915 019 n Mattia h e Anne Weiserbs g,m Luís Reino, Emiliano Mori, l Correspondence to: J-L Postigo, Biogeography, Diversity,tartment and of Conservation Research Biology, Faculty Team, of Dep- E-mail: Sciences, [email protected] Universidad de Málaga, E-29071, Málaga, . Biogeography, Diversity and Conservation Research Team, Departmentof of Sciences, Animal Universidad Biology, de Faculty Málaga, Málaga, Spain Behavioural and Evolutionary Ecology Unit, MuseuSpain de Ciències Naturals de , Barcelona, Center for Macroecology, Evolution and Climate, Naturalof Copenhagen, History Copenhagen, Museum Denmark of Denmark, University Terrestrial Ecology Unit, Department of Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi di Siena, Siena,Wildlife Research Unit, Dipartimento di Agraria, UniversitàItaly degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Naples, CIBIO/InBIO, Centro de Investigação em BiodiversidadeVairão, e Universidade do Recursos Porto, Genéticos, Porto, Campus Agrário de Hellenic Ornithological Society, , Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Florence, Italy Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain Department ofUniversity, Biology, Heidelberg, Germany Institute ofNational Pharmacy Wildlife Management Centre, Animal and and Plant Health Molecular Agency, York, UK Centro Biotechnology, de Ecologia Aplicada ‘Professor Baeta Heidelberg Neves’/InBIO, Instituto Superior de Agronomia,sidade Univer- de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal Départment Études, NGO Natagora, Namur, Belgium i l j f c k a e ∗ h n g d b m c,d Panagiotis Latsoudis, g Atlantic monk (Boddaert), native to , is an invasive species in several : towards differentiated Dave Parrott, k versus b Inês Carneiro, monachus Diederik Strubbe, f In addition to the ‘Union List’, To manage the threats posed by 9 a,b* 10,11 Indeed, biological invasions represent a Liviu G Pârâu, 3–5 : 915–922 www.soci.org © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry invasive alien species (IAS) impose a yearly i,j 75 7,8 Alien species may alter the structure and func- 2019; 2 invasive species management; population growth; spread rate; stratified dispersal theory and management policies such introductions have increased dramatically in the

in , over 12 200 alien species have been recorded 1 6

Pest Manag Sci 1 INTRODUCTIONAlien species are species introduced outside theirrent historical or native cur- range asaction; a result of accidental or deliberate human Abstract BACKGROUND: The monk Keywords: and Juan Carlos Senar European countries, causingregulations crop to control damage monk parakeets, and thusof fast potential this growth research and negative are spread to impacts of update populationsdifferences information on are in on likely population the to wildlife. growth distribution occur or and Only on spread population a rate size Spain exist wide of between scale. monk andRESULTS: populations, The parakeets Our and in aims Great provide Europe, study assess recommendations estimates to Britain whether decision-makers. thatUnion have there (EU) countries; are 84% 23 of 758 thesehistorical monk municipalities record parakeets hold in are between 1 the experiencing andexponential wild, exponential 100 growth, across monk growth spread parakeets. rate 179 of All and municipalities countries monk faster with in colonization parakeets. of a eight Mediterranean new representative CONCLUSIONS: European municipalities countries We than are recommend Atlantic countries. that experiencing EU higher species Mediterranean of countries regional consider concern, declaration and of developpopulation coordinated sizes the in efforts monk most to parakeet municipalities. monitor as and© invasive manage 2019 Society alien the of species, Chemical taking Industry advantage of the low Jose-Luis Postigo, Leonardo Ancillotto, (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/ps.5320 Mediterranean Research Article Received: 9 October 2018 Revised: 10 December 2018 Accepted article published: 9 January 2019 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 19 February 2 estimated cost of €12.5–20 billion,and due the to costs the of damage managing them. they cause past century. IAS, the European Union (EU) adoptedon Regulation (EU) IAS 1143/2014 in 2015,Concern and (the in ‘Union 2017,Currently, List’) published this the through list list Regulation of includessures (EU) aimed IAS 49 at 2016/1141. of controlling species or Union eradicating forrequired invasive across populations which the are a EU (art. set 7). of mea- leading cause underlying thecrisis; ongoing sixth global biodiversity (www.europe-aliens.org/aboutDAISIE.do). Although onlytion a frac- of thesecausing species damage), is currently invasive (i.e. spreading and tion of native ecosystemsamong others through causes. competition and/or disease, Regulation (EU) 1143/2014 also allows Member Statesate (MS) lists to of cre- IAS ofapply Member measures deemed State necessary Concern to control (the or12). ‘Member eradicate From IAS List’) these (art. lists, and MS may identify IAS of regional concern that Menchetti,

