affiliated Gonda by sponsored fellow, Affiliated Foundation Affiliated fellow Affiliated Stationed at Leiden and the Branch Office Branch the and Leiden at Stationed Amsterdam fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow Affiliated Stationed at the Branch Office Amsterdam Office Branch the at Stationed fellow Affiliated Central Asia Central Amineh Parvizi Mehdi Dr Bentor Yael Dr generation The polemic: and Interpretation of school Gelugpa the to according process Buddhism Tibetan 2005 August 31 - 1 McKay Alex Dr Himalayas Indian the and Tibet of history The 2008 October 1 - 2000 October 1 Leenders Rieke Dr Siberia in relations Interethnic 2006 March 1 - 2005 March 1 Martin Dan Dr religion Bon Tibetan the of histories The 2005 August 31 - July 19 Morozova Irina Dr post- the in development and security Conflict, coopera- economic regional toward era: Soviet region Asian Central the in tion 2005 December 31 - 2003 April 24 MA Nyssen, Liesbet Siberia in relations Interethnic 2006 March 1 - 2005 March 1 Odé Cecilia Dr taiga and tundra the from Voices 2006 July 1 - 2002 July 1 Asia South Bhattacharya Bhaswati Dr 1500-1950 India, in diaspora Armenian The 2005 December 31 - 2005 May 1 Geer der van Alexandra Dr sculptured fauna Indian stone, in Animals time through 2005 December 31 - 2003 January 1 Affiliated fellow Affiliated Stationed at Leiden and the Branch Office Branch the and Leiden at Stationed Amsterdam Programme ‘Energy Director Programme (IIAS/Clingendael) Asia’ 2007 April 15 - 2002 July 1 Stationed at the Branch Office Amsterdam Office Branch the at Stationed fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow Affiliated (the Netherlands) (the (India) (China) (Singapore) (China) (Belgium) (UK) (the Netherlands) (the uman genetics and its political, social, political, its and genetics uman Geraldine Goh, MA Goh, Geraldine initiative IIAS the within fellow Affiliated Asia’ in technology Space of ‘Development Conference Space Asian 2005 November 30 - May 2 Guangkun LIU Prof. ‘Trans- programme IIAS in fellow Affiliated and China development: database Himalayan subcontinent’ the 2005 September 30 - July 1 Patra Kumar Prasanna Dr ASSR/IIAS/NWO the within fellow, Research in Marginalization ‘Socio-Genetic programme Asia’ genetic of study comparative Cross-cultural Japan and India in research 2008 December 15 - 2005 December 15 Raven Ellen Dr Remijsen Bert Dr systems prosodic word Hybrid 2006 July 31 - 2002 July 1 2005 July 31 - June 1 Leiden: In Nordholt Schulte Henk Prof. Netherlands) (the Professor IIAS Rot- University Erasmus the at Chair Special History’ ‘Asian terdam, 2007 October 1 - 1999 October 1 Sleeboom-Faulkner Margaret Dr Netherlands) (the ‘Socio-Genetic Director Programme programme Asia’ in Marginalization (ASSR/IIAS/NWO) H 2005 December 15 - 2001 September 17 Soo N. David Dr emerg- the into investigation an Globalisation: space? in force new A industry. space Asian ing 2005 December 31 - 2002 October 4 Hongkai SUN Prof. ‘Trans- programme IIAS in fellow Affilated and China development: database Himalayan subcontinent’ the 2005 September 30 - July 1 MA Boer, Theuns-de Gerda cultural, and ethical implications ethical and cultural, and ‘South network IIAS in fellow Research Index Archaeology and Art Asia Southeast (ABIA)’ 2005 November 1 - 2002 November 1 Affiliated fellow within the IIAS initiative IIAS the within fellow Affiliated Asia’ in technology Space of ‘Development Research fellow in IIAS network ‘South and ‘South network IIAS in fellow Research Index Archaeology and Art Asia Southeast (ABIA)’ 2008 June 1 - 2003 June 1 Affiliated fellow Affiliated (Germany) (Russia) (the Netherlands) (the professor Studies; Azië de Netherlands; the form. application (co-)financed by home country / own institute; own / country home by (co-)financed Affiliated fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow Affiliated Programme coordinator ‘Trans-Himalayan coordinator Programme sub- the and China development: database KNAW and CASS by sponsored continent’, 2006 September 1 - 2005 September 1 3. Senior fellows Senior 3. the scholars senior excellent offers IIAS Nether- the in research do to opportunity fellow- senior scholars, to addition In lands. in figures renowned to granted also are ships and journalism as such fields non-scholarly diplomacy. Regulations: -only; IIAS by invitation upon -assistant scholars): (for level minimum Professors IIAS 4. teach, to IIAS to attached are Professors IIAS the in seminars organize and research, do countries. European other and Netherlands professors IIAS National Regulations: -only; vacancy upon -van Bevordering ter Stichting the by selected -university. Dutch a at based professors IIAS International Regulations: -institute; / country home by nominated -in committee selection special by selected -level; professor assistant Minimum - -IIAS. at based Residence in Artists 5. working artists or Asia from artists offers IIAS Nether- the visit to opportunity the Asia on a expand or establish to and work to lands network. European Regulations: -fellowship of receipt upon IIAS by Selection Leiden in based be to choose can fellows IIAS Amsterdam. Office Branch the at or listed are IIAS at engaged currently fellows All in and specialty of region by selected below order. alphabetical General Bersick Sebastian Dr 6 ASEM Towards 2005 December 31 - 1 Chirkova Katia Dr Dolphijn Rick Dr its and megalopolis the of rise The time-city: The life everyday the for consequences 2006 January 31 - 2005 August 1 tute and/or IIAS, upon receipt of the fellow- the of receipt upon IIAS, and/or tute form. application ship > IIAS fellows IIAS > 1 September 2005 - 31 December 2005 December 31 - 2005 September 1 doctoral post of categories several hosts IIAS Spon- Studies. Asian in (fellows) researchers the to contributes fellows these of sorship and expertise enhancing of aim institute’s underdevel- of exploration the encouraging objec- main the of One study. of fields oped con- establishing in mediate to is IIAS of tives to and Studies Asian of field the in tacts and national between cooperation stimulate con- IIAS institutes. and scholars international insti- research and universities offers sequently the from benefit to opportunity the tutes of terms In fellows. resident its of knowledge are fellows IIAS, to contribution scholarly their semi- in participate lectures, present to invited programmes. research in cooperate and nars, at submitted be can applications fellows’ IIAS deadline). application (no time any appli- fellowship IIAS and information More at: available are forms cation www.iias.nl/iias/fellowships.html contact: please information, specific For [email protected] fellowship five between distinguishes IIAS categories: fellows Affiliated 1. excellent to offered are fellowships Affiliated for arranged have who scholars postdoctoral one institute, own their (via funding own their a or programs, exchange international the of also IIAS addition, In organization). funding financial external finding in mediate to offers scholars. qualified highly for support Regulations: -insti- exchange international the by selection fellows Research 2. or scholars postdoctoral are fellows Research research IIAS to attached students PhD networks: and initiatives programmes, and Art Asian Southeast and South ‘ABIA (ABIA) Index’ Archaeology Aged’ the of ‘Care (CLARA) Asia’ in Relations Labour ‘Changing Asia’ in Technology Space of ‘Development (EPA) Asia’ Programme ‘Energy Marginal- Socio-Genetic Asia: in ‘Genomics (SMAP) ization’ nationalization’ and ‘Indonesianisasi Indonesia’ in ‘Islam Seas’ Asian the in Robbery and ‘Piracy China’ Southern of Languages the of ‘Syntax development’ database ‘Trans-Hymalayan Citizen- and Media, Society, ‘Transnational ship’ Regulations: -only. vacancy upon IIAS fellows IIAS

26 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > IIAS fellows (China) (USA) Research, the Netherlands the Research, www2.fmg.uva.nl/assr/ Japan Buddhism, of motion www.bdkamerica.org/default.aspx? MPID=52 www.cass.net.cn Netherlands the Studies, www.leidenuniv.nl/interfac/cnws/ Development in www.idpad.org Sciences www.knaw.nl www.krf.or.kr Documentation www.niod.nl www.nsc.gov.tw Research www.nwo.nl Studies www.ssaaps.stint.se www.sass.org.cn Research Tropical of ment www.nwo.nl/nwohome.nsf/pages/ NWOP_65PD4J Stationed at the Branch Office Amsterdam Office Branch the at Stationed fellow Affiliated WONG Leo, MA Leo, WONG syntax Cantonese 2006 September 13 - 2004 September 13 Mingmei YIP Dr culture Chinese in music its and Qin The 2005 October 30 - September 4 sponsors: fellow and partners IIAS ASSR:Science Social for School Amsterdam BDK:Pro- the for Society Kyokai, Dendo Bukkyo CASS:Sciences Social of Academy Chinese CNWS:Amerindian and African, Asian, of School IDPAD:Alternatives on Programme Indo-Dutch KNAW:and Arts of Academy Netherlands Royal KRF:Korea Foundation, Research Korea NIOD:War for Institute Netherlands NSC: Taiwan Council, Science National NWO:Scientific for Organization Netherlands SSAAPS:Asia-Pacific Advanced of School Swedish SASS:Sciences Social of Academy Shanghai WOTRO:Advance- the for Foundation Netherlands Research fellow within the joint NWO/Leiden joint the within fellow Research ‘The programme research University/IIAS China’ Southern of Languages the of Syntax (Taiwan) (Finland) (Malaysia) (China) (Japan) (China) a (Taiwan) a (USA) (China) Stationed at the Branch Office Amsterdam Office Branch the at Stationed fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow, sponsored by NSC by sponsored fellow, Affiliated Research fellow within the ASSR/IIAS/NWO the within fellow Research Marginalization ‘Socio-Genetic programme Asia’ in Research fellow within the ASSR/IIAS/NWO the within fellow Research Marginalization ‘Socio-Genetic programme Asia’ in Research fellow within the joint NWO/ Leiden NWO/ joint the within fellow Research Programme Research /IIAS University Southern of Languages the of Syntax ‘The China’ 2005 December 31 - 2001 January 1 Prof. Md. Salleh Yaapar Yaapar Salleh Md. Prof. Malay-Euro- in study A Pantoum: and Pantun relations literary pean 2005 February 5 - 2003 February 5 in Tuah Hang Relations: Literary Malay-Dutch Netherlands the 2006 February 5 - 2005 February 5 Asia East Cheng Chu Chris HUANG Dr issues policy of study comparative A space: Asian 2005 November 3 - 2005 May 10 Masae KATO Dr marginali- socio-genetic on study comparative A “West” the to relation in “Asia” in Japan sation: group reference a as 2008 April 1 - 2005 April 1 Pei-Chi LAN Dr Indonesian and Filipina of employment The Taiwan in workers domestic migrant 2005 September 22 - June 24 MA Leppänen Jan-Eerik vulnerable and marginalisation Socio-genetic China Southwest in groups ethnic 2009 February 1 - 2005 February 1 BA Boya, LI Odo David Dr photography Japanese of study Ethnographic 2005 November 3 - August 3 BA Joanna, SIO MA Ping, WANG and 11 September after relations Euro-Sino The prospects its 2005 August 30 - 2004 September 15 Affiliated fellow, sponsored by NSC by sponsored fellow, Affiliated IIAS Professor, European Chair of Malay of Chair European Professor, IIAS Studies Research fellow within the joint NWO/ Leiden NWO/ joint the within fellow Research ‘The Programme Research /IIAS University China’ Southern of Languages the of Syntax 2005 December 31 - 2001 January 1 fellow Affiliated (UK) (Japan) (Malaysia) (UK) (the Netherlands) (the (USA) nduranga: The coastal states coastal The nduranga: (Australia) A (Indonesia) (Philippines) ‘Ethnolinguistics of East Indone- East of ‘Ethnolinguistics (Indonesia) Stationed at the Branch Office Amsterdam Office Branch the at Stationed fellow Affiliated of Champa in central Vietnam c. 750-875 AD 750-875 c. Vietnam central in Champa of Dr Julia Martinez Julia Dr East Netherlands the from migration Labour Australia northern to Indies 2006 June 17 - May 15 and 2005 June 18 - 6 Satoshi NAKAGAWA Prof. in exchange ritual and management Resource survey historical A (Indonesia): Ende 2006 February 4 - 2005 April 4 Reyes Portia Dr into exploration An history: of Filipinization The Southeast of indigenization contemporary the historiography Asian 2006 April 10 - 2004 August 10 Salleh Haji Muhammad manuscripts Pantun 2005 December 31 - October 1 Schröder-Butterfill Elisabeth Dr in networks social and vulnerability Old-age Asia Southeast 2005 December 31 - 2004 May 1 Semedi Pujo Dr economic and structure Social Europe. for Tea plantation Javanese a of organization 2000s - 1870s community, 2005 September 1 - 2004 September 1 Southworth William Dr P and Huanwang 2005 October 5 - 2004 October 5 Steinhauer Hein Prof. 2006 September 1 - 1998 September 1 Vickery Michael Prof. of history the for sources the of review critical A Champa and Angkor 2005 November 30 - September 1 Wijaya Putu residence in Artist theatre in collaboration Mutual 2005 December 1 - September 1 Affiliated fellow Affiliated Affiliated fellow Affiliated Artist in residence in Artist Affiliated fellow, sponsored by NWO by sponsored fellow, Affiliated Nijmegen University Radboud the at sia’ fellow Senior Affiliated fellow Affiliated Amsterdam Office Branch the at Stationed fellow Affiliated IIAS Professor IIAS Chair Special [advertisement] ROUTLEDGE ASIAN STUDIES ROUTLEDGE TEXTBOOKS AND SUPPLEMENTARY READING 2005

