CARIBBEAN FOOD CROPS SOCIETY 53rd

Fifty-three Annual Meeting 2017 San Juan, Puerto Rico Volume L III

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE 53rd ANNUAL MEETING

rd Caribbean Food Crops Society 53 Annual Meeting

July 16-22, 2017 Verdanza Hotel, Isla Verde, Puerto Rico

Edited by

Merari Feliciano Rivera, Norma Samuels, Rebecca Tirado, Mireille Arguelles, and Hector Tavárez

Published by the Caribbean Food Crops Society

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©Caribbean Food Crops Society

ISSN 95-07-0410

Copies of this publication may be obtained from:

CFCS Treasurer Agricultural Experiment Station Jardín Botánico Sur 1193 Calle Guayacán San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936-1118

Mention of company and trade names does not imply endorsement by the Caribbean Food Crops Society.

The Caribbean Food Crops Society is not responsible for statements and opinions advanced in its meeting or printed in its proceedings; they represent the views of the individuals to whom they are credited and are not binding on the Society as a whole.

iv Message from the CFCS President 2016-2017

Esbal Jiménez, Associate Dean and Deputy Director, Agricultural Experiment Station of the College of Agricultural Sciences, University of Puerto Rico – Mayagüez

We are honored to host the 53rd annual meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops Society (CFCS), the premier agricultural research group in the region. This year we enthusiastically welcome the Florida Entomological Society (FES), the Caribbean Agricultural Extension Provider’s Network (CAEPNet) and the Caribbean Council for Higher Education in Agriculture (CACHE), who are meeting simultaneously. We are pleased to offer our members and guests more than 102 abstracts and 70 presentations from the scientists of our region.

The theme for this year’s meeting is “The Role of the Caribbean as a Research Hub to Advance Global Agriculture and Food Security”. We chose this theme because we believe in the great potential that the Caribbean has for agricultural research. With climate change threatening food and water availability for humans and animals, now more than ever, it is important to do research in places like the Caribbean. We have the opportunity to do research all year round, with diverse climate conditions and high environmental temperatures. In addition, we share similar problems such as insufficient local food production, high dependence on imports to feed our people, and a limited economy, land and funding for research. Clearly we must unite efforts in agricultural research to develop knowledge and technology for our region, which, in turn will help the entire planet to meet the challenges of climate change.

This event results from the collaboration of many people from the College of Agricultural Sciences of the UPRM, and the economic support of the University of Puerto Rico-Mayagüez, the Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, and our sponsors: Agro Servicios, Goya de Puerto Rico, Panamerican Grain, Panamerican Fertilizer, Meet Puerto Rico, and Milk Industry of Puerto Rico. I applaud the scientists who voluntarily offered to present lectures, the scientists who submitted their research abstracts and the farmers and entrepreneurs participating in the farmers’ forum. Thank you for your help and sponsorship.

This meeting is the result of a year and a half of hard work by many diligent men and women. I also applaud the efforts of the local committee in coordinating this event.

My wish is that each member and guest enjoys this conference and their stay in Puerto Rico. And, please don’t forget to establish strong networks for future collaborations in agricultural research.

v Message from the CFCS Chair and Chief Executive Officer

Wilfredo Colón, Vice Chancellor, Ana G. Méndez University, San Juan, Puerto Rico

Good morning ladies and gentlemen. As Chair and CEO of the Caribbean Food Crops Society, it is a great honor and privilege to be here today to officially inaugurate our 53rd Annual Meeting. First of all, I want to ask everyone to stand up so we can have a minute of silence to honor Mrs. Aurora Lugo De Menkini. Aurora De Menkini was born in Russia from where her family immigrated to the state of New York. She completed a BS with a major in Animal Science at Cornell University, where she met Dr. Miguel Lugo López. They married and established their residence in Puerto Rico. She was the first female agricultural extension agent with the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) of the UPR, Mayagüez Campus. As a member of the CFCS she held various positions, such as Treasurer, Secretary, and member of the Advisory Board. Her active participation in the CFCS spanned more than 40 years. Aurora was 98 years old when she passed away in July 2016. The Miguel and Aurora Lugo Caribbean Food Crops Society Student Scholars was named in their honor. Today we have the privilege of having Mr. Peter Lugo De Menkini with us. He will participate in the ceremony where we will honor this year’s Miguel and Aurora Lugo Caribbean Food Crops Society Student Scholars, Class of 2017. I want to recognize the members of the Local Organizing Committee who worked diligently and energetically to make this meeting possible. • Dr. Esbal Jiménez • Dr. Mireille Argüelles • Mrs. Fátima Ortiz • Mrs. Lynette Feliciano • Dr. Merari Feliciano • Dr. Angela Linares • Dr. Héctor Tavárez • Dr. José Pablo Morales Payán • Mrs. Madelyn Ríos • Mr. Pedro Vivoni • Dr. Alberto Beale • Mrs. Wanda I. Lugo

In addition, I want to present and recognize the Members of the Board of the CFCS. • Vice Chair: Dr. Harry Ozier-La Fontaine, INRA, Guadeloupe • Secretary: Mr. Jean-Louis Diman, INRA, Guadeloupe • Treasurer: Dr. Alberto J. Beale, University of Puerto Rico • President CFCS 2016-17: Dr. Esbal Jiménez, University of Puerto Rico

Our Regional Representatives from:

vi • English Caribbean a. Prof. Kwame García, University of the Virgin Islands b. Mr. Barton Clarke, CARDI, Trinidad and Tobago c. Dr. Rohanie Maharaj, University of Trinidad and Tobago • Spanish Caribbean d. Mr. Pedro Pablo Peña, CEDAF, Dominican Republic e. Mr. Jerry Dupuy, Private Sector, Dominican Republic f. Dr. Wilfredo Colón, Puerto Rico • French Caribbean g. Dr. Isabelle Jean Baptiste, AMADEPA, Martinique h. Mr. Marceau Farant, INRA, Guadeloupe i. Dr. Harry Ozier-La Fontaine, INRA, Guadeloupe • Dutch region j. Dr. Lydia Ori, Anton de Kon University, Suriname President of our Advisory Committee: • Dr. Edward Evans, IFAS, University of Florida, USA

Ladies and gentlemen by the power invested in me as the Chair of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of the Caribbean Food Crops Society I officially declare inaugurated our 53rd Annual Meeting. Please let’s give ourselves a round of applause to convene our most sincere appreciation for our honorable and generous dedication to ensure the success of this meeting and of our society. Now please bear with me for a few brief remarks.

I want to welcome to the stage Mr. Peter Lugo De Menkini, son of Miguel and Aurora Lugo López. I also want to recognize Dr. Michelle Samuel-Foo who chairs the Miguel and Aurora Lugo CFCS Student Scholars Selection Committee.

We want to recognize the Miguel and Aurora Lugo CFCS Student Scholars, Class of 2017, these are: 1. Oral O. Daley, from The University of The West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago. The title of his presentation is: CULTIVAR EFFECT ON BREADFRUIT (Artocarpus altilis) INSTRUMENTAL AND SENSORY COLOUR AND TEXTURE. 2. Annelisse Ramos, from the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. The title of her presentation is: EFECTO DE MEZCLAS DE CULTIVOS DE COBERTURA SOBRE PARÁMETROS DE CALIDAD DE SUELOS DE UN OXISOL. 3. Diana Álvarez Vargas, from the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. The title of her presentation is: PRODUCCIÓN DE SEMILLA E INFLUENCIA DE TEMPERATURA SOBRE EL VALOR NUTRICIONAL DE LA SEMILLA DE SOYA FORRAJERA [Glycine max (L.) MERR.]

vii Let’s give them a round of applause to show our appreciation for being selected members of the Miguel and Aurora Lugo CFCS Student Scholars, Class of 2017. Prior and during your visit to Puerto Rico, the current economic situation is and will be on the forefront of the news. You will witness first hand a striking transformation. We have surpassed previous migration statistics of the 60’s, and in the past five years over 400,000 residents have moved to the continental United States. In my opinion this is an example of an episode of extreme shock. I want to quote Naomi Klein to try to make sense of what we are experiencing: “I have spent the last fifteen years immersed in research about societies undergoing extreme shocks—caused by economic meltdowns, natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and wars. And I have looked deeply into how societies change in these periods of tremendous stress. How these events change the collective sense of what is possible, for better but mostly for worse. As I discussed in my last book, The Shock Doctrine, over the past four decades corporate interests have systematically exploited these various forms of crisis to ram through policies that enrich a small elite—by lifting regulations, cutting social spending, and forcing large-scale privatizations of the public sphere. They have also been the excuse for extreme crackdowns on civil liberties and chilling human rights violations.” A review of our local press will provide you with abundant examples of the metrics that the author describes in her research. If this is the new reality that we are facing, what is our role to go beyond these challenges and covert these adverse situations to opportunities? There lies the importance of this year’s theme: “The Role of the Caribbean as a Research Hub to Advance Global Agriculture and Food Security”. This theme was crafted by a group of young scientist of the College of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. This theme shows us a way out; it stresses the importance of innovation as a means of economic development. We are a key organization dedicated to collecting, storing, and disseminating the historic research innovations that occurred in the past and in the present in the Caribbean region. Our society has documented the agricultural and food sectors of the Caribbean Basin for over 50 years. This year we finally have all of our proceedings in a searchable digital format so that anybody who wants to know about our region can access this information free of charge. This is a joint project with the Waite Library of the University of Minnesota. In order to know where we are headed, we need to know where we have been. Part of the innovation that we are experiencing in the Caribbean can be summarized in the theme of Agroecology. We have organized a Symposium on Wednesday to share information on this topic and look at food production models that are resilient when faced with global climate changes and sustainable for the benefits of our future generations. We will also hear from the Secretary of Agriculture of Puerto Rico, on how this agency is proposing innovative strategies to cope with this new reality. He will

viii share with us how he is committed to ensuring that the agricultural and food sectors are at the forefront of the new economic development strategies of Puerto Rico. Finally, it is our mission to be an independent professional organization with interdisciplinary orientation and membership, which fosters communication between persons capable of contributing to the development of science, technology, and production of food crops and animals in the countries of the Caribbean Basin. For over 50 years we have fostered a regional scientific and cultural fellowship which all of you will enjoy and partake of during this week. Thank you very much.

ix Local Organizing Committee

Esbal Jiménez, Ph.D. CFCS President 2016-2017

Mireille Argüelles, Ph.D. President Local Organizing Committee

Angela Linares, Ph.D. Field Trip Organizer

Merari Feliciano, Ph.D. Chair of Scientific Committee

Héctor Tavárez, Ph.D. Organizer of the Agroecology

Symposium

José P. Morales Payán, Ph.D. Director of International Programs

Fátima Ortiz, MBA Office of International Programs

Lynette Feliciano, MBA Registration and Payments

Madelyn Ríos, MBA Registration

Pedro Vivoni Organizer of the Farmer’s Forum

Wilfredo Colón, Ph.D. Chair and CEO of the CFCS

Alberto Beale, Ph.D. Treasurer of the CFCS

x Caribbean Food Crops Society 53rd Annual Meeting

July 16-22, 2017 Verdanza Hotel, Isla Verde, Puerto Rico

“The Role of the Caribbean as a Research Hub to Advance Global Agriculture and Food Security”

xi CAEPNET EXTENSION SESSION

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 1-6. 2017

CHARACTERISING THE FAMILY FARM IN THE CARIBBEAN

David Dolly, Glenroy Ennis, and Anita Zavodska. Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture and the University of the West Indies.

ABSTRACT: A field study was conducted in which there was interaction with stakeholders and farmers from Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Jamaica, Guyana and Haiti. This study engaged the farmers as key informants on the premise that they could help provide an understanding of a family farm in the Caribbean. All the participants were selected by their respective country offices of the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA). Stakeholder discussions complemented an understanding of the farms designated as family farms. The purpose of the study was to characterise the family farm as exemplified by those selections which were investigated. The farms in the four different countries produced a mix of crops and livestock. However, crop- based systems were more prevalent especially on the smaller farms. In these farming systems on small farms, livestock production usually provides a protein source for the family or may serve as a ‘bank’ in times of financial need. The family farms spanned one generation or more. Usually the head of the family farm developed an interest from their own parent, grandparent, older sibling or some other close relative. The farms rely on family labour but still employ labour at specific times, such as at harvesting, land preparation or some special operational activity which might require extra labour. Family farms can be large, medium or small. Yet the definition of these categories will vary as countries in the Caribbean region vary in size. There is also a ‘new entrant’ category of family farm which has the support of the family at the start of a new agricultural investment on family lands. The family members rely on the farm for contributions to their livelihoods, their food and nutrition security. Even though some members may not live on the farm, they contribute to the farm in some way and expect to be part of the farm’s fabric. There is a sense of pride, empowerment and a love for agriculture in being part of a family farm. The farm bonds family traditions and builds the family’s confidence. Family decisions tend to guide the family farm and these decisions perpetuate the existing farming system. Most farm leadership also influences community activities regarding religion, politics, special projects and possible farm groups. With regard to state governance, the farms are guided by state laws regarding agricultural holdings. However, most family farms have secure tenure arrangements, either as freehold property or as lease arrangements. While the state, and, more rarely non-governmental organisations, occasionally offer benefits such as incentives, grants and subsidies, family farms seem less dependent on this type of support. The aging script of leaders of agricultural holdings becomes somewhat neutralised by family farm governance. Family farms are better able to provide a younger member who can carry on farm leadership. Family farms also invest in educating their members and this contributes to future leadership. Developers and policy makers should effectively synchronise developmental initiatives with the culture of the farm family to ensure that the intended development captures the norms and values of the family farming system. Efforts should be made to identify strategies that will include the family unit at every stage of the developmental process and to identify adaptable strategies.

Keywords: Family Farm, Generations, Empowerment, Policy

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MATERIALS AND METHODS The authors surveyed 13 farms in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, 8 farms in Jamaica, 18 farms in Guyana and 12 farms in Haiti. Detailed case studies of these farms emerged. The farms in Guyana were of two types. There were eleven farms which belonged to the indigenous communities of Amerindian origin. The remaining seven were typical of the rest of the Caribbean where the heritage was that of occupation by ex-members of the plantation economy. All farms were deemed family farms based on their operations and the familiarity that selectors had with them. The selections were possible even though the family farm is not yet precisely defined for the Caribbean. The farms were selected by the local offices of IICA which had collaborated with relevant organisations such as the Agricultural Extension services, local farmers’ organisations and local non-governmental organisations before making selections. The selections served to represent a range of family farming situations. The selected farms served as key informants about family farming in the respective countries. A questionnaire guided the interrogation of these key informants in face-to-face interviews. The instrument consisted of open-ended and close-ended questions. Even so, the farmers often provided additional information which was recorded. Answering the questions took approximately one hour and the entire visit lasted seventy five minutes. There were opportunities to observe each farm, its field layouts, technologies employed and such related and relevant facts. The questionnaire consisted of questions related to farming livelihoods and sociological and other relevant information which could assist in determining the nature of family farms as seen through the lenses which have been developed. The data were appropriately compiled and analysed. In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the farms were located throughout the extension districts. In Jamaica, the farms were located in five parishes which represent a wide cross-section of the island where major agricultural activities are carried out. In Guyana, the seven farms were from one area of agricultural occupation along the East Coast of Demerara and also from rural areas outside of the second largest town, Linden. The indigenous farms came from the country’s Rupununi interior and from an area east of the Demerara River. In Haiti, farmers were from three rural agricultural communities within two hours of driving from the capital Port-au-Prince. The family farm data were captured in the presence of IICA personnel. In the case of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the respective district extension agents also presided. In the case of Jamaica, the researcher was the only technical person who led the discussions with the farm family. In most instances several family members who were actively engaged in the activities of the farms participated in the discussions. In Haiti, the researchers used interpreters as the farm respondents communicated in a local Creole French patois. The study leaders also spoke to stakeholders within the agriculture sectors of all four countries. Likewise the stakeholders were selected by respective IICA country offices. In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, there were three sets of stakeholder discussions. There was firstly a discussion with the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Agriculture. He outlined current initiatives of the agriculture programmes as directed by the state. Then there was a main focus group discussion. Present at this stakeholders’ discussion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines were representatives of various state and non-state organisations as follows: The Beekeepers Association of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, The Extension Services of the Ministry of Agriculture, The Network of Rural Women Producers, The Small Ruminant Society of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, The Veterinary Services of the Ministry of Agriculture, The Windward Island Farmers Association (WINFA), and The Women in Agriculture for Rural Development. These respondents shared their views as candidly as possible. This discussion lasted three hours and all responses were carefully recorded. Finally there were discussions with the Chief Agricultural Officer and the Deputy Chief

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Agricultural Officer in a separate meeting. There is a list of questions in Annex XII which guided discussions with all stakeholders. All responses were recorded on tape and later transcribed and interpreted. In Jamaica, the selected stakeholders were categorised into two groups namely “government” and “non-government organisations.” The Ministry of Agriculture represented the “government” organisations. In attendance on behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture were the Principal Director, the Policy and Planning Director, the Director of Data Bank, the Policy Administrator of the Ministry of Agriculture and two Agricultural Economists. The study conducted a focus group discussion with all five informants who were selected from the various departments within the Ministry. The four “non-government” organisations that participated were the IICA Jamaica, the Jamaica Social Investment Fund (JSIF), the Jamaica Rural Economy and Ecosystems Adapting to Climate Change (JaREEACH), and the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO/UN). Each of these was interviewed in separate focus group exercises. In Haiti, the stakeholders were the Director of the Cabinet of the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Rural Development (MARNDR) and the Head of Innovation, Training, Research and Extension of MARNDR. In Guyana, the stakeholders were assembled at a morning’s workshop which discussed the issues related to family farming. The workshop was conducted in a two-hour session. There were representatives from a cross-section of personnel involved in the conduct and leadership of Guyana’s agriculture. IICA organised the event. Stakeholder representatives came from the following organisations: The 100% OAFM, the Food and Agricultural Organisation, Guyana, The Guyana Livestock Development Authority (GLDA), The Guyana Marketing Corporation (GMC), The Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA), Local Agricultural Consultants, Mocha Block B Farmers Association, The National Research and Extension Institute (NAREI), Partners of the Americas (Guyana Chapter), Rich Milk Dairy Enterprise, The West Demerara Agricultural Association and The World University Service Canada. MAIN RESULTS As exemplified by Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the typical family farm is one where there is a generational history of active agricultural commodity production on the premises. Some of the commodities the farm produces may be used by the household but the majority is sold to provide both reinvestment and household income. The four sets of farm produced a mix of crops and livestock. However crop-based systems were more prevalent especially on the smaller farms. In these farming systems on small farms, livestock production usually provides a protein source for the family or may serve as a ‘bank’ in times of financial need. Usually the head of household of a family farm unit developed interest and motivation to farming under the guidance of their own parent, grandparent, older sibling or some other close relatives. There is always that important motivation provided by one or more family farm members from a previous generation. There are some elements of historical attribute which link the present farm operations to a previous generation of agricultural activity. Through the generational influence, family farms are able to sustain cultural traditions and take care of the rural landscape in which they exist according to standards which they may set. Finally, the members of a family farm tend to become involved in the leadership of their communities.

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There is a level of involvement of family members in the provision of labour and capital. With regard to capital, this may include pension funds, income from other professions which may reside within family, remittances from abroad and monies used from the sale of farm produce. These farms rely on family farm labour. However, some family farms may have to employ labour outside of the family. The farms show various patterns of state, non-state and private ownership but the family’s decision is essential in the use of the land for family farming. The size of family farms in the Caribbean may be classified into small, medium and large. The differences between categories are relative to land size and volume of agricultural products produced on the farm. For instance, a farm family that has access to 10 acres of land but only cultivates one acre may still be considered a small family farm. Even so there is a socio-cultural idea that all farms within the Caribbean are small by international geopolitical standards. Then, one may still wish to guide the size categories according to the following: Small; less than 2 acres, Medium; 2 to 10 acres, and Large; greater than 10 acres. Each Caribbean territory will still need to determine its distinction based on its own overall land size and the volume of production in relation to Agriculture’s contribution to Gross Domestic Product. In addition to the issue of size, there is the issue of the new entrant family farm. This type of farm is usually managed by a younger person and his/her family. This person wishes to begin a new agricultural investment. Yet this type of entrant may be middle-aged having left a previous profession or an older person having recently retired. If such new entrants intend to rely on the family for contributions of labour, capital and land, one may wish to designate this farm as a new family farm aspirant. CONCLUSION

Despite the emerging changes in lifestyles across the region, the farm family helps to preserve strong social resiliency, especially in rural communities. Such a farming system encourages the individual household to focus on feeding itself, hence contributing tangibly to food security issues. Their agricultural practices are usually in sync with nature, hence the preservation of the landscape and biodiversity. Developers and policy makers must be mindful that the birth rate and life expectancy in the Caribbean region is increasing and consumers’ tastes and preferences are becoming more sophisticated. This must be supported by more sophisticated approaches towards satisfying the food requirements and social needs of the region. A shift from the extended family to a more nuclear family may also change the integrity of the farm family structure and should also be considered during the process of development. This may also demand better gender relations. Regarding the technological factor, most farm families within the Caribbean have some access to the use of technology within their households. The use of smart phones and the Internet are commonplace. Improved access to technology creates an enabling environment for greater efficiency in farming operations. There will be real-time interaction between the farmers and other stakeholders along the value chain. There are greater opportunities to create linkages between agricultural and non-agricultural activities within the community thereby fostering a holistic development approach. However, advancements in technology may pose risks in the replacement of traditional methods if its use is not carefully considered. Therefore, while the use of technology should be encouraged during research and development, the approach should include traditional methods.

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LITERATURE CITED AYF-CTA e-Debate Report (2104). Youth sustaining family farming through ICTs 22nd September -7th October 2014, Waganingen, The Netherlands. Pp 16.

Berdegué Julia A. and Fuentealba, R. (2011) Latin America: The State of Smallholder Agriculture. Paper presented at the IFAD Conference on New Directions for Smallholder Agriculture 24 to 25 January, 2011 International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome, Italy.

Chance, K. Could Family Farming be the answer to saving Caribbean Agriculture? Retrieved from http://www.caribbean360.com/news/could-family-farming-be-the-answer-to- saving-caribbean-agriculture on 1st December 2014.

Chapman Alan, Pest Market Analysis Tool, Retrieved from http://www.businessballs.com/pestanalysisfreetemplate.htm on 12th July 2016 Caribbean Families-Family Structure (2009). FARM 2009-mar. Caribbean Families.pdf.

CARICOM Address by Dr. Deep Ford at the Opening Ceremony, 13th Caribbean Week of Agriculture, Paramaribo, Suriname 8th October 2014 Press release 229/2014.

Deep Ford J. Family Farming. Power point presentation presented at the Caribbean Week of Agriculture 6-12th October 2014. Paramaribo, Suriname. Retrieved from. http://slidegur.com/doc/1318799/family-farming-j.-r.-deep-ford---Caribbean-week-of-agricu...on 1st December 2015.

Dolly D.I and Zavodska A.(2009) A comparison of small farming in Barbados, Dominica and Trinidad and Tobago. Presented at the 25th Annual Meeting of the Association for Agricultural Education and Extension, San Juan , Puerto Rico, USA, May 24th -28th 2009.

Estrada, D. 2006. Latin-America: Family Farms Durable but fragile. Interpress News Agency Retrieved from http://www.ipsnews.net/2006/10/latin america-family-farms-durable-but-fragile on 10 December 2015.

Family Farming is part of the solution to the hunger problem, {2014), http://www.fao.org/zhc/detail- events/en/c/270855/?utm_source=facebook&utm_medium=social+media&utm_campaign=fao+f acebook#IYFF14 Retrieved on 30th November 2014.

Family Farming Knowledge Platform, (2014), http://www.fao.org/family-farming/background/en/ 9Retrieved on 30th November 2014.

Family Farming Newsletter for Latin America and the Caribbean. January - March 2014, Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/americas/recursos/baf/2014-1/observatorio/en/ on 14th December 2015.

FAO Family Farming Definition (2014) http://www.fao.org/family-farming-2014/home/what-is- family-farming/en/ Retrieved 5th July 2016.

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FAO (2014) Report (2014) FAO Regional Conference for Latin America and the Caribbean, 33rd Session, Santiago, Chile, 6-9th May 2014. Inter American Cooperation on Agriculture (1998): Performance and Prospects for Caribbean Agriculture, IICA Newton, Trinidad and Tobago. ISSN-0256-4746. Internet Centre for Management and Business Administration. Pest Analysis. Retrieved from http// www.mtba.com/strategy/pest/ on 12th July 2016. Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Transformation, Forestry and Fisheries (2011,) Policy Framework & Strategic Plan for Agricultural and Rural Development 2012-.2018, Government of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Kingstown. Nurse K. and Sandiford W. (1995) Windward Island Bananas: Challenges and Options under a Single European Market Frederick Ebert Stiflung, Kingston, Jamaica Saint Kitts and Nevis Agricultural Census (2000) Main Results Retrieved from www.fao.org/Keydata/St Kitts and Nevis Keydata.pdf on 9th December 2015.

Schneider S. (2013), Family Farming in Latin America, A New Comparison Analysis (Synthesis Report), Retrieved from http://www.ifad.org/pub/lac/ff_lac.pdf on 9th December 2015.

The Caribbean Farmers Network. Retrieved from http://www.caribbeanfarmers.org/index.php/25- demo-content/carousel-news/32-about-the-caribbean-farmers-network on 30th November 2015 The European Commission, Executive Summary, Public Consultation “The role of family farming, key challenges and priorities for the future.” EU Economic Briefs (October 2013) Thomas C.Y. Caribbean (1997) Agriculture in the Age of Globalisation and Trade Liberalisation. In Proceedings of the 22nd West Indies Agricultural Economics Conference, Bridgetown, Barbados Eds Singh R. and Rankine L., August, 1997 Trinidad and Tobago Agricultural Census (2004) Main Results Retrieved from www.fao.org/Main results by country/Trinidad and Tobago 2004..pdf on 9th December 2015. Van der Ploeg J D. (2013) Ten qualities of family farming in Agriculture Matters Retrieved from http://www.agriculturesnetwork.org/magazines/global/family-farming/theme-overview on 14th December 2015. World Rural Forum (2017) Family Farming Definition, http://www.familyfarmingcampaign.net/en/family-farming/concept Retrieved 25th February 2017.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 7-8. 2017

HOW TO ASSESS INTERACTION OF AGRI-FOOD STAKEHOLDERS IN SOCIAL MEDIA?

Ataharul Chowdhury1, Wayne Ganpat2, Helen Hambly Odame3 and, Jeet Ramjattan4. 1,2 Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies. 3 School of Environmental Design and Rural Development, University of Guelph, ON, Canada. 4Ministry of Agriculture, Land & Fisheries, Trinidad & Tobago

ABSTRACT: Globally and regionally, agricultural extension services have been transforming in response to technological, institutional and policy forces. Because of the revolutionary context of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), the practitioners and policy makers started investing time and resources in extension services in ways that are different from those a decade ago. Extension professionals, producers and non-profits agencies are increasingly using virtual and online media for interaction between them and other stakeholders to mobilize ideas, and resources (George et al., 2011; Chowdhury et al., 2013). Increasingly, digital communication tools broadly referred to as Web 2.0 technologies, and in particular, social media such as Facebook, Twitter, blogs and webinars are expected to enable conversations among different stakeholders leading to collective action and solution of development problems. There is a strong realization that social media have potentials to create virtual spaces for agricultural stakeholders to interact so that they can co-create knowledge and build networks of innovating people, institutions and systems and explore various business opportunities in rural area (Fisher, 2011; Cornelisse et al., 2011, Saravanan et al, 2015). One-third of rural population in the world is now within the coverage of 3G network (FAO & ITU, 2016). The increased access to internet and Smartphone creates a leverage for social media application in agricultural and rural development. In Trinidad & Tobago, Facebook users are estimated to be 486000 (CTA, 2014a). In the Caribbean islands, stakeholders of agriculture such as, small agri-business, producer organizations, traders and extension agents are embarking upon potential benefits of social media for networking, knowledge exchange and learning (CTA, 2014a, CTA 2014b). A sheer volume of data and information is generated online as different stakeholders engage between one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many conversations in social media. It has a significant implication for how to research technology mediated communication among agricultural stakeholders. How can we assess the impacts of our efforts to communicate with others through social media? In order to answer this question we need to use appropriate social media analytics which allow us to gather information from conversations taking place in social media sphere, and then process it in a structured and meaningful way. This will help us to take information-driven decisions about policy and practice about social media use in agricultural development. In this paper, we will discuss a methodology of social media analytics in assessing stakeholder’s use of social media for strengthening online social network and supporting agricultural innovation processes in Trinidad & Tobago, Dominica, & St. Kitts. The methodology comprises several phases starting with the development of an

7 inventory of social media users in agriculture and food sector. We argue that engagement for innovation through social media depends not only access and use of tools but also users who express themselves and listen to others. Therefore, we need to include indicators that capture both extent of reach and conversations through social media. In this presentation, we discuss and compare use of three tools for analysing the data that captures both quantity and quality of online interaction. The Netlytic (Gruzd, 2016) is an online data mining tool for collecting data about online interaction of purposively selected stakeholders. The presentation discusses how to integrate descriptive text analysis and network analysis using UCINET and NetDraw social network analysis software (Borgatti et al., 2002), and Microsoft SQL server tools in the analysis scheme. The presentation also discusses use of key informant interview and a survey in order to augment analysis. It is expected that the methodology will provide innovative insights into research for assessing communication, interaction, knowledge sharing that capture connectivity, diversity, and interactivity and how individuals create new frames through social media.

Key Words: Social Media, Analytics, Agriculture, Interaction, Caribbean

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 9-14. 2017

ELABORATING STAKEHOLDER PERCEPTIONS ON WATERSHED MANAGEMENT ISSUES AS A PRE-REQUISITE FOR COLLABORATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Jeanelle Joseph and Wayne Ganpat, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine Campus

ABSTRACT: Perceptions on watershed related issues can exist along various spectrums. The identification of stakeholder perceptions on watershed management problems, causes and related solutions is purported to be the first step in ascertaining if a collaborative approach towards watershed management in Trinidad can be effective. However, the perceptions of stakeholders can be the same as well as differ based on specific factors such as their location and their level of involvement with the problem. This study sought to assess stakeholder perceptions on watershed management issues by investigating the views of community group representatives on watershed problems, causes and related solutions, using focus group methodology. According to Kaplowitz and Hoehn (2001), focus group discussion yields more valid and significant data than would be generated from an interview. Focus group assessments were therefore conducted as part of this study to be able to validate the conclusions that were developed from the stakeholder perception survey (Suvedi and Kaplowitz, 2016). Keywords: focus group, issues, collaboration

INTRODUCTION Perceptions on watershed related issues can exist along various spectrums. The identification of stakeholder perceptions on watershed management problems, causes and related solutions is purported as the first step in terms of ascertaining whether a collaborative approach towards watershed management in Trinidad can be effective. However, the perceptions of stakeholders can be the same and they can also differ based on specific factors such as their location and their level of involvement with the problem. This study sought to assess stakeholder perceptions on watershed management issues by investigating community group representative’s views on watershed problems, causes and related solutions using focus group methodology. According to Kaplowitz and Hoehn (2001), focus group discussion yields more valid and significant data that would be difficult to generate from an interview. Focus group assessments were therefore conducted as part of this study to be able to validate the conclusions which were developed from the stakeholder perception survey (Suvedi and Kaplowitz, 2016). PURPOSE (OBJECTIVE) The primary purpose of this paper was to elaborate key issues related to previously identified stakeholder perceptions of watershed management problems, causes and related solutions perception survey.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

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The methodology for this paper followed the approach used by Webster and Ganpat (2006), whereby interpretative research was adopted. Interpretative research grounds the researcher in the context of the participants and helps to understand perceptions through the meanings that people assign to them (Webster and Ganpat, 2006). Participants for the focus group were targeted from four watershed communities that participated in an earlier stakeholder perception survey. The 27 participants were recruited because of their direct involvement in community groups that have a vested interest in addressing watershed management issues in their communities. Focus Groups were therefore conducted in Mausica (n=7), Maracas St. Joseph (n= 8), Lopinot (n=8) and Guanapo (n= 4). To conduct the focus groups, participants were asked to voluntarily participate in the focus group discussion which would last no more than 90 minutes. Individuals who chose to participate were invited to a central location within their community (the community center or community leader’s house), with the incentive of refreshments being offered in return for their participation. Confidentiality was guaranteed and participants were assured that if they did not wish to participate they could stop at any moment during the discussion. The focus group sessions were carried out during the months of February, March, June and September of 2015. Each focus group session was carried out by the researcher acting as the focus group moderator, and the responses were documented with the assistance of two note takers on the day of the focus group as well as recorded with a voice recorder. Closed- ended guide questions were used to gather in- depth views as to watershed management problems, causes and solutions from participants. A total of 11 structured guide questions were developed and subsequently evaluated for content validity by two experts in the subject. The following guide questions were asked: 1. What do you think are the watershed problems in your area? 2. What do you think is the single most significant problem relating to watershed management in your area? 3. Which problems happen most frequently/ often? 4. What would you say are the causes of the watershed problems? 5. What is the cause of the most prevalent problem? 6. What do you think are some possible solutions to the watershed problems in your area? 7. What do you think can be the best possible solution to watershed management issues for your area? 8. How do you think you can contribute towards addressing the problems you identified? 9. What can you do as a community organisation to contribute towards addressing the problems you identified? 10. Who is currently involved in watershed management activities in the community? 11. Who are the other individuals or organisations you think should also be involved?

Each focus group discussion was transcribed and NVIVO 11 was used to analyze the qualitative data. This software facilitated sorting and auto-coding of the data. Once the data was auto-coded, a word count was carried out to identify the most frequently used words from the transcripts, which aided in conducting the thematic content analysis. Thematic content analysis was subsequently used to examine themes across the data set and look for patterns in the responses. The developed themes were compared across the four focus groups so as to identify similarities, variations and outstanding comments among the respondents.

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MAIN RESULTS

Four main issues were framed for the watershed management problems. These include; Environmental Degradation, Unsustainable Agricultural Practices, Governance/Institutional Pitfalls and Social Stressors. The following table (Table 1) presents a summary of the dispersion of the perceptions as per each watershed.

Table 1: Dispersion of Perceptions per Area

Issues

Unsustainable Environmental Agricultural Social Governance/Institutional Areas Degradation Practices Issues Pitfalls

Lopinot 14.06% 4.61% 9.36% 13.93%

Mausica 11.34% - 1.55% 18.47%

Maracas/ St. Joseph 3.25% 0.96% 1.27% 3.02%

Guanapo 13.42% - 5.03% 11.54%

Based on Table 1, the Lopinot and Guanapo Watersheds had the most issues related to watershed problems as a result of environmental degradation. Unsustainable Agricultural Practices and Social Issues were also perceived as popular issues in the Lopinot Watershed. In the Mausica Watershed, Governance/ Institutional Pitfalls was seen as the most popular issue as compared to the other Watersheds. The following table (Table 2) presents the issues and the direct quotes supporting the perceptions of the participants regarding the four main issues that have been framed.

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Table 2: Issue Frames and Supporting Direct Quotes

Issues Issue frame/ Direct Quotes Aspects of Solution the issue Environmental As a result … “They (quarry operators) widen - External -Enforcement Degradation of actions the road on one side and then dump Social of the laws from on the dirt on the other side. They Pressure persons not just leave the dirt there. What you - Negatively -Stop from think happens when they do not Impacting quarrying within the remove the dirt? It goes into places it Community community is not supposed to be, either the river of when it is the dry season, the dust - Flooding floats on the air” (R1, Guanapo) - Disturbance … “Industrial waste is being dumped of their into the river polluting it” (R2, water source Mausica)

…“There is poor garbage disposal in the area especially from the local tourists who come to visit the area” (R3, Lopinot) As a result … “Deforestation has caused an - of actions increase in flooding...they (some Environmen from residents) started off cutting small tal and persons areas behind their homes, then Water from slowly they began to move further pollution within the and further into the hillsides” (R2, community Lopinot)

…“People are cutting the lands on the hillside, and this is causing the water in the river to be lower” (R1, Lopinot) Unsustainable … “Sometimes these portions of lands which have - -Agencies Agricultural been slashed and burnt are not cultivated and are Deforestatio should work Practices left to fallow hence increasing erosion and n together flooding” (R2, Lopinot) - Water (Collaboratio pollution n) …“Poor farming practices…farmers cutting trees along the river bank and once they get their fill - Loss of -Enforcement there they are moving further up into the valley as a wildlife of the laws result of this, there has been a decline in water supply” (R4, Lopinot) Governance/ … “The quarry operators are not doing anything to - Water Enforcement Institutional address this problem. They use a lot of 10 wheeler pollution of the laws Pitfalls trucks in the area to transport the material and this damages the road” (R1, Guanapo). -Loss of Forest cover

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… “Forestry division supposed to be taking care of -Flooding the forest in our area, but they are not…enforcing the law is a problem…people cutting the reserve…there is flooding in the area…the people who supposed to be enforcing the law liming with them (law breakers) and drinking with them and not enforcing the law” (R4, Lopinot)

… “Poor implementation of laws regarding the use of the forest...if people are charged for doing the wrong thing, then they would stop” (R4, Lopinot)

… “There are incomplete retaining walls behind our houses, the Gov't start the project of the retaining wall, then they do not complete the project. When it rains, the water comes into our yards, the place gets flooded” (R3, Mausica)

… “Incomplete work by government agencies. They come and start something, and to me it remains unfinished or incomplete” (R2, Mausica) Social Stressors … “Religious people and local tourists using the -Pollution of river for whatever purpose and they leave their environment garbage behind just like that...The local tourists and water have no respect for their surroundings/ water paths. You do not get this type of problem with the -Lack of international tourists” (R4, Lopinot) concern for community … “People also come and interfere with the natural residents course of the river...what you think happens when this is done? Is trouble for us who from the area” (R1, Maracas/ St. Joseph)

… “People do not understand forest preservation and as such, they are cutting too much of the forest. This is causing us to have a shortage of water” (R5, Lopinot)

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Given the significant amount of overlap with respect to the institutional landscape governing watershed management in Trinidad, the issues framed by the participants indicate that there is a need for addressing these issues through a collaborative approach. A collaborative approach is considered particularly since, these participants (from within the watersheds and the institutions) have the ability to affect (determine) a decision or action, while at the same time causing those to be affected by the particular decision or action to be impacted either positively or negatively (Grimble and Wellard, 1997).

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Most of the issues framed were related to environmental degradation and social stressors. This indicated that proper law enforcement is needed to ensure that these issues are adequately addressed. However, the necessary institutional stakeholder should be properly identified and utilized to ensure proper law enforcement and public adherence. An approach to collaborative watershed management is seen as the most appropriate approach in that all collaborative watershed management partnerships have a common goal of attempting to resolve conflicts over the use of natural resources, by meeting on a periodic basis to discuss or negotiate the management of streams, rivers or watersheds (Leach and Pelky, 2001).

REFERENCES

Grimble, R. and K. Wellard. 1997. Stakeholder Methodologies in Natural Resource Management: A Review of Principles, Contexts, Experiences and Opportunities. Agricultural Systems 55 (2): 173-193.

Leach, W. D. and N. W. Pelkey. 2001. Making Watershed partnerships work: A review of the Empirical Literature. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management. November/ December 2001.

Kaplowitz, M.D. and J.P. Hoehn. 2001. Do focus groups and individual interviews reveal the same information for natural resource valuation? Ecological Economics, 36(2), 237-247. doi:10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00226-3.

Suvedi, M. and Kaplowitz. 2016. What Every Extension Worker Should Know – Core Competency Handbook. Department of Community Sustainability Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan, USA.

Webster, N. and W. Ganpat. 2006. Exploring Youth Development Workers in the Process of Civic Youth Engagement in Trinidad and Tobago. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 13 (2).

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 15-34. 2017 EXTENSION’S CONTRIBUTION TO RICE IMPROVEMENT IN GUYANA; ADOPTION OF THE SIX-POINT TECHNOLOGY PACKAGE BY FARMERS Kuldip Ragnauth1, Wayne G Ganpat2. 1Manager - Extension Services Guyana Rice Development Board, 116 – 117 Cowan Street, Kingston, Georgetown, Guyana. 2Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, UWI, St Augustine, Trinidad. ABSTRACT: The Guyana government sought to make the rice industry more competitive, thus returning it to profitability. It identified the need to focus on the selection and transfer of improved crop management practices that result in increased yields for farmers. A package of six technologies has been promoted by the Guyana Rice Development Board (GRDB) since 2007. These technologies are based on similar technologies in neighboring Venezuela. They were introduced in a systematic manner and validated through demonstrations on farmers’ holdings by the GRDB before dissemination. Since then, no evaluation has been done of its acceptance by farmers and changes in yields associated with adoption. The purpose of this study was to (i) assess the level of adoption of the six technologies by farmers, (ii) yields achieved since the adoption of these technologies and (iii) farmers’ perceptions of the role of the Extension Service in the adoption process. Some 454 farmers were selected using proportionate random sampling from the five rice growing regions and surveyed in July 2014. Data collected included: personal, farm related, adoption levels, perceptions of extension and other major concerns with rice farming. Data were analyzed and frequencies presented. Results showed that there was overall high adoption (84%) of the package of technologies, that the majority of farmers reported yield increases of up to 40% and the majority perceived that the GRDB’s extension service contribute a lot (66%) to their achievement of such yield increases. The main worry among farmers however, revolved around timely payment for their rice. The study concluded that the process for the identification and communication of the technologies to farmers was appropriate and can be used as an example to introduce technologies to other agricultural sectors slated for development. Keywords: rice, extension, technologies

INTRODUCTION Rice is the staple food in Guyana. The rice industry is currently the largest agricultural industry in the country. It is the bedrock of the Guyanese rural economy and by far the most important constituent of the livelihoods of small farm families. As of 2012 it became and continued to be the main contributor to export earnings in the agriculture sector, which in 2013 accounted for about 7% of GDP and 17.4% of total exports. It is the greatest user of arable land with approximately eight thousand (8,000) families directly and one hundred and fifty thousand (150,000) indirectly associated with the industry. The rice industry in Guyana experienced mixed fortunes over the years. Rice production averaged around 150,000 metric tonnes in the 1980s, but by 1990 this figure declined to a mere 93,400 tonnes. It rebounded to 168,300 metric tons in 1992. In one of the better periods (1990s), the annual growth of production averaged 13%, with the increase in area cultivated accounting for 75% of the gain in production. This period was short-lived as production contracted by 18% in the early

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2000s, due mainly to stagnation of yields which averaged approximately 4 tons/ ha. This, coupled with increasing costs, made the business of growing rice marginally profitable with the resultant effect being farmers abandoned their lands or converted them to other uses. There were several reasons for low yields, consequential low profitability, and the lack of improvement. These included inefficient management of soil, fertilizer and water, and the limited practice of integrated pest management. The varieties have genetic yield potential in excess of 7 t/ha, but in order to obtain this yield, the crop had to be managed properly. The strategy for improving rice production on a more competitive basis and returning the industry to profitability needed to focus on the identification and transfer of improved crop management practices that permit available varieties to express more of their yield potential. This required a coherent and coordinated technology transfer effort to empower farmers on the various strategic management practices that, when applied in an integrated manner and with precision, will result in significant yield advances without increases in production costs per hectare. This was found in the form of the six improved management programme (six points), which was introduced to the sector in 2007 by the extension department of the GRDB. Farmer adoption of the improved management practices has resulted in increased yields and reduced unit costs; consequently, production is more competitive and sustainable. Present Extension system for rice

Since 1995, the Guyana Rice Development Board (GRDB) has been mandated to provide extension services for the rice farming sector. Its function is “to establish facilities for the conduct of research, and to conduct research relating to rice, and extend to farmers through an established system the benefits derived from such research (GRDB Act 1994)”. The GRDB sought to educate farmers through farmer-groupings. This model typifies an informal type of education that focuses on learning through participation. The programme commenced with 15 – 20 farmers meeting periodically at each other’s farms to share experiences, analyze problems, and search for solutions. Each group had an extension officer who worked as a facilitator for the discussion. Although this approach achieved its short-term goal by bringing farmers together and allowing participation, it was expanded after the first season to allow for more targeted responses to management practices.