Myiopsitta monachus management at the European scale and et al. 26 : 915–922 26,27 75 Molina, Passer domesti- 57 2019; Gmelin) has been Pest Manag Sci Columba livia 100 individuals, population sizes < When the occupancy index could not be 27 Potential competition mediated by parasites of The Spanish and Belgian censuses were already 37 Monk parakeets may also act as a reservoir of the 26,27 For colonies of Contemporary data on monk parakeet population sizes 26 38,39 40 In north-eastern Italy, anecdotal evidence indicates dam- 40–56 37 Linnaeus and rock pigeons Given the widespread introduction of this parakeet into Europe Italy. were estimated by direct countsroost of at dusk. flying into their nests to published as technical reports in their native languages. and the fact that it causesagriculture, damage to a both native better biodiversity and understandingdistribution, of as its well as current demographiccrucial pan-European and to dispersal allow parameters conservation is aimed managers at to reducing set monkof up parakeet tailored this impacts. plans research Therefore, wererent the to: distribution aims and (i) population updateEurope; size information (ii) of about monk characterize the(iii) parakeets cur- the assess across whether invasion differencesrates capacity in exist of population between growth thedations populations; or to species; spread and decision-makers (iv)make based on provide informed our recommen- decisionsplans. results about to monk help them parakeet management 2.2 Habitat classification Following EU Regulation 1143/2014 onmonk IAS (art. 22), parakeet we classified cal populations regions according inDirective to which (92/43/EEC) they the occur, version biogeographi- as 2016 described in (European the Environmental Habitats 22.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS Study areaThe and data study collection area includedthe the ParrotNet 28 network (https://www.kent.ac.uk/parrotnet), MS a team ofof the national EU. coordinators from Embedded countries within possibly supportingduced intro- populations of monk parakeetswere was assigned created. to countries Coordinators with recenttorical records, records countries and neighbouring with countries. his- They conductedographic bibli- searches of both academic andnational grey literature, reports, including often only available inuncover their the native history languages, of to monkand parakeet to invasion gather and in summarize their data on countries, ries population (Kruopis growth trajecto- I; http://piraeus-port.blogspot.gr/2009/09/blog-post .html). estimated, we used thefor Spanish Mediterranean occupancy populations (1.3 rates and aschamber). 1.47 a monk reference parakeets per age to vineyards. nodule-shaped bill lesion, which may affect native speciespoultry. and introduced monk parakeets with native speciesfeeding sharing and the same breeding sitescus (i.e. house sparrows suggested for Italian populationsby (with monk alien parakeets lice infested andflat-flies). mites, as well as by native European lice and were obtained from surveysrecent initiated literature through (2014–2017). ParrotNet Surveys or of from were monk conducted parakeet through censuses colonies between 2015 andit 2017. When was not possibleinterviews to with conduct local surveys, expertssize. publications were These censuses and used followed direct to athe estimate standard methodology number population based of on chambersof per the nest ‘occupation index’, and as experimental used estimation by Domènech, Weiserbs and Paquet. 35,36 21,22 found Across www.soci.org J-L Postigo 32 12 consistent By contrast, 28 et al. 29 © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry 100 km in their > Myiopsitta monachus 36% by this species in ≤ The current status of the monk para- in the ‘stratified theory’. Local range 31 17–20 Crop losses of 13 This has been proposed to be the result of short- 33,34 Since 1981, when it was listed in CITES Appendix Where invasive monk parakeet population growth has 25,26,30 14–16 23,24 24–27 259 000 wild-caught monk parakeets have been imported ∼ Within their native area, monk parakeets expand their range The monk parakeet is native to South America, ranging from Currently, no psittacids (Psittaciformes) are included on the The monk parakeet is reported to be a crop pest in some loca- II, legally into the EU (CITES Trade Database;Accidental https://trade.cites.org/). escapes or localthe intentional establishment releases have of resulted alienica, in Asia populations and in Maghreb. Europe, North Amer- Europe have been recorded mostly(Spain), for where the one of outskirts the largest of European populations Barcelona occurs. mainly through a process of ‘neighbourhood diffusion’,from spreading source populations to nearby favourable areas, southern to central .among Monk parakeets in parakeets that are they unique nests build can their consist nests of from one or twigs.ber more These chambers. has Typically every cham- onlynumber one of parakeets, entry andcolonies. and the nests can are be commonly grouped occupied in by a variable been studied, populations typicallyrates. exhibit exponential growth wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps Preliminary data on impacts by monkfor parakeets crops are also in available Italydens with in up Rome and to up 25% to 50% loss loss of of cabbages tomatoes in in Apulia, southern home gar- although recent studies report atowards the shift borders of in cities, with the occurrences species’ close toareas. distribution agricultural (Boddaert), as a responseposed to by both this the species real (Spanish and Real potential Decreto threats 630/2013). require regional cooperation, especiallyborders between and/or biogeographical MS region, that as described share tats in Directive the (92/43/EEC); Habi- and forcause damage species or with spread high only in potentiallaration some to of countries IAS (art. of 11). regional The concern dec- agreements is among voluntary partners, and rather actions than rely being on dictated by art. 7. ‘Union List’. Spain is the onlythe trade EU and country possession to of date monk that parakeets has banned and long-distance spread mechanisms actingdescribed simultaneously, by as Hengeveld invaded range in ). tions where it has been introduced, particularlyat where high it is density. present genetic evidence of dispersal movements keet in some Europeans countriessize is and/or unclear, spread and patterns the are unknown population tions. In for its most alien of range, most the populations popula- occur in urban areas, expansion of populations isjuvenile probably birds, due while toresult the natal from occurrence dispersal either of of novellong-distance novel introduction populations dispersal by may (e.g. humans Gonçalves or occasional da Silva in non-native areas,scattered. monk parakeet populations are typically with the estimates of low natal dispersal distances. Europe, eradication campaignsinitiated, for monk for parakeets exampleNon-native have Species Strategy 2015). in been At the EU the level, theof importation wild-caught UK birds (The hasDecision been (EC) Great 2005/760/EC banned of since Britain 27mented 2005 October to Invasive 2005). stop (Commission the Originally spread imple- of aviansharp influenza, decline this has in resulted the in import a ofmonk potentially parakeets. invasive birds including