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IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 27 > IIAS research IIAS Research Programmes, Networks & Initiatives pare these descriptions and analyses to porate assets in Indonesia in 1957-58. Changing Labour Relations has initiated a series of workshops on the > Programmes contribute to the development of the the- Coordinator: J. Thomas Lindblad in Asia (CLARA) topic (see announcement p.36). ory of language and human language Labour relations in different parts of Asia Coordinator: David Soo Socio-Genetic capacity, through the study of non-West- Trans-Himalayan database are undergoing diverse historical process- Marginalization in Asia ern languages. development: China and the es and experiences in terms of their Piracy and Robbery on the The development and application of new Coordinator: Rint Sybesma Subcontinent (Phase I) national economies, their links with inter- Asian Seas biomedical and genetic technologies have The project’s main goal is to combine the national markets and the nature of state Acts of piracy loom particularly large in important socio-political implications. Islam in Indonesia: The database of cognate words in Tibeto-Bur- intervention. This programme aims to Asian waters, with the bulk of all officially This NWO/ASSR/IIAS research pro- Dissemination of Religious man languages, maintained by the Institute understand these changes comparatively reported incidents of maritime piracy gramme aims to gain insight into the ways Authority in the Twentieth of Ethnology and Anthropology (Chinese and historically, focusing on five overlap- occurring in Southeast Asia during the in which the use of and monopoly over and Early Twenty-First Academy of Social Sciences) since 1998 with ping themes: the labour process, labour 1990s. This is of serious concern to inter- genetic information shape and influence Centuries language data of the George van Driem mobility, labour consciousness, gendered national shipping, as the sea-lanes between population policies, environmental ethics Forms and transformations of religious Himalayan Languages Project (Leiden Uni- labour and labour laws and labour move- East Asia, the Middle East, and Europe and biomedical and agricultural practices authority among the Indonesian Muslim versity) in order to create a joint, online ments. pass through Southeast Asia. IIAS and the in various Asian religious and secular cul- community are the focus of this research database of Tibeto-Burman languages with Coordinator: Ratna Saptari Centre for Maritime Research (MARE) are tures and across national boundaries. programme. The term authority relates a mirror-site in Leiden. The second objec- currently identifying issues and concerns, Coordinator: Margaret Sleeboom- both to persons and books as well as var- tive of the project is to continue documen- Transnational Society, and are delineating core elements of an Faulkner ious other forms of written and non-writ- tation of endangered Tibeto-Burman lan- Media, and Citizenship interdisciplinary research programme on ten references. Special attention is paid to guages in China in cooperation with the This multidisciplinary network studies the piracy and robbery at sea in Asia. Energy Programme Asia (EPA) the production, reproduction, and dis- Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology. complex nature of contemporary cultural Coordinators: Wim Stokhof (IIAS) and This programme focuses on the impact of semination of religious authority in the Coordinator: Katia Chirkova identities and the impact of the global- John Kleinen (MARE) East and South East Asian Energy Supply fields of four sub-programmes: ulama ization of information and communica- strategies on the Caspian region (Azer- (religious scholars) and fatwas; tion technologies (ICTs) on the (re)con- Care of the Aged: Gender, baijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, tarekat (mystical orders); dakwah (propa- > Networks struction of these identities. Although the Institutional Provisions and and Russia) and the Persian Gulf. The gation of the faith); and education. programme is based in the Netherlands, Social Security in India, objective is to study the effects of the glob- Coordinator: Nico Kaptein ABIA South and Southeast the projects are carried out at numerous Netherlands and Sri Lanka al geopolitics of energy security supply on Asian Art and Archaeology fieldwork sites. This IDPAD/IIAS research project the main energy consuming countries of Indonesianisasi and Index Coordinator: Peter van der Veer addresses the implications of population East and Southeast Asia, China, India, Nationalization The ABIA Index online database covers pub- aging for the social security and health Japan, and South Korea, and their nation- From the 1930s to the early 1960s, the lications on prehistory, archaeology, and art care of elderly people. As the experience al strategies of securing supply from the Indonesian economy transformed from a history, material culture, epigraphy, paleog- > IIAS Initiatives of ageing is highly gendered and can vary Caspian region and the Persian Gulf. The ‘colonial’ economy, dominated by the raphy, numismatics, and sigillography of according to class, caste, and religion, the programme is institutionally supported by Dutch, to a ‘national’ one in which indige- South and Southeast Asia. IIAS is the cen- The Development of Space project seeks to capture the dimensions, IIAS and the Clingendael International nous business assumed control. Shifts in tre for regions outside Asia, with support Technology in Asia characteristics and trends related to aging Energy Programme (CIEP), The Hague. command and management of the econo- from the Gonda Foundation. Between 2002 The space age has dramatically impacted among different social and economic Coordinator: Mehdi Parvizi Amineh my are closely related to economic struc- and 2006 the project is coordinated by on all nations. In Asia, the ‘space-faring groups, with an emphasis on women. This ture and political alignment. This NIOD PGIAR, Colombo, with support from the nations’ - India, China and Japan - have comparative study of the Netherlands, Sri The Syntax of the Languages project explores this transformation, study- Central Cultural Fund. Offices have also achieved considerable success in building Lanka, and India draws on diverse experi- of Southern China ing the late-colonial era as well as the been opened at the IGNCA, New Delhi, and indigenous space technologies and appli- ences of development to contextualize the This project aims to achieve a detailed Japanese occupation, the Revolution and the Research Centre for Humanities and cations. Other Asian nations have readily aging process. description and in depth analysis of a lim- the Sukarno period. Two issues are given Social Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, adopted these applications, including Coordinator: Carla Risseeuw ited number of syntactic phenomena in six special attention: Indonesianisasi (increased Jakarta. ABIA Index volume 1 is available at satellites for telecommunications, for languages, both Sinitic and non-Sinitic, opportunities for indigenous Indonesians IIAS. Volume 2 is available at www.brill.nl gathering data on the weather, and envi- For more information on IIAS Research: spoken in the area south of the Yangtze in the economy) and nationalization, in Coordinator: Ellen Raven ronmental and earth resources. IIAS is www.iias.nl River. The project will systematically com- particular the expropriation of Dutch cor- www.abia.net launching this new research initiative and Energy Programme Asia (EPA) Global energy consumption depends largely on fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. Growing and the availability of foreign oil and gas EPA addresses the following main consumption in rapidly industrializing East and Southeast Asia and industrializing countries supplies. Future global energy con- questions: elsewhere causes a steep increase in demand while large scale oil consumption in sumption, particularly growing energy a) What are the effects of geopolitical industrialized countries continues (the US consumes 25 percent of the world’s oil production). import dependency, will increasingly competition between and among politicize energy relations and escalate enterprises and governments of con- Mehdi Parvizi Amineh Shibutani at Energy Geopolitics Ltd. of about to peak will lead to increased competition and cooperation among suming countries for access to fos- Japan, and Dr. Shi Dan of the Energy reliance on oil imports from a limited consumer regions and countries. This sil energy supplies? ccording to the United States Ener- Economic Research Centre of the Chi- number of exporting countries and calls for a shift in traditional thinking b) What energy efficiency policies are Agy Information Administration nese Academy of Social Sciences. EPA regions. According to the Energy Infor- about energy policies, and a need to in place in the four East and South- (EIA) global oil consumption will rise analyses the impact of energy supply mation Administration (EIA), in 2001 place foreign and security policies at the east Asian consuming countries from 82 million barrels per day (bbl/d) strategies of East and Southeast Asia’s some 57.9% of oil consumed in the East center of the debate. under study, the US, the European in 2004 to 100 million bbl/d in 2015, main consuming countries (China, and Southeast Asian region was import- Union and producing countries? further increasing to 120 million bbl/d India, Japan and South Korea) as well as ed, 62.2% from the Persian Gulf. In In addition to examining geopolitical c) In addition to the ongoing debate by 2025. Resources of operating oil the European Union (EU) on the Caspi- 2020 it is expected East and Southeast issues, EPA studies the effects of nation- about environmental sustainability, fields are decreasing while resources in an Region (Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Asian countries will import 73.3% of al energy efficiency situations in both how urgent is the quest for alterna- newly discovered oil and gas fields are Turkmenistan, Iran and Russia) and the their oil needs, 76.5% from Persian Gulf producer and consumer countries. tive energy resources for global ener- disappointing and the price for a barrel Persian Gulf (Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, countries. This region, as well as the For example, Iran (as one of the main gy supply in the next two decades? of oil goes up. Global oil production will United Arab Emirates and Kuwait). Caspian region, is politically and eco- producer countries) is troubled with not be able to meet this rapidly rising nomically fragile, and suffers from increasing inefficiency in its domestic The researchers of the institutions men- demand. Major oil consumers will have The research will shed new light on the increasing instability due to regional energy use. If this continues, there is a tioned above will draft individual sec- to follow more aggressive policies to sat- urgency to develop new policies and and domestic tensions. Political stabili- fair chance Iran will export considerably tions of the study by working closely isfy their oil needs, and military inter- strategies to promote international coop- ty in these regions is therefore a top pri- less oil (instead of considerably more) in with small international and multidis- vention to safeguard oil production and eration in energy issues and avoid conflict ority for consuming countries and con- 2015 as it does today. This will have great ciplinary teams of experts. For details on export will become more likely, as has scenarios. Additionally, the program’s sequently part and parcel of their foreign effects not only on the oil export depend- the project’s past and future activities, been the case in Iraq as part and parcel research contributes to the ongoing policy strategies. ent economy of Iran, but also on oil and see: www.iias.nl. < of the US’ larger strategy to democratise debate about environmental sustainabil- gas consumer countries who will have to the ‘Greater Middle East.’ ity and energy efficiency policies (in both The mere survival of a country and its find alternative resources. Another exam- Mehdi Parvizi Amineh is Senior Research consumer and producer countries). society, economic dynamisms and tech- ple is the response of China and India to Fellow at IIAS and manages Energy Pro- In 2004 IIAS initiated Energy Program nological innovation depends on oil and international environmental claims gramme Asia. He is leading researcher in the Asia (EPA) in cooperation with Prof. Dr. In the mid-term future China and India gas. The traditional approach to energy (Kyoto). If China and India gradually turn areas of security of energy supply and geo- Coby van der Linde from the Clingen- particularly will become major com- security focuses on the ability to employ from coal-driven to oil-driven economies, politics; additionally energy efficiency and dael International Energy Program petitors of the EU and the US for scarce domestic energy assets, technical and efficiency is increased, but their already sustainable development in the regions / (CIEP), Prof. Dr. Kurt Radtke from resources. The fact that oil production operational factors, transportation and assertive oil and gas supply strategies will countries under study. Waseda University, Tokyo, Prof. Dr. Yu in China and India has peaked or is import facilities, the investment climate further intensify.

28 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > IIAS research The Socio-Genetic Marginalization in Asia Programme (SMAP) SMAP, the Socio-genetic Marginalization in Asia Programme, which started off in August 2004, is a research programme set up with the support of the Netherlands Science Organisation (NWO), IIAS, and the Amsterdam School for Social Science Research (ASSR). Exploring cultural, social and economic aspects of the role of genetic technologies played in the area of state organisation, population policies, health care systems and research regulation in China, India and Japan, SMAP is expected to shed light on how differences in the application of modern genetic technologies generate different practices. The programme focuses on: (I) the ways in which (universal) regulation for genetic sampling by international companies and universities leads to disputable research practices among vulnerable populations; (II) how bioethical differences between healthcare systems are expressed in the different meanings allocated to concepts, such as informed consent, health, and family values; and, (III) the consequences of development priorities and practices of genetic screening for the livelihood and identities of diverging social groups.

Margaret Sleeboom-Faulkner cific conditions raised by population-based research, in par- decisions about their offspring in genetic counselling sessions, ticular regarding procedures for group decision-making and and the way government guidelines, medical institutions, the sia boasts the main economic players of the 21st century. cultural divergence (MST & MPH 1998; ICMR 2000). The family and cultural-medical practices affect these decisions. AChina, India and Japan especially will play main roles in second involves problems inherent in the ways geneticists Kato relates her findings to political and public debates on the the field of science, particularly in applied modern technolo- define sample populations in genetic research. Before the sam- socio-cultural value of the embryo, so as to understand process- gies. The concept of socio-genetic marginalization, which is pling of populations begins, estimates are made about the es of validating humans. Initially, Kato will compare the appli- central to SMAP, draws attention to the consequences of the genetic nature of target populations. The contents of these cation of RGTs in Japan with those in the Netherlands, extend- practice of relating the social to the (assumed) genetic make- estimates are intimately related to historical processes of eth- ing the comparison to the PRC next. up of people, regardless of the relevance of such connections. nic group formation, the intricacies of cultural perception and Central are the socio-cultural and financial consequences of political interests. Interested in genetic sampling, screening and biobanking in the use of genetic information. The projects of SMAP are con- India, Prasanna Patra studies medical policies on three tribes ceptualised through three empirical research projects outlined In India, China and Taiwan, the DNA of various minority with high levels of sickle cell anaemia, whose socio-econom- below. groups with suspect unique DNA are exploited commercial- ic circumstances differ starkly, and investigates how screen- ly by research groups abroad and at home. This has caused ing affects the identity and health of the community. In gen- Genomics, population-policies and local considerable local, national and international strain. In Yun- eral, Patra looks at what happens to genetic data and asks the traditions nan in Southwest China, ethnic DNA of over 25 so-called following questions: who does the sampling and under what Governments in China, India, Japan and Europe treat issues national minorities is stored in the world’s largest ethnic data- conditions? Where are the data stored and who has access to of population planning with various levels of importance and bank in Kunming (People’s Daily, 22/11/00). Such research is them? Patra aims to make sense of the various behaviours and apply different political strategies. In China the issue of the used to support claims on ethnic and national identity and to motives of various interest groups, including academic new eugenics, the quality of the population and one-child birth resolve conflict over national territory. Bio-anthropological researchers, pharmaceutical companies, state agencies, sam- policy are of great political and human significance. The one- research from South India served to provide genetic evidence pled communities and NGOs. child policy, widely practised since the late-1970s, in combi- for the similarity between high caste Indians and Europeans nation with a preference for males, has led to a lopsided (Bamshad 2001). In Japan and China similar population Two research students will start to work with us in September growth of the population. By legal prohibition the state has research attempts to ‘scientifically’ root the modern nation 2005. Suli Sui will conduct comparative research into the reg- tried to interfere against these practices, but as yet not suc- into venerable historical origins. ulation of new genetic technologies regarding vulnerable pop- cessfully. In India, too, sterilisation, infanticide and prenatal ulations. She reviews existing Chinese law in relation to gen- gender discrimination followed by abortion have led to a pop- Genomics, sociogenetic identities and health der, ethnic, and socio-economic status, after which she will ulation imbalance, in which the state tries to interfere. Japan strategies in China, India and Japan compare similar issues in the context of regulation of and Europe, on the other hand, struggle with the problem of Though increased genetic information means a step forward genomics and society in India. Apart from weighing argu- ageing population and falling levels of fertility. in predicting and curing genetic diseases, policy-makers also ments in favour and against the universal regulation of attempt to use it strategically to improve human populations biotechnology, she will offer recommendations on regulation Thus, a variety of genetic technologies are available to the state and eliminate ‘defective’ phenotypes. In the private sphere that harm the interests of identified vulnerable populations. in policies aimed at raising the quality of the population. Such parallel developments are taking place: early prenatal testing population policies are part of an attempt to ‘improve’ the has motivated couples with an increased risk of affected off- The second research student, Jan-Eerik Leppanen, aims to genetic composition of individuals or entire peoples. The 1995 spring to have children, but the diagnosis of disorders has also understand the role of Chinese ethnic minorities in biobank- introduction of the new eugenic legislation in China, for led to a steep increase of selective abortion. A central question ing and hopes to gain a better understanding of the effects of example, supports the systematic ‘implementation of pre- here is if and when we can speak of a link between national the knowledge generated through genetic sampling. Apart marital medical check-ups’ on hereditary, venereal or repro- health care policy, public debate and the private sphere. For from exploring how biobanking activities alter relations ductive disorders as well as mental disorders so as to prevent instance, in China the government started a one-child fami- between ethnic groups and the state, and what commercial ‘inferior births’ (Ministry of Public Health, 1994) A different ly-planning programme in the 1970s to ensure sufficient stakes are involved, this research tries to understand the social tendency can be found in the Netherlands, where members nutrition for all new-borns, which resulted in a substantially and cultural effects of these activities on the ethnic groups in of the medical profession observe that the state is obstructing decreased birth rate. At the same time, this policy limits indi- question. < their duty of providing all possible information and alterna- vidual freedom and autonomy. On the other hand, infant mor- tive treatment to patients by not allowing them to practice pre- tality in China by the 1990s had become considerably lower Note embryo-screening and prenatal genetic research than in India. The criteria for the cost-effectiveness of clinical 1 Single nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs (pronounced ‘snips’) genetics in developing countries are not the same as in wealthy are DNA sequence variations that occur when a single nucleotide There is a need for the comparison of clashes of state popula- countries, such as Japan, Singapore and Taiwan. In develop- (A,T,C,or G) in the genome sequence is altered. tion policies with local traditions in India, China, and Japan. ing countries the severely handicapped do not usually survive Modern technologies of genetic engineering increasingly allow and, if they do, they are not provided with expensive medical References the government to intervene and regulate the personal lives care. Consequently, the targets of genetics services are reached - Bamshad, M. et al. (2001) ‘Genetic evidence on the origins of Indi- of individuals in the name of public health, religion and on the basis of a different balance sheet. Thus, in developing an caste populations’, Genome Research 11/6, 994-1004. national good. Concomitantly, concepts of health and human countries family planning, carrier testing, genetic counselling - ICMR (2000) ‘Ethical guidelines for biomedical research on human values in society are likely to be influenced. However, in some and prenatal diagnosis may have a different rationale. subjects’, ICMR Bulletin, 30, no. 10: 107-116. cultural environments, such as in India, it is the state that tries - Ministry of Public Health (1994) Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Muy- to put a brake onto the prenatal gender selection of its popu- Currently six researchers are working on SMAP. Focusing on ing Baodianfa (Law of the People’s Republic of China on Maternal lation. reproductive genetic technologies (RGT’s) and genetic coun- and Infant Health Care). Ministry of Public Health of the PRC, Bei- selling in Delhi and Mumbai in India, Dr Jyotsna Gupta stud- jing. Genetic sampling and vulnerable groupings ies how genetic screening affects the perception of genetic - Ministry of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Public in genetic sampling sites risk. To understand these processes, Gupta conducts fieldwork Health (MST & MPH 1998) (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo kexue The twofold aims of this project are, first, to understand the in hospital locations of diverging religious and socio-economic jishubu, weishengbu) (1998) Renlei yichuan ziyuan guanli zhanxing socioeconomic and cultural conditions of genetic sampling status. In her analysis, Gupta uses the categories of gender, banfa (interim measures for the administration of human genetic and banking in isolated areas and among ethnic minorities in religion, education and socio-economic status to understand resources). Beijing: MPH. different national contexts and, second, to the ways in which the parental decisions made to abort or to carry the embryo to research populations are defined and mapped by researchers. full term. At the same time, she relates her observations in Margaret Sleeboom-Faulkner (University of Amsterdam), who leads The DNA of these socially defined groups is the subject of these clinics to state-regulation, developments in the phar- the programme, conducts research mainly in the areas of biobanking, research in evolutionary genetics, the study of human reac- maceutical industry and international bioethical guidelines stem cell research and genetic counselling in China and Japan. tions to various pharmaceutical products (pharmacogenetics), and NGOs. and the study of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs).1 Two The application of RGTs in Japan and its effect on genetic kinds of issues are central to this research. The first involves selection after prenatal diagnosis and during pre-implanta- the bioethical aspects of sampling and storing DNA. Current tion genetic diagnosis (PGD) are central in the work of Dr bioethical protocols still fail to deal adequately with the spe- Masae Kato. Her fieldwork focuses on the way parents make