In the Spring Crop 2004, result demonstrations were established in farmers’ fields. These highlighted farmer practices as against solution-based practices of field problems. The model has been termed Farmer Field School (FFS). In this approach, learning by group participation is the primary focus of training. Training utilizing this system continues to be the main extension strategy of the Board. Visits to other farmer plots in the group in the form of farm walks are also on-going as part of the Farmer Field School (FFS) programmes.

Roles of Extension

In the Agricultural sector in general, extension service plays a vital role in sharing knowledge, technologies, agricultural information and linking the farmer to other actors in the economy. The Extension service is, therefore, a critical change agent required to transform subsistence farming into modern and commercial agriculture. This is critically important in promoting household food security, wealth and employment creation, and poverty reduction.

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Due to the emerging pluralistic scenario of extension systems around the world, the role of Guyana’s rice extension had to be redefined from solely being a provider of services to becoming an appropriate mix of provider, coordination, facilitator and regulator. The extension services have adapted a more proactive and participatory role; serving as knowledge/ information agents, initiating and facilitating mutually meaningful and equitable knowledge-based transactions among researchers, trainers and primary producers. A schematic representation of how the farmer, extension officer, and researcher interface and the related linkages is presented.

Input Supplier

Extension forms the strategic link between Research and Farmers and carries a wide area of activities including those on List A. Feedback from Extension provides a crucial input into Research as well. Input suppliers are combining the marketing of products with general advice given to farmers. Occasionally they collaborate with research and extension to offer support in their field activities.

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STRUCTURE OF THE EXTENSION DEPARTMENT

Extension Manager

Regional Coordinator Regional Coordinator Regional Coordinator Regional Coordinator Regional Rice Extension Regional Rice Regional Rice Regional Rice Officer Extension Officer Extension Officer Extension Officer Regions 2 Regions 3 Regions 6 Regions 4 & 5

District Rice District Rice District Rice District Rice Extension Officer Extension Officer Extension Officer Extension Officer

The Extension programme of the Board is planned and coordinated by the Extension Manager and executed through the regional offices located in the various rice growing areas. This decentralised system provides for greater interface and communication with farmers and offers a “more bottoms up” approach to address their concerns and needs. Each regional office is headed by a Regional Coordinator/Supervisor with District Rice Extension Officers performing the role of field agents. The Rice Producers Association (RPA), a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO), is contracted by the Board to provide support in the provision of Extension services to the farming community. The total staff compliment is comprised of 28 extension officers, 18 of whom are from the GRDB and 10 from the RPA. Female staff totaled two. Focus of extension In the context of meeting the holistic needs of increasing rice production in a sustainable manner, rice extension service in Guyana is not only tasked with the responsibility of executing technology- transfer programmes, but also other activities that, in essence, complement extension work. This approach was taken because of the need to maximize the use of Extension staff and in some ways, make them “more rounded” to maximize their capabilities to cope with the challenges of the rice industry. Activities have been strategized, or focused into four thematic areas, namely: seed production and marketing, technology application, data collection and information, and unplanned/ supporting activities.

1. Seed Production and marketing a) Marketing of seeds produced at BRRS This Extension Division is held responsible for the marketing of all approved seed for sale from the research station to the farmers. It is a simple process that begins with determining the seed needs of farmers in each rice growing region at the beginning of each season.

18 b) Monitoring the performance of BRRS seed paddy The BRRS seeds that are sold are monitored for performance, firstly for germination and overall emergence (vigor) during the early stages of growth. Later, the fields are evaluated through continuous monitoring for the ability of the seed-lot to withstand disease-pressure and demonstrate improved yield performance. c) Monitoring of Seed Fields at BRRS The Extension Division has undertaken the additional task of monitoring approximately 500 acres through periodic inspection to ensure that the seed being produced conforms to established (FAO) standards. This is done three times per season. Inspection provides credence to the Extension officers to vigorously promote and market the seeds, while preventing the likelihood of poor quality seeds getting into the system. d) Monitoring/Certification of Farmers seed production The seeds sold by the BRRS are multiplied by farmers to generate their own seed stock. This is sold to other farmers, retained as seed, or sometimes sold directly to mills. Whatever the intended use of the seeds, the fields will be inspected as part of the continuous monitoring process initiated at the research level. In order for a farmer to be qualified as a seed grower, he has to meet the criteria for seed production set out by the research station.

2. Technology application

The mandate of technology transfer is to help farmers identify and adopt alternate technologies and management strategies that increase the productivity and income-earning capacities of their farming systems. This is achieved through the following means. a. Developing competency and coordination within the Extension unit Development of the competency of officers of the Extension Division was achieved through a series of in-house meetings and training throughout the season. That resulted in skills- development of these officers, who are knowledgeable and are ready to deliver the programme. Skills were also developed through meetings with farmers and researchers before the season commenced, when the programme for the season is discussed. Additionally, monthly meetings are held on the last Thursday of each month among research and extension officers to follow up on the progress of programmes. These meetings also allow for interaction of extension staff with research personnel and other peers, and to make recommendations on whatever adjustments are needed to enhance efficiency of the programme. Reports are presented, discussed, and information shared so that everyone present can be apprised of the occurrences in other regions.

The Extension Manager visits the field with the officers, twice per week to monitor progress and to mentor officers in the implementation of the specific extension programme. The field visits facilitate the meeting of farmers, where the direct interaction provides for hands-on review of impending risks to the rice crop. The officers themselves meet at the end of every

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season to conduct peer reviews, report on achievements and constraints, and to develop their work programmes for the coming season.

The division conducts several exchange visits intra and inter-regionally during the season to expose farmers and extension officers to the operations, and to identify potential synergies that can be created. The exchanges provide a useful platform for interaction and the exchange of ideas and information among farmers. The Extension Division provides field officers with information via leaflets and brochures for free distribution. These bring awareness to non- target farmers and consolidate the knowledge that is being transferred to the target group and serve to back up Extension work in field sessions. Field officers are provided with sweep nets, squares meter, rulers, tapes and salinity testers to ensure objectivity in data collection and when making diagnostics and recommendations. Recently Extension officers became equipped with vehicles that could access the fields for all weather needs/conditions, which have led to greater efficiency in the delivery of their services to farmers. b. Transfer of Technology to all farmers The Extension officers’ programmes are designed to allow any farmer access to the extension officer. While each farmer is not guaranteed a visit each season, he has weekly access to the officers through the Farmers Field School programmes, which are widely advertised; fixed office days, and the public seminars and meetings. Office days are supplemented by field visits, field days and home visits. The target group for technology transfer remains those who purchase seeds from the programme, as well as those involved in the Farmer Field School. The extension officers each operate on a ratio of one to about 300 farmers, and each officer covers approximately eight thousand acres, which is not linearly distributed, for all regions have varying acreages (Table 1). Table 1: Ratio of officers to total area and number of farmers

Regions Officers No. Area* Ratio* Ratio** Farmers (Acreage) (Officer: area) (Officer: Farmers) 2 8 2500 37,000 5,000 1:300 3 4 1200 21,000 7,000 1:300 4&5 8 2,300 110,000 23,000 1:300 6 8 1,500 62,000 8,000 1:200 *rounded off to the nearest thousand **rounded off to the nearest hundred

The volume and work-spread make it an overwhelming challenge to reach each farmer in a given season. In this regard, the Extension Division has identified three main groups for focus. (1) Farmers

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The Extension Division has articulated a mass communication approach to ensure that all farmers are brought under the technology-transfer umbrella. The means to reach the wider farming community is achieved through specific office days, held weekly, that allows farmers to meet with officers for discussions/enquires on solutions to problems. In addition, leaflets, brochures, newsletters, circular letters and other technology promotion documents are available at strategic locations, including field offices. These are distributed free of charge to the public. (11) Interested Persons Farmers and other interested persons in the rice sector can also participate fully in field days, during which demonstrations are done as they are also part of this approach. Those who cannot be contacted by the method stated previously are reached indirectly, through the mass media e.g. radio, television, newspaper articles, and the quarterly Rice News produced by Guyana Rice Development Board. (111) Farmers Focused Groups

The third method of soliciting farmer participation is through focus groups, or the FFS. In this arrangement farmers are in more intimate contact with Extension officers, and all parties participate in a planned training programme throughout the whole season. d) Extension/ Research Collaboration There is a strong linkage between Extension services and research as both departments are under the purview of the same organization. Integration is enhanced through meetings, interpersonal relationships, seminars, field activities, etc. In addition to routine Research & Extension interaction, the Division is also called upon to work directly with Research in their regional programmes. Extension’s role in the programme is more of a supervisory and monitoring nature and complements the work of the researchers. The programmes are not only restricted to seed production, but incorporate all others that support the expression and extraction of optimum results for the seed. These include monitoring basic seed production, monitoring Advanced Yield Trials, on-farm performance trials, upland blast nursery, fertilizer trials, and result demonstrations.

3. Data collection and information Extension officers, along with Guyana Rice Producers Association (RPA) field officers contracted by GRDB, collect information on a standard format provided to them. This is used to inform the management of GRDB and other stakeholders about the status of the industry in various areas of rice production. For example, padi production, cultivated targets, padi bug status, Schoonord grass levels, loss assessment, drainage and irrigation etc. The data are collected continuously, and records provided on a weekly and monthly basis during the season and during the off-season as well. The information is collated and forwarded to the respective Departments and Heads. Quarterly and Annual Reports are prepared, giving the status of activities in the overall programme of the GRDB.

4. Unplanned/ Support activities These are activities that the division is called upon to perform from time to time that require immediate action and are based on requests and directives from the department, or

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stakeholders. While this action appears as a diversion from the division’s main objectives, it provides support to the implementation of other components that form part of the programme. These activities include visits by senior government functionaries, mobilization of farmers to attend field days and seminars, participation in fairs and exhibitions, and special assignments. Most of the ad hoc activities have, over time, become a permanent part of the extension programme: e.g., World Food Day, GUYEXPO, Guyana Night, BRRS Field days, etc. It should be noted that these activities have become a priority over the Extension programme.

Issues that Challenge effective extension delivery Although much progress has been made with the Extension services several constraints continue to hinder its proper functioning, namely lack of new technologies, inadequate use of ICT and mass media, lack of capacity to deal with new challenges, attendance, non-technical issues, Interagency collaboration, quality research and Extension integration, disparity of information from different actors in Extension and the unsuitable officer to farmer ratio. Six-point high yield growing system The six-point technology was obtained through an alliance with the Latin American Fund for Irrigated Rice (FLAR). The fact that the programme was successful in Latin America strongly suggested that it can also be successful in Guyana, given its geographical location and similarity in environmental conditions and the need for a strategy to deal with low yields. It was seen as the way forward for crop management in Guyana’s rice industry. In the spring crop of 2007, the six-point programme commenced in Guyana when a bold risk was taken to bypass the scientific research validation process and demonstrate the technology in farmers’ fields. The programme started with six (6) farmers and has since become the backbone of farmer management practices. It was recognised that in order to effectively transfer the technology, a farmer to farmer approach had to be adopted with learning in groups being the dominant strategy. The fact that the extension department was already using a group approach (Farmers Field School) in its training programmes made it easier for the programme to get started. Approximately 400 FFS were conducted to date incorporating the six-point system. These sessions culminated in field days towards the end of the season, which complemented the FFS sessions Farmers from all rice growing areas were given the opportunity to evaluate a demonstration incorporating the six practices. Other supporting strategies included seasonal reviews, radio and television programmes, special video training and brochure distribution. The successful implementation of the six-point programme could not have been achieved without the sterling efforts of a group of well-trained and motivated staff. All Extension staff received extensive training in the technical aspects of growing rice and more specifically on the six improved crop management practices. The six-point system involves time of sowing, seed rate, seed treatment, weed control, balanced nutrition and water management. This is further illustrated as follows: 1. Time of Sowing

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Solar radiation has a significant impact on the yield of rice. Shading during the reproductive phase affects the number of spikelets per panicle. During ripening, shading reduces grain yield due to a spurt in spikelets (Yashida, 1981). Adjusting the date of sowing, so that the crop can receive the maximum solar radiation from the start of primordial stage to heading stage or flower emergence, allows the varieties to fully express their yield potential. The low level of solar radiation will have the reverse effect. Data on intensity of solar radiation is not available in Guyana, however the accumulated sunshine hours obtained for February and March and August and September suggest that it is the best period (> 254 hours/month) for flowering and increase yields. The latter will be much greater in the February to March period than August to September.

2. Seed rate The rice plant depends on solar radiation, moisture and soil fertility for growth and nutritional requirements. A thick population may have limitation in the maximum availability of these factors. High densities of plants produce weak plants, susceptible to lodging and attack of diseases, especially piricularia and rhizoctonia. It is therefore necessary to ensure that there is optimum density of plant population per unit to produce healthy, strong plants and ultimately, higher yields.

To obtain high yields with modern varieties, between 80-89kg/hectare of seeds is sufficient, resulting in a population of 150-250 plants/m2. The use of densities between 80- 100kg/hectare reduces the cost of seeds and permits treating the seeds with insecticides, achieving a healthy and strong crop that stops the attack of fungal diseases.

3. Treatment of seeds Farmers apply pyrethroids base products to control early season pests, especially water weevil. The pyrethroids kill only the adult weevils, not the eggs or larvae, and therefore, require repeated applications. This practice eliminates the beneficiary fauna making the area sterile and encouraging migration of an increased number of pests which can result in significant damage to the crop.

A healthier and more economic form to attack this problem is to treat the seeds with insecticides. Treated seeds provide control of the first larvae generation and inhibit population growth. In this way, only the insects that affect the plant are controlled and those that are beneficiary are protected, returning the ambient balance in the crop. Various products and ways of treating the seeds exist. Generally, the most effective products are those with the active ingredients of Fipronil, imidacloprid and phenyl pyrazole.

4. Weed Control

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Weeds compete with the crop for light, nutrients, and space. Although ploughing, puddling and leveling reduce the incidence of weeds, they should be combined with other forms of control.

An integrated approach to the control of weeds starts with the use of high quality seeds, free of red rice and other weeds. Other important factors in the prevention of weed infestation include leveling of the fields, adequate preparation of the soil, management of water and the use of chemical products.

The control of weeds is most effective when it is done at an early stage (1 – 3 leaves). The mixture of herbicides pre and post emergent, applied at early post emergence, permits good control. The management of water allows better residual control, preventing re- infestations, and reduces costs.

5. Balanced Nutrition The crop should depend on adequate nutrients that allow it to take advantage of ambient conditions and to express the genetic potential of the varieties.

Phosphorous (P) - During irrigation the rice does not require a great quantity of phosphate; after the crop is flooded, the total amount of P in the soil is available. In traditional rice zones, farmers have applied sufficient P; because of this the soils generally show high levels of this element. In general terms, it is only necessary to replace the P left in the grain, which should be incorporated into the soil at land preparation

Potassium (K) – The rice plant requires an adequate supply of potassium. The best way to determine the necessity for K is through soil analysis. Recent soil analyses indicate that 90-100 Kg/hectare of K2O is sufficient to achieve optimum yields. Like phosphorus, potassium should also be incorporated into the soils for maximum results

Nitrogen (N) – The most important element for the production of rice is nitrogen, and urea is the most common source of nitrogen. Farmers should take precautions to prevent great losses from the inadequate management of urea.

The application of N is optimum if done in the field on dry soil and applied in phases indicated for the crop, before permanent flooding. After the application on dry soil, the farmers should irrigate and establish a thin layer of constant water, preferably within five days of nitrogen application.

The flood incorporates the nitrogen fertilizer into the soil. If flooding is delayed, urea loses nitrogen to the air because of volatilization, especially in soils with high PH levels.

6. Water Management Water management is critical in maximizing rice yields. It is necessary for weed control, preventing nitrogen loss and maximizing grain filling.

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To achieve these results, it is necessary to establish a layer of water as soon as possible, attending to the capacity of the field and external factors such as the appearance of algae. Farmers have to evaluate their fields and verify that their crop can support the layer of water, permitting to drain/dry the field and apply nitrogen, following the flooding and never leaving the field dry until the dough stage. In leveled fields water established for sowing should remain in the field until removal to allow for weed control and application of fertilizer. Re-flooding after fertilization of 22 DAS will prevent loss of nitrogen due to volatilization.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Not diminishing the role research, policy and good sector management have played to secure significantly improved rice yields, this paper will elaborate on the contribution of Extension services as a result of the dissemination of the “six-point” system. The main objectives of this paper are to: (i) describe the adoption of the six points and (ii) to detail the yields associated with the adoption levels and (iii) to assess farmers’ perceptions of the role of Extension in the process.

METHODOLOGY

A structured questionnaire was developed jointly by researchers and contained both open and closed- ended questions. It was reviewed by a team of regional supervisors of the Extension Department for content validity. The final draft was discussed with District Rice Extension officers who were tasked with the responsibility of conducting the survey and later pretested with ten farmers.

The survey was conducted in the five rice growing regions of Guyana with all categories of farmers participating. It was done by the Extension Department of the Guyana Rice Development Board during the period from June to July 2014. The study used a sample of 454 farmers (Table 1), distributed proportionally according to the number of farmers per rice growing region. Some oversampling was done to ensure that findings could be generalized to capture all rice farmers in their respective regions at the lowest margin of error. The farmers were chosen randomly from a register containing the names and address of all rice farmers. Farmers were presented forms by extension officers and asked to complete same. In cases where the farmers were unable to do so, the forms were completed by the officer upon instruction from the farmer. No names were recorded on the forms. At the end of the survey, the completed forms were collated by the Regional Coordinator /Extension Supervisor, signed, dated and submitted to the author. Data were entered into an Excel spreadsheet and analyzed using SPSS.

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Table 1. Sample selected from each region.

Regions No. Sample Farmers 2 2500 140

3 1200 75 4&5 2,300 139 6 1,500 100

Total 7,500 454

RESULTS Personal and farm related data

Table 2 shows that the sample consisted of 94% male farmers. The majority of farmers (58%) were between 26 and 50 years. Some 33% can be considered as above middle age and old (more than 50 years). A small percentage (10%) can be considered young (<25 years). Most of the farmers (55%) were involved in rice cultivation for over 10 years; 24% were involved for 11-20 years and 315 were involved for >20 years.

Some 94.3% of farmers owned the land they farmed. Further, 63.4% of those farmers also rented additional lands. Farmers also reported planting other crops along with rice (28%) and keeping animals (29.7%).

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Table 2: Personal and farm related data Variable Category No. % Male 429 94 Gender Female 25 6 18-25 Years 44 10 26-50 Years 263 58 Age 51-65 Years 116 26 >65 Years 31 7 1-10 acres 112 24.6 11-20 acres 79 17.4 21-30 acres 50 11 Plant with rice 31-40 acres 37 8 41-50 acres 40 9 50-100 acres 67 14.8 >100 acres 69 15.2 1-5 Years 86 19 6-10 Years 117 26 Years cultivating rice 11-20 Years 110 24 >20 141 31 Own 428 94.3 Own and Rent 288 63.4 Land ownership/Use Rice and other crops 127 28 Rice and animals 135 29.7

Interaction with Extension

Table 3 shows that farmers overwhelmingly reported that Extension officers were their main source of information (87%).

Regarding farmers who attended Extension activities in the last year, the largest percentage reported attending up to five extension activities (49%). Fewer farmers attended more than ten sessions (17%), while 13% reported not attending any extension activities. As regards farmer participation in specific activities, demonstrations attracted the highest participation (69%), followed by Farmer Field School (68%) and then, the EOS review (50%). Lowest participation was in sessions that showed the seed treatment video (31%).

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Because of their participation in extension activities, the majority (64%) reported that they acquired “a lot” of new ideas. A small percentage (12%) reported getting “very little” or no new ideas.

Table 3:

No. %

Main information source Extension Officer 393 87 Another Farmer 46 10 Friend 5 1 Relative 7 2 Other 3 1 Number of Extension activities attended over the year 2-5 224 49

6-10 92 20 >10 77 17 None 61 13 Activities participated Yes (n) % No (n) (%) Farmer Field School 273 60 181 40 Demonstrations 312 69 142 31 Field Day 219 48 235 52 Seed Treatment Video 142 31 312 69 End of Season Review 226 50 228 50

New ideas acquired A Lot 289 64 Some 110 24 Very Little 8 2 None 47 10

Knowledge and Practice adoption of the six-point technology package

Table 4 shows that the great majority of farmers surveyed (92%) knew of the six-point technology package and a similar number (94%) thought that the technology package had an impact on production. Most of the farmers have used some or all of the components of the system for at least three years (66%), while 29% had been using it for 4-5 years.

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Table 4:

Knowledge of six-point system Yes 416 92 No 38 8 Did six-point technology have an Yes 426 94 impact No 28 6 No. of Years Some or All of the Six 1-3 Years 295 66 Points have been Practiced 4-5 Years 129 29 6-7 Years 21 5

Table 5 shows that, overall, there was a high level of adoption (84%) of the six-point technology package. Adoption of the individual components varied however:

- Highest adoption was for “Time of planting” and “Treatment of Seeds” (95% respectively) - “Weed control” and “Use of Mixed fertilizer” practices were adopted by 84% of farmers and “Water management “by 81% of farmers. - Lowest adoption was for the “Density of Planting (67%) practice.

Overall, the six-point technology package was applied on the majority of farm holdings. Individual application rates varied, but in general, rates were high (over 80%) for all components with “Water management”, “Time of Planting “and “Treatment of seed” components being 90% or over.

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Table 5: Adoption of the six technologies and application on farm lands

Practices Adopted Portion of land

applied to

YES % NO % All (n) Part (n)

n (n) (%)

Time of Planting 431 23 408 95 5 23 (95%)

Density of Planting 305 149 259 67 33 48 (84%)

Treatment of Seed 427 27 386 94 6 42 (90%) Weed Control 383 71 332 84 16 51 (87%) Water Management 368 86 330 81 19 38 (90%) Mixed Fertilizer 382 72 315 84 16 67 (82%)

Impact on Farm Yields Data (Table 6) show that before the adoption of the six points, most of farmers (69.6 %) obtained between 21-30 bags of rice per acre and a smaller amount (18.2%) between 31-40 bags/acre. No farmer reported yields higher than 40 bags/acre. After the application of the six-point technology however, the majority (58.1%) obtained higher yields, between 41-50 bags/acre; (10.3%) reported yields of 31-40 bags/ac. No farmer who practiced the six points received less than 20 bags/acre. Percent increases in yield show that while 23.6% obtained a modest 20% yield increase, some 40.1% reported 21- 40% increases in yield, and 21.8% reported even higher yield (41-60%) increases.

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Table 6:

Average Yield Yield (bags/ac) No. of Farmers BEFORE practicing 1-10 4

Some or All of the Six 11-20 51 Points 21-30 316 31-40 83

41-50 0 >50 0 1-10 0

Average Yield AFTER 11-20 0 practicing Some or All 21-30 47 of the Six Points 31-40 264

41-50 124 >50 7 1-20 107

% Increase in yield 21-40 182 AFTER practicing 41-60 99 Some or All of the Six 61-80 30

Points 81-100 12 >100 9

400 300 200 100 0 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 >50 bags/ac bags/ac bags/ac bags/ac bags/ac bags/ac No. of farmers before SIX Points

No. of farmers after SIX Points

Figure 1 presents yield increases in a graphical way

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Perception of Factors and Roles of Extension in yield increases

Table 7 shows that most farmers thought that the six-point technology was the main factor (73%) contributing to yield increases, followed by the use of improved varieties (26%).

Farmers thought the Extension officers contributed “to a large extent” (66%) and” to some extent” (27%) in helping them achieve their present yields. Further, farmers held the view that Extension could help them further increase their yields by providing them with good quality seed paddy and more improved seed varieties. Table 7:

No. % Six-Point Technology 330 73

Factors that Contributed MOST Varieties 117 26

to Present Yields Drainage and irrigation 5 1

Prices 2 0

Contribution of A Lot 298 66

Extension Officers to Some 123 27

achievement of Very Little 19 4

present yields None 14 3

Top 5 ways in which Provide Good Quality Seed Paddy 129 20 Extension Officers Provide More Improved Varieties 91 14 can further assist in Conduct more field Visits 49 8 improving rice yield Conduct more FFS 44 7

and quality Training programmes 45 7 Information most New Varieties 102 19 needed presently to Plant Nutrition 56 10 Improve Rice Yields Soil Test Results 52 10 Red Rice Control 38 7

Payment from Millers 31 6

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“Worries” of farmers

Highest rated concerns of farmers as they seek to increase yields were their need for better prices and timely payment by the Millers. The area of drainage and irrigation was of some concern to them also.

Table 8:

Variable Category n % Timely Payment by Millers 229 34

Top Factors Considered by Farmers Better Prices 201 30 as "WORRIES" Drainage & Irrigation 117 17

Cost of inputs 27 4

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The six-point technology package of practices has been widely adopted by farmers. While the adoption of technologies is impacted by factors such as characteristics of the technology, the information accompanying it, appropriateness of the technology and support in terms of research and policy, the role of Extension is highlighted in this study. The Extension Service has made a valuable contribution to the adoption of the six-point technology package and this has resulted in higher yields and incomes for farmers. Results showed that for most of the rice farmers, Extension Service is the main source of information and the majority of farmers acquire most of their rice farming information from them. Extension officers’ use of experiential type learning activities resonated well with farmers as most indicated participation in the Farmer Field School and demonstrations. The participatory type learning activities have been shown to be associated with successful technology adoption in other countries and commodities.

The adoption of a technology is sustained as most farmers have been using it for several years, with some 29% using it for the last five years. This speaks to the appropriateness of the package presented to them by Extension services. In many technologies that have crossed the region in the recent past, technology discontinuance has been high. Moreover, all the components of the package have been highly adopted which is an essential feature if the type of yields promised by full package adoption is to be achieved. As a result, farmers reported significant increases in yields and 73% attributed their yield increase to the six- point technology package adoption. A main role of Extension is to bring new technologies to farmers and the Extension Service did that in this case, bringing a technology from Venezuela and doing the appropriate modifications to meet local farming circumstances. This is good extension practice. The systematic approach to the sourcing and introduction of the technology used in this situation can serve as an example for others wishing to introduce new technologies to their enterprise.

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For further increases in rice yield, the issues identified by most farmers revolve around the provision of non-educational activities such as inputs and varieties. These, as well as timely payment for farmers, need to be addressed. If not, it can serve as a de-motivator which can have the effect of eroding the gains achieved by the adoption of the six-point system. Government needs to intervene in this situation. REFERENCES Annual Report of the Guyana Rice Development Board, Georgetown, Guyana 2013 Annual Report, Bank of Guyana, 2013, Bureau of statistics bulletin, Guyana 2013 Davidson. W, 150 years of Agricultural Education in Guyana, Franklin Books, 1997. Homenauth. O, Review of Rice Industry, Georgetown, Guyana 1996 Madramotoo. H, 1973, The story of Rice in Guyana Pontus. J 2000, Farmer Field School to Community IPM Proceedings, International Rice Conference; Celebrating 100 years of rice exports, Liliendaal, Guyana 2008 Research and Extension Report of the Guyana Rice Development Board; Guyana Rice Development Board, InterAmerican Development Bank, Georgetown Guyana 2000 Strategic Plan of Rice Industry 2012 – 2020; Guyana Rice Development Board/InterAmerican Development Bank, Georgetown Guyana 2000

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 35-42. 2017

FARMER’S NEEDS AND EXTENSION READINESS TO RESPOND POST-DISASTER IN THE OECS

Wayne Ganpat1, Tessa Barry2, Amy Harder3 and Nelsha Shillingford4, The University of the West Indies and CAEPNet. 1Dean, Faculty of Food and Agriculture and Co-Chair of CAEPNet [email protected]; 2PhD Candidate Department of Agriculture, Economics and Extension and member of CAEPNet; 3Associate Professor and Extension Specialist, Florida University; 4MPhil Candidate Department of Agriculture, Economics and Extension and member of CAEPNet

ABSTRACT: The Caribbean has been marred with devastating weather phenomena, hurricanes being the most destructive. In recent times, there have been increases in occurrence and severity of these natural phenomena creating significant implications for food security and farmers’ livelihood, as the agricultural sector is the sector that withstands the worst of these devastations. In August 2015, Tropical Storm Erika devastated the island of Dominica with an estimated 483 million USD in damages (Government of Dominica report, 2015). In December of 2013, heavy rains and flash floods severely affected farmers in St. Vincent and St. Lucia, and in 2004, Grenada experienced its most devastating hurricane, Ivan. Climate change is affecting food production globally (FARMD 2012). Although Caribbean countries contribute little to its cause, they suffer disproportionally (Vergara et al., 2013, p. 19). The islands’ proximity to the hurricane belt make them susceptible to natural disasters. Malcom et al (2012) posits that while the impact of these disasters may be detrimental what is important is the agricultural sector’s responsiveness to the extent of damages they cause (Malcom, 2012, 5). Natural disasters can have long lasting effects on agricultural production hence it is imperative that farmers learn how to prepare and respond appropriately to natural disasters to lessen the long-term effects (United States EPA, 2012). It is against this backdrop that this study sought to assess the needs of farmers post disasters and the readiness of the various extension divisions in the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), to deliver on the expressed needs of vulnerable farming communities post-disaster. A survey was conducted with four hundred and fifty-eight (458) farmers and seventy-one (71) extension officers across the Eastern Caribbean. The islands included in the survey were Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Dominica, St. Kitts and Antigua. The results showed that the most significant needs of farmers post disaster were financial assistance and inputs, such as planting materials, fertilizers and pesticides. Farmers also expressed the need for emotional support. The results also indicate a need by extension officers for development and training opportunities in disaster recovery efforts and how to assist farmers in coping and dealing with the stress of loss of their livelihoods. Extension officers also noted inadequacies in how their needs were addressed thereby slowing their efforts in responding adequately to the needs of farmers, especially in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. Keywords: Extension, farmers, extension officers, disaster, preparedness

35

INTRODUCTION

The Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) views climate change as “one of the most serious challenges confronting the Caribbean Region (OECS Secretariat, 2017). The OECS region, which is a sub region of the Caribbean, comprises the smaller island states that are considered “particularly vulnerable, because of their relatively small economies” (OECS Secretariat, 2017). In the last decade, the region has seen an increase in temperatures, changes in the pattern of rainfall, a rise in sea levels as well as increased intensity in the hurricanes, storms and floods affecting the islands (ibid). Agricultural production has been affected considerably by the variation in weather patterns resulting in significant implications for food security, farmers’ livelihood and rural community development, as these islands are heavily dependent on agriculture and tourism as major contributors to their economies. A report from St. Kitts stated that if losses are to be significantly reduced with rapid return to normalcy, then “a plan must be aimed at national level responses” (NEMA 2013, 7) in these islands. Forum for Agricultural Risk Management in Management in Development (FARMD) concludes that Extension Advisory Services (EAS) play a critical role in risk management for smallholder farmers (FARMD 2012), and, therefore, should be considered as a first response opportunity to farmers who experience losses. It is however noted by the organization that the role of extension often goes under-utilized in some instances (ibid). State-run extension units should be prepared to assist its farmers in the event of a disaster; this competency is of utmost importance for small nations that are particularly vulnerable to severe weather patterns. This paper assesses the needs of farmers post natural disasters and the level of preparedness of extension officers in the OECS region to meet the expressed needs of these farmers. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The descriptive study surveyed seventy-one (71) extension officers and four hundred and fifty- eight (458) farmers. Farmers were chosen proportionately from the agricultural districts of six OECS islands, Grenada (n=99), St. Vincent (n=95), St. Lucia (n=64), Dominica (n = 101), St. Kitts (n = 50) and Antigua (n =49). Since there were no formal lists of farmers available at the time, a 15% sample was selected from each district based on the extension officer’s estimate of the number of farmers in the district. The farmers’ survey instrument adapted from Telg et al (2008) consisted of five sections: (a) needs and assessment of support given after a disaster, (b) farmer group involvement, (c) preferred communication methods, (d) barriers to accessing resources, and (e) demographics.

The sample of extension officers consisted of officers from each district and the Head of the extension service of all the islands with the exception of St. Kitts. The survey was administered with the staff members present at general staff meetings. The final sample represents those present at the meetings on the day of the data collection. The survey instrument for the extension officers also adapted from Telg et al (2008) comprised four sections: (a) staff personal needs post-disaster, (b) professional needs, (c) communication efforts, and (d) demographics.

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MAIN RESULTS

Farmers’ Perspectives on Preparedness Farmers were asked to identify their needs immediately after a disaster and to indicate whether these same needs existed six months later.

Table 1: Farmers’ needs post natural disasters (Immediate needs and needs six months later)

Items Immediate needs Needs six months later % % Clearing of access roads 37.3 14.8 Clearing of farm lands 43.4 19.4 Farm tools and equipment 26.0 12.9 Farm labour support 37.3 29.7 Rebuilding/Repairing of house 15.9 8.5 Removal of land slides 15.1 8.1 Financial assistance 70.3 67.0 Food items 12.2 5.5 Planting material 71.4 54.8 Fertilizers and pesticides 69.4 57.6

Farmers’ most significant immediate needs after a hurricane were financial assistance (70.3%), planting material (71.4%), and fertilizers and pesticides (69.4%). Farmers indicated that these needs remained significant, though to a slightly lesser extent, six months after with financial needs at (67%), planting material at (54.8%), fertilizers, and pesticides at (57.6%).

70 63.8 60 54.4 60 50 44.5 50 40 40 34.9

30 30 Percentage

Percentage 20 20 10 10 1.3 1.1 0 0 Yes No No yes no No response response Emotional need Physical needs

Figure 1: Support for physical needs Figure 2: Support for emotional needs

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As indicated in the figures 1 and 2 above, most farmers indicated they received support for their physical needs (54.4%) and were aware that most of the assistance given came from the Ministry of Agriculture through extension; however, some 63.8% indicated that their emotional needs were not satisfied. Farmers also indicated that they were not satisfied with the time the field agents took to reach them following a natural disaster. While there was an indication that farmers were moderately satisfied with the various functions of the extension services and the performance of the extension officers, the majority (60.5%) indicated that it took the officers more than two weeks after a disaster struck to reach them.

70.0

60.0

50.0 40.0 30.0 60.5

Percentage 20.0 10.0 5.0 9.2 10.7 14.6 0.0 Within 1-3 Within 1 Within 2 >2 weeks No response days week week Period

Figure 3: Response time of extension agents post disaster

Table 2: Farmers’ perceived barriers to accessing resources. Not a Low Moderate Major No Categorization barrier Barrier Barrier Barrier Response Poor communication 14.8 21.8 18.6 37.6 7.2 Poor organization structure and capacity of Extension 12.7 21.2 29.7 28.8 7.6 The extent of assistance needed 11.8 28.2 22.3 29.3 8.5 Low status of farmers 17.7 27.5 24.5 22.9 7.4 Location of farmers in rural areas 18.6 30.8 21.4 22.1 7.2 Unavailability of resources 6.1 17.2 22.3 47.6 6.8 Political issues/affiliation 11.1 12.7 25.5 43.2 7.4

The study revealed a number of issues, which were perceived as barriers to accessing resources post a natural disaster. Farmers identified unavailability of resources (47.6%) and political affiliation (43.2%) as major barriers. Overall, famers did not believe (31.4%) or were not aware (36.2%) that the extension units had a disaster mitigation plan to respond to farmers needs post- disaster, while 28.4% of the farmers surveyed however reported that extension units had some

38 form of response strategy in place.

Extension Officers’ Perspectives on Preparedness

The study also sought to gain some insights from the extension staff on how they perceived their level of preparedness in response to natural disasters.

60

50

40

30

53.5 Percentage Percentage (%) 20 38

10 18.2

0 Transport training finance Three greatest needs

Figure 4: Staffs’ three greatest needs post natural disaster

Extension staff identified transportation (53.5%), disaster training (38%) and financial assistance (18.2%) as three of the most significant needs post natural disasters. When questioned on whether they received support for their physical and emotional needs post a natural disaster, most extension officers reported they had no support for their physical needs (69.7%) and like the farmers, the majority (64.5%) indicated no support for their emotional needs.

Opportunities for Training on Disaster Mitigation and Management

39

Disaster Training

8% Yes 48% No 44% Not aware of training

Figure 5: Training on disaster

Regarding training opportunities on disaster mitigation and management, 48% of the extension staff indicated that they received training, while 44% claimed they had no training in that field. The majority identified their greatest professional development needs were in the areas of hurricane disaster recovery efforts (56.3%) and helping farmers cope with stress (49.4%). Such training is a prerequisite for a disaster management plan, as suggested by Telg et al. (2008).

Table 3: Extension staff greatest professional development needs

No Great Some need need need (%) Categorization (%) (%) To balance personal and professional demands/needs 16.9 54.9 28.2 To work with the media 9.8 42.2 42.2 To cope with personal stress 14.2 43.6 42.2 To help co-workers cope with stress 9.8 47.8 42.4 To help farmers cope with stress 9.8 40.8 49.4 To manage my personal needs 14.1 53.5 32.3 To manage my physical needs 15.4 50.7 33.8 Hurricane disaster preparedness 5.6 38 56.3 Hurricane disaster recovery efforts 7.8 40.8 52.1 To apply my training in disaster situations 8.4 49.2 42.2

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Farmers expressed that their needs post disasters are usually financial assistance and input needs which include planting material and fertilizers. While some of these needs are met immediately after a disaster, farmers claim that often these same needs exist six or more months later. Farmers indicated that most of their physical needs are looked after post disaster, even if not immediately; however, they claim that not much effort is placed on the emotional stress experienced in losing their main source of income.

While farmers are generally satisfied with the services provided by the extension agents when they do receive them, the response time is usually too slow. There is evidence of why farmers perceive the response time as too slow as the officers themselves indicated that one of their greatest needs in which to effectively conduct their duties is that of transportation. They explained that frequently they do not have adequate transportation to get to the farmers even if supplies are available to meet their needs. Additionally, extension officers must grapple with the lack of support for their physical and emotional needs post disasters, as they too would have experienced the effects of a natural disaster.

Extension officers need to be trained annually in the area of disaster management and mitigation strategies prior to the start of hurricane season. In turn, extension officers should provide farmers with annual disaster preparation training. Better governmental interagency collaboration will also be needed to address the stated needs and barriers by improving access to financial assistance and improving infrastructure to facilitate better response times by extension officers.

The importance of psychological preparation should be given highest attention for both staff and farmers, since neglect of psychological support after a disaster can impair efforts at physical rehabilitation (WHO, 2006) and has implications for the health and well-being of farmers as well as officers. Extension officers are not trained mental health professionals; therefore, the expectation must be to prepare officers to share appropriate mental health resources with their clientele. Officers should be taught to recognize the signs of a mental health crisis and how and where to get help for farmers. They also need training on how to recognize when they themselves need to seek help. Being adequately prepared in these areas, extension will be able to improve the welfare of farmers by fulfilling vital technical and social service roles when disaster strikes again.

REFERENCES

Commonwealth of Dominica. (2015). Rapid Damage and Impact Assessment, Tropical Storm Erika – August 27th, 2015 Retrieved from http://www.drrinacp.org/sites/drrinacp.org/files/publication/Commonwealth%20of20Dominica% %Rapid%Damage%20and%20and%20Needs%20Assessment%20Final%20Report%20.pdf

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FARMD (2012) Extension Services for Effective Agricultural Risk Management. Retrieved March 22, 2017, from https://www.agriskmanagementforum.org/content/extension-services- effective-agricultural-risk-management.

National Emergency Management Agency. (2013). St Kitts & Nevis National Disaster Plan. Part 1 Basic Plan. Lime Kiln, Basseterre, St. Kitts – Nevis

OECS 2017. Climate Change. Retrieved from http://www.oecs.org/topics/climate-change, May 30th 2017.

Telg, R., Irani, T., Place, N., DeGroat, A. R., Ladewig, H., Kistler, M. (2008). Disaster preparedness and professional and personal challenges of county extension faculty during the 2004 hurricane season. Journal of Extension, 46(3). Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/2008june/a6.php

Vergara, W., A. R. Rios, L. M. Galindo, P. Gutman, P. Isbell, P. H. Suding and J.L. Samaniego (2013) The Climate and Development Challenge for Latin America and the Caribbean: Options for Climate – resilient, low-carbon development, New York Ave, Washington.

WHO. (2006). The mental health and psychological aspects of disaster preparedness. Report of an Intercountry Meeting Khao Lak, Thailand, 20-23 June 2006.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 43-47. 2017 THE ANATOMY OF A COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGN: HOW IMPACTFUL IS SOCIAL MEDIA Wayne Ganpat1, Nelsha Shillingford2 and Tessa Barry3, The University of the West Indies/CAEPNet. Dean, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, UWI, St Augustine. 2Mphil Candidate, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, UWI, St Augustine. 3PhD Candidate Department of Agriculture, Economics and Extension and member of CAEPNet

ABSTRACT: In any field of development, information is power, and information and communication technologies in recent times have brought this power to the fingertips of the people through its recent addition – social media. Traditional media such as radio, television, posters and fliers, newspaper and, to some extent, word of mouth have all been used in media campaign strategies during the 90s. A successful example was the Hibiscus Mealy Bug Information (HMB) Campaign, which helped to create awareness and control the mealy bug throughout the islands. Trinidad’s use of this campaign strategy was deemed a perfect model for addressing issues within the region. The Faculty of Food and Agriculture (FFA) held a three-day agricultural exhibition on “FFA grounds” at The University of the West Indies (UWI) St. Augustine, under the theme Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Commercialization, with the aim to open minds about agriculture. The expo proposed to change the stereotypical view of agriculture as being just crop production to efforts to aid in food security and development. The objectives of the expo included engaging different audiences, especially students who would consider agriculture as their future career, and the piloting of a mini study/project on the role of social media as a means of University – students – community engagements. Additionally, the expo sought to demonstrate the roles and activities of the Faculty of Food and Agriculture in development, to showcase technological, social, institutional and organizational achievements in the society and to establish a participatory platform that will act as an avenue for exchanging opinions and ideas between the FFA and societal stakeholders. This study, therefore, sought to assess the impact of social media as a communication campaign strategy for the expo; to identify social media tools used by expo participants and visitors to access information about it and to determine their level of satisfaction with the event and the information received. The results showed that while Facebook, Twitter and blogging were popular sources of information, the importance of word of mouth must never be overlooked, as a significant number of respondents indicated they received information about the event via word of mouth. Generally, the respondents expressed satisfaction with the event and with the information provided during the event. It can be concluded that social media has a great potential as a campaign strategy.

Keywords: Social media, tech-agri expo, communication, agriculture

43

INTRODUCTION

In any field of development, information is power, and information and communication technologies in recent times have brought this power to the fingertips of the people through its recent addition – social media (GFRAS 2016, 8). Traditional media such as radio, television, posters and fliers, newspaper and, to some extent, word of mouth have all been used in media campaign strategies during the 90s. A successful example was the Hibiscus Mealy Bug Information (HMB) Campaign which helped to create awareness and control the mealy bug throughout the islands. Trinidad’s use of this campaign strategy was deemed a perfect model for addressing issues within the region (Ganpat et al. 2011).

Social media is referred to as an internet –based digital tool, where users create online communities for sharing, interacting and exchanging information and ideas in any form such as images, videos, audio, personal messages and other content. Social media is aided by many types of social media platforms which include but are not limited to social networking sites, blogs, micro-blogs, content communities and socially integrated messaging platforms. Research has shown that these platforms have created a virtual communication forum, linking professionals in various fields and networking among various stakeholders globally. Social media proposes many possibilities as a communication campaign strategy (GFRAS 2016).