916 917 ); 0 t )in − t /( t is the time AANNu Nu 0 t = t ’and t 59 AANNu We estimated the total 60 28 )as: AANNu wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps value, the greater the long-distance www.soci.org AANNu -tests were used to compare: (i) population U is the number of nuclei at time ‘ t (Table 1). Four of nine biogeographical regions in the 2 AANNu Atlantic compared with Mediterraneanicant populations. or Only marginally signif- significantbiogeographical results regions are containing shown. only Countriespopulations with either or scarce poorly historical records sampled (i.e.gal Mediterranean and Portu- , Continentalwere and excluded Macaronesian from Spanish the regions) analysis.R software Analyses (R were Core Team, conducted Vienna, Austria). with Habitats Directive wereContinental, occupied Macaronesian and by Mediterranean (Fig. monk 1). parakeets: Atlantic, 3.1 Population growthFor model all country-level population growth ratesthan in Europe with more two historical records, an exponential growth model 2.5 Analysis Mann–Whitney 3RESULTS Between 2015 andtions 2017, were detected introduced inpan-European monk eight monk parakeet of parakeetat the popula- population 28 23 MS 758 sizewas examined, was (95% and detected estimated the in CI25 990 179 km 20 municipalities, 631–26 749) and estimated individuals. to The occupy species growth rates (i.e. the populationof doubling the time); geographical and spread (ii)try, (i.e. velocity the the average number number of of nuclei foci per per coun- nucleus and the of the first detectionyears. of The the higher species the indispersal the component country, measured of in calculate the the total total dispersion surface areaconsidered of occupied the the by total monk species. area parakeets,keets To of we following the Bucher municipality and occupied Aramburú. by para- where area occupied by parakeetsevery for country every by biogeographical summarizing the regionThe total of area surface of municipalities area was of obtained all from(https://ec.\ignorespaceseuropa.eu/eurostat/web/gisco/geodata/ the nuclei. Eurostat website reference-data/administrative-units-statistical-units) andlated calcu- using QGIS 3.0.3(QGIS Development geographic Team, Boston, information USA, system 2018). software 2.4 Geographical spreadDetailed rates georeferenced data on monktime parakeet were not occurrence available, over thuseters we estimated based all on the the spreadspread results param- of patterns, this we survey. definedthat To approximate a were spatial set occupied of by‘nucleus’. contiguous We monk used municipalities parakeets the atproxy average for a number the of given relative foci periodhood contribution per dispersal’ as of to nucleus the short-distance a as total ‘neighbour- dispersion a number of of the foci species. per The nucleus average canber range from of one (i.e. municipalities variable num- currentlyisolated invaded from by each other) monkfor to parakeets each the but total country.nucleus, number The the of higher greater municipalities the theto contribution average of the short-distance number total dispersal ofcontribution dispersion foci of of per long-distance theof species. dispersal the To to species, we quantify the calculatedthat the appeared the total per year relative average dispersion since number the first ofaverage sighting, number new defining the of nuclei annual new nuclei ( is t N Myiopsitta monachus is the 1, r + t Atlantic is the initial pop- a versus is the population size t is the time interval. We Y t We verified whether local monk and all foci at the Balearic 58 52 53 is the population size at time , e is the natural logarithm base, 1 t + t : 915–922 © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry In the UK, a monk parakeet eradication pro- N is the time interval, 26 75 t 0. We used the standard exponential equation = t 2019; ,where is the population growth rate, and rt ,where e b t , bt t N + = a 1 = + We assessed the current status of monk parakeet populations for To group the populations by country, the first sighting in each t t N all 28 EU MS.geographical We region grouped following the two populations criteria:tion by (i) is country historical often and informa- available bio- the as municipality nationwide level; (ii) estimations, in ratherand the than survey, Greece 11 at were populations described from forlevel Italy (4–900 the monk first parakeets), hence time no historical atavailable, information was the thus municipality conducting thewould analysis not consider at all the these parakeets, municipalityulation underestimating level the growth pop- trend. country was used assightings the of starting extirpated point, populations. excludingestimations When historical were first historical available, nationwide theselation were growth used rates. to Whenlation calculate these growth popu- data rates were were notonly calculated summarized available, local based popu- information if on all foci foci,available for a although for country at we had least data one ofbroad two alternative consecutive models years. of We population testedand growth, two an namely ‘exponential’ a growth ‘linear’ model.Y We used the linear equation Pest Manag Sci 2.3 Population growthWe rates defined a ‘focus’municipality. as We a defined group a of ‘municipality’boundaries, as monk smaller than an parakeets the area urban inhabiting area with in the a political metropoliserally and gen- bigger than typical cities. Differentiated management of Mediterranean Agency). We grouped monk parakeet populationbecause data IAS by country policies are usuallyWe developed classified at countries the by nationalof scale. biogeographical a regions. country In withbiogeographical monk the parakeet case region, populations in wepopulation more as than considered one independent, each e.g.(Continental). Italy fraction (Mediterranean) of and Italy the gramme began in 2008three but foci because in the it country, and was somewe focused historical records decided on are to available, the exclude only theof the monk eradication parakeet campaign rather counts than removing aftercompletely these the from three foci the start analysis. the population at time parakeet control programmes existed that may have affectedulation pop- trends (e.g. through trappingremoved of those birds foci or from egg the control) analysis.of This and Deventer, The resulted Netherlands, in the removal Archipelago, Spain. at time ulation size at intrinsic rate of population growthused then and the Akaike information criterion (AIC)the as an relative estimator quality of of themodel statistical best models, fits to the determinethe population which higher the data. relative The quality ofwhether smaller the population the model. Finally, growth AIC we rates value, examined keets differed introduced between into monk Mediterranean and para- cal regions. Atlantic We biogeographi- considered three dataacceptable records to to be adjust the population minimum growth,had thus only when two data a records available, population it was notysis, included although in we the display anal- the results of testingpopulations both for models in information. such et al. : 915–922 75