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 29 > IIAS research Seeking knowledge unto Qum: The education of Indonesian Shi’i ustadhs Much attention has been paid to Malay-Indonesian students studying at Al-Azhar in Cairo, which has become an important centre of Islamic learning for Sunnis throughout the world. Indonesia’s minority Shi’i, meanwhile, have flocked to the so-called hawza ‘ilmiyya (colleges of Islamic learning) of Qum, Iran.

Zulkifli sentatives Ayatollah Ibrahim Amini, influential, and the modern system. The Indonesians, are provided with this Indonesian students who have come to Ayatollah Masduqi, and Hujjat al-Islam traditional system’s curriculum includes modern type of programme. Iran attended Madrasa Hujjatiyya, ince the Iranian revolution of 1978- Mahmudi to Indonesia. Among their both transmitted and intellectual reli- including the presently prominent Shi’i S1979, Indonesia’s Shi’i minority has activities was a visit to YAPI (Yayasan gious sciences. Each subject has its own The Islamic Republic of Iran has made ustadh Husein Shahab, who was trans- grown. An increasing number of Pesantren Islam, the Foundation of standard texts (Nasr 1987: 165-182), educational innovations in Qum’s ferred to this madrasa after he had stud- Indonesian students pursue their Islam- Islamic Education) of Bangil, East Java, which are studied in halaqat (study cir- hawza ‘ilmiyya through the above-men- ied for two years at the Dar al-Tabligh. ic studies in the hawza ‘ilmiyya of Qum, where they met with its leader, Husein cles) under an ayatollah’s supervision. tioned ICIS, which coordinates pro- Unlike Dar al-Tabligh, the Madrasa Huj- the most prominent centre of Shi’i Al-Habsyi (1921-1994), who became the The educational programme is com- grammes for foreign students, assigns jatiyya follows the traditional system of Islamic education in the world. A Qum most important confidant of Iranian posed of three levels: muqaddamat (pre- students to madrasas, and monitors education generally used in the hawza education enhances the reputations of leaders and ulama in Indonesia. At the liminary), sutuh (external) and dars al- their needs within the framework of dis- ‘ilmiyya. The majority of Indonesian stu- Indonesian Shi’i ustadhs (religious time, Husein Al-Habsyi was probably kharij (graduation class) or bahth al-kharij seminating Islamic knowledge and dents who become Shi’i ustadhs only teachers) within their Shi’i community. one of the most prominent Shi’i ulama (graduation research) (Momen 1985). teachings globally. ICIS has organised completed the preliminary level. They play an important role in da’wa in Indonesia and played a major role in The three levels have to be completed by innovative programmes based on the (Islamic propagation), educational and the development of Islamic da’wa and every mujtahid, a religious scholar who modern madrasa system for interna- Recently, along with the educational cultural activities. education. As a result of the meeting, has achieved the level of competence nec- tional students. The Madrasa Imam reform in Qum, a large number of Qum’s hawza ‘ilmiyya agreed to accept essary to make religious decisions based Khomeini, for example, offers pro- Indonesian students have registered at Increase of Indonesian ten Indonesian students selected by on reason from the principal sources of grammes based on grade systems that the Madrasa Imam Khomeini, which students in Qum Husein Al-Habsyi. From then on till his Islam. When a student receives the ijaza include undergraduate and graduate lev- provides a modern system of education It is unclear exactly when Indonesian death in 1994, Husein Al-Habsyi was (license) that makes him a mujtahid, the els equivalent to the tertiary education in whichthey can pursue undergraduate students began to pursue Islamic edu- responsible for selecting candidates for honorific title ayatollah (ayat Allah, ‘sign of the modern educational system. Such or graduate programmes and choose a cation in Qum, but it is known that study at hawza ‘ilmiyya in Qum and of God’) is usually bestowed upon him. innovation takes Qum’s hawza ‘ilmiyya specialisation. some did so several years before the other cities in Iran. Many were gradu- An ayatollah recognised as a marja’ al- a step close to becoming a leading inter- Iranian revolution. Ali Ridho Al-Habsyi, ates of YAPI and other educational insti- taqlid, meaning an authoritative source national centre of Islamic learning. Early Qum alumni, such as Umar Sha- son of Muhammad Al-Habsyi and tutions and most have become impor- in matters of Islamic law, usually receives hab and Husein Shahab, have become grandson of Habib Ali Kwitang of Jakar- tant Shi’i ustadhs in Indonesia. the title ayatollah al-’uzma (grand ayatol- Every year an ICIS representative con- very prominent Shi’i figures and have ta1, studied in Qum in 1974. Six gradu- lah). The common title of an aspiring ducts a selection process at such Islamic contributed to the development of ates of the Pesantren Al-Khairat of Palu, Thus the number of Indonesian stu- mujtahid is hujjat al-Islam (proof of institutions as the Islamic Cultural Cen- Islamic da’wa, education and culture in Central Sulawesi, followed over the next dents studying in Qum has increased Islam). The structure of Shi’i ulama is ter of Jakarta and the Muthahhari Foun- Indonesia. Given ongoing educational two years. In September 1976, Umar significantly. By 1990, fifty Indonesian pyramidal; those of the highest level, the dation in Bandung. In addition to aca- innovations in Qum and Indonesians’ Shahab, an Arab descendant from students had reportedly completed their grand ayatollah, are the fewest in num- demic achievement, Arabic is requisite, growing interest in them, Qum alumni Palembang, South Sumatra, and today studies or were still studying in Qum. ber. The traditional system of education as it is an international language for might very well influence the future a famous Shi’i ustadh, came to Qum Ten years later the number of Qum is extremely important in Shi’i society, Islamic learning and the language of development of Islamic discourse in and, he says, studied alongside seven graduates in Indonesia was more than given the major role of marja’ al-taqlid instruction at certain madrasas in Qum. Indonesia. < other Indonesian students (Umar Sha- a hundred. In 2001, fifty Indonesian stu- throughout history. At the same time, upon their arrival in hab, interview 9/1/2003). In his field- dents were selected to continue their Iran, students are also required to follow Notes work in 1975, Fischer also noted the studies in Qum (Ali 2002: 201-204), The modern madrasa system is a trans- a six-month training programme in Per- 1 Habib Ali Al-Habsyi (1870-1968) known as presence of Indonesian students in and in 2004, I was informed, ninety formation of the classical system, adopt- sian, the language of instruction at most Ali Kwitang was the founder of the famous Qum; among foreign students, includ- more students were selected. ing the modern system of education in Qum’s Islamic educational institutions. Majlis Ta’lim (meeting place of education ing those from Pakistan, Afghanistan, terms of gradation, curriculum, class- and da’wa) of Kwitang located in Jakarta. He India, Lebanon, Tanzania, Turkey, Nige- In addition to the growing interest of room learning and rules. Non-tradi- Educational institutions was regarded as Wali (friend of God) and his ria and Kashmir, Indonesians num- Indonesian students to study in Iran, the tional madrasas ‘are set up to serve attended by Indonesian grave became a pilgrimage site for the peo- bered the fewest. (Fischer 1980: 78). Iranian government, through its Inter- needs not supplied by the traditional sys- students ple of Jakarta. After its founder died, the national Center for Islamic Studies tem’ (Fischer 1980: 81). The curriculum Both educational systems have been Majlis Ta’lim was led by his son Muhammad Since the establishment of the Islamic (Markaze Jahani-e Ulume Islami: ICIS), consists of religious and secular sci- attended by Indonesian students. The (1911-1993) who was close to the then Pres- Republic of Iran in 1979, interaction has stepped up efforts to attract interna- ences presented through a slightly sim- first group of Indonesian students were ident Suharto and GOLKAR political circles. between its government and Indonesian tional students. Since 1994 ICIS has been plified version of traditional study cours- enrolled at Dar al-Tabligh al-Islami, a Today it is under the leadership of Muham- Shi’i ulama has intensified. The victory under the supervision of the office of the es. Unlike the traditional system, this modern Shi’i institution founded in 1965 mad’s son, Abdurrahman, Ali Ridho’s broth- of ayatollahs inspired Indonesian intel- Leader of the Islamic Revolution headed modern madrasa system is not intend- by Ayatollah Muhammad Kazim Shar- er. Ali Ridho’s sister, Farida Al-Habsyi is a lectuals and ulama to study the ideolog- by the Grand Ayatollah ‘Ali Khamene’i, ed to train students to become muj- i’atmadari (1904-1987). As an institution famous Shi’i figure who runs some Islamic ical foundation of the Iranian revolution: who also appointed its director. tahids, but rather to become Islamic of Islamic learning, Dar al-Tabligh was foundations in Jakarta, including Al-Batul. Shi’ism. At the same time, an ‘export of scholars and missionaries. This inno- known for its foreign students and for revolution’ occurred, as Iranian leaders The educational system of vative type of education has provided an arranging their visas and residence per- References and ulama aimed to spread Shi’ism in hawza ‘ilmiyya alternative for students who, for what- mits. It organised a five-year programme - Ali, Syamsuri. 2002. ‘Alumni Hawzah Indonesia and to attract Indonesian stu- There are two educational systems at the ever reason, cannot follow the tradi- with a credit system (Fischer 1980: 84) Ilmiyah Qum: Pewacanaan Intelektualitas dents to study Shi’ism in Iran. In 1982 hawza ‘ilmiyya in Qum: the traditional tional system in the hawza ‘ilmiyya. and a curriculum that included both reli- dan Relasi Sosialnya dalam Transmisi the Iranian government sent its repre- system, which is the most famous and International students, including gious knowledge and secular sciences Syiah di Indonesia’. PhD thesis draft pre- such as psychology, philosophy, sociolo- pared for promotion in the Graduate Pro- [advertisement] gy, mathematics and English. The lan- gramme at UIN, Jakarta. guage of instruction was Arabic. Thus, - Fischer, Michael, M.J. 1980. Iran: From Reli- NEW FROM IDC PUBLISHERS its educational system was modern; it did gious Dispute to Revolution. Cambridge: not follow the traditional system of learn- Harvard University Press. Delineating British Burma, c. 1826-1949 ing even though it was strongly - Momen, Mojan. 1985. An Introduction to entrenched in the traditional hawza sys- Shi’i Islam: The History and Doctrines of British Confidential and Official Print tem (Umar Shahab, interview 9/1/2003). Twelver Shi’ism. New Haven and London: Editor: A.J. Farrington, Former Deputy Director, Oriental & India Office Yale University Press. Collections (OIOC), British Library After the dissolution of Dar al-Tabligh - Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. 1987. Traditional Much of the print reflects preparations and operations, before and during the Second in 1981, owing to its leader’s opposition Islam in the Modern World. London: Kegan World War. The materials have been arranged in five chronological groups: to the concept of wilayat al-faqih (‘man- Paul International. BIB-1 The British Conquest, 1827-1905 date of the jurist’) implemented by BIB-2 Gazetteers and Handbooks, 1879-1944 Zulkifli BIB-3 Military Reports and Route books 1903-1945 Khomeini, Madrasa Hujjatiyya began to is a PhD student within the frame- BIB-4 Boundaries, Reports and Examinations, 1892-1936 provide the same programme for for- work of Indonesian-Netherlands Cooperation BIB-5 Reports on Districts and States, 1868-1936 eign students. Since 1982 nearly all in Islamic Studies (INIS), Leiden University. 426 microfiche OR 41 microfilm reels Including online EAD guide at www.idc.nl

This text is based on a paper presented at the workshop on The Education of Southeast Asian For more information please contact Islamic Leadership jointly organised by the Institute of Southeast Asia (ISEAS), Singapore, IDC Publishers 2301 EE Leiden Phone +31 (0)71 514 27 00 Internet www.idc.nl and IIAS, held in Singapore, 19-20 May 2005. P.O. Box 11205 The Netherlands Fax +31 (0)71 513 17 21 E-mail [email protected]

30 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > IIAS research The Heart of Borneo: a challenge for social scientists Nature conservation projects must contend with (illegal) logging, poaching, encroaching farmers, the trans-border trade of wildlife and timber and local communities that question the protected status of areas. Anthropologists’ professional code of ethics states that the studied group must never suffer from the research when there are conflicts of interest – the people must come first. Does this imply that anthropologists cannot contribute to nature conservation because their science serves a social purpose?