The Faculty of Food and Agriculture (FFA) held a three (3) day agricultural exhibition on “FFA grounds” at The University of the West Indies (UWI) St. Augustine, under the theme Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Commercialization with the aim to open minds about agriculture. The expo proposed to change the stereotypical views of agriculture as just crop production to efforts to aid in food security and development. The objectives of the expo included engaging different audiences, especially students who would consider agriculture as their next future career, and the piloting of a mini study/project for the role of social media as a means of University – students – community engagements. Additionally, the expo sought to demonstrate the roles and activities of the Faculty of Food and Agriculture in development, to showcase technological, social, institutional and organizational achievements in the society and to establish a participatory platform that will act as an avenue for exchanging opinions and ideas between the FFA and societal stakeholders.

This study therefore sought to assess the impact of social media as a communication campaign strategy for the expo; to identify the communication strategies used by expo participants to access information about it and to determine their level of satisfaction with the event and the information received.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The expo utilized three (3) campaign planning strategies, namely Pre-campaign, Expo broadcasting and Post-campaign. The faculty utilized both traditional and modern media in its pre- campaign. Traditional media included the use of radio, television, posters and fliers, newspaper

44 and emails while modern media included social media such as Facebook, blogs, Twitter, YouTube and WhatsApp. The pre-campaign strategy focused on development of a matrix inventory of social media platform users in Trinidad and Tobago while posting content such as “blog post, image, and video.” Social media campaign was undertaken by the Technology Transfer in agriculture (AGEX 3000) team of students as well as other communication channels such as newspaper advertisements, flyers and posters distribution, TV morning shows and strategic radio partner: Caribbean Lifestyle (CL) communications (“90.5 FM, Ebony 104 FM, Music Radio 97 and IETV”), for content dissemination and planning. The expo broadcasting strategy comprised of social media posting during the three days via YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, blogs, and WhatsApp. The post-campaign involved surveys; broadcast of aspects of the expo through photo, content and video sharing via social media.

The research utilized a structured questionnaire to collect the necessary data. The structured survey questionnaire was specifically designed for this study. The descriptive study surveyed four hundred (400) visitors to the expo over a three-day period. Two hundred (200) of the respondents were students selected from the various secondary schools studying science and agriculture attending the expo. The other two hundred (200) respondents were randomly selected among the general public attending the expo. From the general public, the researcher selected every fifth person visiting the expo to answer the questionnaire. The students were divided into batches to tour the expo; hence the researcher randomly selected five students from each batch as participants. The survey instrument was divided into two main sections, demographics selection and communication. The demographic section consisted of four (4) questions which sought to determine the respondents’ age, sex, occupation and highest level of education. The section on communication consisted of ten (10) questions which sought to determine the respondents’ main source of information as well as their views about the expo. Data was analyzed through descriptive statistics using Microsoft Excel (2015) software.

RESULTS Secondary school students

Of the two hundred (200) students surveyed, fifty percent (50%) were male while fifty percent (50%) were female. When questioned about the communication device owned, the three most popular were smart phones, laptops and television, all at (17%) each, followed by radio (14%) and tablet (13%). Significantly ninety-six (96%) of respondents indicated they used social media. Most frequently used to access information were Twitter (21%), Facebook (20%) and blogs (20%), which are all modern media. Forty-one percent (41%) of respondents identified word of mouth as their source of information about the expo, while eleven percent (11%) identified Facebook and ten percent (10%) television advertisement. Twenty-five percent (25%) of the respondents indicated they spent 1-4 hours a day on social media platforms and twenty percent (20%) spent more than 4 hours.

A significant sixty-eight percent (68%) indicated that they were satisfied with the event, with thirty-two (32%) being very satisfied and thirty-six percent (36%) satisfied. Only three (3%) expressed dissatisfaction with the event. Seventy-three percent (73%) found the information presented at the expo useful, among them, twenty-eight (28%) indicated information was

45 moderately useful, twenty-eight percent (28%), very useful, and seventeen percent (17%), extremely useful. More than half (76%) of the respondents stated that they were more than likely to attend a similar event in the future with a significant percent (85%) stating they would recommend such an event to their friends and family. The highlights of the expo, rated by the students, were attractions (26%), followed by food village, mini workshops and lab tours, each at 24%.

General public

Two hundred (200) persons were surveyed from the general public; forty percent (40%) were male while fifty-nine percent (59%) were female. Of the communication devices owned by the respondents, the three most popular were smart phones (20%); laptops (19%) and television (17%). Significantly, 97% of respondents indicated they used social media: Twitter (23 %), blogs (21%) and Facebook (17%). Again, the modern media were recorded as the most frequently used methods of accessing information. Just over thirty-one percent (31.8%) of respondents identified word of mouth as their source of information about the expo, while over fourteen percent (14.7%) identified Facebook and (10.1%) flyers/posters. Twenty- eight percent (28%) of respondents indicated they spent 1-4 hours a day on social media platforms and twenty-four percent (24%) spent 1 hour a day.

When questioned about their level of satisfaction with the event, significantly eighty–four percent (84%) indicated that they were satisfied, with forty-three percent (43%) being very satisfied and forty-one percent (41%) satisfied. Only (3%) of the general public surveyed expressed dissatisfaction with the event. Eighty-seven percent (87%) found the information presented at the expo useful, stating it was moderately useful (32%), very useful and extremely useful (22% each). More than half (68%) of the respondents stated that they were more than likely to attend a similar event in the future, with a significant percentage (95%) stating they would recommend such an event to their friends and family. The highlights of the expo rated by respondents were attractions (31%), food village (27%), mini workshops (22%) and lab tours (18%).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the majority of respondents accessed general information through modern media such as Facebook, Twitter and blogs. Although most of the respondents indicated that information about the expo was received via word of mouth and limited social media platforms, there is great potential for using social media to access information since a significant percentage of the respondents use social media as their source of information.

There was a high level of satisfaction with the event as well as the information received at the event both by the students and the general public. The event was viewed as one that can be recommended to friends and family.

Due to the high number of social media users, it can be recommended that social media be the primary source of communication for events such as these. A combination of Twitter, Blog and Facebook should be utilized as communication strategies in a social media campaign. The importance of word of mouth must not be overlooked as a significant number of respondents

46 indicated they received information about the event via word of mouth which to some extent, is also traditional media. Pan and Crotts (2012) concludes that information received from others is usually construed as trustworthy as those communicating the information are not usually compensated to do so (Pan and Crotts 2012, 6-7). Given the significant number of respondents who had access to social media and uses social media as sources of information, it can be concluded that social media has great potential as a campaign strategy.

REFERENCES

Ganpat, W. and Seepersad, J. 2002. “Trinidad & Tobago: Contracting for Extension Communication Services – the Hibiscus Mealy Bug Information Campaign.” In Contracting for Agricultural Extension, International case studies and emerging Practices, edited by Rivera, W. and Zip, W, 99-101. CABI Publishing.

Pan, B., and Crotts, J. 2012. Theoretical models of social media, marketing implications, and future research directions, Social media in Travel, Tourism and Hospitality: Theory, Practice and Cases, Survey.

Suchiradipta, B., and Saravanan, R., 2016. Social media: Shaping the future of agricultural extension and advisory services, GFRAS interest group on ICT4RAS discussion paper, GFRAS: Lindau, Switzerland.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 48-51. 2017

USE OF PLURALISTIC AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Jeet Ramjattan, Ataharul Chowdhury and Wayne G. Ganpat, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad.

ABSTRACT: The challenges to meet the needs of the diverse clientele in the agricultural sector have initiated reform strategies in agricultural extension service. The advent of pluralistic extension strategies addresses these challenges by creating opportunities for enhancing accessibility, quality and relevance of extension. It is expected that pluralism will facilitate the sharing of experiences between public, NGOs and private extension service providers. Among stakeholders, effective communication is key for the success of this type of coexistence. The level of interaction required for addressing agricultural development challenges is yet to be known. Pluralism can create additional challenges for extension institutions to achieve their goals as they each have vastly different objectives. In this context, this study was undertaken to investigate the factors influencing the use of pluralistic agricultural extension service in Trinidad and Tobago. Data were collected during March and May 2015 using a structured, self-reporting questionnaire from 163 extension agents. Descriptive statistics and regression analysis were conducted. The findings of the study indicated that the level of education of private and public extension agents positively impacted the efficiency of networking and coordination in extension services. Managers and supervisor perceived pluralistic extension methods as a means to improve efficiency. The public extension agents co-ordinated with other extension providers to carry out programmes most often among the providers. The private extension agents were most interested in co-ordinated programmes. The study argued that there should be a greater focus on improving the interactions among stakeholders by formalizing policies. Co-ordination and networking among service providers act as essential mechanisms to achieve new targets in pluralistic service provision. It is important to generate strategic coalitions with formalized responsibilities in the area of networking and technology use for co-ordinated programmes among stakeholders.

Keywords: ICTs, Extension Methods, Networking and Alliances, Pluralistic Extension, Trinidad and Tobago

INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Agricultural extension services have been rapidly evolving in response to emerging agricultural development issues (Byerlee, de Janvry and Sadoulet, 2009). In this changing context, extension agents are increasingly realizing new roles in the pluralistic systems for facilitating collaborative learning and knowledge management processes using an array of existing and emerging methods. The extension system of Trinidad and Tobago has developed from the traditional public extension provider system to one that includes multiple stakeholders as a pluralistic system of extension providers (Ganpat, 2013). The pluralistic model incorporates a multiplicity of service provider institutions including private input suppliers, research institutions, universities and non- government agencies.

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Although the pluralistic service has been in the discourse for more than a decade it has been recently emphasized in extension program implementation. Rivera (2004) asserts that public extension plays an interdependent role in pluralism. The Global Forum of Agricultural Advisory Services (GFRAS) has been piloting new extensionists - an approach which emphasizes pluralistic extension services in Trinidad & Tobago. The pluralistic approach requires building alliances and network relations among different service providers to respond to context specific problems (GFRAS, 2012). However, yet to be known is how extension providers are using a pluralistic approach in their service provision. The capacity of new extensionists is central to the success of pluralistic extension systems and they are expected to play greater roles in facilitating, planning, managing and collaborating (World Bank, 2012).

PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES

This study sought to: 1. Compare the use of pluralistic extension services by the different extension providers in Trinidad and Tobago 2. Determine the factors influencing the use of pluralistic extension services.

METHODOLOGY

One hundred and sixty-nine (N = 169) extension agents of the Trinidad and Tobago Public Extension System, State-assisted organizations and Private Extension service providers were targeted during March to May 2015 using self-reporting pilot tested questionnaires. The survey was conducted on a weekly basis on the mandatory office days of the agents. One hundred and sixty-three (n = 163) officers participated; yielding a 96% response rate. The reliability coefficients (Cronbach alpha) for the attitude concepts was 0.81.

The survey instrument was a structured questionnaire with two sections: (a) seven demographic and job characteristics questions, and (b) eighteen attitudinal statements in four-point Likert scale (‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘disagree’, ‘strongly disagree’). The instrument was examined for content validity by a panel of six extension experts and edited prior to administering. In addition to descriptive statistics, data were analyzed to compare the agents’ use of pluralistic extension services and Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression to analyse the factors influencing use of pluralistic extension.

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

Most respondents (95%) belonged to the Public extension service field agents. Agricultural Extension Aides (AEAs), Agricultural Assistants I, II were the highest category (85%) while 11% and 4% were Agricultural Officers (AOs) and supervisors, respectively. A large number of the agents were between the ages of 18-30 years (44%) and 52% were male. Most officers had 1-5 years of working experience (52%). More than one-third of the respondents (38%) completed undergraduate and graduate degrees. In terms of specialization, the majority of agents (52%) had extension expertise, followed by specialization in crop production, and only a few (2%) possessed expertise in administrative services. The majority (65%) earned $TT 5,000 to $7,000 (Trinidad and Tobago Dollars).

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The regression analyses, which were carried out on the constructs, showed that agents of the state- assisted extension service had significant (p=0.005) relationships with pluralistic extension services; as opportunities for pluralism in extension emerged, state-assisted agents became less interested in collaborating.

The results found that there was a similar pattern for agents with livestock expertise. These agents felt that any expansion of their roles by forming alliances was not necessary for the provision of livestock extension services. On the other hand, the situation for private extension agents was interestingly different; a positive relationship p= (0.000) existed with the private and all other extension providers. Whenever, pluralistic extension interactions such as farmer field schools and co-ordinated programmes were implemented, private providers would play a critical role in involvement.

Management and supervisor level agents both perceived the pluralistic extension methods as a means to increase the efficiency of the service provided. A total of 75% of the public extension agents co-ordinated with other extension providers to carry out programme services; 66.67% of state-assisted agents with undergraduate (UG) degrees used coordination while 100.0% of the private agents with undergraduate degrees used coordination. In the Ministry of Food Production, 79.92% of holders of post graduate (PG) degrees used coordination and 100.0% of agents holding PG degrees in private agencies accepted coordination as an efficient method of extension.

RECOMMENDATIONS, SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT

The findings of the study indicated that state-assisted service providers, private extension, manager level, supervisor level and agents with livestock expertise all held significant relationships with pluralistic extension services. It was clear from the results that different providers held different objectives for service provision. Therefore, there should be a greater focus on improving the interactions and collaborations among the stakeholders by formalizing policies which determine these interactions. The study found that the co-ordination and networking among service providers act as essential mechanisms to achieve new targets in pluralistic service provision. That is, forging multi stakeholder alliances in extension is deemed necessary. Therefore, it is important to generate strategic coalitions with formalized responsibilities in the area of networking and technology use for co-ordinated programmes among stakeholders. These strategies would contribute to the revitalization of the extension system and strengthening of alliances and networks which existed only as weak linkages. This has the potential to enable improved information access and resource sharing thereby upgrading the quality of response to clients. Field level extension agents perceived that managers and supervisors have developed the capacity to advance the implementation of pluralistic services. Assessments and appropriate redirection of extension agents’ skills are recommended to enrich their capacities to respond effectively to new challenges and undertake new functions, devise appropriate strategies, and build new capacities.

REFERENCES

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Byerlee, D., de Janvry, A. and Sadoulet, E. (2009). Agriculture for Development: Toward a New Paradigm. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 1(1), pp.15-31.

Davis, K., & Sulaiman V, R. (2014). The New Extensionist: Roles and Capacities to Strengthen Extension and Advisory Services. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 21(3), 6-18. doi:10.5191/jiaee.2014.21301.

Ganpat, Wayne G. 2013.The History of Agricultural Extension in Trinidad and Tobago. Kingston, Jamaica: Randle Publishers.

Rivera, W.M. and Alex ,G. 2004. “The continuing role of government in pluralistic extension systems”. Paper presented at the AIAEE conference, Dublin, 2-27 May 2004.

World Bank. 2012. Agricultural Innovation Systems. 1st ed. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 52. 2017

WHYFARM (WE HELP YOU-TH FARM)

Alpha Sennon, Founder and Executive Director, WHYFARM.

ABSTRACT: WHYFARM (We Help You-th Farm), a not-for-profit organization based in Trinidad and Tobago, aims to promote agriculture among youth by increasing their awareness of how they can contribute to solving the world’s food problems and by doing so, grow the future feeders of 2050. This is done by transforming the negative perception associated with agriculture among communities, to children in particular, into a sector which is fun and rewarding through agri-edutainment (agricultural educational entertainment) to counter the challenges related to food and nutrition security. By the year 2050 the population is estimated to reach 9 billion+. Presently the average age of farmers is 55+ years. There is a decreasing interest in youth participation in agriculture as a career path. A major reason for the unwillingness of young people to adopt roles in agriculture is due to the lack of proper marketing of this noble and important profession.

Keywords: promote agriculture, farmers, whyfarm

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 53-59. 2017

CHARACTERIZING FARMERS BASED ON THEIR WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES IN TRINIDAD

Asisha Patterson1 and Wayne Ganpat2. 1Graduate Student and 2Senior Lecturer, Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine.

ABSTRACT: Cash strapped governments in the region are finding it increasingly difficult to provide key agricultural services to farmers. One such service that is seeing diminished attention is agricultural extension; fewer resources are being provided. While extension is entirely state funded in the Caribbean, worldwide, governments has embraced other approaches to extension delivery such as privatization of extension, commodity based advisory systems and fee for service extension among other cost recovery methods. This study sought to explore whether Trinidad farmers were willing to pay for extension services as well as to characterize those willing to pay and those not willing to pay, as well as the services for which payment may be considered. A stratified sample of ninety crop based farmers was surveyed using a structured survey instrument and multiple discriminant analysis was used to identify farmer characteristics. Findings showed that forty five per cent of the farmers sampled were willing to pay some amount for extension services. Farmers were willing to pay for services such as pest and disease diagnosis, postharvest storage, marketing, increased subsidy offerings and technical assistance aimed at increasing production. Based on the derived discriminant function coefficients, those who were willing to pay were those with higher income levels, had greater access to information and were more satisfied with the time spent on the farm by the extension officer. Those not willing to pay were farmers who were not owners of the land that they farmed on, were part time farmers and possessed a smaller acreage. Results suggest the scope for governments to vigorously pursue payment for some extension services; dedicated extension for commercially – oriented farmers could be the entry point. Keywords – willing to pay, discriminate function analysis, extension, satisfaction, food security, Trinidad

INTRODUCTION

The agricultural sector is considered as one of the main sources of employment and income provision in many countries, especially in developing economies (Faramarzi and Langerodi 2013, 2878). Agricultural extension service is important to farmers, contributing to the increased agricultural production by sharing information to increase knowledge, skills and attitudes of farmers (Tijani and Mudashir 2013, 130). The level of farmer satisfaction with the delivery of extension services comes to the fore.

In the Caribbean region agricultural extension services are often administered by the public sector through the agricultural ministries. It has to be competent in agricultural skills and communicate efficiently with producers and stimulate them to acquire new knowledge. To retain relevance, a

53 public sector extension system has to improve knowledge of technology, prices, markets and policies (Sulaiman and Van den Ban 2003, 27). The role of extension needs to be expanded from technology transfer to include problem solving, human development and education (Sulaiman and Van den Ban 2003, 27).

Public extension systems are unable to cope with the dynamic demands of a modern agriculture system. These systems are being viewed as out-dated, top – down and subject to bureaucratic inefficiencies (Qteshat 2011, 14). The emerging trend is towards a pluralistic, demand – driven concept of agricultural extension services as available in a number of developed countries (Ozor, Garforth and Madukwe 2013, 383) such as fee for service and voucher systems. This paper investigates the willingness of vegetable farmers to pay for agricultural extension services; identifies the variables that differentiate who are willing and not willing to pay for agricultural extension services and outlines the services for which they would be willing to pay. A study of this nature would enable policy makers to re-organize extension services in the region to adopt modern approaches to adequately support regional food security given the services economic constraints faced. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A list of variables was identified and placed in a survey instrument based on the literature review of common factors influencing the willingness to pay for agricultural extension services in differing parts of the world. The investigation was carried out in three farming districts of Trinidad; Victoria, St. George West and St. Patrick East. These counties were selected based on the high population of vegetable farmers derived from the farmer registration databases at the individual county offices. The sample population of 90 vegetable farmers is grouped into subsistence oriented and commercially oriented farmers. Sampling was done in two stages; first proportionate random and then purposive sampling. Here systematic selection of participants is not based on prior knowledge of how the outcomes would appear thereby increasing credibility. To ascertain the variables that distinguish between farmers willing to pay and those not willing to pay, multiple discriminant analysis in the form given in equation 1 was employed. This was used to estimate the weighted linear combination of variables that influenced the willingness of farmers to pay for an improved agricultural extension system. Farmers were then categorized on the basis of differences in selected characteristics. The discriminant function developed was of the following form;

Z = bo + b1 x1 + b2 x2 + b3 x3 + b4 x4 + b5 x5 + b6 x6 +b7 x7 + b8 x8 + b9 x9 (1)

Z = Discriminant score for farmers willing to pay and not willing to pay for agricultural extension services b = the discriminant coefficient or weight for the variable x1 = age of farmer (in years) x2 = educational level x3 = farming status

54 x4 = farm size x5 = farm income x6 = satisfaction with service time x7 = access to extension information x8 = land tenure x9 = number of dependents

MAIN RESULTS The sample (see table 1) consisted of a majority of male farmers (87%) and reflected an older group of (55% older than 50 years) with a secondary level of education (42%). Most of the farmers surveyed were full-time (58%) and operated on farm lands of 2 – 5 acres (33%) with 41% of these farmers having ownership of the land cultivated. Thirty three percent of farmers earned less than $2000 per month in farm income and 26% of the study population had a household size of approximately three family members. On an average, forty five per cent of the sampled farmers have reported willingness to pay for receiving an improved agricultural extension service. Crop protection and management, increased availability for subsidy offerings, technical assistance, marketing and pest and disease diagnosis; were the extension services for which the farmers were willing to pay some amount to access (see table 6). The results of the discriminant analysis revealed that the variables age, education, farm size, monthly farm income, service time, land tenure and the number of dependents are contributors in characterizing farmers into individuals willing and not willing to pay for extension services groups. Variables with large coefficients stand out as strong characteristics that describe farmers willing to or not willing to pay for extension services. The relevant discriminant function was of the following form; Z = (-0.981) + 0.379age + 0.192 education – 0.913 farm status + 0.088 farm size + 0.542 farm income + 0.413 service time – 0.583 access to extension information + 0.399 land tenure + 0.135 number of dependents

The standardized discriminant function coefficients (table 2) specified that farmers willing to pay for extension services were characterized by monthly farm income, satisfaction with the time spent on the farm by the extension officer, land tenure and to some extent the age of the farmer. The level of education gained, number of dependents and the acreage of the farm also categorized the farmers’ willingness to pay for extension services. Farming status and decreased access to all information scores were less successful as characteristics of farmers willing to pay for these services. The null hypothesis is rejected as a result of Wilks’ Lambda (.496) and the associated statistics; chi-square (8.388); df (9) and p = <.001. The discriminating variables showed that overall 62.2% (table 5) of the respondents were correctly predicted into willing to pay or not willing to pay groups.

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Table 1. Description of Independent Variables

Variable Description Frequency; n (%) Age Age of the farmer (years) 25 – 34 years 10 (11) 35 – 50 years 29 (32) > 50 years 49 (55) No response 2 (2) Level of education Years of formal education No formal education 3 (3) Primary 24 (27) Secondary 38 (42) Tertiary 17 (19) Vocational/Technical 6 (7) No response 2 (2) Farming status = 1 if full-time, 0 otherwise Full-time 52 (58) Part-time 35 (39) No response 3 (3) Size of farm Total area (acres) under <1 acre production 4 (4) 1 – 2 acres 20 (22) 2 – 5 acres 30 (33) 6 – 10 acres 19 (22) >10 acres 17 (19) Monthly farm income Total monthly income <$2,000 earned from agricultural 30 (33) $2,500 - $4,000 activities 24 (27) $4,500 - $6,000 17 (20) $6,500 - $8,000 2 (2) $8,500 - $10,000 2 (2) >$10,000 4 (4) No response 11 (12) Are you satisfied with = 1 if satisfied with time the time the extension extension officer spends on officer spends on your farm , 0 otherwise 58 (65) farm? 17 (19) Yes 15 (16) No Not Applicable Is the extension officer = 1 if Yes, 0 otherwise giving all information you need each visit 53 (59) Yes 22 (25) No 2 (2)

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Variable Description Frequency; n (%) Sometimes 13 (14) Not Applicable Land tenure Relationship with farmer Owned with respect to land 37 (41) Rented ownership 11 (12) Leased 25 (28) Squatting 17 (19) Number of dependents Number of family members 1 in the household 12 (13) 2 15 (17) 3 23 (26) 4 15 (17) 5 17 (19) >5 8 (9)

Table 2. Results of Discriminant Function Analysis Variables Standardized Discriminant Function Coefficients Wilks’ Lambda Age .379 .976 Highest level of education .192 1.000 Farming status -.913 .973 Size of farm .088 .997 Monthly farm income .542 .981 Are you satisfied with the time the extension .413 .999 officer spends on your farm? Is the extension officer giving all information -.583 .997 you need each visit Land tenure .399 1.000 Number of dependents .135 .999

Table 3. Functions at Group Centroids Would you be willing to pay to receive extension Function services 1 Yes .351

No -.294 Unstandardized canonical discriminant functions evaluated at group means

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Table 5. Results of Classification Analysis

Would you be willing to pay to Predicted receive extension services Group Membership Yes No Original Count Yes 12 29

No 5 44 % Yes 29.3 70.7

No 10.2 89.8 Cross-validateda Count Yes 8 33

No 7 42 % Yes 19.5 80.5

No 14.3 85.7 a. Cross validation is done only for those cases in the analysis. In cross validation, each case is classified by the functions derived from all cases other than that case. b. 62.2% of original grouped cases correctly classified. c. 55.6% of cross-validated grouped cases correctly classified.

Table 6. Level of importance of extension services

Extension Service Frequency; n (%) Crop protection and management (58) 16 Farm business management (32) 9 Postharvest Storage (24) 7 Subsidies (51) 14 Marketing (51) 14 Pest and Disease diagnoses (57) 16 Tech transfer for crop protection (29) 8 Agricultural Incentive programme (55) 15

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CONCLUSION Outcomes revealed that farmers were willing to pay some amount for selected extension services with crop protection and management that identified proper planting material, advised on protected agriculture systems and recommended new technologies for farm land protection being the service for which these farmers would be willing to pay highest amount. Farm holders inclined to pay for access to improved extension services were categorized by income earnings, the level of satisfaction with the time spent on the farm by the extension officer, the number of family members within the farm household and the level of education of the farmer. On the other hand, part- time farmers with small farm holdings that were of the older farming age group were characteristic of farmers not willing to pay for extension services. LITERATURE CITED Faramarz, Nastaran and Mehdi Charmcian Langerodi. 2013. “Investigating Farmers’ Attitude regarding Advisory Services of Agricultural Technical and Engineering in Sari Township.” International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences 5 (23): 2878 – 2884. Accessed May 15, 2015. www.ijagcs.com Ganpat, Wayne. 2013. History of Agricultural Extension in Trinidad and Tobago. Randle Publishers, Kingston, Jamaica. Mwaura, Francis, Fred Muwanika and Geofrey Okoboi. 2010. “Willingness to pay for Extension Services in Uganda among Farmers involved in Crop and Animal Husbandry.” Contributed Paper presented at the Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa (AEASA) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, September 19-23, 2010.

Ozor, Nicholas, Christopher Garforth and Michael Madukwe. 2013. “Farmers’ Willingness to Pay for Agricultural Extension Service: Evidence from Nigeria.” Journal of International Development 25, 382 – 392. Seepersad, Joseph and Wayne Ganpat. 2008 “Agricultural Extension in Trinidad and Tobago.” In Agricultural Extension Worldwide Innovations. Saravanan, R. (ed) Port of Spain. New India Publications Sulaiman, Rasheed and Anne Willem van den Ban. 2003. “Funding and Delivering Agricultural Extension in India.” Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education 10 (1): 21 – 30. Tijani, S.A and H.B Mudashir. 2010. 2013. “Attitude of Farmers towards Non- Governmental Extension Organizations in Oyo – State, Nigeria.” Journal of Agricultural Extension 17 (2): 130 – 138. Qteshat, Ibrahim. 2011. The Agricultural Extension Services: A Review of Global Experience.

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SOIL NUTRITION, SOIL-WATER RELATIONS AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 60. 2017

NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

David Sotomayor-Ramírez and Gustavo Martínez-Rodríguez, Department of Agro-Environmental Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus.

ABSTRACT: Soil nutrient availability (either supplied by the soil and/or inorganic and organic external sources) has been an important factor influencing the increase in world crop production to satisfy increasing population demand for food. In the past 60 years, world fertilizer consumption has consistently risen and has been quantitatively related to crop production and population growth. Unfortunately, nutrient loss due to inadequate nutrient usage has contributed to environmental degradation that threatens soil, water and air resources. Future world food requirements must be met with enhanced crop productivity, improved soil health and reduced environmental impact. In this paper, we discuss considerations in the basic aspects of soil fertility management that will provide important tools to improve nutrient use efficiency and management for sustainable agricultural systems. Tools include soil testing, adequate interpretation of soil tests, and recommendations considering available information and technological limitations.

Keywords: nutrient availability, nutrient losses, sustainable agriculture

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 61-66. 2017

ROLE OF NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER ADDITION IN THE RELEASE OF CO2 FROM AG-LIME APPLIED TO ACID SOILS

De Shorn Bramble1, Gregory Gouveia1, Richard Farrell2 and Ravindra Ramnarine,1Department of Food Production, University of the West Indies, St. Augustin, Trinidad, 2Department of Soil Science, University of Saskatchewan, Canada.

ABSTRACT: Acid soils are commonly limed to increase soil pH and productivity. The application of ag-lime to acid soils can serve as an important source of carbon dioxide (CO2), especially when reacting with strong acids that are liberated from the nitrification of ammonium + (NH4 ) based fertilizer. However, lime dissolution and its associated contribution to CO2 fluxes with the addition of these fertilizers in acidic soils have not been widely investigated. Therefore, the current study assessed the effects of varying NH4-N rates on the release of abiotic (i.e., lime or carbonate derived) CO2 emissions from two contrasting acid soils (i.e., Nariva peaty clay and Piarco fine-sand) and a calcareous soil (i.e., Princes Town clay) from Trinidad. The 13C labelling and natural abundance techniques were used to trace CO2 originating from ag-lime in acid soils and carbonates from calcareous soil. Acid soils incubated in 1L media bottles, were amended with combinations of 0%, 0.067%, and 0.392% lime and 0%, 0.005%, and 0.2% NH4-N solution. The same rates of NH4-N solution were applied to the Princes Town clay. Gas samples were collected for 23 days ranging from 1-day intervals at the beginning to 7-day intervals at the end, and analyzed 13 for total CO2 using a Bruker 450 GC Gas chromatograph and CO2 using a Picarro G2201-i + isotopic CO2/CH4 analyzer. The application of 0.2% NH4 increased (p< 0.05) cumulative lime derived CO2 by 7.9 and 3.8 mg C in the Nariva and Piarco soil, respectively, when they were limed + at a rate of 0.392% CaCO3. However, NH4 application did not (p> 0.05) affect limed derived CO2 in other acid soil treatments nor carbonate derived CO2 in the calcareous soil treatments. It was + concluded that: i) ag-lime CO2 dynamics can be regulated by NH4 fertilizer addition in the short + term when applied at extremely high rates and ii) NH4 fertilizer addition does not play a greater role in regulating the release of CO2 from carbonates in calcareous soils than that from ag-lime in acid soils.

+ Keywords: acid soils, ag-lime, calcareous soils, carbon dioxide, isotope techniques, NH4 fertilizer.

INTRODUCTION

Ag-lime (calitic or dolomitic lime) is commonly applied to acid soils to raise their pH and is necessary for them to become more productive (Brady and Weil, 2010; West and Mc Bride, 2005). However, the carbonates in ag-lime has the potential to convert to CO2 and be released to the atmosphere contributing to global warming and climate change. However, the circumstances favoring the formation of CO2 is not well understood.

It is theorized that ag-lime may serve as a greater source of CO2 when it reacts with strong acids such as those that are liberated from nitrification (Hamilton et al.2007). Therefore, the over-use + of NH4 fertilizers in crop production can potentially enhance the source potential of ag-lime in acid soils (West and Mc Bride, 2005, Hamilton et al.2007, Biasi et al. 2008; Sanderman, 2012).

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Notwithstanding evidence from a study on limed agricultural plots by Hamilton et al.(2007) to support this hypothesis, studies involving direct measurement of CO2 emissions are yet to establish + the role of NH4 fertilizers added to soils. In-fact, studies conducted by Biasi et al. (2008) and Bramble and Gouveia (2014) provided little support that the release of ag-lime-derived CO2 is accelerated by the increased acidity that is concomitant with the application of these fertilizers. However, considering the fact that increased soil acidity following the application of aluminum sulphate fertilizer and pasteurized chicken manure have led to the production of more carbonate derived CO2 in calcareous soils (Lardner, George, and Tibbett, 2015; and Tamir et al.2013), it is + possible that the regulatory effect of NH4 fertilizers on abiotic CO2 emissions may be more important in calcareous soils than in strongly to moderately acidic soils where very strong acids + are already present. The current study therefore assessed the effects of high NH4 rates on the release of abiotic (i.e, lime or carbonate derived) CO2 emissions from two contrasting acid soils and a calcareous soil. METHODOLOGY The study was conducted at 21oC for 23days using 150g soil samples (on an oven dry basis) incubated in 1L media bottles (Fisher Scientific, Inc.). The lids of the media bottles were fitted with a sampling port and sealed with a butyl-rubber septum. The study utilized isotopically labelled 13 13 Ca CO3 ( C 5.94%) and natural abundance techniques to trace carbonate-derived CO2 from the acid and calcareous soils respectively. The acid soil treatments were established as a 3x3x2 factorial experiment with a completely randomized design with three replicates. Lime rates were 0% (L1), 0.067% (L2) and 0.392% (L3); and NH4-N, rates were 0% (A1), 0.005% (A2), and 0.2% + (A3) in the form of NH4Cl aqueous solutions. Only the NH4 treatments were applied to the calcareous soil. These treatments were replicated four times to give a total of 12 experimental units which were arranged in a completely randomized design. All soils were brought to 65% Water Filled Pores Spaces (WFPS) on the first day of the experiment and then subsequently maintained around 60% WFPS by adding water every 2-3 days.

Measurements of the CO2 efflux were taken at 0.208, 1, 2,4,7,11,16, and 23 days after incubation (DAI). At each sampling time, 60mL of ultra-zero air was injected into incubation vessel to increase the internal gas volume of the vessel (Biasi et al. 2008), and a 30mL and 20mL sample was then taken from each vessel using a polyethylene syringe and injected into a pre-evacuated, N2- flushed 22mL and 12mL vial respectively. These samples were analysed for total CO2 using a 13 Bruker 450 Gas chromatograph and CO2 using a Picarro G2201-i isotopic CO2/CH4 analyser. Gas samples were also taken from two blank vessels to correct for any CO2 that remained in the headspace subsequent to flushing. ANOVAs were performed using SPSS to identify significant main and interactive effects. RESULTS

+ A highly significant (p<0.001) interaction was observed between lime and NH4 fertilizer addition on the quantity of CO2 emitted from lime by the end of the experiment (Fig 1.). This effect was + evident in both acid soils where it was seen that adding NH4 fertilizer did-not affect lime CO2 emissions except for when it was applied at its highest rate to soils that received 0.392% lime. The main effects of lime and fertilizer were also significant (p<0.05). In the case of the former, the quantity of lime derived emissions increased by 577% and 114% in the Nariva and Piarco soil + respectively as lime rates increased. Overall, NH4 addition affected lime CO2 emissions in the

62 order of A3>A2=A1 for the Nariva soil and A3=A1; A1=A2; A3>A2 for the Piarco soil. However, + no effect of NH4 addition was observed in the Princes town soil. Soil pH at the end of the study was significantly (p<0.05) affected by the interaction between lime + and NH4 fertilizer addition in the Piarco soil but not in the Nariva soil. In the former, the magnitude to which soil pH differed between any two lime treatments largely depended on the fertilizer rate in consideration. This differences was greatest (2.49 units) between the L1 and L3 + treatments when 0.005% NH4 -N was applied and lowest between the L1 and L2 treatments when + no NH4 -N was applied (Table 1). The main effects of lime and ammonium N addition on soil pH were significant (p<0.05) for the two acid soils. The application of lime at the highest rate (L3) to the Nariva and Piarco soil increased soil pH by 0.88 units and 2.39 units respectively in comparison to the un-limed (L1) treatments. The overall order of this effect was L3>L2>L1 for both soils. In + contrast, NH4 addition at the highest rate (A3) reduced soil pH in the Nariva and Piarco soil by 0.47 and 0.68 units respectively in comparison to un-limed (L1) treatments. This effect was in the order of A1=A2>A3 for the Nariva soil, and A1>A2>A3 for the Piarco soil. Similarly, soil pH in the Princes town soil was lowest (7.37 units) in the A3 treatments (Table 2).

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Fig 1. Cumulative inorganic (i.e., lime or carbonate derived) CO2-C emissions for a) Nariva peaty- clay b) Piarco fine-sand and c) Princes town clay after 23 days of incubation. Error bars are standard errors. Different letters denotes significant (p<0.05) differences between means for each soil.

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Table 1. Mean pH of soil treatments 23 DAI

1 Treatment pH

Nariva peaty clay L1 L2 L3

A1 5.09d2 5.26c 5.95a A2 5.05d 5.23c 5.92a A3 4.604f 4.78e 5.5b Significance 3 A *** L *** A x L NS Piarco fine sand A1 5.22e 5.96c 7.68a A2 5.08e 5.9c 7.57a A3 4.58f 5.42d 6.81b

Significance A *** 1 L *** A1: A x L *** 0% Princes town clay A1 7.74a NA4 NA A2 7.64a NA NA A3 7.37b NA NA Significance A *** ammonium N, A2: 0.005% ammonium N, A3: 0.2% ammonium N, L1: 0% lime, L2: 0.067%, and L3: 0.392% 2 Means with different letters are significantly (p<0.05, Tukey’s HDS test) different from each other. 3 *, **, and *** denotes significance at p<0.05, p<0.01, and p<0.001. NS denotes no stasticial significance at p>0.05 4 Analysis not applicable to the Princes town soil since no lime was applied to this soil,

CONCLUSION

On the basis of the results presented we conclude that:

➢ Ammonium N fertilizer addition regulates the release of CO2 from ag-lime in acid soils particularly when it is applied at an extremely high rate due to the large reduction in soil pH that occur. ➢ Ammonium N fertilizer addition does-not play a bigger role in regulating the release of CO2 from carbonates in calcareous soils than that from ag-lime in acid soils.

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REFERENCES

Biasi, Christina, Saara E Lind, Niina M Pekkarinen, Jari T Huttunen, Narasinha J Shurpali, Maija,E Repo, Pertti J Martikainen, and Niina P Hyvo. 2008. “Soil Biology & Biochemistry Direct Experimental Evidence for the Contribution of Lime to CO2 Release from Managed Peat Soil.” Soil Biology and Biochemistry 40: 2660–69. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.07.011.

Brady, Nyle C, and Ray R. Weil.2010. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils 3rd ed. Pearson New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall.

Bramble, De Shorn, and Gregory Gouveia. 2014. “An evaluation of factors affecting the CO2- C sink strength of ag-lime added to two Trinidad acid soils”. Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crop Society.50:59-67

Hamilton, Stephen K., Amanda L. Kurzman, Clay Arango, Lixin Jin, and G. Philip Robertson. 2007. “Evidence for Carbon Sequestration by Agricultural Liming.” Global Biogeochemical Cycles 21 (2): 1–13. doi:10.1029/2006GB002738. Lardner, Tim, Suman George, and Mark Tibbett. 2015. “Interacting Controls on Innate Sources of CO2 Efflux from a Calcareous Arid Zone Soil under Experimental Acidification and Wetting.” Journal of Arid Environments 122: 117–23. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2015.07.001. Sanderman, Jonathan. 2012. “Can Management Induced Changes in the Carbonate System Drive Soil Carbon Sequestration ? A Review with Particular Focus on Australia.” “Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment” 155: 70–77. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2012.04.015. Tamir, Guy, Moshe Shenker, Hadar Heller, Paul R Bloom, Pinchas Fine, and Asher Bar-tal. 2013. “Organic N Mineralization and Transformations in Soils Treated with Animal Waste in Relation to Carbonate Dissolution and Precipitation.” Geoderma 209-210: 50–56. 10.1016/j.geoderma.2013.05.028 West, Tristram O., and Allen C. McBride. 2005. “The Contribution of Agricultural Lime to Carbon Dioxide Emissions in the United States: Dissolution, Transport, and Net Emissions.” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 108 (2): 145–54. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2005.01.002.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 67-72. 2017

WATER AMBASSADOR PROGRAM II: FURTHERING THE UNDERSTANDING AND PROTECTION OF WATERSHEDS AND HYDROLOGY IN THE US VIRGIN ISLANDS

Christina Marie Chanes PI, University of the Virgin Islands; Dr. David C. Morris CO-PI, University of the Virgin Islands; Dr. Avram Gerald Primack CO-PI, University of the Virgin Islands; Calwyn Morton, student; University of the Virgin Islands

ABSTRACT: Over the past million years the landscape of the Virgin Islands has been eroding and changing naturally (Thomas 2005). These changes are typically brought about by natural processes such as weathering and storm water runoff. Plant roots act as filters that help to slow the flow of storm water as it drains into the ocean. The United States Virgin Islands is a small territory in the Caribbean Sea, just to the east of Puerto Rico that consists of four main islands, Saint Thomas, Saint Croix, Saint John, Water Island and a few smaller, mostly unpopulated islands. A significant proportion of the population of these islands draws their water from cisterns filled by collecting rainwater off rooftops. The others are dependent upon groundwater sources. In addition to its permanent residents, Saint Thomas has one of the busiest tourism industries in the Caribbean (Allen 1992) with more than 2 million visitors annually in recent years (USVI BER 2012). The Water Ambassador Program provided children in the USVI with six lessons in hydrology. They took part in pre and post tests and also wrote essays on the water cycle. The students tested water from their schools, home and community, and they charted the outcomes of the testing results, presenting them to professors from the University of the Virgin Islands. These activities increased their awareness of the need for clean water in our community.

PROBLEM AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES OF WATER AMBASSADOR PROGRAM II

There has been, and continues to be, a need for data collection on the status of streams and watersheds and an increased understanding of climate patterns on the island. Part of the project goal was to prevent or reduce nonpoint source pollution (NPS) of underground and surface water as well as bring the importance of water quality to the attention of youth. The program was designed to further introduce and reinforce the need for testing water in schools, homes and the community overall while also encouraging and promoting an understanding of watersheds so that youth can reduce their impact and conserve water and other natural resources. Thus began a model educational program to teach students the stewardship of good water and landscape conservation practices, create a system for collecting crowd source data (data collected by the public through a web mapping interface) on the status of hydrologic systems in the territory using these students to report on their own watersheds. The program also increased the network of weather station systems operated by the University of the Virgin Islands (UVI) on Saint Thomas by bringing a station to each participating school throughout the territory. In addition, due to the lack of weather stations on St. Croix and St. John, the program aimed to expand its microclimate monitoring program to cover these USVI regions. In particular, the program sought to deliver sustainable climate

67 observations from the entire territory to allow objective scientific assessments of the ongoing effects of climate change on each island.

In the second year of the Water Ambassadors Program (WAPII), the Cooperative Extension Service (CES) personnel at the University of the Virgin Islands received further training, and students in grades 5 through 11 continued to receive lessons in hydrologic processes and watershed protection. The program also extended the existing network of climate recording stations on Saint Thomas and added stations on St. John and St. Croix. In addition, the project added data on hydrologic conditions from the public to the interface for collecting map data. The project advanced the literacy on the subject of hydrology through public education aimed at youth, teaching them about water resources and their management on St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix.

Education about water resources and their management is still highly necessary in the US Virgin Islands. This program expected to introduce 200 youths to the program, however, more than 600 students between 4th and 12th grades became involved. They made presentations on water, water quality and landscape conservation practices and contributed to a system for collecting crowd sourced data on the status of hydraulic systems in the territory. The program allowed students to report on the status of their own watersheds and increased the total number of weather stations in use around the territory by installing them in participating schools on St. John and St. Croix. Due to increased participation of ESL students, the grades changed slightly to include all the youths in those classes. This was accomplished by utilizing the faculty and students of the University of the Virgin Islands who installed the weather stations and had already worked with a web interface for the collection of data from individual watersheds. The Cooperative Extension Services department of the University of the Virgin Islands acted as a bridge, using pre-existing contacts with participating schools to ensure all objectives were met.

METHODOLOGY

This year, students and teachers were trained to set up and install the Davis Weather Stations, which are noted on the map above. WAPII successfully installed seven stations between St. Croix and St. John. In addition, teacher training took place in June 2016 with more than 12 teachers from public, private and home schools in the territory coming together with faculty and staff from UVI to learn more about the WAPII program. The teachers took part in mapping training, using geographic modelling software, and lab discussions for experiments that were completed during the school year and at the University of the Virgin Islands. Teachers were also taken on tours of school gardens, where aquaponics and hydroponic systems were installed on all three islands to increase their knowledge and interest in water quality. Students have taped radio interviews and public service announcements for WUVI (a student run radio station at UVI), which are currently being aired. Youth were taught scientific methods and reporting to further their ability to share what they learned with their peers in the classroom and at school-based assemblies.

