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Blooming Where They're Planted: Closing Cognitive BLOOMING WHERE THEY’RE PLANTED: CLOSING COGNITIVE ACHIEVEMENT GAPS WITH NON-COGNITIVE SKILLS Elaina Michele Sabatine A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Social Work Chapel Hill 2019 Approved by: Melissa Lippold Amy Blank Wilson Natasha Bowen Din-Geng Chen Jill Hamm ©2019 Elaina Sabatine ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT ELAINA SABATINE: Blooming Where They’re Planted: Closing Cognitive Achievement Gaps With Non-Cognitive Skills (Under the direction of Dr. Melissa Lippold) For the last several decades, education reform has focused on closing achievement gaps between affluent, white students and their less privileged peers. One promising area for addressing achievement gaps is through promoting students’ non-cognitive skills (e.g., self- discipline, persistence). In the area of non-cognitive skills, two interventions – growth mindset and stereotype threat – have been identified as promising strategies for increasing students’ academic achievement and closing achievement gaps. This dissertation explores the use of growth mindset and stereotype threat strategies in the classroom, as a form of academic intervention. Paper 1 examines the extant evidence for growth mindset and stereotype threat interventions. Paper 1 used a systematic review and meta-analysis to identify and analyze 24 randomized controlled trials that tested growth mindset and stereotype threat interventions with middle and high school students over the course of one school year. Results from meta- analysis indicated small, positive effects for each intervention on students’ GPAs. Findings highlight the influence of variation among studies and the need for additional research that more formally evaluates differences in study characteristics and the impact of study characteristics on intervention effects. Paper 2 explored middle school students’ perceptions of teacher behaviors related to growth mindset and stereotype threat theories. Paper 2 used qualitative analysis of data from iii 9 focus groups with 44 middle school students in 3 rural, low income middle schools. Emergent themes included participants’ beliefs that all students are smart, that some teachers feel that certain students are smarter than others, and that students feel smartest when their teachers provide instrumental support and show emotional care. Findings highlight the capacity for middle school students to observe concepts like ability, identity and stereotypes in their teachers’ behavior and the resulting impact on their motivation and beliefs about the nature of intelligence. Paper 3 explored teacher strategies to implement growth mindset and stereotype threat theories in the classroom. Paper 3 used qualitative analysis of classroom observations and individual interviews with 9 middle school teachers in a rural, low income school. Findings include a theme related to teachers’ support of students’ productive struggle, in part by allowing students to resubmit assignments and retake assessments. Findings also indicate the potential for unintended consequences of implementing growth mindset and stereotype threat theories, as teachers reported that “retakes” also had the potential to demotivate students. iv Per Frances Sabatino e Abramo Manzi, chi hanno capito il valore delle donne che hanno ricevuto un'istruzione, E per Filomena Damico e Gloria Pennesi, che non hanno avuto la possibilita’ - Ci avete dato quello che i soldi non possono comprare. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I’d like to begin by thanking my chair, Melissa Lippold, for her guidance and support throughout my doctoral program and, especially, during the dissertation process. I would also like to extend my gratitude to my committee members: to Amy Blank Wilson, for going above and beyond in providing her expertise and knowledge of qualitative methods and analysis; to Din Chen for his encouragement and willingness to discuss in great detail each analytic decision of my meta-analysis; to Jill Hamm, for sharing her wealth of knowledge and experience with education research and school-based intervention; and finally, to Natasha Bowen, who encouraged me to pursue a doctorate in social work and who was instrumental in helping me to view education from a social work lens – without her, I would never have ended up in this program nor would I hold this degree. I’d also like to thank Kirsten Kainz for sharing her support, humor and perspective throughout my time in the program. My biggest debt of gratitude is to my parents, Jan and Rich Sabatine. You have shown me the value of working hard, asking meaningful questions, holding different perspectives and operating with intentionality and purpose. I’m equally thankful to my big brother Vince – my original growth mindset mentor – who in helping me learn to ride a bike once told me, “The trick is not to try to go far. The trick is that each time, you just have to go a little farther than the last time.” At eight, you were able to communicate so succinctly, beautifully and effectively the theme of this dissertation and the attitude you have fostered in me since the day I was born. It is a great privilege to grow up surrounded by three brilliant vi scientists who refused to let me succumb to the stereotypes imposed on me by my own educational experiences: that a tender heart and creative mind is necessarily less empirical, methodical or capable. My great hope is that all students could be so lucky to grow up surrounded by people who believe so fully in their abilities. To the Dream Team, I cannot express how thankful I am for the incredible fortune of having arrived in Chapel Hill at the same time as y’all. I can say with 100% certainty that I would not have completed the process without y’all, nor would I want to. Thanks for your humor, brilliance and strength. To the Less Fam, much of this dissertation is the direct result of our friendship – from the chats in our classrooms at the end of long days or in the Belly of the Whale on long road trips. Thanks for always being willing to deconstruct worldviews, to view things from different angles and – especially – to bring Thomas to the long hours and tough days. Y’all are a gift. To the students of ENC STEM, I hope y’all never doubt your capacity for growth and the power embedded in the core of who you are. Y’all never cease to surprise me with your brilliance, energy and love. Thanks for continually investing in our family. You are changing the narrative of what’s possible for students in Eastern North Carolina. Most importantly, I want to thank my partner Seth for, among so many things, your optimism and wholeheartedness and the sense of ease with which you move through the world. You bring balance and humor to my most stressful moments, and I aspire to your capacity for calm. And, finally, I can’t forget Pretty Rey, who laid patiently and supportively at my feet while every single page of this dissertation was written. You are the sweetest jewel. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ x LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. xi INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................. 1 References: Introduction ............................................................................................ 5 PAPER I: STEREOTYPE THREAT AND GROWTH MINDSET: A META-ANALYSIS OF INTELLIGENCE BELIEFS AS INTERVENTION TARGETS FOR IMPROVING ACADEMIC OUTCOMES…………………………………………………………………...7 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 7 Methods: Systematic Review ................................................................................... 14 Results: Systematic Review .................................................................................... 16 Methods: Meta-Analysis .......................................................................................... 21 Results: Meta-Analysis ........................................................................................... 34 Discussion ............................................................................................................... 36 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 47 References: Paper I .................................................................................................. 48 Tables: Paper I ......................................................................................................... 57 Figures: Paper I ....................................................................................................... 73 PAPER II: MINDSETS AND STEREOTYPES OF INTELLIGENCE: TEACHER BEHAVIORS THAT MOTIVATE STUDENTS TO ACHIEVE…………………………...80 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 80 Methods ................................................................................................................... 90 viii Results .................................................................................................................. 101 Discussion ............................................................................................................
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