Manon Osseweijer and Gerard A. Persoon equally important is the willingness of ‘increasingly excluding, from full role in research supporting nature con- period of time. For this, the knowledge lower level governments to live up to the involvement in their programmes, the servation projects, as became clear dur- and experience of the social sciences is rom the conservation point of view aspirations. Former encounters of local indigenous and traditional peoples living the Heart of Borneo conference last indispensable. < Fthe protection of a large area has communities with external organisa- ing in the territories the conservation- April. Many anthropologists and other advantages. Such areas harbour a mul- tions aiming to conserve biodiversity are ists were trying to protect’ (Chapin social scientists have been involved in References titude of ecosystems containing a high also relevant. These encounters often 2004:17). Organizations such as World research among people living in the - Chapin, Mac. 2004. ‘A Challenge to Con- degree of biodiversity. This variety lead to frustrations about unfulfilled Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Conser- Heart of Borneo. The high turnout of servationists’. World Watch. November/ makes it possible to acquire a high polit- promises, inadequate compensation for vation International (CI) and The Nature social scientists and the dedication December Issue: 17-31. ical profile, offering an attractive option income losses and diminishing interest Conservancy (TNC), build their projects shown in their work gives hope for the - Kuper, Adam. 2003. ‘The Return of the for potential donors including those of conservation organizations after a on the basis of cooperation with local future. Contributions could be made by Native’. Current Anthropology. 44 - 3:389- from the private sector. The recently limited number of years. communities. However, in the last bridging the gap between the local pop- 402. launched WWF campaign for the Heart decade or so it became clear, that the so- ulation (their way of life, their percep- - Milton, Kay. 2002. Loving nature. Towards of Borneo is one of the major conserva- Social scientists studying nature con- called ‘ecological noble savage’ does not tions towards nature, their projected an ecology of emotion. London: Routledge. tion initiatives to protect large areas with servation emphasize the human ele- exist. These local communities often futures) and the world of conservation- high biodiversity. The proposed area cov- ment. Anthropologists focus on the turn out not to be sustainable users of ists (their aims, their perceptions and Manon Osseweijer is Coordinator of Acade- ers about 220,000 square kilometres in social and cultural complexity of an area. the environment, sometimes due to cir- their time perspectives). And, as one mic Affairs at IIAS. Indonesia, the Malaysian states of They describe, from a political ecologi- cumstances beyond their control. presenter put it, environmental conser- Sarawak and Sabah, and a small part of cal point of view, stakeholders’ interests vation should not just be about the envi- Gerard Persoon is Head of the Department Brunei. Other large-scale examples are in a particular natural resource or a par- According to the anthropologists’ pro- ronment. It should be about what alter- of Environment and Development of the the Guyana Shield in the northern part ticular part of a forest or sea, and shed fessional ethical code, the group under native sources of income, law Institute of Environmental Studies (Leiden of South America, the massive rainfor- light on the tensions (ethnic, social, research is not to suffer by the research, enforcement, compensation payments, University) and member of the Board of est area in the Congo Basin in Central political, economic) that arise from the especially not through information and campaigns will bring to these com- Trustees of the World Wide Fund for Nature Africa and the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine power play over control of natural passed on to third parties, and when munities, not just at the height of the in the Netherlands. Both authors are anthro- Ecoregion between Indonesia, the resources. In most cases, the anthro- there is a conflict of interest, these indi- campaign, but over a more extended pologists by training. Philippines and Sabah. All of them pologist’s main informants are local viduals must come first. Because of this, occupy large transnational areas and try people. It is their land that conserva- anthropologists encountering local prac- The Heart of Borneo Conference to connect a number of smaller protect- tionists are in business to protect. Grant- tices that are harmful to the environ- At the end of 2004 WWF launched its campaign for the Heart of Borneo to protect one of the ed areas. ing that there are challenges to the rhet- ment can find themselves in a dilemma largest intact rainforest areas in the world with extremely rich biodiversity. Two conferences oric of the indigenous peoples’ when the local community is told by out- were held in early 2005, the first in Brunei, which had largely political and diplomatic goals, The success of such conservation areas movement (see Kuper 2003), the considers (government representatives, and the second in Leiden and The Hague with more scientific aims. The latter was organized depends largely on the heads of states of clusions of many social science studies conservationists) to change its ways. by WWF, the Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML, Leiden University), and IIAS. A selec- the involved countries to engage in such on conservation practices are clear: con- However, this does not imply that it is tion of conference papers will be published by Tropenbos International. large multinational protected areas, but servation organizations have been impossible for anthropologists to play a

Book announcement Towards social stability and democratic governance in Central Eurasia: challenges to regional security In the current world system Central Eurasia may seem peripheral with its poor socio-economic indicators, particularistic tendencies in politics and intensified ethnic conflicts. However, its geo-strategic location and natural resources – among them the large hydrocarbon reserves of the Caspian Sea – may return its historical centrality to the region. This new ‘centrality’ of Central Eurasia brings new threats. Repressive political regimes and marginalisation of whole groups of population inflame conflicts that spill across national borders. Migration to Europe, both legal and illegal, is the direct outcome of social-economic destabilization in the region.

Irina Morozova and the Soviet creation of nations. It consists of four parts respectively, cov- be diametrically opposed. The Kyrgyz Contributors: Andrey Fursov, Jacques Together with the historical legacy, old ering general discussions on the histor- so-called ‘tulip revolution’ in March Legrand, Catherine Poujol, Irina Morozo- he end of the Cold War and current ethnic conflicts resurfaced and have ical development of Central Eurasia in 2005 and the unrests in Uzbekistan va, Alisher Ilkhamov, Paul Geiss, Robert Tglobalization have opened the doors shaped concepts of the nation-centric the longue durée perspective and its socio- (Andijan) two months later proved to be Cutler, Michael Kaser, Leonid Friedman, to the region for various international state. The nationalistic nature of these cultural legacies; Soviet and contempo- some kind of ‘checking point’ for the Martin Spechler, Elena Sadovskaya, Nazim actors: the USA, international monetary concepts creates a serious obstacle to rary state and communal structures, views and prospects set up by the Imanov, Nina Dyulgerova, Farkhod Tolipov. organizations, strategic alliances, TNCs, regional integration processes and secu- administration, nation-building process- authors. < NGOs, regional blocks, as well as crim- rity. Border conflicts and competition for es and unofficial clan politics in Central Irina Morozova is IIAS affiliated fellow work- inal groups and ethno-religious move- water and other resources along ethnic Asia; the current economic conditions as - Morozova, I., ed. 2005. Towards Social Sta- ing on the modern history of Central and ments. The illicit production and trade lines have become an unfortunate real- a precursor to social stability and devel- bility and Democratic Governance in Central Inner Asia, communist societies in Asia, and of drugs add to the complexity of secu- ity. Territorial disputes, especially in the opment; and the correlation between eco- Eurasia: challenges to regional security. comparative studies on the post-Cold War rity problems in the region. As a direct Southern Caucasus, leave much doubt nomics and domestic and international NATO Science Series, IOS Press, Amster- transformation of Central Eurasia. neighbour to the turbulent Middle East, that the wealth accumulated by the real- politics in the region and prospects for dam. it is a potential playground for extrem- ization of the international oil contracts future regional development, including ist movements - marginalized sections will be used for peaceful solutions to democratization. The book features his- of the population serve for recruitment these conflicts. torical political-administrative maps of by radical Islamic groups and terrorist Central Asia and the Caucasus and a bib- organizations. The book, consisting of a number of liography on the topics discussed. The announced publication is the result of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop (ARW) reviewed and edited papers resulting Social stability as an integral component Towards social stability and democratic governance in Central Eurasia: challenges to regional secu- To resist the rapid penetration of these from the workshop, provides an analy- of human security is a priori viewed by rity which took place in Leiden, 8-11 September 2004. groups and to prevent the newly estab- sis of existing knowledge and discus- the contributors of Towards social Scholars of many backgrounds from different theoretical and interdisciplinary perspectives lished states from falling apart along sions in the field of security studies on stability and democratic governance in adressed the historical and social legacy of Central Eurasian societies and current risks such ethnic lines, the current governments Central Eurasia for professional schol- Central Eurasia: challenges to regional as socio-economic collapse, under- and unemployment and marginalisation, and the ability have launched nation-building policies. ars, students and all intellectuals outside security as an indisputable value, while of regional governments and elites to deal with these threats. Nation-building in Central Asia and the academia, who are interested in the rap- discussions on democracy and demo- The workshop was organized by co-directors Wim Stokhof and Irina Morozova (IIAS) and Southern Caucasus has a complex and idly changing geopolitical arrange- cratic governance do not produce any funded by the NATO Science Programme, NWO, Leiden University, CNWS, KNAW and IIAS. controversial history that goes back to ments, economic and socio-political commonly accepted conclusion. The For further info www.iias.nl/iias/show/id=40997 the late period of the Russian Empire realities in Central Eurasia. views and approaches of the authors can

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 31 > IIAS research Illegal but licit: transnational flows and permissive polities in Asia Some transnational practices are considered acceptable (licit) by partcipants while they are illegal in a formal sense. A new research programme focusses on flows of poor people and goods across international borders in Asia - movements that are not allowed by states but are not ‘organised crime’ either. States declare these practices illegal and yet states themselves are often involved.

Willem van Schendel ‘illicit’.1 Since there is no legitimate and it promotes the free flow of threats to Bangladeshi migrants in India, their the licit to persist in transnational state- sovereign legal authority at the global human security, from terrorists to drugs labour strategies in situations of extreme sponsored labour migration. he programme argues that method- level, the law almost always refers to the to contagious diseases, a nationalist insecurity, their changing notions of lic- Tologically the social sciences have domestic sphere: to states. But when we backlash is common and inevitable. To itness, and the transnational identities Moving between legal systems: South been more adept at studying fixity than shift our nomenclature to the distinction many policy makers, such deadly under- they have constructed. Indian women as domestic workers in movement and it seeks to develop new between ‘licit’ and ‘illicit’, we refer less standings of the contemporary world Dubai tools to understand transnational move- to state law than to social perceptions of leave only one option: to make their poli- De-legitimizing borderland practices in Domestic workers who cross national ments. Taking a comparative perspec- activities defined as criminal. It is this ties less permissive, to develop more Pakistan boundaries in search of employment tive, the programme is built around four confrontation between perspectives that intrusive, authoritarian and muscular The border between Afghanistan and form a category of transnational projects examining transnational flows forms the core of the research pro- forms of law enforcement that at their Pakistan is notoriously porous because migrants of special interest in the study across Asia (Bangladesh, India, Pak- gramme: multiple legal perspectives worst become forms of pre-emptive the borderlands are so-called ‘tribal areas’ of (il)legal-(il)licit linkages. They have to istan, Afghanistan, China, Israel and interact with various perceptions of lic- international violence. Many policy mak- where the Pakistani state has delegated deal with sometimes contradictory legal Dubai), focusing on participants’ iden- itness in all transnational practices. ers, law enforcement officials, media much of its authority to ‘tribal’ institu- systems and also occupy an ambivalent tities and notions of (il)legality and Rather than merely positing the com- personnel and average citizens of indus- tions. Today international bodies fight- position as non-family members work- (il)licitness. It seeks to develop a complexity of such confrontations, this trialized countries see their darkest fears ing transnational militancy and smug- ing in households. Usually they are not parative and interdisciplinary approach research programme explores them confirmed: the intersection of the power gling consider this porosity a problem covered by labour law, and their identi- and to produce new methods for study- empirically in order to develop new of globalization with the threat of inter- because it makes these areas difficult to ties, labour relations and social insecu- ing transnational practices. methodologies for studying movement. national crime, an alarmist interpreta- control. And yet since the Afghan wars rity are all framed in highly personal The aim is to contribute to a more tion of the current phase of global trans- of the 1980s the absence of state respon- relations in the domestic sphere. Globalization and transnationalism, sophisticated historical sociology and actions, which, luckily, is flawed. This sibility has been convenient for many: Migrant domestic labour is also a sensi- although certainly not new phenomena, anthropology of the transnational. research programme focuses on new refugees, Islamic missionary move- tive issue as it concerns women whose have become more prominent over the ways of understanding transnational ments, foreign states supporting the employment is a source of tension and past few decades, resulting in worldwide Collective scholarly understanding of flows of people and goods that are ille- Afghan resistance, journalists, relief ambivalence in both sending and receiv- movements of capital, goods and peo- the nature, pattern, scale, forms and gal but licit and their relationship with agencies, labour migrants and entrepre- ing countries. Indian women working ple. Most studies of these international meanings of illicit transnational activi- policy-making and states. neurs in a war economy based on the ille- as domestics in Dubai (United Arab flows have been framed in the concep- ties remains far from adequate. Among gal trade in arms, drugs, electronics and Emirates) deal with multiple legal per- tual and material context of the modern the reasons are the difficulty of con- Four cases other commodities. Many of these activ- spectives and normative perceptions. nation state. Consciously and uncon- ducting research on individuals and The projects within the research pro- ities, although ‘illegal’ according to Pak- The project focuses on their trajectory sciously, most social science focuses on groups who pay a premium to keep their gramme share a regional focus on Asia, istani law, have been allowed as licit ‘trib- from home to work and back, investi- state territories as its natural units of affairs from attracting public attention, home to most of humanity and a long al’ practices and traditions. In the current gating in particular how they move in study, and we are accustomed to aca- and that scholars of smuggling, traf- history of complex transnational con- situation, however, Pakistan and and out of legality/illegality, both during demic specializations such as the soci- ficking and money laundering have no nectivity. Building on academic contacts Afghanistan, as well as international their life cycle and over time because ology of India or the history of China. It common forum to share their insights. of long standing between colleagues in organizations, prefer more efficient state India’s and Dubai’s legislation on labour is no surprise that the field of knowledge In addition, there is a problem endem- the Netherlands, South Asia, West Asia control. Practices that used to be permit- migration varies; making certain illegal that seeks to understand the world ic to the social sciences: the difficulty of and China, they bring together a team ted as ‘tribal’ are now discouraged and/or activities legal and vice versa. beyond the state, international relations, thinking outside the conceptual grasp of of researchers whose four case studies disputed as illegal. This project is co- Research will be conducted in South nonetheless focuses on the state as its the modern state. What we are particu- allow for purposeful comparison. supervised by Sarfraz Khan (Pakistan) India (Kerala) and Dubai, which has foundational unit of analysis. By high- larly concerned with is the question of and Oskar Verkaaik (The Netherlands). long-standing trade relations with Ker- lighting the importance of movement movement across state borders and how Unauthorized mass migration from ala. Dubai now has a labour force that is across state boundaries in understand- movement is considered in the social Bangladesh to India. Labour migration between China and over 90 percent foreign (Indians are the ing transnational flows, we are alerted sciences. This is in turn linked to the According to Indian state officials, more Israel: Playing the system largest group), and Indian domestics to the gap between our reliance on ana- relation of states to territory, borders and than 20 million Bangladeshis are now This project, co-supervised by Li work for compatriots, Dubai families and lytical categories that presuppose social frontiers. As David Ludden puts it: living illegally in India. This huge dias- Minghuan (China), Yitzhak Shichor other foreigners. Co-supervised by Rima fixity and the mobile practices and ‘Modernity consigned human mobility pora of mostly extremely poor labour (Israel) and Leo Douw (The Nether- Sabban (United Arab Emirates), phenomena we are observing. to the dusty dark corners of archives that migrants has created political problems lands), focuses on Chinese migrants Praveena Kodoth (India), Annelies document the hegemonic space of (anti-foreigner movements and recruited to work in Israel under legal Moors (The Netherlands) and Mario Rut- This research programme explores the national territorialism. As a result, we pogroms, mass deportations, conflicts contracts. Upon arrival, migrants often ten (The Netherlands), the project inves- limitations of ‘seeing like a state’. It imagine that mobility is border cross- between India and Bangladesh) as well find that the contracts are not adhered to tigates the living strategies of poor Ker- adopts a perspective that privileges par- ing, as though borders came first and as economic benefits for both the Indi- and they are immediately faced with a sit- alite women in transnational movement ticipants in international activities, lead- mobility second’.2 In general, move- an and Bangladeshi economies. In fact, uation of illegality. Many whose contracts in order to understand (il)legal-(il)licit ing us to different understandings of ment is difficult for the social sciences it is hard to speak of national economies are honored seek to transfer to other linkages in transnational life cycles. < transnational movement. It focuses to fully understand, for reasons of both when there is a constant movement of employers anyway, as many better-pay- especially on a theme rarely highlighted evidence and conception. The evidence people and remittances across open bor- ing illegal jobs are on offer in Israel. Notes in the study of transnational practices: question has to do with the comparative ders. This project looks at the changing Despite their illegal status, they are usu- 1 Abraham, Cf. Itty and Willem van Schendel. the interface of legality and illegality. In weights of the archives of the sedentary patterns of legality and licitness in these ally allowed to continue working, even 2005. ‘Introduction: The Making of Illicitness,’ the absence of a global sovereign author- and the archives of movement. As for flows. Migration was legal until 1952, for long periods of time. The main pur- in: Willem van Schendel and Itty Abraham, ity it is impossible to distinguish, in an conception, moving people are typically although India and Bangladesh disre- pose of this project is to find out under eds. Illicit Flows and Criminal Things: States, objective and timeless way, between the categorized in relation to fixed social for- garded illegal migration until 1971. which regimes of illegality/licitness the Borders, and the Other Side of Globalization. illegal and the legal in flows of people mations. The fact that mobile people are Since then, a discourse has developed in migrants find themselves at various Bloomington: University of Indiana Press. and commodities across international less visible to social scientists guaran- India in which migrants are depicted as stages of their migration, what dangers 2 Ludden David. 2003. ‘Presidential Address: borders. What passes for ‘international tees that they often appear in social the- infiltrators, even foot soldiers of a ‘demo- and risks these regimes imply, how these Maps in the Mind and the Mobility of Asia’. crime’ is so closely intertwined with the ory as obscure, fleeting figures, as graphic attack’ from Bangladesh. Mean- regimes are maintained and how the The Journal of Asian Studies 62-4: 1057-1078, domestic-legal that for analytical pur- peripheral social actors with a lowly sta- while, Bangladesh officials maintain migrants play the system. Our hypothe- at 1062. poses ‘criminal’ and ‘not-criminal’ sys- tus in the world order, and as faceless that there are no illegal Bangladeshis in sis is that the migrants as well as their tems form a coherent whole - some- outsiders who fit imperfectly into pro- India at all. This legal conflict stands in labour brokers, employers and the Israeli Willem van Schendel is Professor in Modern times legal, sometimes illegal. fessionals’ neat representations of social sharp contrast with a discourse of licit- and Chinese states benefit from main- Asian History at the University of Amsterdam Determining thresholds of distinction reality. In general, mobile groups are of ness, in which labour migrants, their taining illegal employment, and that it is and at the International Institute of Social between the legal and illegal will always interest primarily as moving between Indian employers and many others the permissiveness of Israeli labour pol- History. He has done extensive research in come by appeal either to powerful state the units that count. As such, they are maintain that a cross-border labour sup- icy and Chinese official discourse on Bangladesh, Northeast India and Burma. For interests or international social mores often perceived as defiant, dangerous ply is good for development. They hold labour exports that allow this particular more information on the programme ‘Illegal rather than by an ability to ‘know’ in and out of control. that de-legitimizing migration is coun- combination of the legal, the illegal and but Licit’: [email protected] some objective fashion where the divid- terproductive and they reject the ing line between the two lies. Today, policy makers are deeply con- ‘coerced identity’ of infiltrators. Co- The programe was initiated by Li Minghuan (Xiamen University) and Willem van Schendel (Uni- cerned about certain aspects of transna- supervised by Meghna Guhathakurta versity of Amsterdam). Supported by IIAS and the Amsterdam School of Social Science Research Furthermore, it is important in a dis- tional networking. When globalization (Bangladesh), Sanjib Baruah (India) and (ASSR), the four-year programme has secured funding from the Netherlands Foundation for the cussion of ‘legal’ and ‘illegal’ to intro- is seen as dismantling barriers of pro- Willem van Schendel (The Netherlands), Advancement of Tropical Research (WOTRO). duce the distinction between ‘licit’ and tection around nations and states, when this project focuses on networks of poor