The overall goals of this program were to enhance and expand the WAP within the territory, which was successfully completed by the grant closeout of 2.28.17. To date, five schools on St. Thomas and two schools on St. John participate as do five schools on the island of St Croix. Also, this year, all the participating students collaborated and showcased their knowledge and the experience they gained from the program as well as having created public service announcements that were

68 broadcast. This year, students also conducted interviews and shared their work on WUVI, 1090 AM and 97.3 FM. The program also expanded the network of weather stations installed around the island and across the territory. Five new stations were added on St Croix and two were added on St John for a total of seven new stations on those islands.

Water Ambassador Program II Youth Participants 2016- 2017 250 200 150 100 50 0

Number of Studens Studens Numberof perschool

St.Thomas St.Croix St.John

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS AND SIGNIFICANCE

Seven weather stations were installed with St Joseph’s Catholic High School in St Croix as the first “test” site, which allowed students to install and set up the weather station system. This was significant as it was vital that researchers had the opportunity to evaluate if vocational training in weather station installation could be undertaken by youth and become successfully operable. It was completed in a one-day activity at the school where approximately 20 high school youths from St. Joseph’s Catholic School prepared the site, installed the station and were able to determine that it was functioning on the other end by working with the WAP staff and connecting to the research team in St. Thomas. In addition, students at Elena Christian Junior High School were able to work with WAP staff and learn about routine station management methodologies that are critical in providing long-term, sustainable, USVI microclimate observations. They also took photographs and sent pictures to the WAP staff to ensure the station was transmitting to the main Davis system as analyzed by UVI researchers.

This is a vital component of the overall project since the grant required that researchers and staff train youth and teachers to install and understand the hardware management protocols of weather stations that will ensure their long-term consistent operation. An outcome pertinent to the future goals of our project will involve an evolution towards teaching and training youth and educators to utilize software infrastructures (algorithms) that transform these data streams into scientific provisions that contribute to the formulation of a more complete classification of USVI’s microclimates. This is significant as the WAP proposal required that researchers work collaboratively with another VI WRRI project supported by both Dr. David Morris of UVI and Dr.

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Brice Orange, who are PI and Co-PI respectively on Towards Real-Time Microclimate Monitoring in the US Virgin Islands: Optimizing Data Management to Maximize Scientific Production. Dr. Orange trained Ms. Chanes, WAP PI in installing and setting up the weather stations so she, in turn, could train both students and teachers. All in all, more than five teachers and paraprofessionals along with 15 students were trained to install the stations, read the display modules and use the information in daily and weekly announcements at the schools and in classrooms.

CONCLUSION

The Water Ambassador Program (WAP), a VI WRRI program, is designed to increase awareness of hydrology in schools. Program staff members have been actively engaged in a variety of activities. Three weather stations went up in March 2016 at schools in St Croix including Arthur Richards Junior High School, Educational Complex High School and Helena Christina Junior High School. In April, youth from the WAP in grades 4 - 8 presented water test findings and other aspects of the program at the Mare Nostrum Caribbean 2016 Annual Conference. Their work and research was presented in English and Spanish to more than 100 guests including the public at large, teachers from the K-12 system, researchers, assistants, professors and students who attended the event held at the university. In May, Christina Chanes and Dr. Avram Primack attended the annual eXtension Conference in San Antonio where they presented the WAP to a national audience. In May, the newly added GIS web pages were updated and the systems installed last year were calibrated.

A WAP Teacher Training took place in June of 2016 when more than 12 teachers came together with the faculty and staff over the WAP, discussing the program and how it is working in classrooms across the territory. The teachers were engaged in a mapping training and in discussions about lab use during the fall semester when they can bring their classes to UVI to use its Chemistry lab to test the water samples they collected. Teachers also talked about their hopes of increasing the number of essays over the next semester. In addition, teachers were given a tour of school gardens where aqua- and hydroponics systems were shown to increase water testing competency, documented in the final report. In July, three films were adjudicated and submitted to the 4H Film Fest in Missouri. The WAP had their films featured on the big screen for peers from five states to see and evaluate. And Ms. Chanes presented a poster on the WAP at the 52nd Annual Caribbean Food Crop Society meeting held in July 2016 in Guadeloupe. Students began taping radio interviews and PSAs for WUVI, the student-run radio station at UVI which are currently being aired. Ms. Chanes was invited to present her work on the WAP at the 62nd annual Tropical Horticulture Meeting in Puerto Rico at UPR-Mayaguez. In late August, WAP would rehire Calwyn Morton, a UVI student, to participate in the program and finalize spending the last of the funds from the grant to complete the work outlined in the proposal. To date, more than 67 students, grades 7 to 8th at Addelita Cancryn Junior High School, have been graduated through the WAP. Although Dr. Primack left UVI, he will be available through the end of the grant cycle via the internet to complete any necessary work related to GIS and mapping.

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The Water Ambassador Program has advanced literacy in hydrology for students, teachers and the public across the territory. Specifically, in the areas of water conservation, water quality, water resources and their management. More than 12 teachers participated in trainings, more than 42 participated in the program territory-wide, and more than 670 students under age 15 participated in the program. Specifically, WAP II benefited UVI Cooperative Extension Services (CES), the Etelman Observatory, UVI researchers and officials of the Department of Agriculture interested in the quality of agriculture in our schools and the broader community. The program gave CES extended experience in teaching youth about hydrological issues which, in turn, led to the installation of five more weather stations at schools for use by teachers in St. John and St. Croix who had not been exposed to the program. These weather stations report to the GeoCAS web page (geocas.org). The program also led to the construction of a WAP Outdoor Hydrologic Learning Center at Addelita Cancryn Junior High School that was built to include two greenhouses and several raised beds for youths to test the water and the soil in crops they will grow there. The program has helped to educate more than 670 students enrolled in schools on St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix. Large and small scale assemblies on many school sites across the territory have become part of the program in an effort to share what WAP youth have learned with the broader school community. National and international presentations on WAP have taken place, and the program has received high marks for its creative use of education and science. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) invited the UVICES-sponsored WAP to coordinate a training and requested that youths from the program present their outcomes. More than 30 youths made presentations to professionals from a variety of government agencies, community groups and professors from, in and around UVI at the Science Consortium meeting of EPA Region 2, which took place in January 2017. After the event, EPA contacted UVICES about the WAP, because the agency determined that the program should be nominated for the Environmental Champion Award. A packet was prepared and submitted for consideration. Awardees were notified in the Spring of 2017. Other notable outcomes include that youths from the UVICES-sponsored WAP submitted films to the 4H Film Festival held in Missouri; VI Montessori and Peter Gruber Academy won second place in the category of promotional films. In addition, many of the youths who participated in the WAP applied to summer programs, including the USDA-sponsored Ag Discovery and CMES Marine bio program for youth; and several graduates applied for Math Behind the Science and the UVI Summer Business Program. Lastly, one of the most significant and vital components of the project required researchers and staff to train youths and teachers to install and understand the interworking of the weather stations so that in future years, they could understand the algorithms, also known as patterns or the lack thereof, which indicate the weather patterns and models used to assess climate and micro climate. This is significant as the WAP proposal required that researchers work collaboratively on another VI WRRI project supported by both Dr. David Morris of UVI and Dr. Brice Orange, who are PI and Co-PI respectively on Towards Real-Time Microclimate Monitoring in the US Virgin Islands: Optimizing Data Management to Maximize Scientific Production. Dr. Orange trained Ms. Chanes, WAP PI, in installing and setting up the weather stations so she, in turn, could train both students and teachers to do so. This means that the research team can now move forward in opening up a dialogue in year three on the topic of analysis so that WAP youth can further their understanding of water collection, quality and microclimate impacts across the territory.

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REFERENCES

Allen, W. H. (1992). "Increased dangers to Caribbean marine ecosystems." Bioscience: 330-335.

Thomas, Toni; Barry Devine, 2007, “General Description of Virgin Islands”, Eva M. Maddox, Valerie Combie, Ph.D, Diane Devine, Island Peak To Coral Reef, VI, University of the Virgin Islands. Pg. 9.

USVI BER 2012. http://www.usviber.org/November%202012.pdf retrieved, December 3, 2014.

LIST OF PRESENTATIONS

 PI/co-PI presented at eXtension in San Antonio, TX, March 2016  PI presented WAP NINJA Communications Workshop, STT, APRIL 2016  4H Youth presented WAP at UVI EPSCoR Annual Conference, April 2016  PI presented at CSCF in Guadeloupe, FWI, July 2016  4H Film Fest Kansas City, MO, August 2016  USVI Drought Monitor User Forum, STX, August 2016  62 Annual Horticulture Conference in Anasco Puerto Rico, September 2016  EPA Region 2 Science Consortium Meeting, St. Thomas, January 2017

STUDENT PARTICIPATION

Calywn Morton (Undergraduate), University of the Virgin Islands, Biology

OTHER https://soundcloud.com/wuviam1090/jnisa-a-water-ambassader https://soundcloud.com/wuviam1090/christina-chanes-water-ambassador-2 https://soundcloud.com/wuviam1090/christina-chanes-water-ambassador https://soundcloud.com/wuviam1090/ces-whats-going-on-water-ambassador-program

[https://ssl.gstatic.com/docs/doclist/images/icon_10_generic_list.png] EyeOnTheVI-01-23-16 evergreen water ambassador

[X] https://soundcloud.com/wuviam1090/the-kick-festival-seqment-of-the-august-of-the-eye-on-the- vi-082616

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ANIMAL PRODUCTION, MILK AND BYPRODUCTS

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 73-76. 2017

EFECTOS DE UN PROTOCOLO DE ALIMENTACIÓN DE CRECIMIENTO ACELERADO SOBRE LA GANANCIA EN PESO DE BECERRAS JERSEY BAJO CONDICIONES TROPICALES

Ninochka Navedo-Guzmán, Claudia Ríos-Solís, Paola N. Marrero-Torres, Andrea P. Ramos- Ahmad, Alejandra P. Rodríguez-Asencio, Melissa Rodríguez-Alvarado, Ilka M. Lorenzo-Lorenzo, Jaime E. Curbelo-Rodríguez y Guillermo Ortiz-Colóna. Laboratorio de Biología Molecular Animal, Departamento de Ciencia Animal, Servicio de Extensión Agrícola, Colegio de Ciencias Agrícolas, Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez. [email protected]

Resumen: El efecto de un protocolo de alimentación de crecimiento acelerado (PACA), basado en leche de descarte pasteurizada fue evaluado en becerras Jersey bajo condiciones tropicales. Se utilizaron ocho becerras Jersey en el estudio, divididas de manera equivalente en el grupo control y grupo experimental (n=4). El experimento duró un periodo de 7 semanas por animal. El grupo control consumía continuamente 2 L de leche a las 6:00 AM y 2 L de leche a las 6:00 PM. El grupo PACA fue alimentado paulatinamente con más leche (dividido equivalentemente en alimentaciones a las 6:00 AM y 6:00 PM) con 4.0, 4.74, 5.68, 6.62 y 7.56 L desde la semana uno hasta la semana cinco, respectivamente. En la semana seis y en la semana siete al grupo PACA se le redujo la leche a 5.68 L y a 3.32 L por día respectivamente. Ambos grupos fueron alimentados con la misma cantidad de alimento iniciador conteniendo18% PC; 2.5% grasa; 8.0% FC; 14% FDA; 1.5% Ca; 0.5% P; 0.20 ppm Se; 2,273 IU/kg vitamina A; y 66 g/Tm de Lasalocid. La cantidad de alimento iniciador ofrecido fue aumentando progresivamente de la siguiente manera: 0.23 kg (semana uno y dos), 0.45 kg (semana tres), 0.68 kg (semana cuatro), 0.91 kg (semana cinco hasta semana siete). Esta cantidad de alimento fue dividida equivalentemente en dos alimentaciones por día (6:00 AM y 6:00 PM). La ganancia en peso total durante 7 semanas bajo tratamiento fue 10.25 kg (Control) y 21.0 kg (PACA). Aunque no se encontró diferencia en el peso de las becerras hasta la semana cinco (P≥0.495); en la semana seis el PACA presentó una tendencia (P=0.1069) a que las becerras fueran más pesadas (32.0 vs. 46.45 kg para el control y PACA, respectivamente). Sin embargo, para la semana 7 (dos semanas después de empezar a reducir la cantidad de leche ofrecida a las becerras) no se encontró diferencia (P=0.169) en el peso de las becerras. Debido a que el PACA resultó en una ganancia en peso de 0.429 kg/día; prácticamente duplicando la ganancia en peso del grupo control (0.209 kg/día); estos resultados sugieren que el PACA podría ser una alternativa para mejorar el crecimiento de las becerras lecheras durante el periodo lechal en el trópico y justifican experimentos adicionales con mayor número de animales.

Palabras clave: crecimiento acelerado, periodo lechal, becerras Jersey, condiciones tropicales

MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS

Facilidades y Animales

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La investigación fue realizada en una finca comercial en Lajas, Puerto Rico. Los protocolos utilizados en esta investigación fueron aprobados por el Comité Institucional del Uso y Manejo de Animales en la Investigación de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto de Mayagüez. En total fueron utilizadas un total de 8 becerras de la raza Jersey. Las becerras se dividieron equitativamente (n=4) en grupo control y el grupo bajo el protocolo de alimentación de crecimiento acelerado (PACA).

Manejo

Los animales utilizados fueron manejados según los estándares de manejo de la vaquería comercial utilizada. Durante su primer día de nacidos las becerras adquirieron calostro directamente de la vaca y permanecieron con ella durante 24 horas. A las tres semanas de nacido se le suministró la vacuna Inforce 3 (Zoetis, USA) a todas las becerras para la prevención de enfermedades respiratorias. Todos los animales fueron albergados en jaulas individuales (53.34 cm ancho x 121.92 cm largo).

Se utilizaron ocho becerras Jersey en el estudio, divididas de manera equivalente en el grupo control y grupo experimental (n=4). El experimento duró un periodo de 7 semanas por animal. El grupo control consumía continuamente 2 L de leche a las 6:00 AM y 2 L de leche a las 6:00 PM. El grupo PACA fue alimentado paulatinamente con más leche (dividido equivalentemente en alimentaciones a las 6:00 AM y 6:00 PM) con 4.0, 4.74, 5.68, 6.62 y 7.56 L desde la semana uno hasta la semana cinco, respectivamente. En la semana seis y en la semana siete al grupo PACA se le redujo la leche a 5.68 L y a 3.32 L por día respectivamente. Ambos grupos fueron alimentados con la misma cantidad de alimento iniciador conteniendo18% PC; 2.5% grasa; 8.0% FC; 14% FDA; 1.5% Ca; 0.5% P; 0.20 ppm Se; 2,273 IU/kg vitamina A; y 66 g/Tm de Lasalocid. La cantidad de alimento iniciador ofrecido fue aumentando progresivamente de la siguiente manera: 0.23 kg (semana uno y dos), 0.45 kg (semana tres), 0.68 kg (semana cuatro), 0.91 kg (semana cinco hasta semana siete). Esta cantidad de alimento fue dividida equivalentemente en dos alimentaciones por día (6:00 AM y 6:00 PM). El peso de las becerras fue documentado utilizando una cinta específicamente calibrada para tal propósito (Nasco Weight by Breed Dairy Measuring Tape).

RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN

Una buena nutrición a edad temprana es sinónimo de un aumento en la producción lechera (Drackley et al, 2007). El protocolo comúnmente utilizado en Puerto Rico solamente les ofrece a las becerras 2 L de leche en la mañana y 2 L de leche en la tarde. Esta estrategia de manejo de alimentar las becerras solamente 4 L de leche por día intenta promover el consumo de alimento seco (Drackley, 2004). Sin embargo, se ha documentado que el consumo de alimento seco no es significativo hasta los 28 días de nacido y a consecuencia este protocolo de alimentación no es sinónimo de una buena nutrición; y no logra que las becerras alcancen un crecimiento biológicamente normal (Drakley, 2004). En nuestro estudio utilizamos uno de los protocolos de alimentación de crecimiento acelerado; pero tenemos que reconocer que a lo que nosotros nos referimos como “ crecimiento acelerado” es crecimiento “biológicamente normal” (Drakley, 2008).

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En nuestro estudio la ganancia en peso total durante 7 semanas bajo tratamiento fue 10.25 kg (Control) y 21.0 kg (PACA). Aunque no se encontró diferencia en el peso de las becerras hasta la semana cinco (P≥0.495); en la semana seis el PACA presentó una tendencia (P=0.107) a que las becerras fueran más pesadas (32.0 vs. 46.45 kg para el control y PACA, respectivamente). Sin embargo, para la semana 7 (dos semanas después de empezar a reducir la cantidad de leche ofrecida a las becerras) no se encontró diferencia (P=0.169) en el peso de las becerras.

En contraste con nuestro estudio, otros investigadores han obtenido grandes diferencias en el crecimiento de las becerras cuando utilizan crecimiento acelerado (Sweeney et al. 2010; Hengst et al. 2012; Silper et al. 2015). Es importante notar que en nuestro estudio las becerras en PACA lograron una ganancia en peso diaria de solamente 0.4 kg por día, muy por debajo de la ganancia en peso esperada de becerras Jersey bajo protocolos convencionales de alimentación (0.54 kg/día). Sin embargo, los estudios de crecimiento acelerado usados como referencia fueron realizados en condiciones de clima templado y utilizando alimento concentrado de mayor contenido de proteína (i.e. 22% PC vs. 18% PC utilizado en nuestro estudio). Además, data reciente indica que becerras que nacen de vacas que han estado expuestas a estrés por calor ganan 0.2 kg/día menos que las becerras nacidas de vacas mantenidas en condiciones termoneutrales, lo que sugiere que el estrés por calor in utero tiene efectos negativos en el crecimiento post parto de las becerras (Laporta et al, 2017). Como las vacas en Puerto Rico están usualmente expuestas al estrés por calor durante el periodo seco, esto podría explicar parcialmente el menor crecimiento observado tanto en las becerras en PACA y en control en nuestro estudio. Todavía queda por determinar si el PACA tendrá un efecto a largo plazo en la productividad de leche de las becerras porque numéricamente duplicó la ganancia en peso de las becerras.

CONCLUSIÓN

En conclusión, debido a que el PACA resultó en una ganancia en peso de 0.429 kg/día; prácticamente duplicando la ganancia en peso del grupo control (0.209 kg/día); estos resultados sugieren que el PACA podría ser una alternativa para mejorar el crecimiento de las becerras lecheras durante el periodo lechal en el trópico y justifican experimentos adicionales con mayor número de animales. Además, futuros experimentos deben considerar el uso de alimentos concentrados con mayor porciento de proteína y métodos alternativos de ofrecer el alimento concentrado a las becerras.

LITERATURA CITADA

Drackley, J. K. (2004). Feeding for Accelerated Growth in Dairy Calves. Proceedings of Minnesota Dairy Health Conference, USA, 60-61.

Drackley, J. K., B. C. Pollard, H. M. Dann, y J. A. Stamey. (2007). First-lactation milk production for cows fed control or intensified milk replacer programs as calves. J. Dairy Sci. 90(Suppl. 1), 32-33.

Drackley, J. (2008). Accelerated Growth Programs for Milk-Fed Calves. Proceedings High Plains Dairy Conference, Albuquerque, NM, USA, 88-90, 92.

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Hengst, B., Nemec, L., Rastani, R., & Gressley, T. (2012). Effect of conventional and intensified milk replacer feeding programs on performance, vaccination response, and neutrophil mRNA levels of Holstein calves. Journal Dairy Science, 95(9), 5182-5193.

Laporta, J., T. F. Fabris, A. L. Skibiel, J. L. Powell, M. J. Hayen, K. Horvath, E. K. Miller-Cushon, and G. E.Dahl. 2017. In utero exposure to heat stress during late gestation has prolonged effects on the activity patterns and growth of dairy calves. J Dairy Sci. 2017 Apr; 100(4):2976-2984.

Silper, B., Lana, A., Carvalho, A., Ferreira, C., Franzoni, A., Lima, J., and Coelho, S. (2014). Effects of milk replacer feeding strategies on performance, ruminal development, and metabolism of dairy calves. Journal of Dairy Science,97(2), 1016-1025.

Sweeney, B. C., J. P. Rushen, D. M. Weary, and A. M. B. de Passillé. 2010. Duration of weaning, starter intake, and weight gain of dairy calves fed large amounts of milk. J. Dairy Sci. 93:148–152.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 77-78. 2017

NEONATAL SURVIVAL IN SHEEP: CHALLENGES IN THE BAHAMAS

Sands T.1, Sands J.S.1 and Singh M. D.2*. 1The Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Sciences Institute (BAMSI), North Andros, Commonwealth of the Bahamas. 2Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), Commonwealth of the Bahamas. *Corresponding Author, Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: Neonatal survival in sheep (Ovis aries) represents a significant loss of income to farmers. Despite significant research in this area, small ruminant production is still severely affected by neonatal mortality. More than 50% of lamb deaths occur on the day of birth. Poor maternal nutrition resulting in low birth weight, insufficient colostrums production by ewes and ingestion by lambs, birthing difficulty, litter size and poor postnatal management are all important contributors to pre-weaning mortality. The objective of this research was to identify the cause of neonatal mortalities at the livestock unit of The Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Sciences Institute in North Andros, Bahamas. A total of 183 births were recorded over an eight-week period in 125 local Bahama breed of sheep managed in an extensive or intensive system. A 40% mortality rate was recorded and could be attributed to improper housing, poor maternal nutrition during gestation, low birth weight and hypoxia from birthing difficulty. In the extensively managed system, 5% of the neonatal lambs succumbed to predators like vultures. It was concluded that prenatal management needed to be improved through the introduction of enriched feeds and mineral licks, thereby improving birth weight and colostrum production in ewes. Proper lambing pens were recommended to provide a more protective enclosure thereby preventing accidents from poor infrastructure. Vigilant observation of lambs born in the field was also recommended to guard against predators.

Keywords: Neonatal mortality, colostrum, Bahama breed, birthing

INTRODUCTION

The causes of lamb mortality have been extensively researched, however, despite considerable scientific knowledge about neonatal mortality substantive reductions in lamb or kid losses have not been realized (Dwyer 2015). The importance of Neonatal survival is crucial to any small ruminant production, for the sole purpose expansion of one’s herd. High mortality is an ongoing issue amongst small ruminant farmers, commercial and subsistence productions alike. Farm and farm management influences lamb mortality and can be very variable in the distribution of factors for neonatal mortalities in lambs. Pedigree and early performance records are important in identifying the genetic and environmental factors affecting lamb survival. The Bahama native breed of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas is a poorly understood breed, with few references in the literature. The objective of this study was to identify the factors affecting perinatal mortality of this breed of sheep.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

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This study was conducted at the Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Science Institute Farm housed in North Andros. Lambings from 125 Bahama breed ewes with a body condition score of 2-3 were recorded during the months of January to February with a temperature range from 9 to 27 oC and an average rainfall of 1 mm. 183 lambs were born during this period, under both intensive and extensive systems. Lambs were weaned at four weeks and housed in a nightfold, fed freshly chopped elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum), 0.2 kg creep feed and water ad lib. Litter size, weight and sex were recorded for lambs born in the field as well as in the nightfold. All mortalities were recorded.

RESULTS

The average (± SD) weight of newborn Bahama breed lambs was 4.7 kg (± 0.7), with males 23% heavier than females. Weights and survival ratios from 67 singletons, 17 twins and 8 triplets are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Mean weight and survival ration from different litter sizes.

Number Litter Size Mean (± SD) Survival % weight (kg) 67 Singleton 5.56 (±1.2) 69 17 Twins 4.23 (±0.8) 87 8 Triplets 3.7 (±2.3) 92

A 40% mortality was recorded during the period January to February, with 89% if deaths occurring with 48 hours of birth. Mortalities were not significantly different between litter size. Singletons were significantly heavier than triplets (p<0.05), and had the highest mortality rate (31%).

CONCLUSION

Prenatal management needed to be improved through the introduction of enriched feeds and mineral licks; thereby improving birth weight and colostrum production in ewes. Proper lambing pens were recommended to provide a more protective enclosure thereby preventing accidents from poor infrastructure as well as vigilant observation of lambs born in the field to guard against predators.

LITERATURE CITED

C. A. Morris, S. M. Hickey & J. N. Clarke (2000) Genetic and environmental factors affecting lamb survival at birth and through to weaning, New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 43:4, 515-524, DOI: 10.1080/00288233.2000.9513448

C. M. Dwyer, J. Conington, F. Corbiere, I. H. Holmøy, K. Muri, R. Nowak, J. Rooke, J. Vipond and J.-M. Gautier. 2015. Invited review: Improving neonatal survival in small ruminants:science into practice. The Animal Consortium 2015.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 79-81. 2017

LEARNER EXPERIENCE DESIGN OF NEO-TROPICAL ANIMALS-ORIENTED eLEARNING SYSTEMS

Elizabeth N. Mc Lean-Tikasingh, [email protected], (868) 754 9618; Gary W. Garcia, [email protected], (868) 742 9430; and Alexander Nikov, [email protected], (868) 389 0153.

ABSTRACT: Neo-tropical animals have been referred to as those terrestrial and terrestrial aquatic non-domestic species found in Latin American and Caribbean tropical zones [1]. Examples of such species include: Dasyprocta sp. (Agouti), Agouti paca (Lappe), Cavia porcellus (Guinea Pig) and Hydrochaeris sp. (Capybara). These species have the potential of being economically viable for livestock production due to their adaptability to the Neo-tropical climate. Furthermore, their dietary requirements can be fulfilled by indigenous feedstuffs, which would be significantly cheaper than imported commercially prepared feeds. While the field of Neo-tropical animals is relatively new, the economic and nutritional possibilities that exist show great potential. It is thought that through the dissemination of information on these species, which have been economically viable, production models can be developed. Further support for Neo-tropical animal production models can be found in the fact that worldwide, many countries have been big consumers of poultry meat and have been net importers of this same protein (meat) and poultry feeds in general. World poultry consumption per kg per capita has been listed as 13.8 kg in 2015 compared to 10.2 kg during 1997-1999 [2]. However, the poultry sectors in CARICOM have been heavily reliant on inputs from foreign sources, which has put a strain on foreign exchange utilization and food security [3]. By developing livestock production models based on Neo-tropical animal species, the expenses usually associated with the importation of input supplies would be negated.

With the intention of disseminating information on Neo-tropical animals to students and by extension the wider public a practical approach should be taken. The present generation has been described as “Always On”[4]. Students have migrated away from conventional learning styles to that of online knowledge-based systems and by extension social media platforms for information gathering. By utilizing this, “Always on” inclination, students can access information on Neo- tropical animal species via eLearning systems.

Interaction with these neo-tropical eLearning systems should be oriented towards positive emotional learner experience (LX) [5]. Research has been conducted that is aimed at developing a user experience, design-oriented knowledge system in Neo-tropical animal science for targeted dissemination of information, knowledge exchange, dialogue and networking among students, researchers, farmers, tourists, etc. [6].

Another field which can be integrated into Neo-tropical animal education is that of neurofeedback or biofeedback. This technique measures the brainwaves of a learner using sensors placed on the scalp [7]. By measuring the brainwaves of a learner interfacing with Neo-tropical animal information, it can be determined which brainwaves have been experienced more than others. Typically, beta brainwaves (above 13Hz) have been associated with intellectual stimulation and

79 concentration [8]. Once these brainwaves have been identified it can be inferred that the user could have maximum retention of the information interfaced. Neurofeedback systems can be used for wildlife animals’ data visualization and animation [9]. When the learner engages with subject matter on Neo-tropical animals a 3D mapping of the EEG data can be displayed via a visual feedback which can then be interpreted if the learner has had a positive or negative experience with the interface. The EEG can be displayed through colour mapping visualizations, time-dependent blobby shapes or moving “pins,” all of which are displayed on a 3D model of a head.

Another aspect of engaging the learner in Neo-tropical animal eLearning is that of tracking learner emotional state and stimulating learner engagement [10]. This approach can be used to monitor the levels of engagement that the learner has with the interface. In instances where the learner may have decreased levels of attentiveness, the neurofeedback system can prompt the user to reconnect with the subject matter. Examples of such prompts can include modifying the speed of the video being played, brightening or darkening the screen or the introduction of a noise to alert the user. With these strategies there can be a consistent engagement of the learner and the interface.

In conclusion, by using neurofeedback systems in eLearning a positive emotional learner experience can be created and thus significantly increase the effectiveness of learning in Neo- tropical animal science.

Keywords: Neo-tropical animals, wildlife, learner experience design, eLearning systems, knowledge systems, neurofeedback

REFERENCES

García, G. 2009. Neo-Tropical Animals and Agro-tourism: A Trinidad and Tobago Opportunity. in Conference on Turtle Conservation, Ecotourism and Sustainable Development, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. July 28-29, 2009.

Bruinsma, J. World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030: An FAO Perspective. 2003, London: England: Earthscan Publications.

Singh, R., G. Seepersad, L. Rankine, K. Haraksingh, and S. Mc Lean., The Caribbean Poultry Industry Trade and Competitiveness. 2001, Kingston: Jamaica: Caribbean Poultry Association.

Baird, D. E., and M. Fisher, Neomillenial User Experience Design Strategies: Utilizing Social Networking Media to Support "Always On" Learning Styles. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 2005. 34 (1): 5-32.

Syne S., A. Nikov, G. García, Emotional Learner Experience in Neo-Tropical Animal Wildlife eLearning. in Conference on XII International Congress of Wildlife Management in the Amazon and Latin America, Quito. August 8-12, 2016.

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Syne S., A. Nikov, G. García, M. Singh, S. Draganov, Checklist-based Assessment of Learner Experience in Neo-Tropical Wildlife eLearning. in Conference on XII International Scientific Conference Management and Engineering, Sozopol, June 22-25, 2014, pp. 397-405.

Nunez, P.L., and R. Srinivasan. Electric Fields of the Brain. 2006, New York. The United States of America.: Oxford University Press.

Hammond, D. C. What is Neurofeedback? Journal of Neurotherapy, 2006. 10 (4): 25-36.

Sourina O., A. Sourin, and V. Kulish, EEG Data Driven Animation and Its Application. In: Gagalowicz A., Philips W. (eds) Computer Vision/Computer Graphics Collaboration Techniques. MIRAGE 2009. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol 5496. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Lockwood, J., and S. Bergin. A Neurofeedback System to Promote Learner Engagement. online: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1607.06232.pdf, 2016.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:82-87. 2017

ASOCIACIÓN ENTRE EL PERFIL DE PATÓGENOS MASTÍTICOS Y PRÁCTICAS DEL ORDEÑO EN HATOS LECHEROS CON ALTA Y BAJA CALIDAD DE LECHE EN PUERTO RICO

Mónica X. Toledo Villafañe1, Jaime E. Curbelo Rodríguez1,2, Marcela Marrero Pérez1, Luis Viera González2, Enrique Martínez Loarte2, Suzika Pagán Riestra2, Angélica Alvarado Narvaez2, Luis Rodríguez Rosado2 y Raúl Pérez Rodríguez2 y Anibal Ruiz Lugo2. 1 Departamento de Ciencia Animal. 2 Servicio de Extensión Agrícola. Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez. Email: [email protected]

RESUMEN: Se estudió la asociación entre el perfil de patógenos mastíticos y prácticas del ordeño entre hatos lecheros con Recuentos de Células Somáticas (RCS) y Recuentos Bacterianos (RB) altos vs bajos. Los RCS y RB se obtuvieron a través de la Oficina de la Reglamentación de la Industria Lechera de (ORIL) durante los meses de agosto y septiembre de 2016. Se escogieron hatos lecheros con los RCS y RB más bajos (Alta calidad; n=15) y más altos (Pobre calidad; n=15). A cada hato seleccionado se le tomó una muestra de leche del tanque para identificación molecular de patógenos mastíticos (PathoProof™ Mastitis Complete-16 Kit). En adición, a cada hato se le cumplimentó un cuestionario presencial durante el ordeño sobre prácticas de manejo para el control de mastitis. Se utilizó un TTEST y tablas de contingencia para analizar los datos (SAS Studio). Se observaron diferencias (P<0.001) entre los promedios del RCS (1,029,285 ± 76,879 vs 212,666 ± 13,954 células/mL) y RB (139,928 ± 47474 vs 4,440 ± 580.6 UFC/mL) entre el grupo de Baja Calidad y Alta Calidad, respectivamente. El grupo de Baja Calidad tuvo una mayor frecuencia de los patógenos mastíticos Corynebacterium bovis (C. Bovis), Klebsiella spp., Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Streptococcus agalactiae (Strept. agalactiae) y Levaduras (P<0.05). Inesperadamente, Serratia marcescens se observó en mayor frecuencia en hatos con Alta Calidad de leche (P=0.007). El no incluir en las prácticas de control de mastitis el uso de guantes desechables, limpieza frecuente de salas de espera y sombra, emplear una rutina de ordeño constante y no usar servilletas individuales por teta durante el ordeño estuvo asociado con problemas de mastitis (P<0.05). Los patógenos mastíticos C. bovis y Staphylococcus spp., C. Bovis, Escherichia coli (E.coli) y Klebsiella spp, E. coli y S. aureus, y E. coli fueron más frecuentes en hatos donde no implementan alimento de transición a vacas horras, no usan servilletas individuales por teta, no limpian frecuentemente la sala de espera y ranchos de sombra, no implementar una rutina constante de ordeño, y no aplican el pre-dip en pezones limpios, respectivamente (P<0.05). En conclusión, hatos donde implementan en su ordeño prácticas de manejo recomendadas tienen mejor calidad de leche y menor incidencia de mastitis. Educar a los ordeñadores es imperante; hatos que implementan una rutina constante de ordeño y capacitan sus ordeñadores tienden a presentar mejor calidad de leche (P≤0.10).

Palabras clave: Mastitis, prácticas de ordeño, patógenos mastíticos

INTRODUCCIÓN

Durante el año fiscal 2013, la Industria Lechera de Puerto Rico (PR) constituyó un 22.9% del Ingreso Bruto Agrícola (ORIL, 2014). Sin embargo, esta empresa enfrenta varias dificultades,

82 entre estas la mastitis. Esta se define como la inflamación de la glándula mamaria en respuesta a cualquier agente extraño que accede al tejido estéril de la glándula mamaria (Pol & Ruegg, 2007). Según la ORIL (2014), la leche cruda decomisada por incumplimiento con parámetros de calidad representó pérdidas de $ 322,088. Al considerar la relación de la mastitis sobre la producción de leche, el impacto es mucho más agravante. Kvapilik et al. (2014), reportaron que vacas que promedian RCS’s entre 400,000 a 800,000 ceúluas/mL, producen 10% menos leche relativo a vacas libres de mastitis (< 200,000 RCS/mL). En el 2013, la producción anual de leche alcanzó los 263,815,798 cuartillos, promediando un RCS de 421,523 células/mL. Considerando un 5% de pérdida por altos RCS, esto repercute en 13,190,789 cuartillos de leche que las vacas dejaron de producir, constituyendo pérdidas económicas de $ 10,288,816 durante el año fiscal 2013-2014. La prevención de mastitis incluye toda práctica de manejo que reduzca la exposición de patógenos mastíticos a la glándula mamaria. En adición, la identificación del agente etiológico de mastitis es de gran importancia para determinar el tipo de mastitis (e.g., ambiental o contagioso), prácticas de manejo asociadas a la fuente de contagio, y determinación de tratamiento efectivo. Métodos tradicionales para la identificación del agente causante de mastitis están generalmente basados en cultivos de plato. Investigaciones recientes muestran que pruebas moleculares como la “reacción en cadena de la polimerasa” (PCR por sus siglas en inglés), presentan mayor especificidad y sensibilidad relativo a cultivos bacterianos tradicionales (Koskinen et al., 2010). En adición, estudios locales han reportado una limitada capacidad de detección de patógenos mastíticos en cuartos con mastitis subclínica utilizando cultivos bacterianos tradicionales (Almeida, 2014). El objetivo de esta investigación fue determinar la asociación entre el perfil de patógenos mastíticos y prácticas de manejo entre hatos lecheros de PR alta y baja calidad de leche. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS Utilizando los datos de calidad de leche de la ORIL durante el mes de octubre de 2016, se escogieron hatos lecheros con los RCS y RB más bajos (n=15) y más altos (n=15). En coordinación con los inspectores de la ORIL, a cada hato seleccionado se le tomó una muestra de leche del tanque (noviembre 1, 2016). Las mismas fueron analizadas para la identificación molecular de patógenos mastíticos (PathoProof™ Mastitis Complete-16 Kit) en el Laboratorio de Biotecnología Animal de la Universidad de PR, Mayagüez. Se diseñó un cuestionario sobre prácticas de manejo para el control de la mastitis el cual fue cumplimentado presencialmente durante el ordeño por el personal del Servicio de Extensión Agrícola. Para determinar diferencias en los promedios del RCS y RB entre los grupos experimentales, se realizó un PROC TTEST (SAS University Edition). Para evaluar la asociación entre la frecuencia relativa de patógenos mastíticos y prácticas de manejo según los grupos experimentales, se generaron tablas de contingencia (CHI SQUARE). RESULTADOS

Se observaron diferencias (P<0.001) entre los promedios del RCS (1,029,285 ± 76,879 vs 212,666 ± 13,954 células/mL) y RB (139,928 ± 47474 vs 4,440 ± 580.6 UFC/mL) entre el grupo de Baja Calidad y Alta Calidad, respectivamente. Según las prácticas de manejo evaluadas, ganaderos entrevistados tenían menores RCS y RB cuando: usaban servilletas individuales por cuarto (P=0.0092), usaban guantes desechables durante el ordeño (P=0.0142), implementaban una rutina constate del ordeño (P=0.0284), limpiaban frecuentemente los ranchos de espera (P=0.0566) y de sombras (P=0.0663). Los hatos lecheros con Baja Calidad de leche tuvieron una mayor frecuencia de aislamiento de los patógenos mastíticos C. Bovis (P=0.0054), Klebsiella spp. (P= 0.0393), S.

83 aureus (P= 0.0296), S. agalactiae (P= 0.0144) y Levaduras (P=0.0536). Inesperadamente, Serratia marcescens se observó en mayor frecuencia en hatos con Alta Calidad de leche (P=0.007). El patógeno Strept. agalactiae fue el patógeno mastítico aislado con mayor frecuencia (80%). El no incluir en las prácticas de control de mastitis el uso de guantes desechables, limpieza frecuente de salas de espera y sombra, emplear una rutina de ordeño constante y no usar servilletas individuales por teta durante el ordeño, estuvo asociado con hatos con pobre calidad de leche (P<0.05). Los patógenos mastíticos C. bovis (P=0.0124) y Staphylococcus spp. (P=0.0221), fueron aislados con mayor frecuencia en hatos donde no alimentan al ganado horro con alimento de transición. El no aplicar el pre-dip en pezones limpios y no usar servilletas individuales por teta estuvieron asociado con mayor frecuencia de aislamiento de E. coli (P=0.0457) y C. bovis (P=0.0379), respectivamente. Los patógenos S. aureus (P=0.0073) y E. coli (P=0.0457) se aislaron con mayor frecuencia en hatos donde no implementaban una rutina constante de ordeño.

1,200,000

1,000,000

ceúluas/mL 800,000 Figura 1. 600,000

400,000

Recuento de Células Células de Recuento Somáticas Somáticas 200,000 0 Alta Calidad Baja Calidad Recuento de células somáticas por grupo de hatos

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175,000

150,000 125,000

100,000 UFC/mL 75,000

50,000 Recuento Bacteriano Recuento 25,000 0 Alta Calidad Baja Calidad

Figura 2. Recuento Bacteriano por grupo de hatos

Tabla 1. Correlaciones simples entre RCS, RB y tamaño del hato. Tamaño RCS RB

- -0.37119 -0.35725 Tamaño

0.0566 0.0673

-0.37119 - 0.59983 RCS 0.0566 0.0006

-0.35725 0.59983 - RB 0.0673 0.0006

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Tabla 2. Prácticas de manejo y calidad. Frecuencia

Nunca A veces Siempre Práctica de Manejo Grupo P-value 1 2 3 Alta Calidad 7 4 3 Relación Cliente-Veterinario 0.162 Baja Calidad 10 3 0 Alta Calidad 0 0 14 Terapia de vaca horra 0.0798 Baja Calidad 1 3 9 Alta Calidad - 0 14 ¿Cuán frecuente limpia la sala de espera? 0.0566 Baja Calidad - 3 10 Alta Calidad 0 1 10 ¿Cuán frecuente limpia los ranchos de sombra? 0.0663 Baja Calidad 2 3 4 Alta Calidad 0 1 13 ¿Utiliza una rutina de ordeño constante? 0.0284 Baja Calidad 1 6 6 Alta Calidad 3 1 10 ¿Utiliza guantes durante el ordeño? 0.0142 Baja Calidad 10 0 3 Alta Calidad 3 1 10 ¿Utiliza servilletas individuales por cuarto? 0.0092 Baja Calidad 5 6 2

Tabla 3. Patógenos mastíticos y calidad.

Frecuencia relativa Patógeno Grupo Negativo Baja Modearada Alta P-value Klebsiella oxycota o Alta Calidad 15 0 0 - 0.0393 pneumoniar Baja Calidad 9 4 1 - Serratia Alta Calidad 9 6 - - 0.0079 marcescens Baja Calidad 14 0 - - Corynebacterium Alta Calidad 12 3 - - 0.0054 bovis Baja Calidad 4 10 - - Staphylococcus Alta Calidad 14 1 - - 0.0296 aureus Baja Calidad 6 4 2 2 Streptococcus Alta Calidad 4 9 2 - 0.0144 agalactiae Baja Calidad 1 3 7 3 Alta Calidad 14 1 - - Yeast 0.0536 Baja Calidad 9 5 - -

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CONCLUSIÓN

Se conoce que la dispersión de mastitis depende en gran parte de las prácticas de ordeño (Chandan, 2008). Hatos con niveles altos de RCS y RB tienen mayor incidencia de patógenos mastíticos contagiosos, esto se debe a las pobres prácticas durante el ordeño. Esto fue evidente en esta investigación donde el no implementar prácticas de ordeño asociadas para el control de mastitis contagiosa estuvo asociado con mayor frecuencia de patógenos S. aureus y C. Bovis. El patógeno Strept. agalactiae fue el patógeno mastítico aislado con mayor frecuencia en los hatos estudiados con un 80% de incidencia, lo que concuerda con otros estudios (Carvalho-Castro et al. 2017) Además para el uso de servilletas individuales durante el ordeño se observó la presencia de Corynebacterium bovis (P=0.0379). Tanto como Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae y Corynebacterium bovis, son patógenos contagiosos que fueron evidentes en mayor frecuencia en hatos de baja calidad y en algunas prácticas de ordeño pobres. Un manejo pobre de la limpieza de los ranchos tiene una mayor exposición de patógenos mastíticos contagiosos con la ubre, como E. coli y Klebsiella. El no disponer de alimento de transición para vacas post parto están predispuestas a enfermedades metabólicas que suprimen el sistema inmunológico y por consecuente el riesgo a contraer mastitis.