2019; † xlddfo h nlsst hrceieboegahclregions. biogeographical characterize to analysis the from Excluded

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t nulaeaenme of number average annual , fmncplte cuidb okprkes uli ru fnihorn uiiaiisocpe ymn aaet;Fc/ulu,nme ffo of number Foci/Nucleus, parakeets; monk by occupied municipalities neighbouring of group Nuclei, parakeets; monk by occupied municipalities of iprnces AANNu nucleus; per ci

R rate; offiin fdtriaino ersin I,Aak nomto rtro;Pp ob ie ouainduln iefrppltosfitn th fitting populations for time doubling population time, doub. Pop. Criterion; Information Akaike AIC, regression; of determination of coefficient , xoeta rwhmdl ,yas oi number Foci, years; Y, model; growth exponential e

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ier3394N .1*50.495 0.318* NA 3.974 3 Linear

† 13 xoeta .5 .2 .0 8127710231101.019 0.233 1 7 7 18.132 0.703 4.423 0.157 3 Exponential 30 91 Macaronesia

ier239 A1NA 1 NA 3.96 2 Linear

† 0 5Epnnil20174481N .301 198.058 0.12 1.33 3 4 NA 1 4.418 0.157 2 Exponential 25 101 Atlantic

ier4431N .8 85.996 0.582 NA 433.1 4 Linear

pi eierna 0044 xoeta .3 .5 .8**1.4 3 025 .51 923.94 19 1.25 2.56 50 131 10.948 0.983*** 2.957 0.234 4 Exponential 40 074 20 Mediterranean Spain

ier2763N NA 1 NA 7.613 2 Linear

† 4 1Epnnil201 .91N .5 580 0.258 1 8 8 NA 1 6.29 0.11 2 Exponential 31 244 Continental

ier37.8 A098 43.284 0.988* NA 74.081 3 Linear

tl eierna 302 xoeta .9 .0 .9* .5 .9 3071.549 0.296 1 8 8 3.451 0.997** 3.506 0.198 3 Exponential 27 2330 Mediterranean Italy

ier36.4N .9*31.915 0.992* NA 65.14 3 Linear

† 6 xoeta .2 .4 .9*08533104965.299 0.429 1 3 3 0.855 0.994* 1.647 0.421 3 Exponential 7 461 Mediterranean Greece

ier3123N .6 21.368 0.967 NA 1.233 3 Linear

† 13 xoeta .8 .8 .8*33322100134.055 0.061 1 2 2 3.333 0.984* 7.788 0.089 3 Exponential 33 41 Mediterranean France ier205N 16.841 1 NA 0.5 2 Linear

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ier3176N .3 24.383 0.937 NA 1.796 3 Linear

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eorpi aibe fteErpa okprke ouain,caatrsiso h ouaingot oesaddseso analysis dispersion and models growth population the of characteristics populations, parakeet monk European the of variables Demographic 1. Table wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps

918 919 65 50. Weathers > wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps reported that monk parakeet invasion www.soci.org 20 while the population in Belgium suffered two found that monk parakeets are relatively tolerant 64 42,52,53 27 Monk parakeet populations introduced into the Mediterranean Strubbe and Matthysen monk parakeet occurrences in Denmark, Germany, Austria andCzech the Republic. We also found somekeet records populations of small that monk have para- Netherlands, gone extinct in UK, France and the tend to growthe and Atlantic expand region. atunderlying Our faster mechanism data rates of also rangetions than suggest expansion, spread populations a as mainly in through Atlantic differencetypically neighbourhood popula- have in diffusion a the higher (i.e. averageMediterranean they number populations). of The foci reason perdispersal for nucleus in lower than long-distance Atlantic comparedrequires more with research, but Mediterranean possible populations factorsthe include popularity differences in of monk parakeets asGreater popularity pets of and monk climatic parakeets conditions. as cage birdsthe likely probability increases of new escapes or releases.have Spain and the Italy two not biggest only monk parakeetalso populations have in 92% Europe, of they thecountries parakeets that imported currently to the sustain eighttions invasive Europeans (CITES monk Trade parakeet Database). popula- Lessthe suitable Atlantic climatic region conditions could in drivenewly long-distance released birds dispersing to be birds, less or successfululations in establishing in new colder pop- parts of Europe. We found marginally significant differences betweenMediterranean Atlantic and populations in termsand of spatial population spread, despite growth the rates reduced set of data. This supports to low air temperature, but theirdecreasing metabolic temperature. rate Abundant rises food sharply is with these necessary to higher maintain metabolic ratesthe and amount colder of temperature energy also available limit for growth and reproduction. success correlates with temperature and that populations are likely to collapse when the yearly number ofand frost Caccamise days is sharp declines following its1970s. establishment in in the late Myiopsitta monachus 1.0) years = Atlantic 0.9) respectively. 10 703.6) respec- but these popula- = = versus 25.8) respectively. The (SD = 2 30,61–63 1.0) and 2.7 (SD = 1.6) and 1.520 (SD = 0.5) respectively. The average area occu- 0.6) and 20.3 (SD 0.1) (Fig. 2). = = = : 915–922 © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry P 534.4) and 7686.9 km 75 9, = 0.1). = = 2019; 79% of the municipalities occupied by this species (SD P W for Atlantic and Mediterranean countries was 0.092 2 ∼ 0, = Monk parakeet populations by municipality in the European Union (including Spanish territories in North Africa and the ) and W 0.1) and 0.7 (SD AANNu = The pied by monk parakeets inwas Atlantic 336 and km Mediterranean countries (SD average number of foci per nucleus for Atlanticcountries and Mediterranean was 2.167 (SD Pest Manag Sci 4 DISCUSSION Our work provides an estimate of the currentulation distribution and pop- size of invasiveand alien historical monk population parakeets growth presentall trends. in monk Our the parakeet study EU, populations revealsthan that at two the historical records, country(excluding are level, managed growing with populations). at more Thistions an introduced is exponential into also rate Atlantic truetions countries, tend for to although popula- be here smallerwith and popula- the growing at Mediterranean. a Interestingly, slower aroundmonk pace the parakeet compared 50% population of inhabits the theand EU Barcelona, municipalities with of 6702 andIn 5000 total, monk parakeets Spain respectively. alonelation, hosts and 84% of theare EU in monk parakeet Spain. popu- in Monk colder, northern parakeets European countries, have previously been reported provided the bestthe respective fit, linear thatdoubling models time (Table is, 1). for with The Atlanticparakeet average populations smaller and were population Mediterranean 5.1 AIC (SD countries’ values monk than Figure 1. biogeographical regions. respectively ( 3.2 Spread rate The average numbercountries of was 2.3 nuclei (SD for Atlantic and Mediterranean Differentiated management of Mediterranean tively ( tions have likely gone extinct as we found no recent evidence of et al. : 915–922 Eighty-four 75 66 -axis indicates the y 2019; 100), a variety of ≤ Management in the 2000 monk parakeets. 