32 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > Books received

[advertisement] century st Interested in reviewing one of our Books editors the from copy a Request Received? [email protected] at: Saw Swee-Hock. 2005 Swee-Hock. Saw programmes and policies Population Singapore in ISEAS. Singapore: 981-230-318-9 ISBN tables, 302, pp. 2005. ed. Monique Skidmore, 21 the of turn the at Burma Press. Hawai’i of University Honolulu: 0-8248-2897-6 ISBN ill., 304, pp. 2005 Birgit. Bräuchler, der war: at Cyberidentities Internet im Molukkenkonflikt Verlag. transcript Bielefeld: 3-89942-287-2 ISBN German, ill., 386, pp. Indonesia Patel, Tulsi. ed. 2005 ed. Tulsi. Patel, and structure India: in family The practice Publications. Sage Delhi: New 0-7619-3389-1 ISBN 310, pp. 2004 Christoph. Antweiler, on bibliography a Asia: Southeast cultures and societies ISEAS. Singapore: 9-873825-877062 ISBN 111, pp. 2005 eds. Lin Li Chang and Tommy Koh, by reflections dot: red little The diplomats Singapore’s Publishing. Scientific World London: 981-256-414-4 ISBN ill., 450, pp. 2005 P. Deanna Maria Santos, migrant and rights Human work domestic Publishers. Nijhoff Martinus Leiden: 90-04-14527-3 ISBN tables, 243, pp. Southeast Asia Southeast Bhargava, Rajeev and Helmut Reifeld. 2005 Reifeld. Helmut and Rajeev Bhargava, and sphere public society, Civil perceptions and dialogues citizenship: Publications. Sage Delhi: New 9832-2 0-7619 ISBN 420, pp. 2005 Biplab. Dasgupta, adjustment India’s Globalisation: experience Publications. Sage Delhi: New 0-7619-3306-9 ISBN tables, 282, pp. 2005 eds. Rowen S. Henry and Rafiq Dossani, Asia South in peace for Prospects Press. University Stanford Stanford: 0-8047-5085-8 ISBN 424, pp. 2005 Karen. Gabriel, sexual The nation: a Imaging contemporary the of economies cinema Bombay mainstream BV. Publishing Shaker Maastricht: 90-423-0266-6 ISBN 451, pp. 2005 Debjani. Ganguly, counter- and colonialism Caste, postcolonial a on notes modernity: caste of hermeneutics Routledge. London: 0-415-34294-5 ISBN 287, pp. 2005 A.W. Hoek, den van in death of celebrations Caturmasa: Nepal Kathmandu, Leiden. Universiteit CNWS, Leiden: 90-5789-098-4 ISBN ill., 187, pp. 2005 Rob. Johnson, Asian South turmoil: in region A 1947 since conflicts Books. Reaktion London: 1-86189-257-8 ISBN ill., 268, pp. 2003 Vamsee. Juluri, longing audience: global a Becoming music Indian in belonging and television Limited. Private Longman Orient Delhi: New 81-250-2741-6 ISBN ill., 155, pp. 2005 Vos. de Marijke and Johan Manschot, a cinema: Hindi of scenes the Behind of heart the through journey visual Bollywood Publishers. KIT Amsterdam: 2 186 6832 90 ISBN ill., colour 159, pp. 2005 Ali. Syed Mujtaba, Asia South on Soundings Press. Dawn New Delhi: New 1-932705-40-6 ISBN 225, pp. South Asia South pp. 240, ISBN 0-8248-2969-7 ISBN 240, pp. Carpenter, John T. 2005 T. John Carpenter, age his and Hokusai 357, pp. Publishing, Hotei Amsterdam: 90-74822-57-6 ISBN ill., colour 2005 eds. Linhart Sepp and Susanne Formanek, woodblock- texts: visual - texts Written Japan modern early in media printed ill., 368, pp. Publishing, Hotei Amsterdam: 90-74822-58-4 ISBN 2005 Ian. Reader, and meaning pilgrimages: Making shikoku in practice Press. Hawai’i of University Honolulu: 0-8248-2876-3 ISBN ill., 350, pp. 2005 Peipei. Qiu, and Zhuangzi the Dao: the and Basho Haikai of transformation the Press. Hawai’i of University Honolulu: 0-8248-2845-3 ISBN 248, pp. 2005. Fenno. Shelley Quinn, actor’s noh the Zeami: Developing practice in attunement Press. Hawai’i of University Honolulu: 0-8248-2968-9 ISBN ill., 479, pp. 2005 Riccardo. Rosati, identita Giappone: il Perdendo letteratura nella occidentale nipponica contemporanea Editore. Armando Roma: 8883587529 ISBN Italian, ill., 63, pp. 2005 J.J. Robert Wargo, of study a nothingness: of logic The Kitaro Nishida Press. Hawai’i of University Honolulu: 2004 David. Williams, the war: Pacific Japan’s Defending and philosophers school Kyoto power post-White Routledge. London: 0-415-32315-0 ISBN 238, pp. 2005 Jane. Portal, Korea North in control under Art Books. Reaktion London: 1-86189-236-5 ISBN ill., colour 192, pp. 2004 Elizabeth. Underwood, American North identities: Challenged 1884-1934 Korea, in missionaries Korea. - Society Asiatic Royal Seoul: 89-954424-0-9-02200 ISBN ill., 327, pp. Japan Korea Clark, Paul. 2005 Paul. Clark, and generation a China: Reinventing films its Press. University Chinese Kong: Hong 962-996-207-1 ISBN ill., 257, pp. 2005 A. Benjamin, Elman, China in science terms: own their On 1550-1900 Press. University Harvard Cambridge: 0-674- ISBN tables, & maps ill., 565, pp. 01685-8 2005 R. Paul Katz, the red: blood turned valleys When Taiwan colonial in incident Ta-pa-ni Press. Hawai’i of University Honolulu: 0-8248-2915-8 ISBN ill., 313, pp. 2005 eds. Lo Kai-Yin and G. Ronald Knapp, being and living family: home House Chinese Press. Hawai’i of University Honolulu: 0-8248-2953-0 ISBN ill., colour 453, pp. 2005 Thowsen. P. Monika and Ashild Kolas, cultural Tibet: of margins the On frontier Sino-Tibetan the on survival Press. Washington of University Seattle: 0-295- ISBN tables, & maps ill., 276, pp. 98480-5 Paul and Steinhardt S. Nancy H., Victor Mair, 2005 Goldin. R. Chinese traditional in reader Hawai’i culture Press. Hawai’i of University Honolulu: 0-8248-2785-6 ISBN ill., colour 679, pp. 2005 C. Peter Perdue, Qing the West: marches China Eurasia Central of conquest Press. University Harvard Cambridge: 0-674-01684-x ISBN ill., colour 725, pp. 2005 ed. Xiaoxin Wu changing dialogues: and Encounters Chinese-Western on perspectives to sixteenth the from exchanges centuries eighteenth Institute. Serica Monumenta Augustin: Sankt 3- ISBN Chinese, and English ill., 402, pp. 8050-0525-3 Lee, W.O., David L. Grossman, Kerry J. Kerry Grossman, L. David W.O., Lee, 2004 eds. Fairbrother P. Gregory and Kennedy, the and Asia in education Citizenship issues and concepts Pacific: Education Comparative Kong: Hong Kong. Hong of University Centre, Research 962-8093-59-2 ISBN tables, 313, pp. 2005. Balkiz. Özturk, phrase and referentiality Case, structure Publishing Benjamins John Amsterdam: 9 2801 272 90 ISBN 268, pp. Company. and Chang, Choo Suk Wen-Shing, Tseng, 2005 eds. Nishizono Masahisa psychotherapy: and culture Asian West and East for implications Press. Hawai’i of University Honolulu: 0-8248-2133-5 ISBN tables, & maps 313, pp. 2005 Mariko. Tamanoi, Asano the in Manchuria histories: Crossed empire of age Press. Hawai’i of University Honolulu: 0-8248-2872-0 ISBN ill., 213, pp. 2005 Yuasa. Katsuei, Flames; of Document and Kannani novels colonial Japanese two introduction an with and translated Driscoll Mark by afterword critical and 193, pp. Press. University Duke Durham: 0-8223-3517-4 ISBN 2004 Kelly. Vincent Pollard, and democratization, Globalization, sharing, power leadership: Asian the in society and policy foreign Japan and Philippines tables, 203, pp. Ashgate, Burlington: 1 1539 7546 0 ISBN 2005 G. Peter Rowe, the shaping modern: Asia East city contemporary Books. Reaktion London: 1-86189-249-7-2133-5 ISBN ill., 224, pp. 2005 Limin. Bai and children child: ideal the Shaping China imperial late in primers their Press. University Chinese The Kong: Hong 962-996-114-8 ISBN ill., 311, pp. General Asia East China > Books received Books > Books received Books