REFERENCIAS

Almeida-Montenegro, A. D. (2014). Termografía infrarroja en muestras de leche y componentes de la máquina de ordeño como herramienta para la detección de mastitis sub-clínica en ganado lechero (tesis de maestría) Universidad de PR, recinto de Mayagüez. Chandan, R. C., Kilara, A., & Shah, N. P. (Eds.). (2008). Dairy processing and quality assurance. John Wiley & Sons. Carvalho-Castro G.A., Silva J.R., Paiva L.V., Custódio D.A. Moreira R.O. 2017. Molecular epidemiology of Streptococcus agalactiae isolated from mastitis in Brazilian dairy herds Brazilian Journal of Microbiology A. van Haeringen, T. J. Lam, and S. Pyörälä. 2010. Field comparison of real-time polymerase chain reaction and bacterial culture for identification of bovine mastitis bacteria. J. Dairy Sci. 93:5707–5715. Kvapilik, J., O. Hanus, J. Syrucek, M. Vyletelova-Klimesova, and P. Roubal. 2014. The economic importance of the losses of cow milk due to mastitis: A meta-analysis. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci. 20:1483–1497. Oficina de la Reglamentación de la Industria Lechera, 2014. Informe Anual Año Fiscal 2012-2013. Pol, M., and Ruegg, P. L. 2007. Relationship between antimicrobial drug usage and antimicrobial susceptibility of gram-positive mastitis pathogens. Journal of Dairy Science, 90(1), 262-273.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:88-97. 2017

EFFECT OF A NITROGEN FERTILIZER ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TWO GRASS SPECIES GROWN AT THE FCIAF CAMPUS Andell Edwards and Arel John. University of Trinidad and Tobago, Eastern Caribbean Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, Faculty of Biosciences, Agriculture and Food Technology, Caroni North Bank Road, Centeno Arima, Trinidad ABSTRACT: Grass species forms an integral part of the diet of ruminant animals in Trinidad and Tobago. Their quantity and by far their quality can be limiting particularly during the dry period. Efficient management can serve as a catalyst to boost quantity and maintain the quality during dry spells. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of a nitrogenous fertilizer on the nutritive content of two grass species. Treatments (Urea 3g/plant) were applied in a 2 x 2 x 1 (2 species, 2 replicates, 1 treatment) factorial arrangement in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Treatments were applied every other week over nine weeks. When exposed to fertilizer, the mulato grass exhibited the highest (p<0.05) dry matter content (944 g/kg DM) when compared to elephant grass (938 g/kg DM). In contrast, mulato grass had the lowest dry matter content 933 g/kg DM without fertilization. Crude protein value was higher (p<0.05) for both elephant grass (112 g/kg DM) and mulato grass (114 g/k DM) when compared to their controls 75.4 g/kg DM and 88.3 g/kg DM respectively. With fertilization, mulato grass exhibited the highest (p<0.05) crude protein value (CP) (114 g/kg DM) when compared to elephant grass (112 g/kg DM). There was no difference (p>0.05) in ether extract content between elephant grass fertilized (26.6 g/kg DM) and it’s control (26.5 g/kg DM). However, fertilized mulato grass had a higher (p<0.05) ether extract content 21.6 g/kg DM when compared to the control 20.7 g/kg DM. Ether extract content was highest (p<0.05) in elephant grass when compared to mulato. Ash was significantly higher in elephant grass when compared to mulato. Crude fibre content was significantly higher in elephant grass when compared to mulato. Nitrogen free extractives was lower (p<0.05) for both fertilized elephant grass (631 g/kg DM) and mulato grass (367 g/k DM) when compared to their controls 150 g/kg DM and 446 g/kg DM respectively. Nitrogen free extracts was significantly higher in mulato grass both fertilized and control when compared to elephant grass fertilized and control. It was concluded that fertilization can influence the chemical composition of locally grown grass species. Keywords: Forage, fertilizer, chemical composition, proximate analysis, dry matter, crude fibre

INTRODUCTION

Livestock production forms an integral part of the agricultural production system in Trinidad and Tobago. Tropical forage species comprises a major component of livestock feeding systems locally. These species are known to be inadequate where animal nutrition is concerned particularly in the dry season as a sole source of feed. This nutrition concern can be overcome by cultivating and maintaining proven forage species that are used in the basal diet of livestock animals. Among the proven forage species is Mulato I (Brachiaria spp. hybrid) and Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum). Mulato I and Mulato II have recently been introduced to Trinidad. Their rooting system allows the species to tolerate heavy grazing, trampling coupled with fast regrowth (Gibson

88 and Hosein 2013). The authors indicated that mulato can tolerate acid soils and extended dry conditions. Mulato can produce dry matter yields of up to 25 tonnes/ hectare per year with crude protein content ranging from 8 – 18 % depending on soil conditions and time of harvesting (Gibson and Hosein 2013). Elephant grass can be grazed but it’s best suited for cut and carry systems of livestock production (Robin and Rolle 1992). High yields and high nutritive values are obtained with a 5-8 week harvesting frequency. With adequate fertilizing yields of 20 to 80 tonnes dry matter/ hectare per year can be obtained from Elephant grass (Francis 2004). It is evident that these two grass species have unlimited potential. In order for their potential to be realized, proper management is critical. Fertilizer application is one such management tool as crude protein levels are known to increase with such applications (Hasan et al 2010). Nitrogen fertilization has been purported as extremely critical to the yield and nutritive value of pasture grasses. It has been reported that crude protein content and digestibility of grasses were enhanced by applying nitrogen fertilizers (Peyraud 1998). Information in the literature is limited as it relates to the effect of fertilizer on the chemical composition of locally grown Mulato and Elephant grasses. This study was designed to investigate fertilizer effect on the chemical composition of locally grown grass species. MATERIALS AND METHODS The experiment was conducted at the University of Trinidad and Tobago, ECIAF Campus Farm, Caroni North Bank RD, Centeno. The soil of the experimental site was silt loam texture and contained 0.08 % nitrogen (N). The land was flat, moderate drained and above flood levels. An area of 5.5 metres x 5.5 meters was divided into 8 plots having the size of 1.5 metres x 0.6 metres. Root cuttings of two grass species (Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) & Mulato (Brachiaria brizantha)) were randomly allocated to the 8 plots. Treatments (Urea 3g/plant) were applied in a 2 x 2 x 1 (2 species, 2 replicates, 1 treatment) factorial arrangement in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Treatments were applied every other week. Samples of the two forage species with and without treatments were collected in brown paper bags, dried and ground for further analysis. Collected samples from different treatments were analyzed for chemical composition according to AOAC (1990) method. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The data generated from the experiment were analyzed using Minitab statistical program to compute analysis of variance for a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) and differences among the treatment means were determined by the least significant difference test (Steel and Torrie, 1980). RESULTS

With fertilization, mulato grass exhibited the highest (p<0.05) dry matter content (944 g/kg DM) when compared to elephant grass (938 g/kg DM). Among the controls, mulato grass had the lowest dry matter content 933 g/kg DM (Fig. 1). With fertilization, elephant grass possess the lowest (p<0.05) organic content (854 g/kg DM) when compared to mulato grass (870 g/kg DM). Among the controls, mulato grass had the highest (p<0.05) organic matter content 875 g/kg DM (Fig. 3). The effect of a nitrogenous fertilizer on forage crude protein content (CP) is presented in Fig. 4. Crude protein value was higher (p<0.05)

89 for both elephant grass (112 g/kg DM) and Mulato grass (114 g/k DM) when compared to their controls 75.4 g/kg DM and 88.3 g/kg DM respectively. With fertilization, mulato grass exhibited the highest (p<0.05) crude protein value (CP) (114 g/kg DM) when compared to elephant grass (112 g/kg DM). Among the controls, mulato grass possess the highest crude protein value 88.3 g/kg DM (Fig. 4). The effect of a nitrogenous fertilizer on forage crude fat content (EE) is presented in Fig. 5. There was no difference (p>0.05) in ether extract content between elephant grass fertilized (26.6 g/kg DM) and it’s control (26.5 g/kg DM). However, fertilized mulato grass had a higher (p<0.05) ether extract content 21.6 g/kg DM when compared to the control 20.7 g/kg DM. Ether extract content was highest (p<0.05) in elephant grass when compared to mulato (Fig. 5). The effect of a nitrogenous fertilizer on forage Ash content is presented in Fig. 6. The value of Ash was higher (p<0.05) for both fertilized elephant grass (145 g/kg DM) and Mulato grass (129 g/k DM) when compared to their controls 134 g/kg DM and 125 g/kg DM respectively Ash was significantly higher in elephant grass when compared to mulato (Fig. 6). The effect of a nitrogenous fertilizer on forage crude fibre (CF) content is demonstrated in Fig. 7. The crude fibre content was higher (p<0.05) for both fertilized elephant grass (625 g/kg DM) and Mulato grass (367 g/k DM) when compared to their controls 614 g/kg DM and 320 g/kg DM respectively. Crude fibre content was significantly higher in elephant grass when compared to mulato (Fig. 7). The effect of a nitrogenous fertilizer on forage nitrogen free extractives (NFE) is presented in Fig. 8. Nitrogen free extractives was lower (p<0.05) for both fertilized elephant grass (631 g/kg DM) and Mulato grass (367 g/k DM) when compared to their controls 150 g/kg DM and 446 g/kg DM respectively. Nitrogen free extracts was significantly higher in mulato grass both fertilized and control when compared to elephant grass fertilized and control (Fig. 8). Table 3. Soil report of ECIAF Farm6

Sample Depth pH N P K Ca Mg E.C. O.C ID (cm) (%) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (mmhos) (%)

467/14 0-15 4.7 0.08 7 32 <400 120 174 2.6

468/14 0-15 4.6 0.04 10 32 <400 113 151 0.8

N-Nitrogen P-Phosphorus K-Potassium Ca-Calcium Mg-Magnesium E.C. – Electrical Conductivity pH – Extremely Acidic (<4.5), Strongly Acidic (4.5-5.2), Moderately Acidic (5.3-5.9) Phosphorous – Low <7ppm, Moderate 15-22ppm, High > 35ppm Potassium – Low <80ppm, Moderate 140-280ppm, High>470ppm Calcium – Low <400ppm, Moderate 1-2000ppm, High 4000ppm Magnesium – Low <40ppm, Moderate 120-360ppm, High >960ppm Electrical Conductivity – Low <1000umhos, Moderate 1-2000umhos, High >3000umhos

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Effect of fertilizer on DM g/kg DM 945.0 c

942.5 g

k 940.0

/

g

M a D 937.5 b

935.0 d

Elephant Control Mulato Control Species

Effect of fertilizer on MC g/kg DM

72 d

70 b 68

a g

k 66

/

g

C

M 64

62

60 c

Elephant Control Mulato Control Species

91

Effect of fertilizer on OM g/kg DM d 875

c

870

b

g

k /

g 865

M O

860

a 855

Elephant Control Mulato Control Species

Effect of fertilizer on CP g/kg DM c a

110

100

g

k

/

g

P 90 d C

80 b

70 Elephant Control Mulato Control Species

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Effect of fertilizer on EE g/kg DM

27 a a

26

25

g 24

k

/

g

E

E 23

22 b

21 c

20 Elephant Control Mulato Control Species

Effect of fertilizer on Ash g/kg DM a 145

140

g

k

/ g

135 b

h

s A

130 c

d 125

Elephant Control Mulato Control Species

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Effect of fertilizer on CF g/kg DM

650 a b

600

550

g 500

k

/

g

F 450 C

400 c

350 d

300 Elephant Control Mulato Control Species

Effect of fertilizer on NFE g/kg DM d 450

400 c

350 g

k 300

/

g

E

F 250 N

200 b 150 a

100 Elephant Control Mulato Control Species

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DISCUSSION

Dry matter was significantly higher for both elephant grass and Mulato grass when compared to their controls suggesting that fertilization increases dry matter in local grasses. The present findings were in agreement with the findings of Sultana et al. (2005) and Khan et al. (1992) who found higher DM and OM yield when extra N fertilizer was applied to the land. In contrast, no significant difference in dry matter content was observed when fertilizers were used in guinea and buffel grass species (Sodeinde et al 2006). Crude protein value was significantly higher for both elephant grass and mulato grass when compared to their controls indicating the positive influence of fertilizers on the CP value of grasses. Some researchers indicated that there was a progressive increase in the protein content of cowpea forage being influenced by the increasing level of nitrogen fertilizer. Additionally, the nitrogen content of grain increased with nitrogen fertilization (Alaru et al 2003; Oracka and Lapinski 2006; Lestingi et al 2010; Wojtkowiak 2014). Abdi et al. (2015) reported significant increases in the crude protein content of grass species treated with a nitrogen fertilizer. With fertilization, mulato grass exhibited the highest crude protein value (CP) when compared to elephant grass suggesting that mulato responds better to nitrogen fertilization. Ether extract content was significantly higher in elephant grass when compared to mulato. The value of Ash was significantly higher for both fertilized elephant grass and Mulato grass when compared to their controls. This does not corroborate the findings of Abdi et al (2015) where there was no significant difference in Ash content among grass species treated with Urea. However, Manaye et al (2009) indicated a decrease in Ash content with increasing levels of a nitrogen fertilizer. Additionally, nitrogen free extractives was lower for both fertilized elephant grass and Mulato grass when compared to their controls. These findings are in contrast to work conducted by Hasan et al (2010) who noted no significant differences among treatment groups for NFE, EE and Ash contents of cowpea forage as using different levels of N-fertilizer. Among the controls, mulato grass possess the highest crude protein value 88.3 g/kg DM. This illustrates that mulato may have a higher nutritive value when compared to elephant grass, results also showed elephant grass and Mulato grass possess a high level of crude fiber (CF). This may auger well for increased butter fat in the milk chemical composition of dairy animals. It may also lead to reduce intake as a result of gut fill. The crude fibre content was significantly higher for both fertilized elephant grass and Mulato grass when compared to their controls. This is in contrast to work reported by Abdi et al (2015) who indicated that fibre levels decreased with increasing fertilizer levels. Also, this does not corroborate the findings of Hasan et al (2010) who reported no significant difference of CF content of cowpea among the treatment means. Similarly, no significant changes of CF content of cowpea forage was reported by Khan et al. (1992) by using increased levels of N fertilizer. CONCLUSION Fertilizer treatments can positively influence the nutritive value of locally grown grasses. Farmers should adopt this management practice so as to reduce their dependence on expensive concentrate feeds hence reducing production cost. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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We are grateful to the Eastern Caribbean Institute of Agriculture and Forestry (ECIAF) farm management team for allowing us to conduct the study on their farm and to utilize their resources. We extend gratitude to the Biosciences and Food Technology (BAFT) animal science laboratory for allowing to conduct analyses there. LITERATURE CITED

Abdi H, Tessema Z, Mengistu U, Sisay F. 2015. Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer Application on Nutritive Value of Cenchrus ciliaris and Panicum Maximum Grown under Irrigation at Gode, Somali Region. J Nutr Food Sci S11: S11005. doi: 10.4172/2155-9600.1000S11005

Alaru, M., Laur, U., Jaama, E. 2003. Influence of nitrogen and weather conditions on the grain quality of winter triticale. Agron. Res., 1, 3-10.

AOAC. 1990. Official methods of analysis. 15th Ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Inc., Arlington, Virginia, USA.

Gibson, N. and A. Hosein. Introducing mulato: An improved forage for the Caribbean: CARDI Trinidad and Tobago

Hansan, M. R., Akbar, M. A., Khandaker Z. H. and M. M. Rahman. 2010. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on yield contributing character, biomass yield and nutritive value of cowpea forage. Bang. J. Anim. Science., 39(1&2): 83-88.

Holt, N. W. 1983. Yield and composition of bromegrass-alfalfa as affected by ammonium nitrate and ammonium phosphate fertilizers. Can' J. Plant Sci. 63: 169-172.

Holt, N. W. and Winkleman, G. E. 1983. Availability of residual fertilizer phosphorus as measured by bromegrass-alfalfa dry matter and phosphorus yield and by extractable soil phosphorus. Can. J. Plant Sci. 63: 173-181.

Khan, M. J., Tareque, A. M. M. and Shajalal, M. 1992. Effect of inoculation and nitrogen fertilizer on yield chemical composition, in vitro organic matter digestibility and energy content of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) forage. Indian J. Anim. Nutr., 9(3): 177-180.

Lestingi, A., Bovera, F., De Giorgio, D., Ventrella, D., Tateo A. 2010. Effects of tillage and nitrogen fertilisation on triticale grain yield, chemical composition and nutritive value. J. Sci. Food Agri., 90(14), 2440-2446, doi: 10.1002/jsfa.4104.

Manaye, Tollera, Tessema Zewdu. 2009. Feed intake, digestibility and body weight gain of sheep fed Napier grass mixed with different levels of Sesbania sesban. Livestock Science, 122: 24-29.

Peyraud, Astigarraga. 1998. Review of the effect of N-fertilization on the chemical composition, intake, digestion and nutritive value of fresh herbage: consequences on animal nutrition and N balance. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 72: 235-259.

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Oracka, T., Łapiński, B. 2006. Nitrogen and phosphorus uptake and utilization efficiency in D(R) substitution lines of hexaploid triticale. Plant Breed. 125(3), 221-224, doi: 10.1111/j.1439- 0523.2006.01217.x.

Robin, G. and W. Rolle. 1992. Producing elephant grass for a cut and carry system: CARDI Trinidad and Tobago

Retzer, J. L. 1954. Fertilization of some range soils in the Rocky Mountains. Jour. Range Mangt. 7: 69-73.

Rogler, G. A. and R. J. Lorenz. 1957. Nitrogen fertilization of northern Great Plains rangelands. Jour. Range Mangt. 10: 156-160.

Smith, D. R. and L. R. Lang. 1958. The effect of nitrogenous fertilizers on cattle distribution on mountain range. Jour. Range Mangt. 11: 248-249.

Sodeinde, Asaolu, Akingbade. 2006. Feed utilization and growth performance of wad sheep fed space Imposed and Nitrogen fertilizer Panicum maximum in the derived savanna Zone. Research Journal of Biological Science 1: 93-97.

Steel, R.G.D. and J. H. Torrie. 1980. Principals and Procedures of Statistics. MacGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. New York.

Sultana, M. N, Khan, M. J., Khandaker, Z. H. and Uddin, M. M. 2005. Effects of Rhizobium inoculum and nitrogen fertilizer on biomass production of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) forage at different stages of maturity. Bangladesh J. Agri. Univ., 3(2): 249-255.

Wojtkowiak, K. 2014. Systems of nitrogen fertilizing on quality of grain of spring triticale Milewo cultivar. Part II – yield and content of nutrients. Zesz. Probl. Post. Nauk Rol., 576, 217-226.

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FOOD SAFETY, PROCESSING AND NUTRITION

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:98-103. 2017

THE EFFECTS OF USING DIFFERENT BRINING SOLUTIONS AND FLAVOUR ENHANCERS IN SMOKING ON THE SENSORY PERCEPTION OF SMOKED AND PULLED CHICKEN

Rohanie Maharaj1, Dimple Singh-Ackbarali1 and Michele Singh2. 1 Biosciences, Agriculture and Food Technologies (BAFT) Unit, Eastern Caribbean Institute of Agriculture and Forestry (ECIAF) Campus, University of Trinidad and Tobago, Piarco, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies. 2 University of the West Indies, Department of Food Production, St. Augustine, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies

ABSTRACT: Research was conducted on acceptability of five different flavored pulled smoked chicken products - Hot Pepper, Rosemary, Clove, Pimento and Pommecythere. Several Sensory Evaluation tests were used to assess food acceptability and consumer behavior including; hedonic evaluations, food action rating, descriptive rating and likability and acceptability tests. ANOVA (P ≤ 0.05) and student t-tests were done to compare data between panelists and to determine any differences in acceptability, food action rating and perceived sensory attributes. Panelists indicated that the pimento and clove flavoured product would be purchased over any other chicken product including fried or baked chicken and that they would recommend these to other consumers. The five flavours of pulled smoked chicken were preferred in the order of pimento, clove, hot pepper, rosemary and pommecythere from most to least liked. The pimento and clove flavour in addition to being preferred by most panelists had the greatest likelihood of being purchased, recommended and chosen in preference to other chicken products.

Keywords: Smoking meat; Brine; Flavour enhancers; Pulled meat; Sensory qualities; Sensory Evaluation; Consumer acceptance; Market Potential; Scotch Bonnet; Rosemary; Clove; Pimento; Pommecythere

INTRODUCTION

Traditionally, meats are hot smoked by the burning of natural woods (Romans et al 2001) from which the smoke is used to cook the meat and impart flavour, aroma and appearance. The preferred method of smoking meats involves immersing meat in brines for as long as twenty-four to forty- eight hours dependent on the size. Brining in salted water as a pretreatment add flavour, tenderness and juiciness. It also aids in reducing cooking time. The salt in the brine alters the chemical structure of proteins by breaking some of the bonds that give proteins their shape and allows the salt, sugar, and other flavouring agents to permeate the food's flesh. Flavour enhancers are used in savory foods to enhance the existing flavour. Small quantities of salt mixed with other spices and herbs, can permeate meat with flavour (Food Additives, 2013). Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis L can give a unique pine-like fragrant flavor that is balanced by a rich pungency to chicken when smoked. The spice clove is commonly used in the Caribbean to give a unique fragrant flavor to meats. Caribbean pimento pepper is also used to enhance flavor and in some Caribbean countries ground leaves of golden apple commonly known as pommecythere leaves is usually incorporated in the meat or poultry brining solution.

98

Chicken is of great consumer demand in Trinidad and Tobago. This is an indicator of an established palate for chicken products which can influence the likelihood of smoked chicken product. According to the president of PATT highlighted by Joseph (2014), the Trinidad and Tobago population averaged at 1.3 million consumed about 1 million heads of chicken each week. . The PATT president also mentioned in Sookraj (2013) that 60% of $1.2 billion sales of chicken is derived from value added chicken products. This high demand for chicken is encouraging for the development of a local chicken product. Pulled chicken products are not commonly sold in the consumer markets of Trinidad and Tobago. However, this type of product if packaged can benefit consumers as a ready to eat, easy to prepare and serve meal (Condon, 2014). Compared to fried chicken, pulled smoked chicken is much healthier as it has antioxidant properties. Also it is a valued added product that can generate income as an alternate option to fried, barbecue; baked and curried chicken. With good packaging and preparation methods the shredded product can have a good shelf life of approximately 4 weeks if stored at 40˚F or below (Condon, 2014). If longer storage is necessary, cured and smoked poultry properly packaged in a moisture-vapour-proof bag can be frozen at 0˚F for up to one year. This study focused on producing five different flavored smoked pulled chickens and the sensory evaluation of these to determine if there is potential for combining both methods to create a value added product infused with local flavourings that would be accepted and purchased by consumers in the local market.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A modified drum kiln was used for the smoke-drying process. It was made from a 400 L drum with 90 cm length and 58 cm diameter (Fig. 2). The drum was cut open midway and the base was used as the combustion chamber which was packed with hardwood coals. The smoking chamber was separated into three compartments using wire mesh 30 cm above the combustion chamber and hanging hooks to the top of the drum to secure the brined chickens. The components of the modified drum kiln (smoker) were a rack to place the foil and flavor enhancer and three metal hangers for the hooking and hanging of the chicken while charcoal was used as the fuel source which supplied heat to smoke the chickens. Fresh Hot peppers, Rosemary, Clove Pimento and Pommecythere leaves were placed on the mesh above the combustion chamber and the brined chickens from each treatment were smoked separately according to the 5 treatments (Figures 3 and 4). Smoking was conducted for a period of eight to nine hours. The temperature of the smoke generated was monitored in the smoking chamber until the required temperature was obtained using a thermometer. The coals were adjusted continuously to maintain the required chamber temperature of 70°C by checking every 4 hours for 17 hours.

Figure 1 below gives a summary of the process used to prepare the chickens before treatment and also of the steps in brining, smoking and conducting the sensory evaluation. Figure 1: Flow chart summarizing method for study. Figure 2. Modified Drum Kiln Figure 3. Rosemary pickled chicken suspended inside smoker Figure 4. Hot pepper pickled chicken suspended inside smoker

SENSORY EVALUATION

99

The effect of Hot peppers (Capsicum spp), Rosemary (Rosmarinusofficinalis), Clove (Syzygium aromaticum), Pimento (Capsicum chinense) and Pommecythere leaves (Spondias dulcis) on the Sensory characteristics of pulled smoked chicken breast was determined by panel of twelve judges. Several acceptance tests were used including hedonic scale evaluations and behavioral approach to assessing food acceptability. The evaluation of the product was carried out on overall appearance, taste, color, aroma, overall flavor and tenderness, juiciness, overall texture, seasoning flavour and salty flavour on a hedonic scale. Panelists also completed food action rating tests, likability and acceptability tests on a hedonic scale for each of the different smoked flavours. Sensory evaluation forms along with the consent form to participate in sensory evaluation was prepared and distributed to each panel member. Score sheets were designed to facilitate ease of evaluation and not be too long. Both physiological and psychological fatigue was considered in the sample evaluation protocol, and enough time between samples for recovery of the senses was allowed. Room temperature water was also supplied to panelist with instructions to rinse their mouths before and between samples. Spicy samples were served last so that the ratings for samples would not be influenced by the context in which they are evaluated, and scored relative to the other samples in the test. The sensory evaluation of different flavored smoked and pulled chicken was conducted at day-1 of its development. All the evaluations were carried out at room temperature in the Food Science and Technology Unit, BAFT, UTT.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

In order to obtain objective and accurate interpretation, the sensory evaluation data collected was statistically examined. A very common univariate statistical analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to interpret the sensory data. ANOVA is regularly the first step for the differentiation of perceived sensory attributes among food samples. Comparison was also made for differences in panelist choices for food action rating and acceptability tests with a probability P ≤ 0.05. Since some of the ANOVA results indicated that not all flavours/treatment were equal, students t-tests was done on each pair of means to determine which samples were different in their acceptability, food action rating and perceived sensory attributes. The results for the descriptive rating tests were used to develop star diagram comparing the five different smoked and pulled chicken flavours for their attributes. Percentages from the behavioral closed ended questions were used to construct graphs to show panelist decisions on; purchasing these products over any other chicken product, if they would recommend the product to someone else and if they would purchase specifically over fried or baked chicken.

MAIN RESULTS

Attribute rating and descriptive profiles

Figure 5. Star diagram comparing the ten different attributes selected for this study for the five different flavoured smoked and pulled chicken products. Of the five flavours evaluated, the pimento infused pulled smoked chicken was rated the best collectively in the number of positively rated attributes, eight out of ten. Clove infused smoked chicken was rated the best for juiciness and aroma, the two attributes that the pimento sample did not receive the highest rating for. Pimento and clove are commonly used in local seasonings, thus

100 it is not surprising that these were the more accepted flavours of the pulled smoked chicken samples. Pommecythere infused pulled smoked chicken had the most poorly rated attributes. Unlike the other four treatments pommecythere is not a familiar additive in Trinidad to enhance the juiciness, tenderness and overall flavour of meat. The fruit itself is sour unless ripened or of a small variety. Comparisons of panelists responses to the attributes of the 5 treatments revealed that individuals ratings showed little variations with low standard deviations (<2) for each. That is there were not much variations between the choices selected. The confidence level for each of the attributes for the five different smoked and pulled chicken flavours also indicate that there were no significant differences between each panelist choice/rating for the ten attributes outlined in the study. Table 1. Product Profiles The pimento and clove flavoured smoked and pulled chicken were liked the same and the most out of all the options (rating of 2.25 and 2.42 respectively). The hot pepper was liked moderately (rating of 3.3) while panelist had similar degree of liking for the rosemary and pommecythere, these were liked slightly (rating of 4 and 4.17 respectively. The pimento (2.25) was liked more than the pommecythere (4.17) flavoured pulled smoked chicken.

Acceptance, Likability and Willingness to Purchase

The pimento and clove flavoured smoked and pulled chicken would both be eaten frequently (rating of 2.8 and 3.2 respectively). Panelist had similar food actions to the hot pepper, rosemary and pommecythere which was they would eat if available but panelist would not go out of their way to buy (rating of 4.83, 5.08 and 5.08 respectively and for each pair of means p>0.05). The pimento (2.75) would be eaten more frequently than the pommecythere (5.08) flavoured pulled smoked chicken. There were no differences between the acceptances of the hot pepper pulled smoked chicken and all the other flavours. There was a difference in acceptance of the pimento flavoured (1.58) over the rosemary flavoured (2.5) pulled smoked chicken. There was no difference in the acceptance between rosemary when compared to clove and pommecythere. There was a difference between the acceptance of pimento and pommecythere, the pimento (1.58) was more accepted that the pommecythere (2.33). There was no difference in the acceptance between clove when compared to pimento and pommecythere samples. The pimento (1.58) was more acceptable than the pommecythere (2.33) flavoured pulled chicken. There were no differences between the willingness to purchase the hot pepper pulled smoked chicken when compared to the rosemary, clove and pommecythere flavours. There was a difference in willingness to purchase the pimento flavour (1.83) over the hot pepper flavoured (2.58) pulled smoked chicken. When comparing the willingness to purchase the rosemary flavour with clove, pimento and pommecythere flavours, the t-test showed that there was a difference between the willingness to purchase the pimento (1.83) and clove (2.08) over the rosemary flavoured (3.33) samples. When comparing the willingness to purchase the clove flavour with the pimento and pommecythere flavours, the t-test showed that there was a difference between the willingness to purchase the clove (2.08) as compared to the pommecythere (2.75) flavour, there was a greater willingness to purchase the clove. There was no difference in the willingness to purchase the clove when compared to pimento. When comparing the willingness to purchase the pimento flavour with pommecythere flavour, the t-test showed that the pimento (1.83) had a

101 greater likelihood of being purchased as compared to the pommecythere (2.75) flavoured pulled smoked chicken.

Figure 6. Panelist decisions on purchasing smoked, pulled chicken over other chicken products Figure 7. Panelist decision on of they would recommend smoked, pulled chicken to someone else Figure 8. Panelist decision on of they would purchase smoked, pulled chicken over fried or baked chicken

The two samples that had the highest percentage of being purchased over another chicken product are clove flavoured (70%) and pimento flavoured (60%) smoked and pulled chicken. Whereas the hot pepper (20%) smoked and pulled chicken had the lowest percentage for likeliness to purchase over another chicken product. The two samples that had the highest percentage of panelist choosing to not purchase over another chicken product are rosemary flavoured (60%) and pommecythere flavoured (40%) smoked and pulled chicken. Whereas the pimento (20%) smoked and pulled chicken had the lowest percentage of panelist choosing to not purchase over another chicken product. The two samples that had the highest percentage of likelihood of being recommended to someone else are the pimento flavoured (100%) and clove flavoured (90%) smoked and pulled chicken. Whereas the rosemary (40%) smoked and pulled chicken had the lowest percentage for likeliness to be recommended to someone else. No panelist indicated that they would not recommend the clove flavoured and pimento flavoured smoked and pulled chicken to someone else. Particular concern was placed on whether the products may have the potential to be recommended. The potential competitiveness of the pulled smoked chicken product with respect to other chicken products was gauged based on the panelist response to the surveys on their likelihood of purchasing smoked chicken over other chicken products. The two samples that had the highest percentage of being purchased over a fried or baked chicken product are clove flavoured (60%) and pimento flavoured (60%) smoked and pulled chicken. Whereas the pommecythere (30%) smoked and pulled chicken had the lowest percentage for likeliness to purchase over fried or baked chicken product. The two samples that had the highest percentage of panelist choosing to not purchase over fried or baked chicken products are rosemary flavoured (60%) and pommecythere flavoured (40%) smoked and pulled chicken. Whereas the pimento (20%) smoked and pulled chicken had the lowest percentage of panelist choosing to not purchase over fried or baked chicken product.

CONCLUSION

Using Sensory characteristics as primary determinants in meeting consumer acceptance of a food product, there is potential for the acceptance of a pulled smoked chicken product. Based on Sensory evaluation, panelists expressed a liking for the pulled smoked chicken products. The five flavours of pulled smoked chicken were preferred in the order of pimento, clove, hot pepper, rosemary and pommecythere from most to least liked. The study shows that the pimento and clove infused pulled smoked chicken were rated with the best Sensory attributes; they were liked the best, had the greatest likelihood of being purchased if available on the market. Panelist also indicated that they would eat frequently and would recommend these products to others and chose in preference to other chicken products. Further investigation to determine the product shelf life

102 and the advantages in health benefits of pulled smoked chicken in contrast to other chicken products can be used to increase the potential marketability of pulled smoked chicken products.

REFERENCES

Buzby, J. C., & Farah, H. A. (2006). Chicken consumption continues long run rise. Amber Waves, 4, 5. Retrieved on July 13, 2015, from http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/126587/2/ChickenConsumption.pdf

Condon, J. (2014). Value adding: Pulled meats “on trend” in food service, retail markets. Beef Central. Australia. Retrieved on June 7, 2015, from http://www.beefcentral.com/trade/value adding-pulled-meats-on-trend-in-food-service-retail-markets/

Food Additives (2013). Ameliorating the flavors Enriching the Food. http://www.foodadditivesworld.com/flavor-enhancers.html

Franchi, M. (2012). Food choice: beyond the chemical content. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 63(S1), 17–28. DOI:10.3109/09637486.2011.632403

Joseph, K. (2014). Local poultry farmers monitor foreign grain. The Trinidad Guardian Newspaper. Port of Spain. Retrieved December 12, 2014, from http://www.guardian.co.tt/business/2014-05-04/local-poultry-farmers-monitor-foreign-grain

Martínez, M. L., Anders, S., & Wismer, W. V. (2011). Consumer Preferences and Willingness to Pay for Value-Added Chicken Product Attributes. Journal of Food Science, 76(8) DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02354.x

Ollinger, M., MacDonald, J., & Madison, M. (2000). Structural Change in U.S. Chicken and Turkey Slaughter. Washington DC. Retrieved on July 13, 2015, from http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/491092/aer787_1_.pdf

Romans, J. R., Costello, W. J., Carlson, C. W., Greaser, M. L., & Jones, K. W. (2001). The Meat We Eate (14th ed.). USA: Interstate Publishers, INC.

Schifferstein, Hendrik NJ. (2015). Employing consumer research for creating new and engaging food experiences in a changing world. Current Opinion in Food Science, 3,27-32.

Simply Trini Cooking. Buccaneering Meat Trini Style. Retrieved on December 12, 2014, from http://www.simplytrinicooking.com/2012/12/bucaneering-meat-trinistyle.html#axzz2RFxJRHg2

Sookraj, R. (2013). Poultry Shortages in south and central Trinidad. The Trinidad Guardian Newspaper. Port of Span. Retrieved on June 7, 2015, from http://www.guardian.co.tt/business/2013-08-11/poultry-shortages-south-and-central-trinidad

Wenther, J.B. (2013). Basis of Spices. Retrieved from SmokingMeatsForum.com. http://www.smokingmeatforums.com/a/basics-of-spices

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:104-109. 2017

DETERMINACIÓN DE PRESENCIA DE ÁCIDOS GRASOS EN DIFERENTES PARTES DEL FRUTO Y EN FRUTO INTACTO DE AGUACATE EN MADUREZ DE CONSUMO CON ESPECTROSCOPÍA DE INFRARROJO CERCANO (NIR)

Laura Vásquez Rojas1, J. Pablo Morales-Payan2, Rodolfo Romañach3 & Irma Cabrera2 . 1Graduate student ([email protected]), University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, PR. 2Department of Agro-Environmental Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, PR. 3Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, PR.

RESUMEN: La técnica de espectroscopia infrarroja cercana (NIR) ha permitido optimizar procesos instrumentales en diferentes productos, incluyendo los de origen biológico. La industria productora de aguacate puede usar, esta herramienta para detectar cualitativa y cuantitativamente compuestos químicos en la fruta en forma no destructiva. El objetivo de esta investigación fue detectar ácidos grasos en diferentes partes del fruto de aguacate en madurez de consumo. En el exocarpo, el mesocarpo y la semilla se, se observaron varias bandas de absorción entre la región 6141 a 5462 cm-1, asociadas a enlaces del tipo C-H (4672.70, 4347.83 cm-1), O-H (7092.20, 6896.55 y 5154.64 cm-1), C-H+C-H (4545 a 4348 cm-1), N-H+O-H (4762 a 4545 cm-1), -CH2 (5797.10 cm-1) pertenecientes a compuestos como agua, proteínas y lípidos. No hubo diferencia entre variedades, pero en frutas en madurez de consumo de las tres variedades, la presencia de ácidos grasos era diferente en el mesocarpo y el fruto entero.

Palabras clave: cáscara, pulpa, Persea americana, semilla.

INTRODUCCIÓN

La espectrometría de infrarrojo cercano (NIR) es prometedora como herramienta rápida, fácil de usar y no destructiva para evaluar diversos atributos de calidad interna de frutas en comparación con métodos tradicionales de análisis destructivo (Cozzolino 2015, Aris et al., 2013, Castorena et al. 2011). De acuerdo con Campos et al. (2011), Olaeta et al. (2007), Ozdemir y Topuz (2003) y Martínez et al. (1992), que trabajaron con las variedades ‘Hass’, ‘Fuerte’, ‘Méndez’, e ‘Isabel’, los ácidos grasos más abundantes en el mesocarpo (pulpa) de frutos de aguacate son oleico, linoleico, palmitoleico, esteárico, linolénico y palmítico. Según esos autores, de una variedad a otra puede variar la proporción en que se presentan esos ácidos grasos en el mesocarpo. Igualmente, suele variar la concentración de esos ácidos grasos según la fase de desarrollo de la fruta, siendo en general alta en las frutas recién cuajadas, reduciéndose en el período de crecimiento de la fruta y volviendo a aumentar en fase de maduración de la fruta. Por medios destructivos, fue determinado que los ácidos grasos más abundantes en aguacate antillano son palmítico, esteárico, oleico, y linoleico (Martínez et al., 1992; Romero et al., 2012; Soto 1995). Castorena et al. (2011) identificaron los componentes de la pulpa y aceite del aguacate ‘Hass’ (variedad considerada guatemalteco x mexicano) mediante espectrometría infrarroja (NIR) y compararon los valores obtenidos por NIR con los valores obtenidos con técnicas tradicionales de análisis químico destructivo, obteniendo resultados similares con ambos métodos. No se conocen estudios similares en aguacates de tipo antillano. El objetivo de esta investigación fue

104 detectar ácidos grasos en diferentes partes del fruto de aguacate en madurez de consumo en frutas de variedades antillanas.

MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS

Se trabajó con un total de 27 aguacates en todo este estudio, es decir, 9 aguacates por cada variedad (‘Butler’, ‘Don Ramón’ y ‘Mejía’). Por cada aguacate se hicieron 30 determinaciones, que correspondieron a las diferentes partes de la fruta (exocarpo, mesocarpo y semilla) en madurez de consumo. Para iniciar la obtención de espectros de las muestras, fue necesaria la calibración del espectrofotómetro FT-NIR (MPA, Bruker Optics, USA), para lo cual se realizaron 256 escaneos con una resolución de 8 cm-1 en el modo de reflectancia difusa por cada ocasión en los diferentes días de lectura. Luego, para la obtención de cada espectro NIR de las muestras estudiadas, se realizaron 16 escaneos a una resolución de 8 cm-1. Después, se escanearon con una sonda de fibra óptica muestras de los ácidos grasos palmítico, esteárico, oleico, y linoleico con >90% de pureza, para determinar sus espectros NIR y usarlos como estándares de comparación con las muestras de aguacate. De esta forma se escaneó por tres ocasiones la muestra de cada ácido graso y se determinaron los picos de absorbancia principal para cada ácido graso estándar. Para la obtención de los datos espectrales se utilizó el software Opus versión 6.5 entre el rango de 12,500 a 4,000 cm-1 (780 a 2,500 nm). Para el análisis de los espectros conseguidos del NIR, fue preciso realizar pretratamientos espectrales, para homologar las mismas condiciones a cada espectro y para tener condiciones similares para el análisis numérico en el software SIMCA 14.1. De este modo, todos los espectros tuvieron el mismo nivel de la línea base, (Bolaños 2016). Se evaluó la región comprendida entre 6141 a 5462 cm-1, donde se diferenció una ligera variación con el espectro total, ajustándose a los resultados de Travers et al. (2013), Wedding et al. (2010), Walsh et al (2004) y Clark et al. (2003). Asimismo, se procedió a observar los picos de absorción de los espectros estándares de los ácidos grasos. Para los espectros en la región comprendida entre 6141 a 5462 cm-1, se realizó segunda derivada (pre-tratamiento) y posteriormente se analizó mediante PCA cada parte del fruto. Los datos espectrales se representaron con un análisis de componentes principales (PCA) para obtener una visualización ortogonal (Díaz et al. 2013).

DISCUSIÓN Y RESULTADOS

Al obtener los espectros por cada parte del fruto de aguacate, se notó la presencia de distintos picos de absorción conocidos como ‘sobre tonos’ (estiramiento del espectro) y regiones combinadas, que de acuerdo a Matejka (2011) y Cozzolino (1998) corresponden a longitudes de onda a enlaces del tipo C-H (4672.70, 4347.83 cm-1), O-H (7092.20, 6896.55 y 5154.64 cm-1), C- -1 -1 -1 H+C-H (4545 a 4348 cm ), N-H+O-H (4762 a 4545 cm ), -CH2 (5797.10 cm ) pertenecientes a compuestos como agua, proteínas y lípidos (Figura 1). El principal componente en frutos frescos es el agua con alrededor de 80-90% (p/p), por lo que las bandas de absorción están influenciadas por este elemento (Arévalo, 2013). El análisis de la región entre 6141 a 5462 cm-1 reveló que las muestras evaluadas tenían aceites (ácidos grasos) en las dos etapas de maduración y en cada parte analizada. El análisis de componentes principales de segunda derivada (pre-tratamiento) reveló que en frutas en madurez de consumo de las tres variedades, la presencia de ácidos grasos era diferente

105 en el mesocarpo y el fruto entero. Estos resultados concuerdan con los presentados por Mancheño et al. (2016), Lallum et al. (2014), Cayuela et al. (2010), Marques et al. (2009), Jeoang et al. (2002) que reportaron que la maduración depende de la variedad, las condiciones ambientales, manejo y donde se desarrolla el cultivo, adicional del almacenamiento para encontrar mayor o menor contenido de compuestos de importancia (ácidos grasos, agua, minerales y vitaminas). Finalmente, al realizar el análisis de componentes principales para las diferentes partes del fruto en madurez de consumo, se observaron dos agrupamientos: el primer grupo estuvo conformado por el exocarpo y la semilla, mientras que en el segundo grupo estaba el mesocarpo. El resultado fue el mismo en las tres variedades ‘Butler’, ‘Don Ramón’ y ‘Mejía’ (Figura 2). Estos resultados se asocian a lo manifestado por Bressani et al. (2009) en el cual evaluaron porcentaje de ácidos grasos en mesocarpo y semilla de frutos de aguacate variedad ‘Hass’ resultando que el mesocarpo tuvo mayor porcentaje (13%) respecto con la semilla (2%). También, Teng et al. (2016) sostienen que la concentración de ácidos grasos puede variar dependiendo de las partes del fruto.

3° sobre tono: O-H 1° sobre tono: O-H

2° sobre tono: C-H+C-H

-CH2

Figura 1. Espectro original de frutos de aguacate distinción de picos de absorción. Puerto Rico. 2017.

A B

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C Figura 2. Análisis de componentes principales del exocarpo, mesocarpo y semilla en la región espectral de 6141 a 5462 cm-1, con segunda derivada 19 puntos (pre-tratamiento) en las variedades: A) ‘Butler’, B) ‘Don Ramón’ y C) ‘Mejía’. Puerto Rico. 2017

CONCLUSIONES

La técnica de espectrometría de infrarrojo cercano (NIR), permitió identificar la región de los ácidos grasos en las tres variedades de aguacate sin extracción por técnicas tradicionales. Se observó diferencias entre el mesocarpo y semilla, exocarpo, fruto intacto en madurez de consumo, al efectuar un análisis de componentes principales. Además, que los pre-tratamientos (segunda derivada) constituyeron una herramienta en la calidad de los espectros, de tal modo que éstos no pueden se establecer antes del inicio para un modelo determinado.

REFERENCIAS

Arévalo, M. 2013. Determinaciones cuantitativas en naranja mediante tecnologías NIRS. Tesis presentada por el grado de Máster en Tecnología y calidad en las industrias alimentarias. Universidad Pública de Navarra. p. 1-67.

Aris, Y., Wulandari, P., Ahmad, U., Mardjan, S. Makino, Y., Oshita, S., Kawage, Y., Kuroki, S. 2013. Non-Destructive Prediction of pH in Mango Fruits cv. Gedong Gincu Using NIR Spectroscopy. International Journal of Engineering and Technology IJET-IJENS Vol:13 No:03. 70 – 73.