68 > Pest Manag Sci Themoreaggressivethemanagement 67 Therefore, the development and implemen- 67,69 It should be noted that monk parakeet control measures may air-rifle shooting phase resulted inviduals the removal per of year. up Both totion 800 methods from indi- combined 1400 individuals reduced to the 20 popula- in 2 years. methods can be usedtion, to which may capture be or more readily relocate acceptedwhen by managing the large the populations, public. whole more However, aggressive popula- theniques are required to effectively reduce the population sizether and spread. prevent fur- In any case,gramme the starts, earlier the a higher the monk probability parakeet of control success. pro- This represents a window of opportunitytions, to with capture little most to popula- no oppositionof from the the public. foci Given are that in most thewe Meditrranean strongly biogeographical region recommend (81%), thatlished countries populations already of showing feralFrance, Italy estab- monk and Greece, parakeets, take action i.e. toand closely Portugal, consider monitor the the Spain, possibility species of declaring theof monk regional parakeet concern an (in IAS line with EU Regulationthis 143/2014). Because declaration is voluntarythe involved and MS, it relies allows ondepending for on the measures the design monk agreed of parakeet flexible by population tailored size, level plans of spread tation of athe communication social strategy perception of is thisstand essential alien the species; to: need (ii) (i) help to people controlconsiderable measure under- free-living damage monk in parakeets the totive future; prevent groups in and society (iii)ment participate, let decision at the process. some most level, sensi- in the manage- method, the morewith opposition small can populations be of expected. monk When parakeets dealing ( Balearic Archipelago (Spain), by several methods including air-rifle shooting removed three foci and achievedof almost monk full eradication parakeets incation). the islands These (Coloma experiences V, indicate personalinvasive that monk communi- parakeets it from is the wild, possible consideringulation different to sizes. pop- remove be opposed by membersleading of to reduced the efficacy generalment or programme. public; even in termination of some the cases, manage- per cent (151) of municipalities in Europemonk hold parakeets; between 12% 1 and (22) 100 of500 municialities monk hold parakeets, and between only the 101 2% and (three)populations of municipalities between hold 501 and 2000 and 40 ∼ www.soci.org J-L Postigo -axis indicates the number of monk parakeets for thicker lines (Spain-Med and Italy-Med). y © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry Damage to crops 36,66 28 In The Netherlands, between 2011 and which is less than the maximum feeding 67 36 Although other populations in the country are 53 Evolution of European monk parakeet populations per country and biogeographical region. Countries with different biogeographical regions Based on our observations of population growth, range expan- In the absence of management measures, the situation in Spain in 2017 during the surveysis (around ongoing 20 and in 2018). includes Thisication activities programme by to landowners. reduce opposition to erad- number of monk parakeets for thinner lines. The right-hand 2013, the city of Deventer reduced the numberparakeetsfrom35to2.Thispopulationcamefromanopenaviary, of free-living monk which the birds still visitednically for very feeding, easy. thus recapture was tech- sion and the available literaturein on Europe, Mediterranean monk countries parakeet in particular, crop may damage sider have to formulating con- management strategies toBritain avoid crop declared damage. the monkreaction’ parakeet in 2008. a The priority programme entailstion species of the adults for capture and and minimizing ‘rapid breeding reloca- successThe by majority removing of eggs. breeding attempts have been disrupted sinceand 2011 the number of adults has been reduced from over 100 to wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ps are noted as country-biogeographical region. Atl, Atlantic; Cont, Continental; Mac, Macaronesia; Med, Mediterranean. The left-hand the theory that energygoverning climates demands across Europe imposed allow us on to discern‘invasion parakeets two different patterns’ by across the Europe,spreading Mediterranean monk namely: parakeet populations, and (i) (ii) slow fastgrowing and spreading growing Atlantic and monk parakeet populations. may offer a window intobecome a possible common future and when monk widespread,Mediterranean. parakeets Growing at urban least parakeet acrossas populations parts a may of serve bridgehead the birds for from metropolitan further regions may migrate invasion tobordering agricultural of lands the adjacent urban croplandsforaging fringe or trips for have feeding. been10 In km recorded the from to the Barcelona cover city, area, distances of up to Figure 2. distance of 15 km in the species’ native range. growing, they might be dependent onish nearby city aviaries. of The Span- Zaragoza deployedeggs, a trapping control and plan shooting based withegg air-rifles on removal to phase removing failed remove to adults. stop The the population growth rate. The was reported from thegroup outskirts of of 120 Barcelona monkdamage in ranging parakeets from 2001, frequented mean values where the ofthe 0.4% a area crop to and 37% type. depending The caused on damagein to the tomatoes same was year; estimated todaydamage at is the €8000 expected population to have has grown tripled accordingly. and thus the