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 33 > ASEF/Alliance The future of rural income and rice production in China Land allocation for the rice farm Economic growth in China’s agricultural sector lags behind growth in industry and services, creating an ever widening rural-urban income gap. Yet growth beyond the farm offers new opportunities for farmers in China’s more advanced provinces: markets for new crops and increasing farm size. At present, the dual government objectives of increasing rural incomes and increasing rice production are clearly in conflict. Farmers can obtain incomes comparable to non-farm wages only when they stop rice cultivation and switch to more profitable crops. Otherwise, mechanization is necessary to allow large enough increases in farm size to raise household income and maintain national rice production levels. Land allocation for the mixed farm Marrit van den Berg, Huib Hengsdijk, increasing farm income and rice pro- main labour peak occurs during the har- Wang Guanghuo, Joost Wolf, duction, it also assesses the effects of the vest, which unfortunately cannot be Martin van Ittersum, Reimund Roetter expansion of land holdings, crop diver- mechanized in the short or medium Figure 1 sification, and technology. The socio- term since there is no machinery that Simulation of lobalization and market integra- economic, institutional and natural can harvest vegetables on such a small increasing farm Gtion have contributed to unprece- environments determine the direction plot without damaging the crop. For rice size from 0 to 12 dented economic growth in many parts and pace of change for farm households production, the main peak occurs dur- has with steps of of East and Southeast Asia, especially in and, hence, overall agricultural devel- ing transplanting. Secondary peaks for 0.6 ha for the two Eastern China. Macro-economic development. To account for these diverse all crops occur during land preparation reference farms opments have resulted in strong growth influences on land use, the farm house- and for rice an additional peak occurs allowing for of the industry and service sectors, pro- hold model integrates knowledge from during the harvest. We introduce mech- mechanization viding employment opportunities at economics, soil science and crop anized land preparation and harvesting wage rates several times higher than science. and direct seeding for rice production, compared even to the vegetable farm. text, we analyse the effects of potential those for agricultural labour. Currently, and mechanized land preparation for In summary, the model accurately sim- increases in farm size given the farmer’s almost 85 percent of rural households Our case-study area is Pujiang county in vegetable production. ulates the shift from pure vegetable pro- choice to grow rice only or a combina- in China have at least one family mem- Zhejiang province. The province has a duction to a combination of vegetable tion of rice and vegetables. The method- ber working in the non-agricultural sec- well-developed non-agricultural econo- The farm household when and rice production when farm size ology employed allows exploration of the tor. Yet agriculture still employs rough- my and is home to China’s most active farm size increases increases. The reason behind this shift impacts of expected future develop- ly half the labour force and rural land rental market. Fertile soils and We first used the model solely for rice is limited labour availability during peak ments on agricultural production and incomes are just 30 percent of the urban abundant water make Zhejiang and the production (Table 1) and according to the periods. rural livelihoods. average. rest of China’s greater Yangtze River average resource endowments of rice- Our results show that at the present China’s spectacular urban growth offers Delta one of the world’s most productive farmers in the survey sample: 0.3 Mechanization scenario scale of farming, the dual government new opportunities for farmers. Rural- rice growing regions. In 2002, we car- hectares (ha) of land and 2.5 workers. When we allow mechanization and objectives of increasing rural incomes urban migration exerts pressure on ried out an extensive survey among 107 The household grows double rice (with direct seeding, the farm size that a sin- and increasing rice production are clear- farms to expand in size, as migrating farm households, most of which were hybrid seed for both rice crops). Total gle household can manage becomes as ly conflicting. At the present land to farmers rent their land to those who stay small rice farms, vegetable farms and rice production for the model household large as 12 ha (Figure 1). Even with mech- labour ratio, rice production renders a behind. This could require changes in somewhat larger rice-vegetable farms. is 3.4 t (mega grams) and income is anization, labour constraints limit veg- per capita income that is less than a the management and performance of 2,626 Yuan. Whereas the simulated etable cultivation to a maximum of quarter of the non-farm wage. Vegetable farming systems and improve the wel- We developed a stylized model that cov- income is close to the survey average for almost 0.5 ha. When farm size increas- production, however, obtains five times fare of the remaining farmers. Farms ers the core characteristics of these rice-cultivating households, rice pro- es, land area for vegetables decreases the rice income and thus can more than have been managed mainly by using households and maximizes income duction is significantly higher. The slowly to free up labour for increasing- compete with the non-farm sector. Spe- manual labour and animal traction, but from crop production, subject to the model household grows double rice ly labour-intensive rice cultivation, until cialized training and development of current developments might facilitate, availability of land, family labour and only. Survey households, on the other virtually all 12 ha is used for directly product markets can help farmers cur- or even require, an increase in mecha- capital, agricultural technology and mar- hand, grow single rice as well, which has seeded, mechanized single rice. A sim- rently growing rice to switch to these nization. At the same time, increased ket prices. The model can accommodate a somewhat lower income but requires ilar pattern can be observed for a rice more profitable crops. urban income creates markets for more five different crop activities. We include less labour and less strict timing - a fac- farmer who starts with non-mechanized If, as expected, farm size increases in the expensive products, such as vegetables, three prevailing rice systems: one annu- tor not accounted for by the model. double rice cultivation and beyond one near future, rising rural incomes and fruits and meat. Diversification of agri- al harvest of rice using hybrid seed rice; Labour requirements are low and no hectare shifts to less labour-intensive rice production might go hand in hand. culture from rice to these high-value two rice harvests a year, the first an hired labour is needed. rice crops until he ends up with 12 ha of Even with mechanization, farmers can products is considered an important inbred rice variety and the second hybrid single rice of which most is mechanized only manage relatively small plots of means to increase farmers’ income and seed; two rice harvests a year with hybrid Next, we allow for vegetable as well as and directly seeded. Hence, from two or vegetables. Our results indicate that thereby prevent further widening of the seed rice. All rice crops are transplant- rice cultivation. We first adapt resource three hectares onwards, both farms household labour and the limited rural-urban income gap. However, diver- ed, except early rice with non-hybrid endowments to reflect the averages for become very similar. The main differ- amount of available hired labour is just sification might jeopardize national rice seeds. In addition to rice, we include two the vegetable farms. The resulting ence is that up to 12 ha, the mixed farm enough to specialize in vegetable pro- supply, which remains a concern of the frequently observed triple vegetable sys- model farmer grows a rotation of celery, maintains a small vegetable plot, which duction at the current land to labour government. tems: celery-greens-radish and celery- leafy vegetables and garden radish on leads to somewhat lower per hectare rice ratio. Simulations show that when farm hot pepper-radish. his entire 0.2 ha. While his farm is only production but significantly higher size increases, labour constraints dur- Calibrating the farm Initially, we assume that all operations two-thirds the size of the model rice income. Mechanization is already pre- ing vegetable harvests force households household are performed manually, as was com- farmer, his capital requirements are ferred for vegetable production at a farm to grow rice on the additional land. The study uses a farm household model mon practice among farmers surveyed. about triple and his labour requirements size of 0.6 ha, but rice cultivation is Mechanization will help farmers to cul- to examine the potential of urbanization Later, we introduce mechanization in more than double. This results in an mechanized only slowly beyond 1.8 ha tivate larger land areas and thus gener- to spur the development of rice-based order to meet peak labour demands, a income of more than 16,000 Yuan, sig- on the rice farm and 2.4 ha on the mixed ate more income, but it does not great- farming systems. Taking into account practice that is becoming increasingly nificantly higher than the surprisingly farm. ly increase land area for vegetables, as the dual government objective of popular. For vegetable production, the low income our survey found for pure the main labour peak of the vegetable vegetable farmers. Mechanization: good for rice, harvest cannot be mechanized. < Table 1 When we triple farm size to 0.6 ha, the irrelevant to vegetables Simulation results at average farm and family size for the three major farm types. survey average for rice-vegetable farms, The spectacular growth of China’s non- Marrit van den Berg, Wageningen Universi- the cropping pattern changes. Vegetable farm economy offers new opportunities ty and Research Centre; Huib Hengsdijk, Rice farm Vegetable farm Mixed farm labour requirements in peak periods for farmers in China’s more advanced Wageningen University and Research Centre; Data are simply too high to allow vegetable provinces. Increased income in the Wang Guanghu, Zhejiang University; Joost Crops allowed only rice all crops all crops cultivation on more than 0.39 ha. On urban sector creates markets for new Wolf, Wageningen University and Research Farm size (ha) 0.3 0.2 0.6 the remaining 0.21 ha, the farmer products, and migrating farmers rent Centre; Martin van Ittersum, Wageningen Family labour (full-time labourers) 2.5 2.6 2.5 grows rice. This general pattern coin- their land to those staying behind. Using University and Research Centre; Reimund cides with the survey averages. More- a simulation model covering important Roetter, Wageningen University and Results (annual basis) over, income from vegetable production characteristics of the farmer and his con- Research Centre Income (Yuan) 2,626 16,139 31,339 is about the same for the model house- Vegetable income (Yuan) 0 16,139 29,531 hold and the average survey household. This article is a short version of a full paper presented at the First Asia-Europe Workshop on Labour (days) 87 194 441 There is, however, an expected differ- Sustainable Resource Management and Policy Options for Rice Ecosystems (SUMAPOL 2005) Working capital (Yuan) 554 1,622 3,190 ence in rice cultivation. All of the sur- held from 11 to 14 May 2005 in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China. The full paper is considered for Rice production (kg) 3,390 0 2,334 vey’s mixed farms grow single rice, publication in an Agricultural Systems special issue on technology and policy options for rice Rice area (ha) 0.30 0.00 0.21 whereas the model farmer grows dou- ecosystems in a rapidly changing global environment. Vegetable area (ha) 0.00 0.20 0.39 ble rice. Capital requirements are high

34 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > ASEF/Alliance Asia Alliance Alliance update The European Alliance for Asian Stud- ies is a cooperative framework of In November 2004 the members of the 1-3 September 2005 12-14 January 2006 European institutes specializing in European Alliance for Asian Studies in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand Asian Studies. Its partners are: close co-operation with the Asia-Europe Asian and European Foreign Direct Investment in Voices of Islam in Europe and Southeast Asia Foundation (ASEF) in Singapore, issued the Chinese and Southeast Asian Automobile and Uthai Dulyakasem, Institute of Liberal Arts, Walailak University NIAS - Nordic a call for workshops for the Annual Asia- Electronics Industries Cynthia Chou, Institute of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies, Institute of Asian Studies Europe Workshop Series to take place in the Yuri Sadoi, Faculty of Economics, Meijo University, Japan Head of Southeast Asian Studies, University of Copenhagen Director: Dr Jørgen Delman academic year 2005/2006. R.B.P.M. Busser, Faculty of Arts, Leiden University, Leifsgade 33 DK 2300 Copenhagen S, the Netherlands 27-28 January 2006 Denmark The objective of the Workshop Series is to National University of Singapore, Singapore T +45-35-32 9500 stimulate researchers from Asia and 30 November - 2 December 2005 Industrialization in Europe and Asia - Historical Patterns F +45-35-32 9549 Europe to work together on themes of Centre for Khmer Studies, Cambodia of Economic Development [email protected] common interest to Asia and Europe. The Water in Mainland Southeast Asia Jang-Sup SHIN, Department of Economics, National www.nias.ku.dk criteria are: 1. the quality of the proposal. Philippe Peycam, Centre for Khmer Studies, Cambodia University of Singapore 2. joint organization of the workshop by Barend Jan Terwiel, Hamburg University, Germany William Lazonick, Development Studies, university of IFA an institute from Asia and Europe 3. par- Cambridge, United Kingdom Institut für Asienkunde ticipants should be selected from at least 5-7 January 2006 Director: Prof. Monika Schaedler eight different ASEM member countries. National University of Singapore, Singapore June 2006 Rothenbaumchaussee 32, Pensioners on the move: Social security and trans-border Buon Ma Thuot, Vietnam D-20148 Hamburg, Germany In this fourth tranche of the Annual Asia- retirement migration in Asia and Europe Locating the Communal in Asian Land Tenure T +49-40-428 8740 Europe Workshop Series, 37 proposals have Mika Toyota, Asia Research Institute, National University of Thomas Sikor, Institute of Agricultural Economics and Social F +49-40-410 7945 been recieved and refereed by the Asia- Singapore Sciences, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany [email protected] Europe Selections Committee. The fol- Anita Böcker, Institute for the Sociology of Law, Radboud Nguyen Tan Vui, Tay Nguyen university, Vietnam www.duei.de/ifa lowing six have been selected for imple- Universiteit Nijmegen, the Netherlands mentation: WS EIAS European Institute for Asian Studies Director: Dr Willem van der Geest 35 Rue des Deux Eglises, 1000 Brussels, Belgium The T +32-2-230 8122 F +32-2-230 5402 Annual [email protected] The www.eias.org Annual a i s A CERI - Sciences Po Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques Asia Director: Prof. Christophe Jaffrelot 56 rue Jacob, 75006 Paris, France T +33-1-58717000 F +33-1-58717090 Europe [email protected] Europe www.ceri-sciencespo.com

CEAO Centro de Estudios de Asia Oriental Workshop Series Director: Prof. Taciana Fisac The Asia-Europe Foundation Autonomous University of Madrid (ASEF), Singapore, was established by members of the Asia-Europe Calle Francisco Tomás y Valiente, 3 Meeting (ASEM) on 15 February Módulo III, 28049 Madrid, Spain 2006/2007 1997. ASEF promotes engagement between the civil societies of Asia T +34-91-397 4695 and Europe and the forging of mutual understanding. F +34-91-397 5278 [email protected] www.uam.es/otroscentros/ The European Alliance for Asian Studies is a co-operative asiaoriental/especifica/ framework of European institutes The European Alliance for Asian Studies and the specializing in Asian Studies. Members include the International SOAS Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS); School of Oriental and African Studies Asia-Europe Foundation welcome proposals for NIAS - the Nordic Institute of Asian Studies; the Institute for Director: Prof. Colin Bundy Asian Affairs (IFA); the European University of London workshops on themes of common interest to Asia Institute for Asian Studies (EIAS); the Centre for International Thornhaugh Street / Russel Square, Studies and Research (CERI- London, WC1H 0XG, United Kingdom and Europe, to take place in 2006/2007. Sciences Po); the Centro de Estudios de Asia Oriental (CEAO); T +44-20-7637 2388 the School of Oriental and African F +44-20-7436 3844 Studies (SOAS); and the Swedish School for Advanced Asia Pacific [email protected] The deadline is 1 February 2006. politicians, journalists and representatives of competence in relation to the workshop’s Studies (SSAAPS). www.soas.ac.uk Proposals will be refereed by an Asia-Europe industry are welcome. topic (p.5) Selection Committee; six will be selected for • The topic should be innovative and • Detailed programme including paper titles realisation. Applicants will be informed of the interdisciplinary, address shared interests (p.6) Committee’s decision by June 2006. between Asia and Europe, be of • Itemised, detailed budget showing expenses SSAAPS interregional/multilateral importance, and and expected income (p.7) The Swedish School of Advanced Asia Financial support, up to a maximum of stimulate interregional dialogue. • Envisaged follow-up including publication(s) * ASEM COUNTRIES: € Austria, Belgium, Brunei, Pacific Studies 12,500 per workshop, consists of contribution • Workshops initiated by young postdocs (p.8) towards travel and accommodation. aimed at creating an academic network are Burma/Myanmar, Cambodia, Director: Thommy Svensson favoured. Deadline and address China, Cyprus, Czech Criteria Republic, Denmark, Estonia, The STINT Foundation, Skeppargatan Proposals should be received (by regular mail) • Three day expert workshop, to be held The proposal before 1 February 2006. Finland, France, Germany, 8, 114 52 Stockholm, Sweden between September 2006 and September Maximum eight pages, in English. Greece, Hungary, Indonesia, 2007 in an ASEM member country.* The proposal should contain: Secretariat Asia-Europe Workshop Series Ireland, Italy, Japan, T +46-70-6355160 • Jointly organised by an Asian and a European • Title of the workshop, proposed dates and c/o International Institute for Asian Studies Korea, Laos, Latvia, F +46-8-6619210 institute from ASEM member countries. venue, names of initiators and organising P.O. Box 9515 Lithuania, Luxemburg, • Participants: coming from at least eight institutions in Europe and Asia (include at 2300 RA Leiden Malaysia, Malta, [email protected] different ASEM countries (Asia and Europe least two signed letters of intent), and one The Netherlands Netherlands, Philippines, www.ssaaps.stint.se equally); male/female parity; balance contact address (p. 1) Poland, Portugal, between senior experts and promising junior • Introduction to the topic and scientific Singapore, Slovakia, researchers objectives (p.2-4) Address for hand delivery or private courier Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, IIAS • Participants are invited primarily from • List of confirmed participants, with service: IIAS, Nonnensteeg 1-3, 2311 VJ Thailand, United Kingdom, academia - though contributions from institutional affiliations and disciplinary Leiden, The Netherlands Vietnam. (secretariat Asia Alliance)

More information: www.asia-alliance.org For more information www.asia-alliance.org and www.aews.asef.org call for proposals