Bolaños, J. 2016. El método NIR combinado con el análisis quimiométrico PLS-da para determinar la adulteración del aceite de oliva con aceite de girasol. Revista Pensamiento Actual - Vol 16 - No. 26, 163-172.

Bressani, R., Rodas, B., Silvia, A. 2009. La composición química, capacidad antioxidativa y valor nutritivo de la semilla de variedades de aguacate. Centro de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos. Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. p. 1-61.

Campos, E., SantaCruz, U., Florez, M., Rivera, G., Rodríguez, J. 2011. Dinámica de la acumulación de ácidos grasos en aguacate (Persea americana Mill.) selección ‘Méndez’.

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Proceedings VII World Avocado Congress 2011 (Actas VII Congreso Mundial del Aguacate 2011). Cairns, Australia. 5 – 9 September 2011.

Castorena, J., Delgado, R., Robles, R. 2011. Análisis de la pulpa y aceite de aguacate con espectrofotometría infrarroja. Conciencia Tecnológica 42:5–10.

Cayuela, J., Pérez, C. 2010. Prediction of quality of intact olives by near infrared spectroscopy. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 112:1209–1217.

Clark, C., McGlone, V., Requejo, C., White, A., Woolf, A. 2003. Dry matter determination in ‘Hass’ avocado by NIR spectroscopy. Postharvest Biology and Technology 29: 300-307.

Cozzolino, D. 2015. Infrared Spectroscopy as a Versatile Analytical Tool for the Quantitative Determination of Antioxidants in Agricultural Products, Foods and Plants. Antioxidants 2015, 4, 482-497; doi:103390/antiox4030482.

Cozzolino, D. 1998. Aplicación de la tecnología del NIRS para el análisis de calidad de los productos agrícolas. INIA. p. 1-16.

Díaz, C., Morales, P., Romañach, R., Koltermn, D., Garrastazú, S. 2013. Effect of exogenous bio- regulators on organically managed Tahiti lime (Citrus latifolia Tanaka) fruit and essential oil productivity and quality. Tesis sometida para el grado de Maestra en Ciencas. University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. p. 1 – 109.

Jeong, J., Huber, D.J. and Sargent, S.A. (2002). Influence of ethylene and 1-methylcyclopropene on softening, ripening, and cell wall matrix polysaccharides of avocado fruit. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 25, 241-256.

Mancheño, M., García, J., Cayuela J. Florido, M. 2016. Decisión del momento de recolección, según la composición de ácidos grasos de la aceituna intacta, mediante espectroscopia NIR. Tesis sometida para el grado de Ingeniería Agrícola. Universidad de Sevilla. p. 1-53.

Marques, A., Barros, E., Carvalho, L., Paiva, A., La Selva, M., Bosco, A. 2009. Qualityof fresh- cut avocado (Persea americana Mill.) stored under diferrent temperatures. Ciênc. agrotec., Lavras, v. 33, n. 4, p. 1095-1102, jul./ago. 2009.

Martínez, l., Barranco, R., Moreno, M. 1992. Extracción de aceite de aguacate: un experimento industrial. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. Vol 43 Fasc.1. 11 -15 p.

Matejka, P. 2011. NIR spectrometry. Universidad de Química y Tecnología, Praga. Disponible en: https://old.vscht.cz/anl/vibspec/NIR%20spectrometry.pdf

Lallum, N., Punter, M., Haynes, G., Pidakala, P., Burdon, J. 2004. Role of water loss in ripening of ‘Hass’ avocados. New Zealand Avocado Growers Association Annual Research Report. 4: 70- 79.

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Olaeta, J., Undurraga, P., Espinosa, G. 2007. Evolution of the content of oil and unsaponifiable compounds in Hass, Fuerte and Isabel avocados (Persea americana Mill.). Proceedings VI World Avocado Congress (Actas VI Congreso Mundial del Aguacate) 2007. Viña Del Mar, Chile. 12 – 16 nov. 2007. ISBN No 978-956-17-0413-8.

Ozdemir, F. and Topuz, A. 2003. Changes in dry matter, oil content and fatty acids composition of avocado during harvesting time and post-harvesting ripening period. Food Chemistry 86 (2004) 79–83.

Romero, M.; Rebolledo, A.; Cayón, D. 2012. Comportamiento fisiológico del aguacate (Persea americana Mill.) Variedad Lorena en la zona de Mariquita, Tolima. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Tesis para optar por Master en Ciencias en Fisiología de cultivos. p. 1

Soto, A. 1995. Evaluación del comportamiento y calidad del puré y trozos de pulpa de palta (Persea americana Mill) en los cvs. Negra de la cruz, Bacon y Hass, cosechadas con dos índices de madurez, coservadas en almacenaje refrigerado y con atmósfera modificada. Universidad Católica de Valparaíso. 100 p.

Theng, S., Hsiung, T., Shyr, J., Wakana, A. 2016. Lipid content and fatty acid composition in Taiwan avocados (Persea Americana Mill). J. Fac. Agr., Kyushu Univ., 61 (1), 65–70 (2016).

Travers, S., Bertelsen, M., Koefoed, K. 2013. Dry matter and fruit quality: manipulation in the field and evaluation with NIR spectroscopy. Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Aarhus University. p. 1-283.

Walsh, K., Golic, M., Greensill, C. 2004. Sorting of fruit using near infrared spectroscopy: application to a range of fruit and vegetables for soluble solids and dry matter content. Journal of Near Infrared Spectroscopy. 12, 141-148.

Wedding, B., White, R., Grauf, S., Wright, C., Tilse, B., Hofman, P., Gadek, P. 2010. Non- destructive prediction of ‘Hass’ avocado drymatter via FT-NIR spectroscopy. J Sci Food Agric 2011; 91: 233–238.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:110-114. 2017

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLIC EXTRACTS OF SELECTED HERBS AND SPICES ON FOOD-BORNE PATHOGEN BIOFILMS.

Kerressa Scott, Isabel Blackman, Neela Badrie, and Marsha Singh, The University of the West indies, St. Augustine Campus.

ABSTRACT: Using antibacterial assay, alcoholic extractions from Pimenta dioica berries, Capsicum chinense ‘Trinidad Scorpion Butch T’, Blighia sapida pods (ackee), Plectranthus amboinicus (broad-leaf thyme), Cymbopogon citratus (fever grass) and Azadirachta indica (neem) have been explored for potential antibacterial activities as a viable alternative to traditional drugs and antibiotics in response to the increasing antibacterial resistance globally. The Kirby-Bauer method was used to determine the zone of inhibition exhibited by the extracts when tested against pond water, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. When tested against pond water, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus: Pimenta dioica had inhibition zones of 2.75±0.25, 2.83±0.17 and 2.83±0.31mm, respectively; Blighia sapida had inhibition zones of 2.00±0.00, 2.17±0.17 and 2.33±0.21mm; while the Trinidad Scorpion Butch T had inhibition zones of 1.00±0.26, 1.50±0.22 and 1.17±0.40mm, respectively. Meanwhile, Cymbopogon citratus and Azadirachta indica allowed for no bacterial susceptibility. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration was also determined for extracts that allowed for bacterial susceptibility. Further studies should however be done on the Trinidad Scorpion Butch T and Blighia sapida pods and various methods of extraction used to explore their full antibacterial potential. Keywords: alcoholic extractions, Pimenta dioica, berries, food-borne pathogen

INTRODUCTION

Annually, foodborne diseases are responsible for 48 million illnesses in America alone of which 128,000 are hospitalised with approximately 3000 fatalities (CDC 2014). An estimated 2 million people become infected with an antibiotic resistant bacteria and at least 23,000 persons die each year as a direct result of these infections in the United States of America (CDC 2015). The World Health Organisation (WHO) has limited data on the epidemiology of acute gastrointestinal illnesses and foodborne diseases in the Caribbean; however, a trend of increasing levels of foodborne diseases in the region has been reported by Ingram et al. (2013). Antimicrobial resistance is an increasingly serious threat to global public health that requires government and societal intervention as new resistance mechanisms emerge. Bacteria within biofilms are more resilient to antibiotics and the immune system of a host than their planktonic counterparts and are highly resistant to bactericidal antimicrobial agents, thereby exhibiting tolerance (Spoering and Lewis 2001). With an increasing level of food-borne diseases being reported in the region, it is imperative that there is further advance in research and development of novel drugs. Traditionally, plants were used in folklore medicine for the treatment and prevention of various disorders and diseases. This tradition has persisted into the 21st century as seen in an ethnobotanical survey that concluded that there is a significant retention and use of traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in rural Trinidad (Clement et al., 2015).

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OBJECTIVES: 1. To determine effectiveness of selected herbs and spices as antibacterial agents against specified bacteria biofilms. 2. To determine the minimum inhibitory concentration of alcoholic extract required to kill or inhibit the proliferation of foodborne pathogens. 3. To compare the different zones of inhibition and determining which extracts are more effective as antibacterial agents.

METHODOLOGY With the exception being dried Pimenta dioica (Pimento) berries, fresh plant materials of Capsicum chinense ‘Trinidad Scorpion Butch T’ (Scorpion Pepper), Blighia sapida (Ackee) pods, Plectranthus amboinicus (Broadleaf Thyme), Cymbopogon citratus (Fever Grass) and Azadirachta indica (Neem) were washed under running tap water then air dried. Materials were then homogenized to allow for uniformed consistency using the mortar and pestle. Pure cultures of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were obtained from the Microbiology Lab of the University of the West Indies, St Augustine and pond water used as a multispecies medium. With the aim to make a concentrated slurry, a ratio of 5ml methanol to 2g homogenised scorpion pepper, thyme and pimento berries plant materials were added to labelled screw cap bottles. A ratio of 5ml methanol to 1g homogenized fever grass, neem and ackee plant materials was however added to labelled screw cap bottles as a further increase in the mass of these materials did not allow for them to be in complete contact with methanol. The slurry was left undisturbed for 48hours after which the supernatant was collected and the solvent (methanol) evaporated. Sterile water was added and the final volume refrigerated (~4°C) in airtight bottles. To allow for biofilm formation, glass slides were suspended in pond water and in sterile peptone water solutions containing Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The Kirby-Bauer method (Hudzicki 2009) was used to determine the zone of inhibition exhibited by extracts when tested against pond water, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Using dilutions of 50%, 40%, 30%, 20% and 10% of the extracts, the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration was determined for extracts that allowed for bacterial susceptibility. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS The data collected was analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Bonferroni post-hoc test was used to allow for multiple comparisons in bacterial inhibition zones of the different extracts RESULTS Plectranthus amboinicus was significantly (p<0.05) effective against pond water with an inhibition zone of 6.00±1.29mm (Fig. 1). Its effect, however, was negligible against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. When tested against pond water, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus: Pimenta dioica had inhibition zones of 2.75±0.25, 2.83±0.17 and 2.83±0.31mm, respectively; Blighia sapida had inhibition zones of 2.00±0.00, 2.17±0.17 and 2.33±0.21mm; while the Trinidad Scorpion Butch T had inhibition zones of 1.00±0.26, 1.50±0.22 and 1.17±0.40mm, respectively. Meanwhile, Cymbopogon citratus and Azadirachta indica allowed for no bacterial susceptibility. Figure 1 gives a clear visual of the mean zone of inhibition when plant extracts were tested against Pond water, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The disparity

111 between the mean bacterial growth inhibition of broadleaf thyme against pond water and the other extracts was significant. Pimento had very similar effects on all three bacteria as did ackee and scorpion pepper. Meanwhile, the methanol control had no effect on any of the three bacteria. Meanwhile, Figure 2 shows the average inhibitory effect of each potential antibacterial agent on the three bacteria media. The Pimenta dioica extract was the most effective against all the media while Plectranthus amboinicus and Blighia sapida were similar in their effectiveness across bacteria media. The Trinidad Scorpion Butch T was also effective across all three media while Cymbopogon citratus and Azadirachta indica were the plant extracts that proved to be least effective across media. The MIC values for Pimenta dioica was 20% against all three media. The MIC values for Trinidad Scorpion Butch T was 40%, 50% and 40% against pond water, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively. Meanwhile, Blighia sapida only showed inhibitory effects at 100% concentration. When tested against pond water, the MIC value for Plectranthus amboinicus could not be obtained even at 100% concentration of the extract. Its MIC values against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were not taken due to absence of susceptibility (Table 1) during the disc diffusion method. Table 1 shows the antibacterial activity of plant extracts and controls and gives an indication of the susceptibility of the bacteria to the extracts. Pond water, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus showed no susceptibility when tested against neem, fever grass and 100% Methanol control. While broadleaf thyme exhibited antibacterial activity against pond water, there was no susceptibility when tested against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Table 1: Bacteria Susceptibility to Plant Extracts and Controls

Pond Staphylococcus Escherichia coli Plant Extracts Water(Multispecies) aureus Ackee + + + Neem - - - Pimento + + + F. Grass - - - S Pepper + + + Broadleaf Thyme + - -

10%Bleach + + +

100%Methanol - - -

(+) susceptibility of microorganisms (inhibition zone > 1mm; (-) absence of susceptibility

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Pond a 6.0 Water Escherichia 5.5 coli 5.0 Staphyloccocus 4.5 aureus b 4.0 3.5 3.0 c c c cd 2.5 cd cde cde 2.0 def 1.5 efg fg fg

Bacterial Growth Inhibition (mm) Inhibition Growth Bacterial 1.0 fgh fgh gh 0.5 gh gh h h h h h h 0.0 Pimento Ackee Scorpion Broadleaf Fever Neem 10% Bleach Methanol Pepper Thyme Grass Control Control

Plant Extracts and Controls

Figure 1: Interactive Effect between Bacteria Media and Antibacterial Agents on Zones of Inhibition

3.0 a

2.5 ab b b 2.0

1.5 c

1.0

Bacterial Growth Inhibition (mm) Inhibition Growth Bacterial 0.5 d d

d 0.0 Pimento Ackee Scorpion Broadleaf Fever Neem 10% Methanol Pepper Thyme Grass Bleach Control Control Plant Extracts and Controls

Figure 2: Main effects of Antibacterial Agents on Zones of Inhibition Across all Bacteria Media

CONCLUSION

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Inhibitory effects were clearly evident when plant extracts were used as antibacterial agents against biofilms of foodborne pathogens. Significant (p<0.05) differences were also identified in the mean zones of inhibition among the different extracts used against the various foodborne pathogen. Hence, the alcoholic extracts of Pimenta dioica berries, Trinidad Scorpion Butch T, Plectranthus amboinicus and Blighia sapida proved to have anti-bacterial properties and could be effectively used against some known food-borne pathogens. The Pimenta dioica extract has exhibited its potential to be used as a versatile antibacterial drug that can be used against multi-species of bacteria. Blighia sapida as a potential antibacterial agent was particularly effective and it is noteworthy as the extract was taken from the pods which are inedible and usually discarded. This ‘waste’ could therefore be useful in combating biofilm growth in food production facilities. While there has been no published research on the antibacterial properties of the Trinidad Scorpion Butch T prior to this study, there was enough activity to warrant further studies although its antibacterial activity was not as pronounced as the Pimenta dioica extract. References Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014. “Estimates of Foodborne Illness in the United States.” Accessed August 25, 2016. http://www.cdc.gov/foodborneburden/index.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015. “Antibiotic/ Antimicrobial Resistance.” Accessed August 11, 2015. http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/

Clement, Y.N., Y.S. Baksh-Comeau and C.E. Seaforth. 2015. “An Ethnobotonical Survey of Medicinal Plants in Trinidad.” Accessed April 12, 2017. doi: 10.1186/s13002-015-0052-0

Ingram, M., J. St. John, T. Applewhaite, P. Gaskin, K. Springer and L. Indar. 2013. “Population- based Estimates of Acute Gastrointestina; and Foodborne Illness in Barbados: A Retrospective Cross-sectional Study.” Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition 31(4): 81-97. Accessed November 23, 2015. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4022002/

Omolo, Morrine A., Zen-Zi Wong, Amanda K. Mergen, Jennifer C. Hastings, Nina C. Le, Holly A. Reiland, Kyle A. Case and David J. Baumler. 2014. “Antimicrobial Properties of Chili Peppers.” Journal of Infectious Diseases and Therapy 2(4). Accessed August 18, 2015. http://www.esciencecentral.org/journals/antimicrobial-properties-of-chili-peppers-2332- 0877.1000145.pdf

Spoering, Amy and Kim Lewis. 2001. “Biofilms and Planktonic Cells of Pseudomonas aeruginosa have Similar Resistance to Killing by Antimicrobials.” Journal of Bacteriology 183(23): 6746-6751. Accessed December 10, 2016. doi: 10.1128/JB.183.23.6746-6751.2001

Hudzicki, Jan. 2009. “Kirby-Bauer Disk Diffusion Susceptibility Test Protocol.” American Society for Microbiology. Accessed September 15, 2015. http://www.microbelibrary.org/component/resource/laboratory-test/3189-kirby-bauer-disk- diffusion-susceptibility-test-protocol

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CROP PROTECTION, CROPPING AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AND, PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:115-118. 2017

DISEASE SEVERITY OF HUANGLONGBING AND Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus TITER IN GENOTYPES OF Citrus reticulata AT ISABELA PUERTO RICO.

Diana Intriago Mendoza1, Consuelo Estévez de Jensen1, Carlos Rodríguez Minguela2, Ricardo Goenaga3,1Agro-Environmental Sciences Department, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, PR, 2 Biological Sciences Department, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, PR, 3USDA-ARS, Tropical Agriculture Research Station (TARS), Mayagüez, Puerto Rico.

ABSTRACT: Citrus Huanglongbing (HLB) is a devastating disease of citrus, which is known to be widespread in Puerto Rico. The disease is associated with Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas), a non-culturable phloem-limited bacterium, transmitted by the psyllid Diaphorina citri. In this study, the distribution of CLas across eight genotypes of mandarin (Citrus reticulata) (scions) grafted in three different rootstocks was evaluated using PCR based methods. After 14 months of transplanting the trees exhibited characteristic disease symptoms of HLB, shoot yellowing and mottled leaves. Leaf petiole samples were collected from the middle area of the tree canopy of the affected plants and submitted to DNA extraction and subsequently processed for the molecular detection of CLas using the Envirologix system and a conventional PCR assay targeted a small subunit rRNA genes. In the first sampling 15 months after transplanting, CLas was detected in 12 plots from a total of 96 plots. Disease severity was assessed 15 and 19 months after transplanting and there was significant differences between treatments (combination of genotypes and rootstocks). The progress of the disease will be monitored every three months and compared with CLas titer to determine the response of the genotypes to CLas infection. Keywords: Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus, Huanglongbing, qPCR, CLas titer, Citrus reticulata

INTRODUCTION

Citrus production is an important industry in Puerto Rico, with oranges (Citrus sinensis Macf.) accounting for 30% of the value of all fruits. In 2010-2011, 51.57 million fruits valued at $4.46 million were locally produced (Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, 2012) in 3,450 hectares. Citrus spp. production in Puerto Rico has declined due to Huanglongbing (HLB), first identified in Isabela, PR in 2009 (Estévez de Jensen et al, 2010). The disease associated with Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas), is widespread from the coastal areas to the mountainous area (Marroquin and Estévez de Jensen, 2013). Despite the severity of HLB several studies conducted with Citrus spp. have found differences in HLB resistance or tolerance. Moreover, tolerance has been associated with low CLas titer. Hence, the identification of resistant/tolerant genotypes in germplasm would be essential for the management of HLB in Puerto Rico.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

In a field experiment at the Isabela (USDA-ARS) station was conducted. A total of 24 treatments resulting from the combination of three rootstocks with eight genotypes of Citrus reticulata were evaluated. Planting was completed in August 2015 in a randomized completely randomized block design with six replicates (only four accounted in this study). Three petioles per tree (three citrus trees per experimental unit) were analyzed using a DNAble assay (isothermal, quantitative chemistry) (Envirologix). Additionally, conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis was carried out using DNA extracted from the midribs tissue using the Qiagen DNeasy Plant mini kit (Qiagen, Inc.) following a modified protocol (NPDN, 2009). For the amplification of the 16S rDNA region primers set OI1 (forward 5’- GCGCGTATGCAAGAGCGGCA-3’) and OI2c (reverse 5’- GCCTCGCGACTTCGCAACCCAT- 3’) (Li et al, 2008) were used. Template DNA was adjusted to a concentration of 20 ng/µL. The PCR reaction was carried out in a total volume of 25µL and amplification consisted of a hot start of 94°C for 2 min, followed by 35 cycles of: denaturation of 94°C for 30 sec, annealing 62°C for 30 sec, extension 72°C for 1 min, and a final extension of 72°C for 10 min. Amplified products by PCR were visualized in 1% agarose gels. To assess disease severity a disease severity scale was used where 1= no apparent HLB symptoms, vigorous tree, 2 = vigorous tree, shoot yellowing and thickening of midribs, 3 = moderate decline, yellowing on several branches (approximately 10% canopy tree), 4 = moderate tree decline, yellowing on several branches (approximately 25% canopy tree), vigor loss, 5 = severe decline, approximately 50% of the canopy tree affected), vigor loss, 6 = severe decline, approximately 75% canopy tree, the tree will not recover, 7 = dead tree. Putative CLas rRNA genes (amplicon 1,162 bp) were cloned into the pCR® 4-TOPO® Vector (Invitrogen cat. 45-0030), followed by transformation into Escherichia coli (One Shot® TOP 10, Invitrogen). The presence of the insert of interest was confirmed by PCR using T3 (5´- ATTAACCCTCACTAAAGGGA-3´) T7 (5´-TAATACGACTCACTATAGGG-3´) primers set which are complementary to the vector’s multiple cloning site ends. A more comprehensive assessment of the CLas titer in infected plants via qPCR is currently under progress. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Citrus plants appeared healthy when transplanted, since rootstock rootstocks originated from sexual seed and these were grafted with certified scions from (USDA-ARS). In addition, about 90% of trees were randomly tested for HLB and all came out negative. After 6 months of growth under greenhouse conditions, citrus plants were transplanted to the field. After 15 months of transplanting (96 experimental plots) a composite sample of petioles from three trees in each plot were analyzed and only twelve were positive for CLas with the DNable assay. Trees from the twelve positive plots were individually sampled tested positive for the presence of a 1,160 bp amplicon after conventional PCR (Fig. 1). Fifteen months after transplanting the average general disease severity score for all genotypes were different between treatments (combinations of varieties and rootstocks) (P > 0.05). Nineteen months after transplanting, two genotypes grafted onto Cleopatra rootstock displayed clear symptoms of HLB and scored the highest disease severity in contrast with genotype 15 grafted onto US-942 (DS = 1.28), genotype 14 (1.28) grafted onto Cleopatra and genotype 12 grafted on C-35 (DS =1.28). Despite the presence of HLB in the

116 experiment, some genotypes remained asymptomatic. The progress of disease in the field will be assessed every three months and the CLas titer quantified to evaluate relationships between the severity of symptoms and the magnitude of Clas titer in response to infection.

Figure 1. Agarose gel electrophoresis showing Ca. L. asiaticus PCR amplicons (1,160 bp using the OI1 and OI2c species specific primers: 2 y 14: 1 = Ladder 1Kb.

CONCLUSION The genotypes evaluated in the experiment show different disease severity scores. However, further analysis is necessary and currently in progress, to identify plant variants resistant or tolerant to HLB. LITERATURE CITED

Departamento de Agricultura de Puerto Rico. 2011. Ingreso bruto agrícola. Oficina de Estadísticas Agrícolas, Santurce.

Estévez de Jensen, C., Vitoreli, A. and Román, F. 2010. Citrus Greening in commercial orchards in Puerto Rico. Phytopathology. 100 (6) Suppl, S34. Li, W., Li, D., Twieg, E., Hartung, J.S. & Levy, L. 2008. Optimized quantification of un-culturable Candidatus Liberibacter spp. In host plants using real-time PCR. Plant Disease, 92:854-861. Marroquín-Guzmán, M. R., Estévez de Jensen, C. 2013. Dissemination of Citrus Greening in Puerto Rico. J. of Agric. of the Univ. of Puerto Rico. Vol: 97:34.

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Rouse, B., Roberts, P., Irey, M., Boyd, M. & Willis, T. 2010. Monitoring trees infected with Huanglongbing in a commercial grove receiving nutritional/SAR foliar sprays in southwest Florida. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc., 123; 118-120.

USDA, APHIS, PPQ, CPHST (2009). Work Instructions Plant sample extraction for use in Citrus Greening or HLB (Huanglongbing) Molecular diagnosis Assays. National Plant Germplasm and Quarantine Laboratory, 7p.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:119-120. 2017

OCURRENCIA DEL VIRUS DEL BRONCEADO DE TOMATE (TSWV) EN CAPSICUM ANNUM BAJO AMBIENTE PROTEGIDO EN JARABACOA, REPÚBLICA DOMINICANA

Rosalba Rodríguez1 y Reina T. Martinez1-2. 1Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo-UASD- FCAV. Pdre. R Roselle1, Santo Domingo, República Dominicana. 2Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales, Calle Rafael Augusto Sánchez, No. 89, Ensanche Evaristo Morales, Santo Domingo, República Dominicana.

RESUMEN: El bronceado del tomate (TSWV), es el virus más importante en el cultivo de Capsicum annum, tipo morrón, cultivado en ambiente protegido en la República Dominicana. El TSWV había sido documentado en 2009 manteniéndose sin causar daños significativos hasta 2013, reportándose pérdidas que ascendieron a $180 MM. La sostenibilidad del cultivo se torna vulnerable debido a la agresividad del virus, además de la expansión a otras localidades. Muestreos fueron realizados del 2013 - 2104 para detectar y determinar la incidencia del TSWV en Jarabacoa, una de las principales zonas de producción. En total 631 hojas sintomáticas y asintomáticas fueron colectadas en once localidades, en 34 invernaderos, equivalentes al 80% de las instalaciones. Las muestras fueron analizadas por serología, ELISA, y confirmadas por trascripción inversa y la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (RT-PCR). Los resultados indicaron el porcentaje de la incidencia sintomática de 55% y analítica de 41.18 % mediante ELISA. El virus fue detectado en 14 invernaderos. Las muestras positivas fueron confirmadas por RT-PCR, obteniéndose 95% de muestras positivas al TSWV, con una diferencia de 5%, lo que indica la sensibilidad ambos métodos para detección del virus. Se Frankliniella occidentalis en todos los invernaderos evaluados.

Palabras claves: TSWV, Frankliniella occidentalis, ELISA, RT-PCR

MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS

Se muestrearon 34 invernaderos de ají morrón distribuidos en once localidades en Jarabacoa. Se colectaron 631 muestras al azar de hojas jóvenes, 20 muestras por invernadero, presentando síntomas asociados a tospovirus y se colectaron de tripidos me mediante el sacudido de la flor. La detección del virus se realizó utilizando kit de ELISA (Agdia, Madison, WI, USA), siguiendo las instrucciones del fabricante. Se realizó la RT-PCR para confirmar el resultado del método serológico, para lo cual se tomaron 20 muestras positivas al TSWV. La extracción del ARN se realizó mediante un Kit RNeasy Mini (Qiagen, Courtabpeuf, France), para lo cual se pesó 100 mg de tejido vegetal de cada muestra. La RT se realizó utilizando un Kit de transcripción inversa con la enzima AMV (10mM dNTP Mix, RNasin Ribonuclease inhibitor, Sodium pyrophospate, MgCl2 50 mM, agua libre de nucleasa (Promega). La reacción fue preparada utilizando: 4 µl MgCl2, 2 µl RTS, 2 µl dNTP, 0.5 RNasin, 0.25 AMV (25 000 unidades), 1 µl de cada iniciador específico para el TSWV, que amplifican las regiones L y S del genoma: gL3637F (5´CCTTTAACAGTDGAAACAT3’) y gL4435R (5’CATDGCRCAAGARTGRTARACAGA3’), se depositó 20 µl de la reacción por tubos, los cuales fueron colocados en un termociclador a 42º C durante 30 min. Posteriormente, se realizó

119 la PCR utilizando 12,5 μl de Go Taq green master mix conteniendo (Taq polimerasa, dNTPs, MgCl2 y buffer de reacción (PROMEGA), adicionando, 1 µl de los iniciadores mencionados, 5.5 µl de agua libre de ARN y 5 µl del producto de la RT. Depositándose 25 µl de la reacción final por tubos Las condiciones para la PCR fueron las siguientes: una desnaturalización inicial de 94°C por 3 min, seguido de 30 ciclos de 30s a 94°C, 1min a 55°C, 1min a 72°C y un ciclo de 10min a 72°C. Luego se tomaron diez µl de la reacción y analizada por electroforesis en un gel de agarosa al 1% preparado en 0.5xTBE (45 mM Tris-borato, 1 mM EDTA, pH 8.0) teñido con 4 µl bromuro de etidium. El producto amplificado fue observado y fotografiado bajo un transluminador UV.

RESULTADOS

Análisis serólogico –ELISA. Se colectaron un total de 631 muestras de hojas y brotes jóvenes ají, la presencia del virus fue detectada 42 muestras, lo cual equivale a un 7 % del total colectado. El porcentaje de la incidencia analítica en invernaderos con plantas positivas al TSWV mediante ELISA alcanzó 41.18 %. La presencia del virus fue detectada en 14 invernaderos de los 34 evaluados. Confirmación del TSWV mediante RT-PCR. Se tomaron 20 muestras al azar, las cuales resultaron positivas a TSWV mediante ELISA, las mismas se confirmaron utilizando la técnica RT-PCR, con iniciadores universales y específicos, 15 muestras resultaron positivas, correspondiente al 95 % del total evaluadas con ELISA. Estos resultados confirman la presencia del TSWV en Jarabacoa reportado por Martínez et al. (2014). Existe una diferencia de un 5% entre las muestras positivas mediante ELISA y las positivas con RT-PCR, lo que podría estar relacionado con una posible reacción cruzada en el procedimiento de ELISA, dando origen a falso positivo. Identificación de tripidos. La colecta de tripidos en flor mostró que Frankliniella occidentalis fue la especie más abundante en todos los muestreos realizados en invernaderos durante el levantamiento.

CONCLUSIÓN - El muestreo realizado mostró que un 32.9% de los invernaderos en Jarabacoa, tienen presencia del virus del bronceado del tomate (TSWV. La incidencia de los síntomas del virus alcanzo 55%. - Se identificó, la Frankliniella occidentalis asociado a la trasmisión del TSWV, el cual fue identificado en todos los invernaderos. Este estudio sirve de base para trazar las estrategias de manejo para el combate del virus en la localidad de Jarabacoa. LITERATURA CITADA

Cloyd, R. 2009. Wester flower thrips (Franklinella occidentalis) Management on ornamental crops grown in greenhause: have we reached an impasse? Pest tecnology. Global science book. 1-9 p.

Martínez, RT, S. Poojari, S.A. Tolin, X. Cayetano and R.A. Naidu. 2014. First report of Tomato spotted wilt virus in peppers and tomato in the Dominican Republic. Plant Disease 98, p. 163.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:121-125. 2017

FACTORES DE RIESGO ASOCIADO A LA VÍA DE INTRODUCCIÓN FUSARIUM OXYSPORUM F. SP. CUBENSE RAZA 4 TROPICAL (FOCR4T)

Dionicia Abreu1,Rosalba Rodriguez1, Concepción Sanchez2 y Katia Espinosa3.1Analistas de Riesgo de Plagas, Ministerio de Agricultura de la República Dominicana. 2 Encargado de la División de Análisis de Riesgo Ministerio de Agricultura de la República Dominicana y 3Técnico de la División de Fitopatología Ministerio de Agricultura de la República Dominicana.

RESUMEN: Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cúbense Raza 4 Tropical (FOC- R4T) afecta especies del genero Musa y Heliconia. Ataca musáceas de importancia económica como Gross Michel, Bluggoe y Cavendish. Esta investigación se basó en revisión extensa de literatura, así como análisis y recomendaciones, sujeto en la normatividad internacional de las Normas Internacionales para Medidas Fitosanitarias (NIMF, ISPM por sus siglas en inglés). Las vías de introducción a nuevas áreas son: Plantas o material vegetal propagativo, rizomas de bananos, otras musáceas e inclusive otro tipo de plantas que han estado sembradas en suelos infestados, suelo contaminado adherido, ropa de personas y turistas originarios y/o procedentes de países con presencia de la enfermedad, así como en muestras de suelo con fines de investigación, sustratos vegetales no esterilizados, artesanías elaboradas con material de musáceas, medio de transporte procedentes de países afectados. La probabilidad de entrada al país, en material de siembra y suelo contaminado, es alta. La probabilidad de establecimiento, una vez estuviera en contacto con plantas susceptibles es alta. Se recomienda prohibir importación de plantas y material vegetativo de musáceas y de otras especies de plantas, que pudieran acarrear este patógeno, de países con presencia Foc-R4T, a excepción de semillas botánicas. Sólo permitirse la importación mediante el análisis de riesgo de plagas. Siendo el turista el factor de riesgo más importante, seguido del material de siembra y suelo contaminado.

Palabras clave: Musa, Heliconia, FOC- R4T

INTRODUCCIÓN

El banano (Musa spp.) es el cuarto cultivo alimenticio más importante a nivel mundial después del maíz, el arroz y el trigo, siendo América Latina y el Caribe la Región de donde se exporta el mayor volumen de fruta. Aproximadamente, 20 millones de toneladas (64 % de la producción) son de consumo local y siete países de la región están entre los 10 primeros países exportadores de banano. Además, el 99 % de los plátanos exportados se producen en América Latina (FAO, 2009; Lara, 2009). Estas cifras demuestran el papel que los plátanos y bananos tienen en la economía y la seguridad alimentaria en el Continente Americano (Dita et al., 2013). Entre los hongos de mayor importancia en las musáceas (Musa spp., Musa textiles, Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, etc.) están: la Sigatoka negra, Para cercospora fijiensis (Teleomorfo: Mycosphaerella fijiensis) y Mal de panamá, Fusarium oxisporium f. sp.cubense (ICA, 2012). El Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), ha sido la enfermedad más destructiva de las musáceas y está considerada entre las diez enfermedades más importantes en la historia de la agricultura (ICA,2012). A principio de los 90s se observaron ataques severos al subgrupo Cavendish de una raza en condiciones de los trópicos la cual se le ha llamado, Fusarium oxysporum

121 f. sp. cubense Raza 4 Tropical (Foc-R4T). Esta es una plaga de importancia cuarentenaria, accionable, ausente en la Región.

OBJETIVO Determinar las vías más importantes de introducción del Foc R4T para una adecuada implantación en la prevención y manejo de esta enfermedad.

MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS

Esta investigación es basada en revisión de literatura de pruebas y diagnósticos presentada en países con presencian del Foc-R4T, así como los análisis de riesgos de plagas y recomendaciones, sujeto en la normatividad internacional contenida en el artículo 5° del Acuerdo sobre la aplicación de Medidas Sanitarias y Fitosanitarias (AMSF) Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC). Además de las Normas Internacionales para Medidas Fitosanitarias (NIMF, ISPM por sus siglas en inglés): NIMF No. 11. Análisis de Riesgo de Plagas Para Plagas Cuarentenarias, Incluido el Análisis de Riesgos Ambientales y Organismos Vivos Modificados, NIMF No. 5. Glosario de Términos Fitosanitarios. NIMF No. 6. Directrices para la Vigilancia. NIMF No. 8. Determinación de la Situación de una Plaga en un Área. NIMF No. 17. Notificación de Plagas.

RESULTADOS

Distribución geográfica En los últimos diez años Fusarium oxysporum raza 4 tropical, se ha reportado en zonas productoras del Sudeste de Asia, Taiwán, China, Portugal, Indonesia, Malasia, Australia, Singapur, Filipinas, y actualmente la FAO reporta la plaga en África y el Medio Oriente, Jordania y Mozambique afectando a la mayoría de musáceas comestibles (SAGARPA, 2013; Agrocalidad, 2013). Generalidades Foc-R4T al igual que el Foc-R4T, posee micelio que crece en rangos de temperatura muy variables. Estas pueden ir entre 9 a 38 °C (Pérez et al., 2003). La raza tropical es coincidentemente con esto, la enfermedad es más intensa durante los meses más cálidos y húmedos del año, en condiciones de los trópicos. Stover (1972), reportó que el hongo puede sobrevivir como clamidiosporas en el suelo por más de 20 años. Dispersión Las principales vías de dispersión de Foc-T4R son mediante movimiento de material contaminado, muerto o vivo de una zona infectada a un campo por personas y/o animales, maquinarias o mecánicamente mediante herramientas contaminadas. Una vez que la enfermedad se ha introducido, el movimiento del suelo en el trasporte de maquinarias y el sistema de riego son una de las principales fuentes de dispersión locales. La introducción de Foc-T4R en cualquier país podría significar la devastación de los cultivares que no poseen resistencia y sustitución por genotipos menos aceptados. Otra hipótesis que se ha plateado, que se debe tomar en cuenta es la presencia estacional de huracanes, este hongo pudiera llegar por el viento o partículas de suelo (Pérez-Vicente et al., 2014). Otra posibilidad de difusión pudiera ser por insectos vectores. Meldrum (et al., 2013) confirmó mediante PCR la presencia de R4T, en exoesqueleto de Cosmopolites sordidus en los campos de banano en Australia. Este insecto se encuentra en el cultivo de plátano y banano, y se mueve a través del suelo, alimentándose de las raíces y cormos de las plantas (Gold et al., 2001).

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Vías de entrada Por la naturaleza del patógeno puede trasportarse en el comercio internacional: • En plantas o material vegetal propagativo (cormos) de bananos, otras musáceas e inclusive otro tipo de plantas que han estado sembradas en suelos infestados. • En suelo contaminado adherido a contenedores, tarimas, herramientas de trabajo, equipo, o bien en suelo en los zapatos y ropa de personas y turistas originarios y/o procedentes de países con presencia de la enfermedad, así como en muestras de suelo con fines de investigación. • Sustratos vegetales no esterilizados, por ejemplo, fibra de coco, paja de arroz, etc. • Artesanías elaboradas con material de musáceas, materiales de empaque como tarimas o cajas en contacto con suelo infestado. • Medios de transporte procedentes de países afectados por la enfermedad y de países vecinos, pueden traer suelo contaminado. • Pasajeros que ingresar al país, que han estado en algunos de los países con presencia de R4T en los últimos 2 meses, pueden traer consigo la enfermedad (Pérez et al., 2014). • El factor de riesgo de entrada del Foc-T4R más importante es el suelo ya que las clamidosporas pueden sobrevivir por más de 20 años, sin embargo, hay evidencia empírica de que este periodo de tiempo puede ser mayor. Las clamidosporas poseen paredes celulares gruesas lo que le permite sobrevivir ante condiciones ambientales adversas, además, su producción es abundante sobre los tejidos infectados en estados avanzados de la enfermedad (Urías et al., 2015).

Probabilidad de entrada La probabilidad de entrada en material de siembra y suelo contaminado con Foc-R4T es alta. Debido a que puede sobrevivir en el suelo o en las raíces durante un largo período de tiempo. Probabilidad del establecimiento en área de Producción Una vez el Foc- R4T llegara al país, y estuviera en contacto con plantas susceptibles, la probabilidad de que puede establecerse es alta. Debido a que las condiciones climáticas del país son favorables para el patógeno. Impacto en la actual área de distribución El Foc-R4T, ha causado importantes pérdidas en plantaciones comerciales en Asia (Molina, 2009). Han sido afectadas más de 8 millones de plantas de la variedad Cavendish, que supera pérdidas anuales de 75 millones de dólares. En sumatra, país asiático, se reportó pérdidas de 11 millones de dólares (Pérez-Vicente et al., 2014). Lo que trae como consecuencia la reducción de los ingresos de las familias y trabajadores (Lara, 2009). Impacto potencial Tomando en consideración las condiciones agroclimáticas del caribe y las que se desarrolla la enfermedad, de entrar en un país productor ocasionaría una reducción considerable de la producción del plátano y banano para exportación, lo que pudiera desestabilizar todo el sistema de producción, llevando a la quiebra a los productores y generando desempleo en la población, además desestabilizando el comercio internacional por oferta y la demanda (OIRSA, 2013).

CONCLUSIÓN

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Este trabajo muestra las pautas necesarias para regular las vías de riesgo de introducción a áreas libres del Foc-R4T, siendo el turista el factor de riesgo más importante, seguido del material de siembra y suelo contaminado.

LITERATURA CITADA

Agrocalidad. 2013. Plan Nacional de Contingencia para Fusariumoxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc R4T). República del Ecuador. Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganadería, Acuacultura Y Pesca. Consultado 11 abril 2016. Disponible en www.agrocalidad.gob.ec

Buddenhagen, E. 2009. Understaanding strain diversity in Fusariumoxysporum f. sp. cubense and history of introduction of tropical race 4´ to better manage banana production. Acta Horticulturae, 828:193-204. (en línea). Consultado 3 de febrero 2016. Disponible en http://www.actahort.org/members

CEI-RD. 2012. Perfil Económico del Plátano Gerencia de Investigación de Mercados Dominicana Exporta. (en línea). Consultado el 01 de enero 2016. Disponible en http://www.cei-rd.gov.do

FAO. Prepared for the Regional Workshop on the Diagnosis of Fusarium Wilt (Panama disease).

Gold C.S., Pena J.E., Karamura, E.B. 2001. Biology and integrated pest management for the banana weevil Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Integrated Pest Management Review 6 (2):79–155

ICA. 2012. Manejo fitosanitario del cultivo del plátano (Musa spp.) - Medidas para la temporada invernal Manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades en el cultivo de plátano. John Jairo Alarcón Restrepo –I.A Yaneth Jiménez Neira. Bogotá D.C. Colombia. Consultado 01 de febrero 2016. Disponible en www.ica.gov.co/

IPPC. 2013. New banana disease found in Mozambique (Fusariumoxysporumf.sp. cubenseTropical Race 4). IPPC Official Pest Report, No. MOZ-03/1. (en línea). Roma, Italia.

FAO. Consultado 3 de febrero 2016. Disponible en https://www.ippc.int/countries/pestreport/

Lara, F. 2009. Uso de bacterias endofíticas para el control biológico del Mal de Panamá (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense) en el cultivar Gros Michael (AAA). Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE). Tesis de Maestría. 59 p. Consultado 01 marzo 2016. Disponible en http://.www.SAGARPA.org.mx

Lin YingHong, Chang JingYi, Liu EnTzu, Chao ChihPing, Huang JennWen, Chang PiFang [Chang PFL], 2009. Development of a molecular marker for specific detection of Fusariumoxysporum f. sp. cubense race 4. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 123(3):353-365. http://springerlink.metapress.com/link.asp?id=100265 Meldrum, R.A., Daly, A.M., Tran-Nguyen, L.T.T., Aitken, E.A.B. 2013. The effect of surface sterilants on spore germination of Fusariumoxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4. Crop Protection 54: 94-198.

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Molina, A. 2009. Fusarium Wilt Of Banana – Renewed Threat And Renewed R&D Interest. Abstract Presented at the International ISHS-Promusa Symposium on Global Perspectives on Asian Challenges, 14-18 Sept 2009, Guangzhou, China.

OIRSA.2013. Plan de contingencia ante un brote de la raza 4 tropical de Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Cubense En un país de la región del OIRSA. Sanidad Vegetal. San Salvador, El Salvador. Consultado 01 marzo 2016. Disponible en http://www.fao.org/

Pegg, K. G., Moore, N. Y., Sorensen, S. 1994. Variability in populations of Fusariumoxysporum f. sp. cubense from Asia/Pacific region 70-82 pp. In: The improvent and testing of musa: a global partnership. Jones, D. R. (ed.). Proceedings of the first.

Pérez-Vicente, Dita., Martínez, E. 2014. Technical Manual Prevention and diagnostic of Fusarium Wilt (Panama disease) of banana caused by Fusariumoxysporum f. sp. cubense Tropical Race 4 (TR4). (Workshop). Mitigating the Threat and Preventing its Spread in the Caribbean Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations. Consultado 01 marzo 2016. Disponible en http://www.fao.org.

Thurston, H.D. 1989. Enfermedades de cultivos en el trópico. Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE), Turrialba, Costa Rica. 124 p.