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COST responsible are nor fortion the any use contained person which authors’ acting herein. mightthe responsi- feedback on be Also, from made its wesignificant three of behalf anonymous would improvement the referees like of informa- by that to the H2020-MSCA-IF-2015 provoked a (grant manuscript. acknowledge edges number D.S. 706318) the was and Danishto funded acknowl- National the Center Researchnumber for Foundation DNRF96), Macroecology, J.C.S. for Evolution wasresearch support and funded project Climate by from CGL-2016-79568-C3-3-P (grant of the Economics Spanish andthrough Research Competitiveness). Council grant L.R. (Ministry through was SFRH/BPD/93079/2013 the Operational funded Competitiveness and Factors Program byPETE’, ‘COM- and by FCT by National Funds FEDER throughand the Foundation Funds Technology for Science (FCT)‘PTDC/AAG-GLO/0463/2014-POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016583.’ within theauthors The are framework indebted ofoffered to information the all on project colleaguescific the and countries, status bird ofZink as experts monk follows: who (Austria), parakeets(Bosnia-Herzegovina), Norbert Boris in Nikolov (Bulgaria), Ivan Viktar Budinski spe- Teufelbauer (Croa- tia), and Fenchuk Martin Richard Hellicar (Belarus),Henning (), Heldbjerg (Denmark), Jana Riho Nermina Marja Skorpilova (Estonia,nia), Latvia, (Czech Lithua- Aleksi Sarajlic Republic), Lehikoinen (Finland), FrankNagy Dhermain (France), (Hungary), Karoly Patric(Macedonia), Denis Cachia Lorgé (), Vitalie (Luxembourg), AjderVizi (Moldova), (Montenegro), Andrej Danka André van Uzunova KleunenHusby (The Netherlands), (Norway), Magne Mihail Hu Differentiated management of Mediterranean and public perception of theinflexible measures problem; imposed in by contrast art. tothe Union 7 severe list. on and This the would allow speciesmonk affected included parakeet countries invasions, in to restrict prevent their new invasive rangerently to areas occupied, cur- and evenlimit considering the potential removing for damage the to species and to biodiversity. 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