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 35 > Announcements

Navigating convention in new terrains: Postponed deadline ing architect, theorist and writer. His ideas ma. Bhakti groups had, for some two cen- The 18th, 19th, and early 20th century literary scene on the ‘generic city’, the general urban turies, been defining what, to them, were Satellites, applications, condition, are ever more applicable for the content and societal implications of Poetry reading & seminar on Malay- Situmorang (Indonesian critical writer of the Socio-economics and contemporary Asian cities. The urban religion. They did this in ways that were Indonesian literature generation of ‘45) will read their poetry. regulatory regimes explosion in Asia has created cities that often seen as threatening towards tradi- Putu Wijaya is IIAS Poet in residence until can hardly be distinguished; cities without tional concepts of proper religious and 20 October 2005 30 November 2005. Muhammad Haji Second Asian space conference identity, without history, without centre. public demeanour. This was felt to erode Leiden, the Netherlands Salleh will be IIAS Poet in residence from 8-11 November 2005 But, as Koolhaas claims, ‘if you look close- the very basis of Hindu statecraft, and organized by IIAS 1 September until 30 November 2005. Hanoi Vietnam ly you can perform another reading - you therefore needed to be redressed. can see, for instance, that these copies are Putu Wijaya (Indonesian poet, writer and convenor: Salleh Yaapar Deadline for paper submission: dealing differently with layering and with The state of Savag Jaisingh (1700-1743) playwright), Muhammad Haji Salleh (one of information: Amis Boersma 15 October 2005 problems of density.’ In this lecture Rem sought to define a Vaisnava sanatana Malaysia’s leading poets) and Sitor [email protected] Authors who cannot meet this deadline Koolhaas will discuss these issues in rela- dharma capable of sustaining Hindu rule are requested to bring five copies of their tion to the urban condition in China, at a juncture and is perceived to be the paper to the conference. where he is currently working on his turn of an epoch. The lecture will focus on Jangan pikirkan yang buruk largest project to date: the new head- its objectives, especially on those individ- Jangan pikirkan yang buruk, cukup hidup ini saja information: [email protected] quarters for China Central Television uals who master-minded these and rep- yang terpuruk, pikirkan yang indah, mimpi pun boleh, (CCTV). resented the intellectual ecumene. agar kita bertahan dan mampu mengubah Skyscrapers and After the lecture a panel of international In conclusion, lines of contrast and con- Do not think of the bad things sledgehammers: urban specialists (Prof. Xing Ruan, Prof. Shiling tinuity in the conceptions of the late pre- Do not think of the bad things, this life is renewal in China Zheng and Dr Anne-Marie Broudehoux) colonial sanatana dharma and those of already too dreadful, think of what is pretty, dream of it, will discuss contemporary urban devel- the ensuing colonial period will be drawn. so we can stand strong and try to change IIAS Annual Lecture 2005 opments in China. Monika Boehm-Tettelbach (author’s 18 November name: Monika Horstmann) is Professor Amsterdam, the Netherlands information: Lena Scheen in Modern South Asian Studies (Lan- * ‘The Generic City is on its way from hori- [email protected] guages and Literatures) at the South Asia Nasib pembantu zontality to verticality. The skyscraper looks Institute, University of Heidelberg, and Ibunya pembantu, neneknya permbantu, ia tidak as if it will be the final, definitive typology. head of the department. She is interested Ingin nanti anaknya juga jadi pembantu, karena itu, ia It has swallowed everything else. It can exist Visions of Hindu kingship in in Bhakti religion in its literary as well as Banting stir tukar kerjaan menjadi seorang pelacur anywhere: in a rice field, or downtown - it the twilight of Mughal rule historical and political aspects, mainly in makes no difference anymore. The towers northern India. Her books include DAdT. The fate of a maid no longer stand together; they are spaced 13th Gonda Lecture Lieder (1991) and In Favour of GovinddevjG: Her mother was a maid, her grandmother was a maid so that they don’t interact. Density in iso- Speaker: Monika Boehm-Tettelbach Historical Documents Relating to a Deity of She did not want her children to become maids as well lation is the ideal.’ - Rem Koolhaas in 25 November 2005 Vrindaban and Eastern Rajasthan (1999). So she changed direction and became a hooker S,M,L,XL Amsterdam, the Netherlands She is currently writing a book entitled An At the turn of the eighteenth century, fol- der Wende der Zeit: Herrschaftskonzept und Rem Koolhaas, Pritzker Architecture Prize- lowing the decline of the Mughal Empire, Religion bei SavAG Jaisingh. * winner, is the main speaker for the IIAS Hindu states re-defined the foundations Putu Wijaya, Uap. Benteng, 1999. Translated by Amis Boersma Annual Lecture 2005. Koolhaas is a lead- of their rule; the concept of Hindu dhar- Information:[email protected]

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ARTICLES for Asian Studies Tending the Spirit’s Shrine: Kanekes and Pajajaran in West Java Robert Wessing & Bart Barendregt L’Enchaînement des appartenances: dossier coordonné par Guillaume Rozenberg IIAS invites postdoctoral researchers to apply for fellowships in Leiden or Amsterdam. Des gardiens des confins aux bâtisseurs des plaines: le parcours d’une population tibéto-birmane du Laos The institute focuses on the interdisciplinary and comparative study of Asia in the Vanina Bouté Le nouveau partage du monde. Pauvreté et dépendance dans les marges du Yunnan (Chine) humanities and social sciences, and their interaction with other sciences. IIAS research Stéphane Gros covers South, East, Southeast and Central Asia. IIAS Fellows are offered office facilities, Urang Banten Kidul (gens de Banten Sud): entre autorité coutumière et souveraineté nationale en Indonésie Éric Bourderie while the institute will mediate in gaining access to libraries, archives and other L’expression du particularisme arakanais dans la Birmanie contemporaine Alexandra de Mersan institutions in the Netherlands. Fellows may be asked to give a lecture or organise a

REVIEW ARTICLES workshop, remain in contact with European researchers, and make due reference to IIAS Women’s War. An Update of the Literature on Iban Textiles Michael Heppell in (future) publications, (partly) made possible through research done during your stay. Around Balinese Music. Catherine Basset & Michael Tenzer

NOTE IIAS has five categories of fellowships for researchers: Les missionnaires et la botanique: l’exemple du père Urbain Faurie en Extrême-Orient • Affiliated fellows Chantal Zheng & Zheng Shunde • Research fellows (upon vacancy only) • Senior fellows SALES & SUBSCRIPTIONS • IIAS professors (upon vacancy only) EDISUD, La Calade, RN 7, 13090 Aix-en-Provence, France • Artists in residence Ph.: 33-(0)4-42216144 - Fax: 33-(0)4-42215620 - www.edisud.com - E-mail: [email protected] Subscription (nos. 7 & 8): 30.50 Euros IIAS fellowship applications can be submitted at any time. Price per issue: 18.30 Euros Vacancies are announced in the IIAS Newsletter and on the website.

MOUSSONS, c/o IRSEA, MAISON ASIE PACIFIQUE For more information and an IIAS fellowship application form see Université de Provence, 3, place Victor-Hugo, 13003 Marseilles, France the IIAS website at: www.iias.nl Ph.: 33-(0)491106114 - Fax: 33-(0)491106115 - E-mail: [email protected] For specific information, please contact Lena Scheen or Wouter Feldberg at: [email protected] Moussons is a joint publication of IRSEA and LASEMA

36 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > Announcements

Call for papers the Middle East and Southeast Asia, has Papers may focus on youth activities in ties. The end of colonialism changed the Session III: Fractured solidarity: led to changes analysts are just beginning social movements, economics (street chil- geo-politics of the region again: the cold the cold war in Asia CHINA aktuell, to understand. The ‘young generation’ has dren, laborers, etc.), politics, violence war forcing the independent Asian coun- This section will examine the limits placed JAPAN aktuell, assumed a central, though frequently (riots, protests, civil strife, gangs, and vig- tries to tie up with either the Soviet Union by the cold war on bilateral and multilat- SÜDOSTASIEN aktuell ambiguous, position in the global South. ilantism), religion (from religious radical- or the USA. Today, with Asia as the world’s eral ties in Asia. It will look at how cold Within shifting political economies and ism to unorthodox or alternative religious new economic power house, it is impera- war politics shaped the geo-political With CHINA aktuell, JAPAN aktuell and globalization, youths have become agents activities), cultural politics (music, fash- tive to analyse and understand relations alliances. SÜDOSTASIEN aktuell the Institute of and subjects in new ways in the interrelat- ion, poetry, and performance) or other in this region. Asian Affairs in Hamburg is publishing ed spheres of religion, politics and cul- forms of youthful behavior. Session IV: Globalisation and three well-established academic journals ture. While many applaud youthful initia- Often, this region is analysed merely in a New Order: building relationships focusing on current developments in East tives, others stigmatize or demonize the Convened by: African Studies Centre terms of its growing economy or its secu- This section will analyse the regional Asia. Dedicated to further improving the young as disruptive, prone to radicalism, (ASC), International Institute for the Study rity priorities. Yet, cultural, historical and bilateral and multilateral trade organiza- scholarly standard, each journal has estab- violence or recklessness. This is particu- of Islam in the Modern World (ISIM), the strategic issues cannot be separated from tions that have emerged and how they lished an editorial board of internationally larly the case where there is sluggish econ- International Institute for Asian Studies trade. We hope to understand the dynam- influence international relations in this acknowledged academics and introduced omy, where the aims of this exponentially (IIAS) and Council for the Development ics of this region through examining how region. new editorial formats. Focusing on both increasing generation have quite often of Social Science Research in Africa issues of culture, trade and security are sound and up-to-date information and been frustrated. Despite debates and dis- (CODESRIA). interlinked and to create a new paradigm Session V: A new regional cooperative scholarly analysis of current affairs in Asia courses about ‘youths at risk’, there is a for regional security by focusing on the security paradigm the reader now benefits from peer- tendency to see youths as one of the prin- Please send your abstract (max.250 history of this region. We feel that only a This session will look at the real politics reviewed articles, analytical commentaries cipal risks for society, as evidenced in words) and 2-page CV before 1 January comparative and wider perspective can of the region and how this can prove and documentation of current affairs. some of the moral panics surrounding 2006 to [email protected]. help us arrive at an equitable relationship both an impediment and a boon for The editors welcome contributions that their unconventional and sometimes vio- for the future. future relations. The role of China and are concerned with the fields of interna- lent or criminal behaviour. India in Southeast Asia will be critically tional relations, politics, economics, soci- Call for papers Session I: The coexistence of civilizations: analysed. ety education, environment or law. The conference’s main objective is to revisiting the past explore the young and their negotiation of India and East Asia: This session will look at the ancient his- Session VI: Cultural diplomacy and the www.duei.de/ifa the social, political, economic, and cultur- paradigms for a new global torical relationship that existed in the promotion of Track Two Initiatives al constraints. How do various authorities order region and help establish a basis for con- This concluding session focusses on the construct youths? What strategies do temporary friendly ties. role press, tourism and other cultural ties Call for papers youths deploy to realize their interests and 7 - 9 February 2006, can play in terms of improving intra- aspirations? What kinds of religious and New Delhi, India Session II: Enchantment and regional relations. Youths and the global political ideologies, practices and cultural India, China, Japan and South East Asia disenchantment: interactions with South: religion, politics and politics do they embrace? The conference had intimate economic and cultural ties Western colonialism contact: Ravni Thakur the making of youth in is expected to analyse youth cultures, sub- in the pre-colonial period. Religious and How did emerging national identities help [email protected] Africa, Asia and the cultures and subjectivities in the societies trade links had created a vibrant and syn- cement freedom movements and a new Shri Prakash Middle East of the South and to engage with the con- ergetic cultural exchange during this peri- way of interacting with each other through [email protected] ceptual debates on youth cultures, religion, od. Colonialism put an end to these mul- mutual support and legitimacy for anti- 24 - 26 August 2006 politics, and violence, which have been ticultural exchanges and ushered in a colonial struggles. Dakar, Senegal until now largely formulated from research period of immense change at the levels of The dramatic demographic shift in Africa, in Western Europe and North America. culture, political systems and economic

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Call for Papers China aktuell is a refereed academic journal published by the Institute of Asian Affairs, Hamburg that focuses on current developments in Greater China. The bi- monthly journal has a circulation of 1,200 copies, making it one of the world’s most widely distributed periodicals on Asian affairs. China aktuell reaches a broad readership in the academia, administration and business circles. Articles to be published should be written in German or English and submitted exclusively to this publication. China aktuell is devoted to the transfer of scholarly insights to a wide audience. The topics covered should therefore not only be orientated towards specialists in Chinese affairs, but should also be of relevance to readers with a practical interest in the region. The editors welcome contributions on contemporary China including Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan that are concerned with the fields of international relations, politics, economics, society, education, environment or law. Articles should be theoretically grounded, empirically sound and reflect the state of the art in contemporary Chinese studies. All manuscripts will be peer-reviewed for acceptance. The editors respond within three months. Research articles should not exceed 10,000 words (incl. footnotes and references). Manuscripts should be submitted to the editors in electronic form (stylesheet: www.duei.de/ifa/stylesheet).