Urías, C., Romero, R., Dita, M., Guzmán, M., Sandoval, J., Tapia, A., y otros. (2015). Plán de acción de américa latina y el caribe para la prevención y preparación contra el Fusarium oxysporum R4T. México: Sagarpa.

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EFFICACY OF FUNGICIDES FOR CONTROL OF STEMPHYLIUM LEAF SPOT OF SPINACH

Christian F. Miller, German Sandoya, and Richard Raid. University of Florida, Everglades Research and Education Center, Belle Glade, FL. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: Baby-leaf spinach (Spinacia oleracea) is a leaf crop commonly grown as a component for spring mix salads. Seeded at plant densities that may exceed several million plants per hectare, spring mix spinach is particularly subject to seed-borne diseases. One of the most important is Stemphylium leaf spot caused by the fungal pathogen Stemphylium botyrosum f. sp. spinacia. Since the tolerance for spring mix spinach leaf imperfections is extremely low, two experiments were conducted to investigate fungicides exhibiting different modes of action for control of this disease. The field trials each consisted of eight treatments arranged in a randomized complete block design. Experimental units consisted of 5- m sections of double-row beds planted on 1 m centers. Plots were bordered on each side by unsprayed guard beds which served as an inoculum source. Fungicide applications were made using a CO2 backpack sprayer calibrated to deliver a spray volume of 465 liters per hectare. A total of four applications were made at 6 day intervals, with treatment initiation at the first true leaf stage. All fungicide treatments provided for significant control of the disease, with Polyoxin D providing the least control. The most efficacious control was provided by strobilurin fungicides, followed by carboxamide fungicides. Pre-mixture combinations of these two classes also provided excellent control. Acibenzolar, a systemic acquired resistance activator compound, also displayed good control, as did a pre-mixture of cyprodinil and fludioxonil. These results will provide growers with information necessary for obtaining optimal leaf spot control while also providing fungicide resistance management.

Keywords: Spinacia oleracea, Stemphylium, fungicides

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SURFACTANTS- DO THEY IMPROVE THE EFFICACY OF INSECTICIDES TO MANAGE MELON THRIPS AND TCSV IN COMMERCIAL TOMATO PLANTS? Rafia A. Khan, D.R. Seal, S. Zhang, E. Evans, Tropical Research and Education Center, UF, O. Liburd, Department of Entomology and Nematology, UF, and R. Shrinivasan, UGA, Tifton, GA. ABSTRACT: In the present study, we recorded the abundance of melon thrips, Thrips palmi, in tomatoes which might have potential to transmit Tomato Chlorotic Spot Virus in Miami-Dade County, FL. Sticky trap data and leaf/flower samples showed the presence of melon thrips with very rare occurrence of flower thrips in TCSV infected tomato fields. The abundance of melon thrips was low (about 0-4 adults/5 leaf samples), and stable throughout the growing seasons for tomatoes. Five different surfactants (Joint Venture, Induce, Dyne-Amic, MSO and LI-700) were used to study the efficacy of four commonly used insecticides (Radiant, Movento, Torac and Agri- Mek). Mean number of melon thrips (both adults and larvae), on treated tomato plants did not differ from the untreated plants. However, the occurrence of Tomato Chlorotic Spot Virus incidence was in increasing pattern during the whole season. Insecticides alone or in combination with surfactants significantly reduced the incidence of TCSV and increase yield in tomatoes when compared to the untreated control. This information will help developing a sustainable thrips management program in tomato and other vegetable hosts. Keywords: thrips, tomato, Tomato chlorotic spot virus

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:128-130. 2017

EFFICACY OF KAOLIN AS BIO-PESTICIDE IN SURINAME UNDER FIELD AND GREENHOUSE CONDITIONS

Jamillah Salarbaks1 and Lydia Ori2.1Graduate student, Sustainable Management of Natural Resources MSc. Program, University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname. 2 Faculty Member, Department of Agricultural Production, Faculty of Technology, University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname.

ABSTRACT: Fruit and vegetables consumption, such as tomatoes are very important for human health, provided that they are cultivated in a safe and environmentally sound way. Due to the growing demand of food worldwide, more pesticides are used for the production of fruit and vegetables. In Suriname there is hardly any research conducted regarding the use of pesticides when producing fruit and vegetables for the local market. It is very important that the use of pesticides is reduced and alternative pest control methods are applied. Such an alternative method is the use of kaolin-clay as a bio pesticide. This substance is sprayed on the plant foliage and forms a white, porous film that interrupts the abilities of the insects for finding the host. This research project examined the efficacy of kaolin-clay in controlling infestation caused by thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). The purpose of this investigation was to compare the effect of the treatments, imported kaolin (Surround), local kaolin (Sur.kaolin), pesticide, and untreated controls on thrips on tomato production. The experiment was set up as a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), where the four different treatments were assigned at random within the three blocks. For the statistical analysis One Way ANOVA, Tukey’s Post hoc analysis and Student T- test were used. Results showed that Surround and local kaolin treatments had significantly less thrips (p<0.05) than the control and pesticide treatments in the field experiment. With regard to the greenhouse cultivation, all the other treatments had significantly (p<0.05) less thrips occurrence in comparison to the control treatment. Overall the experiments conducted in the greenhouse had better results than that of the open field.

Keywords: kaolin, bio pesticide, sustainable tomato production, protected agriculture

INTRODUCTION

The production of vegetables in developing countries is almost always associated with excessive use of pesticides. Most small farmers lack knowledge of controlling the different pests and also they have inadequate access to information on safe pesticides (Musebe et al., 2014; Ngowi et al., 2008). pesticides used for agricultural purposes are intended to prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate pests. Agricultural production in Suriname relies heavily on synthetic pesticides that can be hazardous for the environment including humans. These pesticides can be replaced with bio- pesticides like kaolin, which can provide us the basis for sustainable agriculture. Kaolin has been used successfully to control pear psylla, Cacopsylla pyricola, apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella, and codling moth, Cydia pomonella, in apple and pear orchards, glassy winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca coagulata, in grapes, boll weevil Anthonomus grandis in cotton and others (Legault, 2007). Research by Kahn & Damicone in 2008 have also reported use of kaolin as a pesticide in eggplant (Solanum melongena) and tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum).

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This study has focused on evaluation of the efficacy of kaolin as a bio-pesticide in Suriname on to tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) under field and greenhouse conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This research was conducted at a tomato farm at Weg naar Zee. The study included cultivating under field and greenhouse conditions. The experiment was set up as a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), where the four different treatments were assigned at random within the three blocks Throughout the study, insects were collected photographed and identified in the Plant Pathology laboratory of the Centre for Agricultural Research in Suriname (CELOS). Data was collected on the number of thrips that were present during the research investigation and the data was used to conduct statistical analyses using the program S.P.S.S 14.0 and IBM SPSS 24.0. RESULTS Results showed that Surround and local kaolin treatments had significantly less thrips (p<0.05) than the control and pesticide treatments in the field experiment. With regard to the greenhouse cultivation, all the other treatments had significantly (p<0.05) less thrips occurrence in comparison to the control treatment. Overall the experiments conducted in the greenhouse had better results than that of the open field.

Figure 1. Damage by thrips on tomato leaf Figure 2. Thrips (Thripidae) Table 1: ANOVA and PosthHoc results of number of thrips in the greenhouse and in the field.

Treatment Number of thrips in Number of Thrips in Field greenhouse

Surround 1.0a 3.7a Sur. Kaolin 2.3a 3.5a Pesticide 3.9a 18.6b Control 11.7b 19.3b

CONCLUSIONS

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1. Both surround and local kaolin had a significant effect on the control of thrips occurrence on the tomato plants. 2. Overall, the tomato plants that were cultivated in the greenhouse performed in comparison to the tomato plants in the field. LITERATURE CITED Kahn B. and Damicone J., 2008. Kaolin particle film product applications before harvest begins may not improve marketable yields of fresh tomatoes. Technology and Product Reports 18 (1): 144- 147. Legault G., 2007. Effect of kaolin on the striped cucumber beetle (Acalymma vittatum) and cucumber growth and development. Department of Plant Science; McGill University.

Musebe et al., 2014 Musebe R., Massawe A., Mansuet T. et al., 2014. Achieving rational pesticide use in outdoor tomato production through former training and implementation of a technical guideline. J. Agric .Ext.Rural Dev; Vol 6 (12): 367-381.

Ngowi A., Mbise T., Ijani A., 2008. Pesticides use by smallholder farmers in vegetable production in Northern Tanzania. National Institute for Health; Crop prot. Vol 26(11): 1617-1624.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:131-136. 2017

POPULATION FLUCTUATION OF HELICOVERPA ZEA (BODDIE) AND HELICOVERPA ARMIGERA (HÜBNER) (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) IN PUERTO RICO

Darío Trujillo1, José Carlos Verle Rodrigues1. 1 Center for Excellence in Quarantine & Invasive Species, Agricultural Experimental Station-Río Piedras, Agro-Environmental Sciences Department, University of Puerto Rico- Mayagüez, 1193 Guayacán St, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, USA.

ABSTRACT: Helicoverpa armigera and Helicoverpa zea are severe pests in many crops. Helicoverpa zea is distributed in America. While H. armigera was distributed in the Old World. Since 2013 H. armigera was reported in America. In 2014, H. armigera was detected in Puerto Rico. The objectives of this research were: quantify populations of H. armigera and H. zea in several localities in Puerto Rico, and determine the relationship of Helicoverpa populations to weather variables. Traps (n=109) were placed to capture Helicoverpa adults from February to December 2016, the traps had specific lure for H. armigera. These traps were placed in Guánica, Santa Isabel, Guayama, Isabela, Lajas, Juana Díaz, Añasco, Aguadilla, Sabana Grande, Mayagüez, San Juan, Gurabo, Villalba, and Jayuya. The traps were reviewed every two weeks. Morphological identification was done through the analysis of male genitalia. The insects that were identified as H. armigera with morphological tools were corroborated their identification using specific primers for H. armigera: 3373Ha_Hz_ITS1-F and 3374Ha_ITS1-R. Data of moth capture by a bell pepper farm in Santa Isabel were used to analyze relationship with temperature and precipitation. A total of 4955 Helicoverpa males were captured. Four H. armigera adults were identified, the remaining were H. zea. In San Juan, Gurabo, Villalba, and Jayuya any Helicoverpa adults were detected. The highest H. zea populations were since February until June. In Santa Isabel, a negative relationship was found between population density of H. zea and precipitation. Populations of H. armigera were not analyzed because the limited number trapped. Currently, H. zea is the predominant species trapped in Puerto Rico.

Keywords: Invasive Species, Quarantine, Noctuidae, Helicoverpa, Old World Bollworm

INTRODUCTION

Helicoverpa armigera and Helicoverpa zea could affect more than 100 hosts. These moths attack mainly flowers and fruits. Among the most important crops affected by them are: corn (Zea mays L), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) (Cunningham & Zalucki, 2014). Helicoverpa zea, Corn Earworm, is distributed in America. On the other hand, H. armigera, Old World Bollworm (OWB), was distributed in Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia. Since 2013 OWB was founded as invasive species in America, in Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, Uruguay, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico (Gilligan et al., 2015). In September 2014, an adult of OWB was first detected in San Germán, Puerto Rico (Smith, 2015).

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Resistance to insecticides (Leite et al., 2014) and shorter life cycle of OWB than H. zea (Barbosa et al., 2016) are of important concern regarding the control of the insect. The recent introduction of OWB in Puerto Rico is a new challenge for Caribbean and North America agriculture. This work aims to determine the current status of these species populations in Puerto Rico.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bucket traps (AlphaScents) with lure IT390 ISCAlure-Armigera specific for H. armigera were placed; the lure attracts H. zea too. A total of 109 traps were installed at 1.5m from the soil: 35 traps in Guánica, 12 in Santa Isabel, 15 in Isabela, nine in Lajas, seven in Mayagüez, two in Guayama, two in Juana Díaz, two in Añasco, one in Aguadilla, one in Sabana Grande, four in San Juan, nine in Gurabo, five in Villalba, and five in Jayuya. These traps were placed near to reported hosts of Helicoverpa: 16 traps near to pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.), 15 to chili pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.), 14 to soybean (Glycine max L.), 14 to sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), 12 to corn (Zea mays L.), nine to bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), seven to tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), five to pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duchesne), three to bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), three to cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), two to okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.), one to sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.); and five traps near to non-hosts of Helicoverpa, three traps to plantain (Musa paradisiaca L.), one to Royal palm (Roystonea borinquena), and one to herbaceous weeds. These traps were reviewed every two weeks. The Helicoverpa males captured had the genitalia extracted using potassium hydroxide 10% and were morphologically identified according to Brambila (2009). The males classified as H. armigera with genitalia were extracted DNA with the kit Blood and Tissue of Qiagen following manufacturer’s instructions. Polymerase Chain Reaction was done with the primers 3373Ha_Hz_ITS1-F and 3374Ha_ITS1-R specific to H. armigera. For each reaction of 25 µl was used a mixture: 8.5 µl of water, 12.5 µl of Master Mix Promega 2X, 1 µl of each primer (10 µM), and 2 µl of DNA template. The PCR program was 45s initial denaturation at 95°C, 35 cycles of 15s at 95°C, 10s at 60°C, and 30s at 72°C, and final extension of 5 minutes at 72°C (Perera et al., 2015). The relationships of Helicoverpa populations and weather variables, were analyzed from data collected at a bell pepper farm, in Santa Isabel, with continuous production all the year around. Four traps were placed in this farm. Weather data year 2016, from Juana Díaz substation, was obtained to analyze regressions; this substation is located 12 km away from the bell pepper farm. Regression analysis was done with populations of Helicoverpa of the traps versus average temperature and accumulated precipitation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Seventy-six traps, of 109, captured Helicoverpa, while 33 traps did not detect any Helicoverpa; only four traps captured H. armigera (Figure 1). In the survey, 4955 Helicoverpa males were captured in the traps. Four H. armigera were identified with morphological analysis, and their identification was confirmed with the specific primers that generated amplicons of ≈ 147 bp, while H. zea did not produce any amplicon (Perera at al., 2015) (Figure 3). Helicoverpa armigera adults were captured near to sunflower, pigeon pea, chili pepper, soybean and bell

132 pepper. Three OWB males were captured in August and one in September 2016, in Guánica, Santa Isabel and Guayama. The remaining 4951 moths were identified as H. zea. Most H, zea males were captured in Santa Isabel, Guánica and Isabela, by tomato, bell pepper, sunflower, chili pepper, and soybean (Figure 2). In San Juan, Gurabo, Villalba, and Jayuya any Helicoverpa adults were not detected. In Santa Isabel, the populations of H. zea were more abundant in February and March, and these populations correspond to traps located near to a large tomato farm. These results are similar to the reported by Calero (2007), who found highest populations of H. zea adults from February until May 2004, in Santa Isabel in tomato and corn. In Guánica, in sunflower the highest populations of H. zea were from February to May. In tomato, the highest H. zea population was in May by the end of the crop-harvesting season. In chili pepper the highest population was trapped in June. In Isabela, the highest population of H. zea was in February (Figure 4). The regression analysis, showed a negative relationship (R2= 0.18, p-value 0.0036) between trapped moth population and precipitation (mm). No significant relationship was between insects captured and temperature values (oC) (Table 1). Populations of H. armigera were not analyzed because the limited number of specimens trapped. Old World Bollworm is an invasive species in America. In this research, the data suggest that H. zea is still the predominant species above H. armigera. These results are similar to those reported by Murúa et al. (2016), who founded that Helicoverpa gelotopoeon (Dyar) was the predominant species above H. armigera in Argentina. In contrast, in Brazil apparently H. armigera displaced H. zea in dicotyledonous crops; while H. zea is still the predominant species in corn (Leite et al., 2014).

Figure 1. Pheromone traps location and detection of Helicoverpa armigera and H. zea. February-December 2016. Puerto Rico.

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Figure 2: Total Helicoverpa zea adult males captured per locality and crop. February-December 2016.

Figure 3: Agarose gel (1.2%) showing amplicons for Helicoverpa armigera. No amplification was observed for H. zea.

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Figure 4: Helicoverpa zea adult males captured in Santa Isabel, Guánica, and Isabela, in tomato, bell pepper, sunflower, chili pepper, and soybean. February-December 2016. Table 1: Analysis regression with Helicoverpa zea populations and two weather variables. Santa Isabel, 2016.

Weather variable R2 p-value Precipitation (mm) 0.18 0.0036

Temperature (°C) 0.07 0.1281

CONCLUSIONS

Using the available lures, four H. armigera were detected during the 2016 sampled period, from a total of 4955 specimens collected of Helicoverpa. This suggest that H. zea is the predominat

135 species in Puerto Rico or the available lures are in same way bias toward H. zea, or the combination of both. The higheest populations of H. zea were trapped between February to June. Population abundance of H. zea in Santa Isabel showed a negative relationship with precipitation.

LITERATURE CITED

Barbosa, N., Mendes, S. M., Teixeira, G., Eduardo, P., Ribeiro, D. A., Almeida, C., Valicente, F. H., & Oliveira, C. M. (2016). Comparison of Biology between Helicoverpa zea and Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae) Reared on Artificial Diets. Florida Entomologist, 99(1), 72– 76.

Brambila, J. (2009). Instructions for dissecting male genitalia of Helicoverpa (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to separate H. zea from H. armigera. USDA-APHIS-PPQ. Retrieved from: https://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/owb/downloads/owb- screeningaids2.pdf

Calero, L. M. (2007). Densidad poblacional de Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) y su relación fenológica con los cultivos de tomate y maíz (Master´s thesis, University of Puerto Rico). Retrieved from: https://home.uprm.edu/ras/login.php?service=http%3A%2F%2Fgrad.uprm.edu%2Ftesis%2Fcale rotoledo.pdf

Cunningham, J. P., & Zalucki, M. P. (2014). Understanding Heliothine (Lepidoptera: Heliothinae) Pests: What is a Host Plant? Journal of Economic Entomology, 107(3), 881–896.

Gilligan, T. M., Tembrock, L. R., Farris, R. E., Barr, N. B., Van Der Straten, M. J., Van De Vossenberg, B. T. L. H., & Metz-Verschure, E. (2015). A multiplex real-time PCR assay to diagnose and separate Helicoverpa armigera and H. zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the New World. PLoS ONE, 10(11), 1–19.

Leite, N. A., Alves-Pereira, A., Corrêa, A. S., Zucchi, M. I., & Omoto, C. (2014). Demographics and Genetic Variability of the New World Bollworm (Helicoverpa zea) and the Old World Bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) in Brazil. PLoS ONE, 9(11).

Murúa, M. G., Cazado, L. E., Casmuz, A., Herrero, M. I., Villagrán, M. E., Vera, A., & Gastaminza, G. (2016). Species From the Heliothinae Complex (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Tucumán, Argentina, an Update of Geographical Distribution of Helicoverpa armigera. Journal of Insect Science, 16(1), 61.

Perera, O. P., Allen, K. C., Jain, D., Purcell, M., Little, N. S., & Luttrell, R. G. (2015). Rapid Identification of Helicoverpa armigera and Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Using Ribosomal RNA Internal Transcribed Spacer 1. Journal of Insect Science, 15(1), 155.

Smith, E. (2015). OLD WORLD BOLLWORM Puerto Rico 2014-2015. Retrieved from https://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/owb/downloads/program-summary.pdf

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:137-143. 2017

FUNCTIONAL DIVERSITY AND ITS ASSOCIATION WITH ENDOSYMBIONT ABUNDANCE IN TETRANYCHOIDEA MITES

Oscar E. Ospina1 and Jose Carlos Verle Rodrigues2. Center for Excellence in Quarantine & Invasive Species, Agricultural Experimental Station-Río Piedras, Department of Agro- Environmental Sciences, University of Puerto Rico-Mayaguez; Tel.: +1787-767-9705

ABSTRACT: Tetranychoidea mites are important pest for several crops because of their feeding habits or transmission of pathogens. The study of arthropod bacteriomes by means of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) is opening opportunities for the development of unique pest management approaches. In Tetranychoidea mites, the presence of the endosymbiont bacteria Cardinium represents a starting point for pest management research because of its effects in the mites’ reproduction, and metabolic traits yet to be discovered that could be potential new targets. In this study, we used our previously published sequencing data on the 16S Ribosomal RNA from the bacteria in Brevipalpus yotheris, Raoiella indica, and Oligonychus sp. With these sequences and the pipeline PICRUSt, we predicted the content of genes with metabolic function in the bacteriome of the mites. Our results indicate that the bacteriomes of B. yothersi and Oligonychus sp. (which harbor Cardinium) significantly contain more genes involved in the metabolism of indole-alkaloids, Glutamine, and Biotin when compared with R. indica (no Cardinium). The genes for metabolism of Biotin and Nicotinate are also more abundant in adult B. yothersi and Oligonychus sp. than in their eggs. This is associated with lower abundance of Cardinium in the eggs. The metabolic specialization of Cardinium-dominated bacteriomes can also suffer from lack of resistance to β-lactam antibiotics and DDT. While these results are predictive, they highlight the necessity of testing these variations in laboratory.

Keywords: False-spider mite, Red-palm mite, acari metabolism, Cardinium, antibiotic resistance, xenobiotics, amino acid metabolism, vitamin supplementation.

INTRODUCTION Several crops are damaged by mites in the superfamily Tetranychoidea due either to direct feeding or their ability to transmit pathogens. Examples of these mites include the genera Brevipalpus, Raoiella and Oligonychus (Kitajima et al., 2003; Maoz et al., 2011; Rodrigues and Childers, 2013; Rodrigues et al., 2007). Fortunately, new tools for pest management can be developed with the aid of state-of-the-art molecular techniques like Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). In fact, the study of bacterial communities in agricultural systems by sequencing of the 16S Ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) is rapidly advancing (Busby et al., 2017).

Attention has been directed to the study of endosymbionts in arthropods because of their potential for practical applications to solve immediate pest problems (Crotti et al., 2012). Endosymbionts like Cardinium are commonly found in mites, including some representatives from Tetranychoidea (Weeks et al., 2003; Zchori-Fein and Perlman, 2004). In this particular case, Cardinium not only has effects in the sexuality of mites such as feminization of males (Weeks et al., 2001), but could also affect additional traits related to survival and fitness as has been shown in other arthropods (Wang et al., 2008).

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In Brevipalpus yothersi, an important pest of citrus and other crops, the bacteriome is dominated by the presence of Cardinium (Ospina et al., 2016; Weeks et al., 2003). The endosymbiont is highly abundant regardless of the immediate ecological conditions of the mite. Nonetheless, the bacteria can be up to 10 times more abundant in the adults when compared with its eggs (Ospina et al., 2016). Such abrupt proliferation results in a decrease of overall bacterial diversity, which in turn can influence functional and metabolic specialization of the bacteriome. With the use of bioinformatic methods it is possible to predict which functional or metabolic traits are present in a bacterial community. The pipeline Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States (PICRUSt) allows the inference of gene families present in a bacterial community. It does so based on Operational Taxonomical Units (OTUs) generated by sequencing of the16S rRNA (Langille et al., 2013). The pipeline uses a reconstruction of gene content across the bacterial taxa in a community based on known genomes. The gene families that are predicted in the bacteria are given identification by using the KEGG Orthology Database.

Here, we used the bacterial OTUs reported by Ospina et al. (2016) in B. yothersi, Raoiella indica, and Oligonychus sp. to infer about metabolic distinctions in their bacteriomes, while considering the occurrence or absence of Cardinium. We predicted the content and abundance of gene families related to the metabolism of amino acids, vitamins, and xenobiotics present in the bacteriomes by using the pipeline PICRUSt. Although predictive, this study delineates new and promising research leading to the development of potential applications for pest management of these mites.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, we used the PICRUSt 1.1.0 pipeline (Langille et al., 2013) to generate predictions about the functional diversity in the bacteriomes. The pipeline takes as input the number and abundance of OTUs in each sample as well as the taxonomy assigned to each OTU. In a previous study, Ospina et al. (2016) generated data on the OTUs present in mites of the superfamily Tetranychoidea. These OTUs were used in the present study to produce our predictions on functional diversity. In the next section, we summarize the methods used by Ospina et al. (2016) to handle NGS data and identify the OTUs in these mites.

Study organisms, quality control of data and taxonomic assignations Brevipalpus yothersi Baker were originally collected Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis), Tahiti lime (Citrus latifolia), and Glory-bower (Clerodendrum thomsoniae) in Puerto Rico. The colonies were reared in “Valencia” oranges from a single egg for 10 generations under constant 25oC and 75% relative humidity. We also collected other Tetranychoidea from the field for comparison purposes: Raoiella indica (Cocos nucifera), and Oligonychus sp. (Phaseolus vulgaris). Specimens from all species were slide mounted and barcoded (Rodrigues et al., 2004). Accession numbers for the barcodes are KP180424to KP180429). Sequencing of ~250bp from the V4 region of the 16S rRNA was performed from genomic DNA by using primers bac515F (5’- GTGCCAAGCMGCCGCGGTAA-3’) and bac806R (5’-GTGCCAAGCMGCCGCGGTAA-3’). Sequencing of the 16S amplicons was carried out by using a 454 GS FLX System on a 7075 GS Picotiter Plate (Roche, Branford, CT, USA).

Sequences were assigned to samples by using unique 8bp barcodes (de-multiplexing). This process was carried out by the script “split_libraries.py” included in the pipeline Quantitative Insights Into Microbial Ecology (QIIMETM) v1 (Caporaso et al., 2010b). During the de-

138 multiplexing, we also removed the primer, linkers, and barcodes from the sequences. Quality filtering included the removal of the sequences with phred-score lower than 25 and elimination of 454-characteristic noise signals with QIIME’s script “denoiser.py”. We performed alignment of sequences in PyNAST v1.2 against the Greengenes reference alignment (Caporaso et al., 2010a). Identification and elimination of chimeric sequences was performed with ChimeraSlayer v4.29.2010 as implemented in QIIME and using the template alignment provided by PyNAST. For each sequence, taxonomy was assigned by clustering the sequences based on a 97% similarity to generate OTUs. OTUs represented by a single sequence were removed from the dataset. Taxonomy was indicated for each OTU by using the Ribosomal Database Project (RDP) Classifier v2.11 (Wang et al., 2007) and the Greengenes Reference Database included in QIIME. The OTU set was rarefied 10 times to estimate average Chao1 and Shannon diversity indexes. Additionally, estimations of the UniFrac distances and the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity indexes were performed.

Analysis of metabolic function We generated predictions on the metabolic profiles of these bacteriomes with the pipeline PICRUSt (Langille et al., 2013). This pipeline allows the inference of gene families from bacterial taxa in a host’s metagenome as detected by the sequencing of the 16S rRNA. Specifically, we used PICRUSt to identify metabolic pathways potentially contributed by the bacteria in the mites. Since the number of 16S rRNA gene copies varies among bacterial taxa, the first step in this pipeline was the normalization of the OTUs by the predicted 16S copy number abundance. Secondly, with PICRUSt’s “predict_metagenomes.py” we predicted the gene families with functional/metabolic importance that were contributed by each normalized OTU. The identification of these gene families was based on the KEGG Orthology Database (http://www.genome.jp/kegg/ko.html).

Because PICRUSt analyses yield a large number of predictions, we focused on gene families related to the metabolism of amino acids, vitamins/cofactors, and xenobiotics. To visualize differences in abundance of these gene families, we performed Welch’s t-tests to detect significant differences in the mean proportion of gene families with the software STAMP v2.1.3 (Parks et al., 2014).

RESULTS

Our PICRUSt analysis predicted 328 gene families with metabolic/functional importance in the bacteriome of the mites in this study. We narrowed this predicted dataset to 91 gene families related to metabolism and degradation of amino acids, vitamins/cofactors, and xenobiotics. This analysis yielded 10 gene families that were significantly different in abundance among mites with and without Cardinium (Figure 1). Genes involved in the metabolism of indole-alkaloids, Glutamine, and Biotin were significantly more abundant in the bacteriomes of mites with Cardinium. Several examples have arisen indicating the potential of endosymbionts as providers of nutrients to the host (Aksoy, 2000; Feldhaar et al., 2007; Sabree et al., 2009). Cardinium can be supplementing the diet of B. yotherisi and Oligonychus sp., resulting in possible host mite selection in favor of the endosymbiont.

The contribution of favorable traits to the host is a plausible reason for the increase in abundance of Cardinium when comparing eggs to adult mites (Ospina et al., 2016). Our analyses showed that egg bacteriomes had less abundance of genes related to the metabolism of biotin in comparison to

139 adult bacteriomes (Figure 2A). Similarly, our results suggest that genes related to the metabolism of nicotinate are present at higher abundance in egg bacterial communities if compared to those in adult mites (Figure 2B). Having a bacterial endosymbiont with the ability to contribute vitamins confers to the host an advantage when dietary conditions are not optimal (Nakabachi and Ishikawa, 1999; Smith et al., 2015).

Despite these positive contributions from the endosymbiont, we also observed that such functional specialization of the bacteriome could be detrimental for the system. Genes involved in the resistance to β-lactam antibiotics were more abundant in eggs in comparison to adults (Figure 2C). Although the use of antibiotics is not recommended for commercial or environmental use, the reduction of resistance to antibiotics in adults opens a possibility for pest management provided a suitable delivery method is available (Douglas, 2007). We also observed that genes involved in the metabolism of the DDT were also relatively reduced in adults (Figure 2D). The microbial response and plasticity to the exposition of these compounds is still to be verified.

Figure 1. Mean proportion of gene families associated to metabolic/functional traits in mite bacteriomes with the endosymbiont Cardinium (black) and without it (white). Confidence intervals for the means are provided as well as the corrected p-value for the comparisons. Gene families correspond to those in the KEGG Orthology Database (http://www.genome.jp/kegg/ko.html).

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Figure 2. Proportion of gene families involved in the Biotin metabolism (A), Nicotinate metabolism (B), β-lactam resistance (C), and DDT degradation (D). The comparison here involves only mite eggs and adults that contain Cardinium in their bacteriome. The mean is indicated with a star. Outliers are shown as crosses.

CONCLUSION

The bacteriomes of B. yothersi and Oligonychus sp. show metabolic specialization towards the supplementation of diet with vitamins. Such specialization is associated with the abundant endosymbiont Cardinium, as observed when comparing eggs with adults. The dominance of

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Cardinium in these mites also can bring trade-offs related to vulnerability to antibiotics and acaricides. Although this study is based on bioinformatic predictions, it shows potential metabolic pathways to be tested in laboratory. Provided these results are tested, they can also generate tools that target Cardinium as a proxy for control of mite populations.

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Busby, P.E., Soman, C., Wagner, M.R., Friesen, M.L., Kremer, J., Bennett, A., Morsy, M., Eisen, J.A., Leach, J.E., Dangl, J.L., 2017. Research priorities for harnessing plant microbiomes in sustainable agriculture. PLoS One 1–14.

Caporaso, J.G., Bittinger, K., Bushman, F.D., Desantis, T.Z., Andersen, G.L., Knight, R., 2010a. PyNAST: A flexible tool for aligning sequences to a template alignment. Bioinformatics 26, 266– 267.

Caporaso, J.G., Kuczynski, J., Stombaugh, J., Bittinger, K., Bushman, F.D., Costello, E.K., Fierer, N., Peña, A.G., Goodrich, J.K., Gordon, J.I., et al., 2010b. QIIME allows analysis of high- throughput community sequencing data. Nat. Methods 7, 335–336.

Crotti, E., Balloi, A., Hamdi, C., Sansonno, L., Marzorati, M., Gonella, E., Favia, G., Cherif, A., Bandi, C., Alma, et al., 2012. Microbial symbionts: A resource for the management of insect- related problems. Microb. Biotechnol. 5, 307–317.

Douglas, A.E., 2007. Symbiotic microorganisms: untapped resources for insect pest control. Trends Biotechnol. 25, 338–342.

Feldhaar, H., Straka, J., Krischke, M., Berthold, K., Stoll, S., Mueller, M.J., Gross, R., 2007. Nutritional upgrading for omnivorous carpenter ants by the endosymbiont Blochmannia. BMC Biol. 5, 48.

Kitajima, E.W., Rezende, J.A.M., Rodrigues, J.C.V., 2003. Passion fruit green spot virus vectored by Brevipalpus phoenicis (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) on passion fruit in Brazil. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 30, 225–231.

Langille, M.G.I., Zaneveld, J., Caporaso, J.G., McDonald, D., Knights, D., Reyes, J., Clemente, J.C., Burkepile, D.E., Vega Thurber, R.L., et al., 2013. Predictive functional profiling of microbial communities using 16S rRNA marker gene sequences. Nat. Biotechnol. 31, 814–21.

Maoz, Y., Gal, S., Argov, Y., Coll, M., Palevsky, E., 2011. Biocontrol of persea mite, Oligonychus perseae, with an exotic spider mite predator and an indigenous pollen feeder. Biol. Control 59, 147–157.

Nakabachi, A., Ishikawa, H., 1999. Provision of riboflavin to the host aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, by endosymbiotic bacteria, Buchnera. J. Insect Physiol. 45, 1–6. Ospina, O., Massey, S., Verle Rodrigues, J., 2016. Reduced diversity in the bacteriome of the

142 phytophagous mite Brevipalpus yothersi (Acari: Tenuipalpidae). Insects 7, 80.

Parks, D.H., Tyson, G.W., Hugenholtz, P., Beiko, R.G., 2014. STAMP: Statistical analysis of taxonomic and functional profiles. Bioinformatics 30, 3123–3124.

Rodrigues, J.C.V., Childers, C.C., 2013. Brevipalpus mites (Acari: Tenuipalpidae): Vectors of invasive, non-systemic cytoplasmic and nuclear viruses in plants. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 59, 165–175.

Rodrigues, J.C.V., Gallo-Meagher, M., Ochoa, R., Childers, C.C., Adams, B.J., 2004. Mitochondrial DNA and RAPD polymorphisms in the haploid mite Brevipalpus phoenicis (Acari: Tenuipalpidae). Exp. Appl. Acarol. 34, 275–290.

Rodrigues, J.C. V., Ochoa, R., Kane, E.C., 2007. First report of Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) and its damage to coconut palms in Puerto Rico and Culebra Island. Int. J. Acarol. 33, 3–5.

Sabree, Z.L., Kambhampati, S., Moran, N.A., 2009. Nitrogen recycling and nutritional provisioning by Blattabacterium, the cockroach endosymbiont. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106, 19521–19526.

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Zchori-Fein, E., Perlman, S.J., 2004. Distribution of the bacterial symbiont Cardinium in arthropods. Mol. Ecol. 13, 2009–2016.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:144. 2017

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS EFFECT ON BIOLOGY OF MELON THRIPS, THRIPS PALMI KARNY, AND COMMON BLOSSOM THRIPS, FRANKLINIELLA SCHULTZEI TRYBOM, (THYSANOPTERA: THRIPIDAE)

Dakshina R. Seal1, O. E. Liburd2, R. A. Khan1, Q. Wang3, E.A. Evans, 1University of Florida- IFAS, Tropical Research and Education Center, Homestead, FL 33031; 2University of Florida – IFAS, Entomology and Nematology Departments, Gainesville, FL 32611-0190; UF/IFAS Miami- Dade Extension, Department of Parks, Recreation & Open Spaces,18710 SW 288th ST, Homestead, FL 33030-2309.

ABSTRACT: Thrips are small insects measuring almost 1 – 2 mm in length and difficult to see with naked eyes. They are thigmotactic in behavior and cryptic in nature. They are abundant and thrive well in tropical and subtropical climatic conditions. They are active flier and disperse rapidly in the host crops due to their high reproductive rate and short generation time. They are polyphagous insect and attack almost more than 200 taxa of plants. Thrips feeding and reproduction on all above ground parts of a host plant turn leave bronze in color resulting significant photosynthetic reduction and leave scars on fruits rendering them unmarketable. In the present study, efforts will be made to focus population abundance and distribution of melon thrips and common blossom thrips over 15-year period. Melon thrips is an invasive insect native to India. It arrived in Miami-Dade County in 1990 and played a devastating role attacking all vegetable crops except tomato. Although population abundance of this thrips was high on all vegetable crops during 1990-1994, population abundance started decreasing with the application of spinosad (Spintor, IRAC Group 5) since 1995. Besides thrips control, spinosad was used to control lepidopteran and dipteran pests on various crops. Frequent use of this insecticide, at least once a week, and melon thrips started developing resistance to this insecticide. To achieve better control, growers have been using higher rate (8.0 oz or more/acre) instead of 6.0 oz/acre which was the initial rate. Currently, growers complain that they are not getting control of melon thrips by using Spintor or Radiant. With the change in climate (temperature, soil moisture, rainfall, etc.) thrips biology is changing along with its physical and biotic environments. Insecticide effectiveness decreases in high temperature and high rainfall, and thrips population increases with a decrease in insecticide and increase in temperature. Melon thrips population is showing an increasing trend since 2008 in all crops. Melon thrips also extended it host range being capable of reproducing in tomatoes. Similarly, common blossom thrips population increased abruptly in 2008 and remained same after that. With its increasing trend in all crops, it also became a serious threat to tomato crops for transmitting tospoviruses, e.g., Groundnut Ring Spot Virus (GRSV) and Tomato Chlorotic Spot Virus (TCSV). More information on the effect of climate change in increasing thrips population will be addressed in this study.

Keywords: melon thrips, invasive insect, climate change

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:145-148. 2017

DEVELOPMENT OF AN IMPROVED INTEGRATED APPROACH FOR MANAGING THRIPS (THYSANOPTERA:THRIPIDAE) AND TOMATO CHLOROTIC SPOT VIRUS (TCSV) IN TOMATO FIELDS: 1. CHEMICAL CONTROL Rafia. A. Khan, D.R. Seal, S. Zhang, E. Evans, Tropical Research and Education Center, UF, O. Liburd, Department of Entomology and Nematology, UF, and R. Shrinivasan, UGA, Tifton, GA. ABSTRACT: On tomato plants in the field, we recorded the abundance of melon thrips, Thrips palmi, which has the potential to transmit Tomato chlorotic spot virus (TCSV) in Miami-Dade County, FL., and elsewhere. The abundance of melon thrips on tomato plants was low (0-4 adults per 5 leaf samples), and stable throughout the growing season (sept.-Mar.). Five different surfactants were used to assist with determining the effectiveness of the four commonly used insecticides. The occurrence of TCSV increased during the season. Insecticides alone or in combination with surfactants significantly reduced the incidence of TCSV and increased yield in tomatoes compared with the untreated control. Economic analysis focusing on the cost- effectiveness of various insecticides indicate that the insecticide tolfenpyrad was most cost- effective. INTRODUCTION

Melon thrips, western flower thrips and common blossom thrips are most common thrips species in the tomato fileld (Seal and Zhang 2015). Melon thrips, Thrips palmi Karny, is an important invasive pest of various vegetable and ornamental crops, which has become widely distributed during the past few decades (Lewis 1997a, Mound 1997). Melon thrips have a wide host range and attack 50 species of plants in 20 families; Solanaceae, Cucurbitaceae and Leguminosae are severely affected. However, the tomato, Solanum lycopersicon (F=Solanaceae) has not been considered a preferred breeding or feeding host (Capinera 2000 and Seal et al. 2013). Melon thrips were introduced into Miami-Dade County in 1990 and has become an established pest of all vegetable crops except tomato. During the 2014-2015 growing season, the invasion of these thrips was documented in all commercial tomato fields (Seal 2015, field observation). Melon thrips appears in the vegetable crops at the beginning of the growing season (Sep.-Oct.) when plants are 2-4 weeks old and it continues feeding and reproducing on vegetable crops throughout the year based on the availability of the host crops (Seal 1996). Besides feeding damage, melon thrips have transmitted tospoviruses in eastern and southern Asian countries (Nagata et al.2002) like Calla lily chlorotic spot virus (Chen et al. 2005), Groundnut bud necrosis virus (Meena et al. 2005), Melon yellow spot virus (Kato et al. 2000), and Watermelon silver mottle virus (Chu et al. 1984). In the present study, we used five different surfactants to increase the effectiveness of four commonly used insecticides in suppressing melon thrips, common blossom thrips and western flower thrips. We also studied the level of suppression of TCSV in infected tomato plants and when sprayed with above treatments and marketable yields. MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study was conducted at Tropical Research and Education Center, UF-IFAS, Homestead, FL. Tomato (cv.‘Sanibel’) seedlings were transplanted on raised beds of Rockdale soil that were covered with white-on-black plastic mulch on 20 Nov. 2016. Tomato plants were grown based on 145

recommended cultural practices in the Vegetable Production Handbook for Florida. Insecticides used in the study included spinetoram (Radiant , 8oz/A, tolfenpyrad (Torac , 21 oz/A), abamectin (Agri Mek , 16 oz/A), and spirotetramat (Movento , 5 oz/A). Each insecticide was sprayed alone or in combine with one of the five surfactants, which included Joint Venture, Induce, Dyne-Amic, Methylated Seed Oil (MSO), and Li 700. Hence, there were 12 treatments under each insecticide management level. For example, the treatments of spinetoram included 1) spinetoram; 2) spinetoram+Joint Venture; 3) spinetoram+Induce; 4) spinetoram+Dyne-Amic; 5) spinetoram+MSO; 6) spinetoram+Li 700; 7) Joint Venture alone; 8) Induce alone; 9) Dyne-Amic alone; 10) MSO alone; 11) Li 700 alone; and 12) an untreated check/control. A Similar number of treatments were used for each of the other three insecticides. Treatment plots were 25 feet long x 6 feet wide and, were replicated four times in a randomized complete block design. Application of treatments began 3 weeks after planting and continued weekly for four weeks. Application volume for each treatment was 40-70 GPA, which was sprayed using a CO2 backpack sprayer at 30 psi. Treatments were evaluated 48 h after each application by randomly collecting 5 leaves/plot, 1 leaf/plant and 10 flowers/plot. Plants in each plot were thoroughly checked for the incidence of TCSV when sampled. Leaf and flower samples were washed with 70% ethanol to separate thrips larvae and adults, which were then identified using morphological characters. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Thrips abundance on tomato plants was low (0-2 adults/sample), however, melon thrips adults were recorded on all sampling dates, whereas there were very few common blossom or western flower thrips. Number of thrips did not differ from the untreated control for any of the four insecticide treatments. Mean number of larval and adult melon thrips did not significantly differ between treated and untreated plants. One possible explanation could be that tomato is not a preferred feeding or breeding host of melon thrips. It was also observed that the surfactants alone did not reduce the numbers of thrips per sample when compared with the untreated control. With respect to TCSV, the disease was first observed 2 weeks after planting. Of all the insecticides investigated it was observed that spinetoram was the most effective. When plants were treated with spinetoram alone, mean numbers of TCSV infected plants were significantly fewer than the untreated control (Table 1). However, there was no significant difference between the surfactants used with that insecticide. Marketable tomato yields were significantly higher in all plots treated with spinetoram, tolfenpyrad and abamectin alone or in combination with surfactants than the untreated plants (Table 2). Application of surfactants alone did not increase marketable yield compared with the untreated tomato plants. The economic analysis which takes into account the costs of the insecticides and scale-up the results on a per acre basis indicates that tolfenpyrad was the most cost-effective of the four insecticides considered, with an input cost of $3.20 per metric ton (MT) of tomatoes produced (Table 3).