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IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 37 > International conference agenda Gonda Lecture Gonda th 10 - 11 November 2005 November 11 - 10 Philippines Makati, Asia: in development rural and Agricultural decades three policies and paradigms, ideas, after Center Regional Asian Southeast by organized Agricul- in Research and Study Graduate for (SEARCA) ture Balisacan M. Arsenio contact: [email protected] http://web.searca.org/ard/ 2005 November 17 USA Stanford, reflections personal Korea: in reformes Political prosecutor public a of seminar http://aparc.stanford.edu/events/4224/ 2005 November 18 Netherlands the Amsterdam, renewal urban sledgehammers: and Skyscrapers China in Lecture Annual IIAS Koolhaas Rem speaker: Boersma Amis & Scheen Lena contact: [email protected] 2005 November 19 - 18 Australia Canberra, legacy its and Order New the Indonesia: conference University National Australian [email protected] information: 2005 November 25 - 23 Indonesia Jakarta, do Europe and Asia can what planet: our of 1/3 development? sustainable for forum Foundation, Asia-Europe by organised Institute Indonesia, Foundation Hanns-Seidel and (IGES) Strategies Enviromental Global of Programme Enviroment UN the www.asef.org information: 2005 November 25 Netherlands the Amsterdam, of twilight the in kingship Hindu of Visions rule Mughal 13 speaker: Monika Boehm-Tettelbach Monika speaker: Foundation Gonda by organized [email protected] Asian Confer- Asian th November 2005 November 2005 November 5 - 3 Netherlands the Amsterdam, 1895-1945 empire Japanese the in order and Law for Institute Netherlands the by organized Aus- Cribb, Robert and Documentation War University National tralian across Indonesia bureau Project contact: Orders [email protected] www.indie-indonesie.nl 2005 November 5 - 3 Denmark Aarhus India Understanding Business of School Aarhus by organized Kumar Rajesh contact: [email protected] 2005 November 5 USA Stanford, Science Social in Studies Korean workshop http://aparc.stanford.edu/events/4214/ 2005 November 9 - 7 India Delhi, New class: middle emerging the and Consumerism China and India from perspectives comparative China and India of conference second comparisons series workshop IIAS/CASS/ICSSR/CERI IIAS by organized Munshi Shoma & Veer der van Peter convenors: Thakur Ravni & Uberoi Patricia and (IIAS) University) Delhi Studies, Chinese for (Institute [email protected] 2005 November 11 - 8 Vietnam Hanoi, applica- satellites, conference: space Asian 2nd regimes regulatory and socio-economics tions, ITC and IIASL GISTDA, IIAS, by co-organized 26 the with concurrently held 2005 November 12 - 9 China Shanghai, and East in hinterlands and pirates Ports, contemporary and historical Asia: Southeast perspectives workshop ASEF-Alliance of Academy (Shanghai Yihai Li convenors: Kleinen John and China) Sciences, Social the Research, Maritime for (Centre Netherlands) [email protected] ence on Remote Sensing (ACRS) Sensing Remote on ence [email protected] information: 23 - 29 October 2005 October 29 - 23 Philippines Manila, (MGGR) responsive gender governance Making training in Women Pacific Asia for Center by organized (CAPWIP) Politics www.capwip.org/ 2005 October 29 - 26 Sweden Varberg, in order moral and power religion, Reconfiguring Cambodia University Göteborg and NIAS by organized Kent Alexandra contact: [email protected] 2005 October 29 - 27 USA Pittsburgh, aesthetics, postcolonialities: Comparative locality history, Pittsburgh of University by organized www.english.pitt.edu/events/pococonf/index. html 2005 October 30 - 27 Thailand Bangkok, happen? change does How forum Rights Women’s for Association by organized Development in [email protected] information: http://nias.ku.dk/activities/conferences/ default.htm 2005 October 30 - 28 China Kong, Hong history the on SGdS-Colloquium Asian East First linguistics of http://home.t-online.de/home/dutz.nodus/ 03c-rb.htm 2005 October 31 Netherlands the Leiden, relations, sustainable Asia: and Europe growth sustainable on series lecture Asia-Europe IIAS-NGIZ Asia modern Economic of Minister Brinkhorst, L.J. speaker: the Minister, Prime Deputy and Affairs Netherlands Boersma Amis contact: [email protected] www.iias.nl 14 - 29 October 2005 October 29 - 14 India Delhi, New for rights and health reproductive and Sexual people young training-workshop (HAIN) Network Information Action Health www.hain.org 2005 October 17 Netherlands the Amsterdam, Asia Southeast mainland in Nationalism workshop IIAS Feldberg Wouter contact: [email protected] www.iias.nl October 20 Netherlands the Leiden, Malay- on seminar and reading Poetry literature Indonesian IIAS by organized Yaapar Salleh convenor: Boersma Amis contact: [email protected] 2005 October 22 - 20 China Yangzhou, Yangzhou in entertainment and Lifestyle workshop Yangzhou network scholarly the by organized Club www.shuoshu.org 2005 October 21 Netherlands the Hague, The lecture annual Malay IIAS by organized Yaapar Salleh convenor: Boersma Amis contact: [email protected] 2005 October 21 USA Stanford, in reform of pace the and requirements Sunset Korea series seminar Baum Jiyang convenor: http://aparc.stanford.edu/events/4208/ 2005 October 23 - 21 Germany Berlin, kingdom Goguryeo of paintings Mural AD) 668 - BC (37 symposium international Universität Freie Berlin by organized [email protected] information: 7 October 2005 October 7 Denmark Copenhagen, Japan from viewed model security European The seminar NIAS Tokyo of University Ueta, Takako http://nias.ku.dk/activities/conferences/ default.htm 2005 October 8 - 7 USA Denton, Studies Asian on Conference SouthWest meeting annual 34th www.trinity.edu/org/swcas/2005meeting.htm 2005 October 9 - 7 USA Hanover, narratives, of production the material: Reading identities literary and genres meeting annual fourteenth Studies Literary Japanese for Association www.dartmouth.edu/~damell/AJLS_2005 2005 October 8 Netherlands the Amsterdam, after years hundred a swung: balance the How war Russo-Japanese the IIAS by organized Maliangkay Roald contact: [email protected] 2005 October 13 - 9 Germany Bonn, zone coastal and dimensions human Integrating aquaculture. for management session international Devel- Sustainable for Institute by organized UNU, India, (ISDR) Research and opment IAPSO/IAHS Bonn, of University Chaudhari. and Bhole Govind contact: [email protected] 2005 October 10 Netherlands the Hague, The rivalry Chinese-Japanese regionalism, Asian East architecture security Asian East an for need the and Asia modern on series lecture IIAS-NGIZ Kemenade van Willem speaker: [email protected] information: www.iias.nl 2005 October 14 USA Stanford, aspect historical society: Chosun Contemplating system economic its of workshop http://aparc.stanford.edu/events/4211/ October 2005 October 2005 October 4 Netherlands the Utrecht, learner Chinese the Teaching seminar University Leiden and Nuffic by organized (Nuffic) Pho David contact: [email protected] University) (Leiden Frencken Henk [email protected]. 2005 October 8 - 5 India Delhi, New World Old the in Linguistics Generative Fifth Asia in (GLOW) www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~uclyara/glow05_ index.htm 2005 October 6 USA Stanford, Sil Kum Kang with Talk forum leaders Asian http://aparc.stanford.edu/events/ 2005 October 8 - 6 Germany Berlin, Asia Central in environment and Man Ferdi- of honour in symposium international Richthofen von nand www.richthofen-symposium.de 2005 October 9 - 6 Netherlands the Amsterdam, past musical China’s Exploring conference CHIME international tenth Music Chinese for Foundation European CHIME - Research [email protected] http://home.wxs.nl/~chime 2005 October 9 - 6 USA Francisco, San changing a tree: Banyan the out Branching America Chinese of Society Historical Chinese by organized Studies American America/Asian Shek Leonard contact: [email protected] www.chsa.org 2005 October 7 Netherlands the Amsterdam, China in rights Human Wu Harry speaker: IIAS by organized Scheen Lena contact: [email protected] > International conference agenda conference International > Agenda

38 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 > International conference agenda biennial conference of the ASAA the of conference biennial European conference on modern South modern on conference European th th You can increase public awareness of your of awareness public increase can You and newsletter this in conference submitting by Asia Agenda online the in to details conference your www.iias.nl/gateway/news/agasia 25 - 27 June 2006 June 27 - 25 Singapore 1850-2000 state, Chinese nation, Chinese Society Historical the of conference biannual China Century Twentieth for Institute Research Asia by organized DuBois Thomas contact: [email protected] 2006 June 29 - 26 Australia Wollongong, develop- of critiques from reconstructed: Asia studies postcolonial to ment 16 2006 June -30 27 Netherlands the Leiden, 19 Kolff D.H.A. convenor: IIAS and EASAS by organized [email protected] www.easas.org 2006 August 2006 August 4 - 3 Singapore 2005 to 1800 Asia, in place China’s Rationalising Institute Research Asia by organized Yangwen Zheng [email protected] Hong Liu [email protected] 2006 August 26 - 24 Senegal Dakar, politics religion, South: global the and Youths the and Asia Africa, in youth of making the and East Middle (ASC), Centre Studies African by: organized Islam of Study the for Institute International International the (ISIM), World Modern the in Council and (IIAS) Studies Asian for Institute Science Social of Development the for (CODESRIA) Africa in Research Osseweijer Manon contact: [email protected] 2006 August 26 - 25 Australia Canberra, abroad and home at missionaries: Asia-Pacific con- history missionary ANU biennial second ference conference NIAP University National Australian [email protected] Asian Studies Asian convenor: Adrian Vickers Adrian convenor: [email protected] http://coombs.anu.edu.au/ASAA/conference March 2006 March 2006 March 29 - 27 Germany Bonn, action to concept From on conference international -third III EWC warning early Stevens David contact: [email protected] 2006 April 2006 April 9 - 6 USA Francisco, San meeting annual AAS www.asianst.org 2006 April 30 - 27 USA Austin, medicine Asian traditional in substance and Sense congress international sixth the for association International by organized medicine Asian traditional of study www.iastam.org/conferences.htm 2006 May 2006 May Netherlands the Leiden, Asian an in languages artificial of generosity The perspective Staal Frits Benthem, van Johan convenors: Stokhof Wim and Stokhof Martin IIAS by organized [email protected] 2006 May 13 - 12 Singapore of processes historical the expansions: Asian Asia in expansion polity workshop Institute Research Asia by organized www.ari.nus.edu.sg/conf2006/expansion.htm 2006 May 30 - 29 Netherlands the Leiden, Asia pre-modern in sciences exact and Empires Hogendijk Jan and Plofker Kim convenors: IIAS by organized [email protected] www.iias.nl 2006 June 2 - May 30 Netherlands the Leiden, Asia pre-colonial in history Intellectual masterclass IIAS Pollock Sheldon convenor: IIAS by organized [email protected] 2006 June 2006 June Vietnam Thuot, Ma Buon tenure land Asian in communal the Locating workshop ASEF-Alliance Univer- (Humboldt Sikor Thomas convenors: (Tay Vui Tan Nguyen and Germany) sity, Vietnam) University, Nguyen [email protected] Februari 2006 Februari 2006 February 5 - 3 India Calcutta, culture society, history, diaspora: Armenian The networks trading and seminar international Dept., History Chaudhury, Sushil contact: University Calcutta [email protected] 2006 February 9 - 7 India Delhi, New global new a for paradigms Asia: East and India order Thakur Ravni contact: [email protected] Prakash Shri [email protected] 2006 February 10 - 7 Netherlands the Leiden, Asia Southeast in folk’ ‘wild of Images research Modern on masterclass IIAS third archaeology Asian in techniques Forth Gregory convenor: IIAS by organized [email protected] 2006 February 11 - 9 Netherlands the Leiden, America Latin and Asia in insurgencies Maoist Shrestha Satya convenor: IIAS by organized [email protected] information: 2006 February 24 - 20 Argentina Aires, Buenos poli- - Science Social the on forum International nexus cy Government the and UNESCO by organized Argentina of [email protected] information: http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en 2006 February 24 - 23 Singapore global and identities Local Asia: in Naming change conference international Institute Research Asia by organized Yangwen, Zheng Macdonald, Charles contact: Reid Anthony [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] www.ari.nus.edu.sg/conf2006/naming.htm 2006 February 27 - 25 Cambodia Reap, Siem comparing Asia: Southeast mainland Rethinking challenges cultural and social conference international Studies Khmer for Center [email protected] 5 - 7 January 2006 January 7 - 5 Singapore trans- and security social move: the on Pensioners Europe and Asia in migration retirement border workshop ASEF-Alliance Sin- of University (National Mika convenors: Univer- (Radboud Böcker Anita and gapore) Netherlands) the Nijmegen, siteit [email protected] 2006 January 10 - 9 Cambodia Reap, Siem in medicine of history on conference First Asia Southeast Studies Khmer for Center www.khmerstudies.org 2006 January 12 - 11 Netherlands the Leiden, workshop ABIA Annual IIAS by organized information: [email protected] www.abia.net 2006 January 13 - 12 Netherlands the Leiden, South- and South of Ceramics earth: Asian From Asia east seminar ABIA - Theuns Gerda and Raven Ellen convenors: Boer de IIAS by organized information: [email protected] www.abia.net 2006 January 14 - 12 Thailand Thammarat, Si Nakhon Asia Southeast and Europe in Islam of Voices workshop ASEF-Alliance Uni- (Walailak Dulyakasem Uthai convenors: (Universi- Chou Cynthia and Thailand) versity, Denmark) Copenhagen, of ty [email protected] 2006 January 14 - 12 Netherlands the Leiden, History’? of ‘Dharma a there Is University) (Leiden Schneider Axel convenors: Illinois) of (University Mayer L. Alexander and IIAS by organized of Institute Chung-Hwa the by co-sponsored Studies Buddhist [email protected] 2006 January 28 - 27 Singapore historical Asia: and Europe in Industrialization development economic of patterns workshop ASEF-Alliance SHIN Jang-Sup convenor: Singapore) of University (National [email protected] Manushi - A Journal about Women about Journal A - Manushi Himalayan languages symposium languages Himalayan Conference of the Asia-Pacific Sociological Asia-Pacific the of Conference th th and Society and 6 - 9 December 2005 December 9 - 6 Thailand Bangkok, 11 Hongladarom Krisadawan convenor: http://socialanthropology.org/hls11/> 2005 December 9 - 8 Thailand Mai, Chiang crossroads global a Asia, Southeast exchange regional Studies Asian Southeast conference anniversary 10th program’s www.conference.seasrepfoundation.org/ index.htm 2005 December 8-10 Netherlands the Leiden, Asia in Bio-archaeology research Modern on Masterclass IIAS second achaeology Asian in techniques Chhem Rethy convenor: IIAS by organized [email protected] 2005 December 15 - 12 Thailand Bangkok, digital Asian on conference international Eighth libraries www.icadl2005.ait.ac.th 2005 December 18 - 16 Thailand Bangkok, region Pacific Asia the in securities Human 7 2005. December 20 - 17 India Delhi, New civilization Indic the in cultures and Religions conference international second Network Studies Indic the by organized and (IsNew) [email protected] 2005 December 19 China Kong, Hong inter- Delta: River Pearl the of challenge The global-local its for approach disciplinary dynamics Science Social of Divsion the by organized and Science of University Kong Hong Technology http://ihome.ust.hk/~demologo/ 2006 January 2006 January Denmark Copenhagen, develop- Chinese China? in made Responsibly responsibility social corporate & ment workshop Business Copenhagen and NIAS by organized School http://nias.ku.dk/activities/conferences/ default.htm Association www.asiapacificsociology.org 28 - 30 November 2005 November 30 - 28 Thailand Bangkok, diversity, celebrating development: and Culture equity achieving devel- and ‘Culture the in conference second series. opment’ (Southeast SEAMEO-SPAFA by organized Organization’s Education of Ministers Asian Fine and Archaeology for Centre Regional Arts) www.seameo-spafa.org/conference05.htm 2005 December 2 - November 30 Cambodia Riep, Siem Asia Southeast mainland in Water workshop ASEF-Alliance Univer- (Hamburg Terwiel Barend convenors: for (Centre Peycam Philippe Germany), sity, (IIAS, Dijk Wil and Cambodia) Studies, Khmer Netherlands). the [email protected] 2005 December 2 - November 30 Australia Canberra, and regional crossing masculinities: Moving borders historical University National Australian [email protected] Information: [email protected] 2005 December 2005 December 1 USA Stanford, Kun Goh with Talk forum leaders Asian http://aparc.stanford.edu/events/# 2005 December 2 - 1 Thailand Bangkok, emerging combating for Geoinformatics diseases infectious 2005 GIS Health www.j-geoinfo.net. 2005 December 3 - 1 China Macao, the on reflections present memory: and History future our build to past symposium Institute Ricci Macau www.riccimac.org/ 2005 December 4 - 1 France Paris, conference biennial Fourth Association History Water International http://iwha.polaire.net/cgi-bin/2005/sub- mit.cgi 2005 December 5 - 2 Australia Melbourne, Asia and Kierkegaard Japan of Society Kierkegaard by organized Dornier Ben contact: [email protected] www.kierkegaard.jp/conference2005.html.en

IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005 39 Staff Board IIAS Extraordinary Chairs Wim Stokhof (Director) Prof. P. van der Veer - Chairman (University of Prof. H.G.C. Schulte Nordholt (the Netherlands) > Colophon Ilko Batakliev (WWW) Amsterdam) Special Chair at the Erasmus University Rotterdam Amis Boersma (Project Coordinator) Prof. P. Spyer (Leiden University) ‘Asian History’ Ines van Dijk (Secretary) Prof. B.J. ter Haar (Leiden University) 1 October 1999 - 1 October 2007 Wouter Feldberg (Fellow Programme Coordinator) Dr J. de Jong (Groningen University) Prof. H. Steinhauer (the Netherlands) Winda Handajani (Database Assistant) Prof. R. Kersten (Leiden University) Special Chair at Nijmegen University Manuel Haneveld (IT-Manager) Prof. M. van der Linden (IISG/University of Amsterdam) ‘Ethnolinguistics with a focus on Southeast Asia’ Takeo David Hymans (Managing Editor) Prof. M. Sparreboom (Erasmus University, Rotterdam) 1 September 1998 - 1 September 2006 Natasja Kershof (Editor) Roald Maliangkay (Coordinator, Branch Office Academic Committee Amsterdam) Prof. T. Atabaki (IISG/University of Amsterdam) Heleen van der Minne (Secretary, Branch Office Dr E.W. Ball (Free University, Amsterdam) IIAS Newsletter #38 Amsterdam) Prof. H. Beukers (Leiden University) Autumn 2005 Manon Osseweijer (Coordinator of Academic Affairs) Prof. P.P.S. Ho (University of Groningen) Special issue Anne-Marie Petit (Secretary) Dr G. Persoon - Chairman (Leiden University) Joost Postma (Database Programmer) Prof. C.I. Risseeuw (Leiden University) International Institute for Asian Studies Marloes Rozing (Financial Manager, Seminar Prof. B.C.A.Walraven (Leiden University) P.O. Box 9515, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands Coordinator) T +31-71-527 2227 Inge van Steijn (Secretary) F +31-71-527 4162 Josine Stremmelaar (Executive Manager) [email protected]

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40 IIAS Newsletter | #38 | September 2005