Table 1. Effectiveness of various treatments in suppressing Tomato Chlorotic Spot Virus in tomatoes 146

Treatments Spinetoram Tolfenpyrad Abamectin Spirotetramat Insecticide alone 1.50d 3.00ab 3.00ab 3.00c Joint Venture+ 3.25bcd 4.00ab 4.00ab 3.00c Induce+ 2.75bcd 2.25b 2.25b 4.75bc Dyne Amic+ 2.5bcd 3.50ab 3.50ab 4.25bc MSO+ 3.00bcd 3.75ab 3.75ab 5.75b Li 700+ 2.00bcd 3.75ab 3.75ab 4.50bc Joint Venture alone 4.25bc 3.50ab 3.50ab 4.25bc Induce alone 4.00bcd 4.00ab 4.00ab 4.75bc Dyne-Amic alone 3.25bcd 4.75a 4.75a 4.50bc MSO alone 4.25bc 5.00a 5.00a 4.25bc Li 700 alone 5.00b 4.00ab 4.00ab 5.00bc Untreated check 7.25a 5.00a 5.00a 8.00a F=3.39 F=1.45 F=2.67 F=2.68 Df=11,36 Df=11,36 Df=11,36 Df=11,36 P=0.0027 P=0.1935 P=0.0027 P=0.0127 Table 2. Mean weight of marketable yield/4 tomato plants

Treatments Spinetoram Tolfenpyrad Abamectin Spirotetramat Insecticide alone 34.92a 29.57a 28.97a 20.12ab Joint Venture+ 37.02a 22.75b 22.70b 19.50abc Induce+ 29.72abc 23.37b 22.12b 18.25abc Dyne Amic+ 33.17a 20.45b 21.50b 22.25a MSO+ 33.37a 22.82b 28.27a 12.62abc Li 700+ 31.30ab 21.25b 25.15ab 16.87abc Joint Venture alone 17.57d 23.37b 23.15b 17.75abc Induce alone 21.52cd 23.62b 23.22b abc17.25 Dyne-Amic alone 16.25de 20.45b 22.22b 17.25abc MSO alone 19.45 22.87b 20.87bc 19.62abc Li 700 alone 22.95bcd 19.25b 23.42 18.62abc Untreated check 8.07e 11.37c 12.95c 10.75c F=9.89 F=8.74 F=5.27 F=1.35 Df=11,36 Df=11,36 Df=11,36 Df=11,36 P=<.0001 P=<.0001 P=<.0001 P=0.2403 Table 3: Economic analysis with respect to the four insecticide used

Insecticide Treatment Cost ($/acre) Yield Cost effectiveness (MT/acre) ($/MT) Spinetoram $163 40.56 4.01 Tolfenpyrad $110 34.35 3.20 Abamectin $144 33.65 4.27 Spirotetramat $114 23.37 4.87

CONCLUSION In summary, thrips population in tomato during the study period (Oct.-Mar.) was low (0-4 adults/5 leaf sample), confirming earlier observations that tomato crop is not a preferred host. 147

Notwithstanding, the findings of our research suggest that the use of the insecticides significantly reduced the number of TCSV infected plants with a significant increase in overall yield. Of the four insecticides considered spinetoram appears to be the most effective in terms of reducing the incidence of the disease and consequently increasing yield. However, when costs of the various insecticides are taken into consideration, tolfenpyrad emerged as the most cost-effective, meaning that it had the lowest cost ($3.20) per metric ton of tomato produced. Further research study will be conducted to confirm the findings of this investigation.

LITERATURE CITED Capinera, J. L. 2000. Melon thrips. Featured Creatures. EDIS. Entomology and Nematology Department, IFAS, University of Florida. http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/melon_thrips.htm (Accessed: May12, 2013)

Chen, C. C., T. C. Chen, Y. H. Lin, S. D. Yeh, and H. T. Hsu. 2005. A chlorotic spot disease on calla lilies (Zantedeschia spp.) is caused by a Tospovirus serologically but distantly related to Watermelon silver mottle virus. Plant Disease 89:440-445.

Chu, F.H., C. H. Iwake, M., Y. Honda, K. Hanada, H. Tochihara, T. Yonaha, K. Hokama, and T. Yokoyama. 1984. Silver mottle disease of watermelon caused by Tomato spotted wilt virus. Plant Disease 68:1006- 1008.

Kato, K., K. Hanada, and M. Kameya-Iwaki. 2000. Melon yellow spot virus a distinct species of the genus Tospovirus isolated from melon. Phytopathology 90:422-426.

Lewis, T. 1997a. Flight and dispersal. Pp. 175-196. In T. Lewis (ed.), Thrips as crop pests. Cab, Wallingford, Oxon, UK.

Meena, R. L., T. R. S. Venkatesan, and S. Mohankumar. 2005. Molecular Characterization of Tospovirus isolated from melon. Phytopathology 90: 422-426.

Mound, L. A. 1997. Biological diversity, pp. 97-215. In T. lewis (ed., Thrips as crop pests. CAB, Wallingford, Oxon, UK.

Nagata, T., C. L. Almeida, R. O. Resende, and A. C. de Aevila. 2002. The Transmission specificity and efficiency of tospoviruses. Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Thysanoptera/editors: Rita.

Seal, D. R. 1996. Management and bilogy of Thrips palmi karny, pp. 161-181. In K. Bondari [eds.], New Development in Entomology. Research Signpost, T. C.

Seal, D. R., V. Kumar, G. Kakkar, and S. C. Mello. 2013. Abundance of adventive Thrips palmi (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) population in Florida during the first sixteen years. Florida Entomologist 96(3):789-796.

Seal, D. R, and S. Zhang. 2015. Management practices for controlling various thrips and their transmitted tospoviruses in tomatoes: 1. Chamical control. Proceedings of Florida State horticultural Society 128:152- 155.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:149-153. 2017

STUDIES OF PHYTOCHEMICALS, HEAVY METALS AND N.P.K. IN CRUDE LEAF EXTRACT OF ACHYRANTHES ASPERA L. Gomathinayagam, S.1*, Brij B. Tewari2 and G. Rekha 3. 1*Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Guyana, Berbice Campus, Tain, Guyana, 2Faculty of Natural Science, University of Guyana, Turkeyen Campus, Guyana, 3Department of Microbial Technology, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT: Phytochemicals are major sources for the treatment of various health problems. The present study was aimed to investigate the preliminary phytochemical screening of different sequential extracts (methanol, ethanol, ethyl acetate, aqueous) of leaves of Achyranthes aspera Linn. (Family: Amaranthaceae) and also analysis of heavy metals, and N P K in leaves of A. aspera by different standard methods of phytochemical screening. Our results reveal that the different extracts of A. aspera leaves contain alkaloids, phenolic compounds, tannins, steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, reducing sugar and saponins in appreciable, moderate and trace amounts. Heavy metals also analyzed such as Cu, Ca, Cr, Ni, Zn, Mn, Fe and Mg. Ca and Mg showed high amounts in mg (21319.75 mg and 19426.85mg respectively) and the least amount was Ni (1.85mg). N.P.K. results revealed a high percentage of K (4.30) followed by N (3.76) and a low percentage of P (0.23). Owing to their being a rich source of phytochemicals, these plants is may be used as herbal medicines. Keywords: Achyranthes aspera, Phytochemicals, Heavy metals, Crude extract, N.P.K INTRODUCTION Medicinal plants provide the basic raw materials for indigenous pharmaceuticals. The use of traditional medicines is widespread and plants still present a large source of novel active biological compounds with different activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, antiviral and antibacterial and cardio protective activities [1]. Achyranthes aspera is a species of plant in the Amaranthaceae family. It is distributed throughout the tropical world. It can be found in many places growing as an introduced species and a common weed [2]. A. aspera (Amaranthaceae) is an important medicinal herb found as a weed throughout Guyana. Though almost all of its parts are used in traditional systems of medicines, its seeds, roots and shoots are the most important parts which are used medicinally [3]. Different extracts of leaves of A. aspera showed the presence of tannins, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, reducing sugars and saponins.[4] Secondary metabolites of plant-derived extracts are responsible for ant larval and anthelminthic activity.[5] Phytochemicals such as steroids, carbohydrates, tannins, triterpenoids, flavonoids and cumarines were responsible for the potent anthelminthic activity[6]. Most recently, A. aspera is widely studied for its medicinal properties and reported to have immunostimulatory activity properties, wound healing activity, antioxidant activity, haemolytic activity, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial activity and antifungal activity [7-10]. The present study is intended to screen various phytochemicals, heavy metals and N.P.K. in crude leave extract of Achyranthes aspera plants.

MATERIAL AND METHODS 149

Plant material Achyranthes aspera leaves were collected from the plant growing along the roadside in Black Bush Polder, Region 6, Guyana. The collected leaves were shadow -dried and then powdered by using Thomas-Wiley Laboratory Mill Model 4 at Central Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Science, University of Guyana, Turkeyen Campus. The powdered samples (100g) were stored in airtight brown colored bottles in dry conditions throughout the experiments.

Phytochemical analysis:

The preliminary phytochemical analysis of leaf extracts of Achyranthes aspera was performed [11] and evaluated for the presence of phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, phenols, steroids, tannins, triterpenoids, glycosides, carbohydrates, phlobatannins, thiols, anthroquinone, protein and amino acids, resins, fixed oils & fats and phytosterols. The qualitative determination of these secondary metabolites was carried out by standard methods [12]. Chromatographic study of the different extracts was also done using standard methods [13].

Heavy metals and N. P. K. analysis:

Crude leaves powder was used in Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) to analyse heavy metals such as Zn, Cu, Ni, Mn, Fe, Ca, Cr and Mg at acceptable levels. The Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P) quantitative test was done by total Kjeldal digests by UV-VIS spectrophotometry and Potassium (K) quantitative test was done in Kjeldhal digest by Flame photometry method at Central Agricultural Laboratory, Guyana Sugar Corporation Inc. La Bonne Intention (LBI), Guyana.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Qualitative estimation of phytochemicals was performed in leaves of A. aspera. The results were tabled and represented as ‘+’ for presence and ‘–‘for absence of the phytochemicals in Table 1. Quantitative analysis was done to determine the presence of heavy metals in leaves of A. aspera by using Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). Heavy metals analysis results estimated in mg per kg are shown in Table 2, and analysis results of N.P.K.in % are shown in Table 3. Qualitative estimation of phytochemicals in leaves of A. aspera shows that Alkaloids, Flavonoids, Tannins, Carbohydrates, Phenolic compounds, Triterpenoids, Protein, Saponins, and Reducing sugar are present, whereas Thiols, Amino acids ,Glycosides, Fixed oils, Fats, Phlobatannins and Anthroquinone, Resins and Phytosterols are absent. Heavy metal analysis was done in leaves of A. aspera by using Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS).It shows the highest amount was that of Fe (255.56 mg/kg), followed by Ca (213.79mg/kg), whereas the least amount was that of Ni (1.85 mg/kg). N.P.K. analysis results shows the highest percentage was that of Potassium in A. aspera leaves, followed by Nitrogen; the least percentage was that of Phosphorus. Table 1. Phytochemical analysis in the leaves of A. aspera 150

Plant Name Part used Name of Presence Phytochemical (+)/Absence (-) Alkaloids + Flavonoids + Tannins + Thiols - Amino acids - Achyranthes Leaves Carbohydrates + aspera Phenolic + Compounds Glycosides - Triterpenoids + Fixed oils, fats - Proteins + Saponins + Steroids + Phlobatannins - Anthroquinone - Resins - Phytosterols - Reducing sugar +

Table 2. Heavy metal analysis in A. aspera leaves in mg/ kg

Name of plant Used part Parameter Mg/kg Zn 121.22 Cu 7.88 Ni 1.85 Achyranthes aspera Leaves Mn 125.14 Fe 255.56 Ca 213.79 Mg 194.85 Cr 6.64

Table 3.N.P. K. analysis in A. aspera leaves in percentage (%)

Name of plant Used part Parameter (%)

N 3.76 Achyranthes aspera Leaves P 0.23 K 4.30

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DISCUSSION Nature has been a source of medicinal agents for thousands of years and an impressive number of modern drugs have been isolated from natural sources, many based on their use in traditional medicine [14]. Veena Sharma et al. (2013) reported that A. aspera root and inflorescences contain alkaloids, tannins, cardiac glycosides, steroids, flavonoids, terpenoid, reducing sugar and saponins in appreciable, moderate and trace amounts [15]. Also, the present study shows the presence of phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, carbohydrates, phenolic compounds, terpenoid, protein, saponins, steroids, reducing sugar. However, thiols, amino acids, glycosides, fixed oils, fats, phlobatannins, anthroquinone, resins and phytosterols are absent. CONCLUSION The antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of A. aspera leaves has been reported worldwide, but it has not been possible to establish a relationship with the chemical composition due to the scarcity of information available. In this study, we detected eight components of heavy metals not previously reported, and confirmed the high Fe and Ca presence in A. aspera leaves. In addition high percentage of potassium and some useful phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, carbohydrates, phenolic compounds, terpenoid, protein, saponins, steroids, reducing sugar are available in A. aspera leaves. This information gives light to the present intention to find chemical proof that supports the pharmacological activities of A. aspera leaves.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We extend our sincere gratitude to Guyana Sugar Corporation Inc. LBI, Guyana, for allowing the use of research station facilities for the analysis of heavy metals, and of N.P.K. LITERATURE CITED 1. Rafiqkhan, Saranya. Pharmacognostic profile and phytochemical investigation on the leaves of Achyrnthes aspera. Int. J Pharm Sci, 2013; 5(3): pp 368-370. 2. Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original on 2015-01-25. Retrieved 2014-10-17. 3. Pracheta, Sharma V, Paliwal R, Sharma S. In vitro free radical scavenging and antioxidant potential of ethanolic extract of Euphorbia nerifolia Linn, 2011; 3(1): pp 238. 4. Aswar M, Aswar U, Watkar B, Vyas M, Wagh A and Gujar KN. Anthelmintic activity of Ficus benghalensis. Int. J. Green Phar, 2008; 2: pp 170-172. 5. Hossain, Khaleda, Chowdhury, Arifuzzaman and Al-Forkan. Phytochemical screening and evaluation of cytotoxicity and thrombolytic properties of Achyranthes aspera leaf extract, IOSR. Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences, 2013; 6(3): pp 30-38. 6. Rao YV, Chakrabarti R. Stimulation of immunity in Indian major carp Catla catla with herbal feed ingredients. Fish Shellfish Immunol, 2005; 18(4): pp 327-334

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7. Priya CL, Kumar G, Karthik L, Bhaskara Rao KV. Antioxidant activity of Achyranthes aspera Linn stem extracts. Pharmacology online, 2010; 2: pp228-237. 8. Alam MT, Karim MM, Shakila N. Journal of Scientific research, 2009; 1(2): pp 393-398. 9. Sukhdev Swami Handa, Suman Preet Singh KKhanuja, Gennaro Longi, Dev Dutt Rakesh. Extraction technologies for medicinal and aromatic plants, International Center for Science and High Technology, Trieste, 2008; pp 21-25. 10. Harbone JB. Phytochemical methods. A guide to modern technique of plant analysis. Chapinan and Hall, London, 1973; pp 33-185. 11. Harbone JB, Baxter H. Phytochemcial Dictionary, Taylor and Francis Washington DC 1993. P. 1765. 12. Khanna, N. Bhatia, J. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture and Environment, 1999, 1(2), pp 198-202. 13. LC Chiang, PW Cheng, W Chiang, CC Lin. Antiviral activity of extracts and selected pure constituents of Ocimum basilicum. Cli. Exp. Pharmacol physiol, 2005, pp 811-816. 14. Anjali D. Antimicrobial screening of medicinal plant – Artemisia pallens, Int. J. Pharmetech Res, 2009; 194): pp 116-1166. 15. Veena Sharma, Urmila Chaudhary, Rashimi Singh, Astha Agarwal. Achyranthes aspera: Phytochemical Estimation. Am. J. PharmTech Res, 2013; 392): pp 244-251.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:154-157. 2017

PITAYA FLORAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE VIRGIN ISLANDS

Samuel Joseph and Thomas W. Zimmerman. University of the Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station, RR#1 Box 10,000, Kingshill, VI 00850 ([email protected]).

ABSTRACT: Hylocereus undatus, pitaya or dragon fruit is a climbing winged cactus which is indigenous to the United States Virgin Islands. The main goal of this research was too track flower and fruit development of three varieties of pitaya overtime during late fall and early spring floral development, November and April respectively. Developing floral bud length and width were recorded over time. Data was analyzed and averages plotted in a graph over time. The results indicated that the length of the floral bud provides a better indicator of developmental stage that can use to predict anthesis than floral bud width. Floral dud length increases from 0 to 250-300 mm over 16-18 day it takes to anthesis while the width increases to 50-60 mm during the same time period. In conclusion, flower bud developmental length can be successfully used to predict flowering date which then can be extrapolated to determine time of harvest.

Keywords: Dragon Fruit, Hylocereus undatus, cactus

INTRODUCTION

Pitaya (Hylocereus undatus), also known as Dragon Fruit, is a native American fruit that prominent grows wild in the Caribbean island countries. Pitaya belongs to the genus Hylocereus of the botanical family Cactaceae. Hylocereus is characterized as a climbing cactus with aerial roots that bear a glabrous berry with large leafy scales. (Le Bellec, et al. 2006). Pitaya, grows as a three winged stemmed epiphytic cactus (Hylocereus sp.) in the wilds of the tropical Americas and the Caribbean (Merten, 2003). There are many cultivated varieties of dragon fruit and more than 60 have been identified in California alone (Merten, 2003). The University of the Virgin Islands has evaluated 25 pitaya varieties and selected the best for the islands (Zimmerman et al. 2013). The pitaya started flowering in April, 2014 producing multiple floral flushes, with harvestable fruit into December (Montilla et al. 2014). Each variety has the same skin color characteristics (reddish pink) and fruit flesh color white, pink, purple or red. Research is needed on these 6 varieties to determine length of time for floral developments and amount of time for developing fruit to mature. Now we intend to look more closely at flower and fruit development. The objective of this research was to document flower development over time for three pitaya varieties. This would allow growers to predict the cropping cycle and time the harvest.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three varieties were chosen to track flower and fruit development over time. The three varieties available in November were ‘Delight’, ‘Halley’s Comet’ and ‘Physical Graffiti’ while in April ‘Makisupa’ was included since no floral bud development occurred on ‘Halley’s Comet’. The floral buds formed in late November 2016 during the normal rainy season on island and midApril in the spring 2017. Developing floral buds were selected and tagged and each designated a

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replication with 15 floral buds per variety. Data was recorded for length and width for each flower bud using a metric caliper (Fig. 1). After each day of recording, data was entered in an excel spreadsheet in order to sort and create graphs to show how the flower buds grow over time. After anthesis, data was collected on developing fruit. Fruit development was recorded with a metric caliper by taking the length and width of the fruit every day until the fruit reaches maturity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The floral buds are initiated under the cluster of thorns on the winged stems (Fig. 1). As the developing bud expands, the cluster of thorns drops off the winged stem. The developing floral buds of these three pitaya varieties developed quickly with measureable daily change in length and width. During the normal production season, anthesis occurs at the time the previous set of fruit matures (Fig. 2).

Floral bud length and width are similar up to the fifth day when they both average 12 mm. No significant difference was observed among varieties. After day five, the length becomes greater than the width (Fig 3). By the twelfth day, the floral bud length is twice the width. After day fourteen, exponential growth occurs in length until anthesis. By anthesis, the flower bud length is five times the diameter. The variety ‘Delight’ flower bud length at anthesis averaged 250 mm while the length for ‘Halley’s Comet’, ‘Makisupa’ and ‘Physical Graffiti’ averaged 300 mm. Anthesis occurs after sunset as the large open flowers are naturally pollinated by bats. The average days to anthesis for ‘Makisupa’ was found to be 16 which was two days earlier than the other varieties which take an average of 18 days to flower. Floral bud abortion often occurred on winged branched when more than two buds started to develop. Some branches had up to seven buds initiate. Bud drop started at day five and was observed to continue up to day 14. All buds older than fourteen days completed development to anthesis. “Makisupa’ had the greatest average floral bud initiation per stem as well as the highest abortion rate pre-anthesis. Due to the consistent heavy rain fall during the evenings that these flowered, fruit set were low and abortion rates were high and above 90%. The old floral parts also didn’t abscise from the fruit and developed rot due to the wet weather. The abortion of the fruit occurred over a two-week period from anthesis. The amount of fruit that remained didn’t provide enough replications to obtain an accurate depiction of fruit development. The few fruit that did set required 28 days to mature.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion pitaya flower buds develop very quickly. It only takes about 16-18 days for the bud to expand up to 300 mm. There is a rapid increase in length during the last four days before anthesis. These results can be used by growers to successfully predict flowering date which then can be extrapolated to determine time of harvest.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The execution for this pitaya flower experiment was made possible by the assistance of Raheem Smart and Augustus Laurencin Jr. This research was funded by the USDA through the VI Dept. of Agriculture Specialty Crops Block Grant program and the USDA-NIFA-Insular Tropical Grant.

LITERATURE CITED Le Bellec, F., Imbert, E., Vaillant, F. 2006. Pitahaya (Hylocereus spp.): A new fruit crop, a market with a future. Fruits 61:237 Merten, S. 2003. A Review of Hylocereus Production in the United States. J. PACD v.70 98-105 Montilla, C, S.M.A. Crossman, T.W. Zimmerman. 2014. Two-year evaluation of 25 pitaya varieties in the Virgin Islands. 50th Caribbean Food Crops Society. 50:14-18. Zimmerman, T.W, C. Montilla, S.M.A. Crossman. 2013. Production potential of Pitaya in the Virgin Islands. 49th Caribbean Food Crops Society. 49:120-124.

Figure 1. Pitaya floral bud development over time, day 1 (left), day 7 (center) and day 14 (right).

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Figure 2. Pitaya floral buds prior to anthesis and mature fruits.

Figure 3. Average Pitaya floral bud developmental length and width over time among varieties.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:158-160. 2017

PERFORMANCE OF BANANAS AFTER HURRICANE MATTHEW IN NORTH ANDROS, BAHAMAS; CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE

Parker R.1, Hopkins M.1, Fernandez C.1, and Singh M. D2*. 1 The Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Sciences Institute, North Andros, Commonwealth of the Bahamas2, The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Commonwealth of the Bahamas.

ABSTRACT: In October 2016, Hurricane Matthew, listed as one of the worst hurricanes in the Bahamas with gale force winds of up to 120 miles/hour tore through North Andros. This research was aimed at describing management strategies employed on 20 acres of mixed varieties of banana (18 000 trees) planted at the Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Sciences Institute (BAMSI), and the subsequent performance of this crop. Following the hurricane, 80% of the trees were broken mid-stem, leaves were shredded and less than 1% was uprooted. All broken trees were cut approximately seven days post hurricane, leaving all sword and water suckers. Six weeks after the hurricane, 12-46-0 (N-P-K) granular fertilizer was applied at a rate of 4 ounces per plant and repeated 4 weeks after; with the objective to reverse the stress caused by the hurricane and simultaneously to enhance more roots development. Subsequently, 15-15-15 (N-P-K) at a rate of 4 ounces was applied per plant every 4 weeks thereafter. Irrigation was supplied at a rate of 100 cubic meters per week by acre. Under this management program, BAMSI has been able to harvest 800 lbs of banana 21 weeks after Hurricane Matthew. We conclude that natural disasters can reduce the productive capacity of a country by destroying its agricultural sector, however, informed management strategies including irrigation and fertilizer regime can mitigate these effects. Keywords: Banana, Climate smart agriculture, natural disasters INTRODUCTION Small island developing states (SIDS) are particularly vulnerable to natural disasters which occur more frequently; with fewer resources available to cope with the after effects. Climate change, combined with natural disasters predisposes SIDS to reduced agricultural output, especially after catastrophic events. Management of crops and livestock enterprises in the Caribbean require aggressive management and even more so after natural disasters. In 2007, hurricane Dean obliterated 80% to 100% of the banana crop in St. Lucia, Martinique, Dominica and Guadeloupe where replanting and rehabilitation of the industry will take several years (Mohan 2017). In October 2016, Hurricane Matthew, listed as one of the worst hurricanes in the Bahamas with gale force winds of up to 120 miles/hour tore through North Andros, the northernmost island of the Bahamas, where over twenty acres of bananas were established at the Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Science Institute (BAMSI).

This research was aimed at describing management strategies employed on 20 acres of mixed varieties of banana (18 000 trees) subsequent to this natural disaster.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

The banana field located in North Andros, Bahamas was evaluated from October 2016 to March 2017. Temperature ranged from 9 to 21oC with an average rainfall of 3 mm per month. The soil was a young limestone; scarified to break up and remove large stones. Damage to the bananas was recorded through photographs and tree losses. The field was evaluated for the total uprooted trees, broken meristems and battered leaves; and calculated as a percentage of the total plantation. All broken trees were cut approximately seven days post hurricane, leaving all sword and water suckers.

Fertilizer rate application was calculated per acre, based on the type and percent damage incurred. 12-46-0 (N-P-K) granular fertilizer was applied at a rate of 4 ounces per plant and repeated 4 weeks after Hurricane Matthew. Subsequently, 15-15-15 (N-P-K) at a rate of 4 ounces was applied per plant every 4 weeks thereafter. Irrigation was supplied at a rate of 100 cubic meters per week by acre.

Statistical analyses

All Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS 20 software for Windows (IBM, NY, USA). Unless otherwise stated, a p-value of less than 0.05 was regarded as being significant. Chi-squared tests were used to detect possible associations between fertilize application (to surviving suckers) and vegetative growth of suckers.

RESULTS

80% of the banana trees at BAMSI, North Andros were broken mid-stem, leaves were shredded and less than 1% was uprooted. Figure 1 highlights the main type of damage recorded.

Figure 1. Banana trees with broken stems after Hurricane Matthew There was significant association (p<0.05) between fertilizer application and vegetative growth of surviving suckers up to six months after the Hurricane. 12-46-0 (N-P-K) granular fertilizer

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application resulted in increased vegetative growth of surviving banana plants; to early maturity, flowering and fruiting. 97% of sword suckers attained sexual maturity 20 weeks subsequent to the Hurricane, resulting in regularized banana production from the BAMSI field in North Andros, Bahamas. Under this management program, BAMSI has been able to harvest 800 lbs of banana 21 weeks after Hurricane Matthew.

CONCLUSION The fertilizer and irrigation management of the BAMSI banana plantation resulted in decreased losses post Hurricane Matthew; ensuring a rapid return to production after a natural disaster. We conclude that natural disasters can reduce the productive capacity of a country by destroying its agricultural sector, however, informed management strategies including irrigation and fertilizer regime can mitigate these effects. LITERATURE CITED

Bassoi, L. H., E Silva J. A.M., DA Silva, E. E. G., Ramos, C.M. C., Sediyama, G. C. 2004. Guidelines for irrigation scheduling of banana crop in São Francisco valley, Brazil1 . I – Root Distribution and Activity. Bras. Frutic., jaboticabal - sp, v. 26, n. 3, p. 459-463.

Mohan, P. 2017. The Economic Impact of Hurricanes on Caribbean Agricultural Exports. Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, University of the West Indies (SALISES). St. Augustine Trinidad & Tobago. da Silva, A. J. P., Coelho, E. F. and Coelho Filho, M. A. 2014. Water extraction variability in the banana root zone affects the reliability of water balance. Sci. Agric. 72:1, p.1-10.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:161-163. 2017

EVALUACIÓN DE LA EFECTIVIDAD DE EXTRACTOS ETEREOS DE PLANTAS DE LA FAMILIA MYRTACEAE PARA EL CONTROL DE LA ROYA DEL CAFÉ (HEMILEIA VASTATRIX) 1Rosalba Rodríguez, MSc. 2. Rosina Taveras, MSc. 3.Maximo Mejia, MSc. 4Manuel Vásquez Tineo. 1Ministerio de Agricultura / Co-Investigadora Proyecto Flora Aromática FONDOCyT- FCAV-UASD, 2 Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo FONDOCyT/ FCAV –UASD, 3 IIBI- and 4Profesor e Investigador–Instituto de Química e la Facultad de Ciencias-UASD.

RESUMEN: La crisis generada por la roya del café en Centroamérica y el Caribe a partir del año 2010 ha afectado muy severamente a la Caficultura dominicana, provocando la defoliación consecutiva de la mayoría de las fincas productoras de café y como consecuencia la caída de la producción en casi un 80 %. Las aplicaciones de alternativas no químicas como es la utilización de fungicidas naturales y control biológico apenas inicia su exploración. Dentro de este contexto se desarrolló esta investigación cuyos objetivos fueron evaluar la efectividad de extracto de plantas de seis especies de la familia Myrtaceas, obtenidos por los métodos de extracción etéreo, sobre la germinación de las urediniosporas de Hemileia vastatrix a nivel de laboratorio. En esta investigación se utilizaron especies botánicas de la familia Myrtaceae endémicas y nativas en el país que son poseedoras de aceites esenciales como son: Ozua de Oviedo (di), pimienta (Pimenta ozua), canelilla (Pimenta haitiensis), Pimienta grisea (P. racemosa var. grisea), Simiru (Eugenia lindalii), y calitrante (M.montana). Los resultados de este estudio, indican que la Pimenta haitiensis y la Pimenta ozua resultaron ser el mejor tratamiento con un 9 % y un 12% de germinacion, con diferencias estadistica significativas con el Testigo absoluto (agua).

Palabras Claves: Myrtaceae, Extracción etérea, Roya del café, Alternativa no química OBJETIVO Estudiar el efecto de los extractos botánicos en la germinación de la roya del café (Hemileia vastatrix Berk. and Br) in vitro. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS Esta investigación se realizó en laboratorio (in vitro), a través de la cual se probó la efectividad de los extractos de seis (6) plantas de la familia Myrtaceae para el control de la roya del café.

Localización geográfica del experimento Esta investigación se realizó en el laboratorio de Control Biológico de la Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas y Veterinarias de la Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD). Toma de muestras: Se tomaron muestras de hojas de café que presentaban pústulas maduras de la roya del café, en fincas seleccionadas con antecedentes de epidemias de esta enfermedad. Las muestras fueron guardadas en una nevera portátil durante el transporte. Los datos fueron georefereciados y se completó un formulario de registro. Aislamiento e Inoculación: Las uredósporas fueron colectadas de las muestras de hojas infectadas mediante el uso de un cepillo de cerdas suaves y las 161

mismas fueron depositadas en micro tubos. Se preparó la solución con uredósporas y tween 80 una concentración de 0.02 %. Se evaluó la concentración de esporas, para obtener un óptimo de 15,000 esporas/ ml. Preparación de los extractos etéreos: Los extractos fueron obtenidos mediante el método de arrastre con vapor de agua, mediante el solvente etéreo, en el laboratorio de Farmacología de la Escuela de Ciencias de la Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo. Preparación del medio de cultivo: Se preparó el medio de cultivo utilizando agar/ agua al 2%, esterilizado a 121° C por 15 minutos. Al concluir la esterilización se esperó que el medio descendiera a una temperatura de alrededor de 40 °C y se le agregaron antibióticos: Penicilina (0.04 g/L) y Estreptomicina (0.22 g/L) para inhibir contaminación por bacteria. Cuando la mezcla estuvo homogénea se le agregó las soluciones extractivas de las plantas, las cuales fueron preparadas a razón de 15 %. Se inoculó con 500 microlitros (ul) de solución de uredósporas y se incubó por 32 horas en la oscuridad a temperatura de23 °C. Variables respuestas: Para evaluar la germinación se realizó el conteo de 25 esporas por cada repetición (100 urediniosporas por tratamiento) y se anotó en el formulario para esos fines. El porcentaje de germinación (PG) se determinó mediante la siguiente formula: PG= Numero de esporas germinadas / Numero total de esporas contadas *100. Tratamientos: Los tratamientos fueron de naturaleza sin estructura, cualitativos, estos consistieron en: Pimenta ozua, Pimenta haitiensis, Eugenia lindahlii, Pimenta montana, P. racemosa var. grisea y Ozua de Oviedo, un testigo químico (Propiconazole) y un testigo absoluto (agua). Diseño experimental: Se utilizó un diseños experimentales completo al azar con 4 repeticiones y 8 tratamientos: T1 = CA-Myrcianthes montana , T2 = CAN-Pimenta haitiensis, T3 = O- Pimenta ozua, T4 = OV-Ozua de Oviedo, T5 = PG- Pimenta racemosa var .grisea, T6 = SI- Eugenia lindahlii, T7 = TA- Testigo absoluto y T8 = TQ- Testigo químico. Análisis estadístico: Los resultados obtenidos en este experimento fueron transformados por medio del Arcoseno; para homogenizar la información, y se utilizó análisis de varianza por Tukey al 5 %. Mediante el programa estadístico Infostat versión 2014. RESULTADOS Tomando en consideracion que el tratamiento quimico (T8) hubo un 9.5 % de germinacion y el tratamiento agua (T7) 52 %, se puede inferir que los mejores tratamientos utilizando extractos etéreos fueron el T2 (Pimenta haitiensis) y T3 (Pimienta ozua) donde hubo una germnicacion de 9 % y 12 %, habiendo diferencias estadisticas significativas entre los extractos y el testigo absoluto.

CONCLUSIÓN La Pimenta haitiensis resultó ser la mejor tratamiento utilizando los metodos de extraccion etereos con un 9 % de germinacion y diferencias estadistica significativas con el Testigo absoluto (agua).

LITERATURA CITADA

Bolívar, K.; Sanabria, M. E.; Rodríguez, D.; de Camacaro, M.; Ulacio, D.; Cumana, L.J.; Crecente, O. (2009). Potencial efecto fungicida de extractos vegetales en el desarrollo in vitro del hongo Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. y de la antracnosis en frutos de mango.

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Consultado en fecha: 18/12/2014. Disponible en: 0c96052286b8789a08000000,fileCUserstecnologiaDownloads0c96052286b8789a08000000.pdf CODOCAFE (2015). El país se convierte en importador de café. Publicado por diario libre, sección economía. Consultado en fecha: 23/03/2015. Disponible en: httpwww.diariolibre.com CODOCAFE (2013).Cafetaleros han perdido 80 millones de dólares en dos años por la roya. Agosto, 2014. Disponible en: Hola Política. Http: www.holapolitica.comcafetaleros Consejo Dominicano de Café, (CODOCAFE, 2013). Exportación, Precios FOB y Valor en Divisas del Café Dominicano. Consultado en fecha: 23/03/2015.Disponible en: httpcodocafe.gov.dowebpdfEstadisticas1. Consejo Dominicano de Café, (CODOCAFE, 2014). Codocafé invierte RD$559 MM producción plantas. Consultado en fecha: 14/04/2015. Disponible en: httphoy.com.docodocafe Diario libre (2012). Aumentan las exportaciones de café. Consultado en fecha: 23/03/2015.Disponible en: http://www.diariolibre.com/noticias/2012/10/01/i353980_aumentan las exportaciones caf.html

Garçon, C. L. P. et al. Controle da ferrugem do cafeeiro com base no valor de severidade. Fitopatología Brasileira, Brasilia, v. 29, p. 486 491, 2004. Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO, 2014). Agro noticias. América Latina y el Caribe. La roya del Café Sigue Haciendo Estragos en Centroamérica. http://www.panamaamerica.com.pa/economia/centroamerica

ZAMBOLIM, L.; VALE, F. X. R. do.2000. Perdas na produtividade e qualidade do cafeeiro causadas por doenças bióticas e abióticas. In: Produtivida de, qualidade e sustentabilida de. Viçosa, MG: UFV, 2000. P.83 179.

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AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS, EXTENSION AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:164-166. 2017

PROMOTING COMMUNITY SUPPORTED AGRICULTURE (CSA) TO ENSURE LOCAL SUSTAINABLE FOOD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Henry R. Ori. Faculty Member, Local Coordinator of the Master in Education and Research for Sustainable Development (MERDS), Department of Anton de Kom University of Suriname (AdeKUS).

ABSTRACT: In the field of environmental education and education for sustainable development, there is a lively discussion about the paradox between acknowledging pluralism and taking into account urgent sustainability concerns. With this article, we aim at nurturing this debate theoretically and empirically. We draw on concepts of Latour and Marres that allow an analysis of educational practices that strive to take into account a multiplicity of views, values, interests and knowledge claims without resorting to an ‘anything goes’ relativism vis-à-vis the far-reaching implications of sustainability issues. We present a case with an analysis of a guided tour of a CSA farm (Community Supported Agriculture) and articulate how the care for a sustainability issue can incite an interesting educational dynamic (understood as ‘education as a response) that emerges as a derivative of ‘mastery’.

Keywords: environmental education; sustainability; pluralism; community supported agriculture

INTRODUCTION

Increasingly, large numbers of farmers and of consumers in Suriname are looking for, and finding, alternatives to the dominant fossil fuel- and chemical-intensive agribusiness paradigm. Whether through the rapid expansion of organicagriculture, the growth of farmers markets, or the rise of the Slow Food movement, many farmers and consumers are consciously redefining their relationship with food and the land that produces it. One increasingly popular alternative is Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) . CSA is, its defenders argue, a fundamental rethinking of the relationship among food, economics, and community, a move toward a greater degree of ecological sustainability and an attempt to partly disengage from the global supermarket and reestablish vital local agricultural economies. The CSA standaard means local adaptation, which requires bringing local nature, local people, local economy, and local culture into a practical and enduring harmony.

CSA is also a powerful geographical idea, because it promotes the formation of local connections, direct ties between people and the farmers and landscapes that sustain them. Yet no scholar has examined the geography of this distinctly, self-consciously place-based agricultural movement; that is the primary goal of this paper.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

CSA is one of a broader set of alternative agricultural movements that attempt to remake our food system into one that is more economically and socially just, locally based, and environmentally sustainable. The most prominent alternative is organic production; sales of organic produce have recently shown double-digit annual growth (Organic Trade Association, 2004). A survey on the conception and perception of CSA was developed and conducted in tree district in Suriname (Nickerie, Saramakka en Commewijne). A case was studies indepth in the district of Commewijne.

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RESULTS

The majority of the farmers I interviewed had owned no land prior to beginning their farms; about half currently own the land they farm. On the other hand, CSA operations have enabled some farmers to move from rented land to purchased land.

Only one of the farmers I interviewed had any previous farm experience, and only two had any sort of rural background; most came from urban or suburban backgrounds and had been social workers, computer programmers, artists, and environmental psychologists, to name just a few occupations. CSA farmers are also likely to have higher education (73% of the 30 farmers).

Although not all farms have it as a priority, many take the "community" aspect of CSA seriously, striving to establish a broader sense of community among members oriented around the farm, as well as connections between members and the growers and land that produce their food. This devotion to community is a major selling point for some farms.

The scale of CSAs can vary dramatically, from one or two people working a single acre, to much larger operations with several dozen employees and interns on 10 or more acres, all the way up to large-scale farms of hundreds of acres, of which the CSA component is but a subset of a much larger organic growing operation.

Another variable has an impact ever greater the socioeconomic variables already discussed: political orientation. (political parties in Suriname : VHP , PALU and NDP). Education also plays a key role: On average, farmers with CSA initiatives have a significantly higher education level than do those without a CSA initiatives, and these people are also coming more likely from a more white-collar workers enviroment. Most imported reasons to supports CSA are: easier to cook, support sustainable agriculture, support local farms, save time on grocery shopping, eat seasonaly, support family farms, know where the food comes from, different varietes of food

Suriname is lacking a good written and communicated foodpolicy, and it is time to start defining a foodpolicy fort he districts.

CONCLUSION

Global sustainability thinking can inspire local governance levels. The role of a government is to enable a safe and just operating space, to stimulate interaction and engagement of the energetic society and to allow a broad group of actors to experiment and co-develop CSA in de several districts. It can reduce the problem of identifying market and financial resouces for farmers.

At its core, CSA is a conscious move on the part of both farmers and members away from industrialized agriculture and toward reestablishment of a local food economy. It is, as well, a positive alternative vision of the land and our relationship to it, a vision that has expanded dramatically in popularity and geographical scope since its introduction in Suriname. Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) is one of the widely used direct marketing strategies for small- and midsized farmers. CSA programs are an important option for sustainable production and consumption. It helps growers generate income (improve financial security) and consumers obtain fresh local foods. Sustaining and growing CSA participation is critical in order to continue enjoying these benefits.

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LITERATURE CITED

Henderson, E., with R. Van En. 1999. Sharing the Harvest: A Guide to Community Supported Agriculture. White River Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green

Allen, J.E., IV; Rossi, J.; Woods, T.; Davis, A.F. Do community supported agriculture programmes encourage change to food lifestyle behaviours and outcomes? New evidence from shareholders. Int. J. Agric. Sustain. 2017, 15, 70–82. [CrossRef]

Latour, B., 2010. A Plea for Earthly Sciences.”In New Social Connections: Sociology’s Subjects en Objects, edited by J. Burnett, S. Jeffers, and G. Thomas, 72-84. London; Palgrave Macmillan

Marres, N. 2005. “No Public. Democratic Deficits after the Displacement of Politics.”PhD diss., University of Amsterdam.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:167. 2017

THE IMPACT OF SKILLS TRAINING ON THE PERFORMANCE OF MICRO AND SMALL ENTERPRISES SERVICED BY THE SMALL BUSINESS BUREAU IN GUYANA: A CASE STUDY OF THE AGRICULTURAL TRAINING PROVIDED BY THE CRITCHLOW LABOUR COLLEGE

Bissasar Chintamanie1 and Audrey Gomes2, 1Academic Director and Head of CLC Center for Agricultural and Environmental Studies, Critchlow Labour College, Wolford Avenue, Thomas Lands, Georgetown, Guyana, 2Training and Development Officer, the Small Business Bureau, Ministry of Business 77 Croal and Winter Place, Georgetown, Guyana.

ABSTRACT: This study examines differences in agricultural business performance between two specific groups of micro financed clients; the enterprises whose owners have received business and entrepreneurship training against those who had never. The analysis is centered on the premise that microfinance institutions enable their clients to enhance their income earning capacity, growth and improve living standards. A total of 50 micro and small enterprises from 5 administrative regions (2, 4, 5, 6 and 10) who are micro credit recipients were involved in the study. The performance analysis employed three growth indicators, namely sales revenue, employees number and firms’ assets value. An independent t-test was used in the comparative analysis. Prior to the test, the survey data was subjected to an application of natural logarithm to enable pulling of the highly skewed observations to normal distribution. The comparison between the two groups was important in examining the impact of the training on behavioral change and characteristic of the business and the owner. The result of the t-test revealed that micro credit client-enterprises owned by recipients of business and skills training in agriculture have higher assets and sales revenue compared to enterprises owned by non-recipient of training while insignificant differential impact on employment creation was demonstrated. Results from this study indicate that skills training for Guyanese micro and small entrepreneurs is vital for firms’ performance, growth and improved living standards for owners in addition to credit access. However, microcredit provider should work closely with training partners for possible product modification and upgrade in light of climate change impact on agriculture; creating greater impact from financing services and poverty alleviation. Keywords: impact, training, micro/small enterprise, performance

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:168-170. 2017

GROWING AGRICULTURE IN THE BAHAMAS THROUGH REGIONAL PARTNERSHIPS - THE CARDI ROLE

Singh, M. D1, Eneas, G.2 and Clarke, B.1. 1 Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), 2 Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Sciences Institute (BAMSI)

ABSTRACT: The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) is one of the foremost organisations dedicated to conducting research that seeks to improve the competitiveness and sustainability of the regional agricultural sector. The Institute, established in 1974 presently serves a collective population of just over 6.5 million. Despite numerous recommendations to join CARDI prior to 1982 when agriculture contributed to approximately 5% of the GDP, CARDI welcomed the Bahamas as the newest member in 2016, when this figure was less than 1%. BAMSI, started in 2013, is a tertiary level institute with strong academic training and extensive hands-on orientation in crop and livestock production, farm management, environment conservation, agri-business and management of marine resources. CARDI’s programmes with partner stakeholders like BAMSI will be driven by Value Chains, underpinned by Climate Smart Agriculture and use Innovation Platforms. With its 14 field operations across the Caribbean Region, CARDI by virtue of its geographic spread and scientific capacity is uniquely positioned to respond rapidly to agricultural needs and problems identified by member countries of CARICOM. The CARDI-BAMSI is a regional partnership which will seek to combine agriculture research and development to foster agricultural innovation for food security in the Bahamas, through a well-planned programme, which has already begun. Keywords: Food Security, Caribbean Partnerships, CARDI, BAMSI. INTRODUCTION

The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO 2016) estimates that there will be an additional two billion mouths to feed in the world within the next thirty-five years. Population growth combined with increased urbanization is expected to increase the demand for agricultural produce by some 70% by 2050. Climate change will affect the ability of many countries to meet this demand. The global phenomenon of climate change is resulting in increased desertification and the depletion of freshwater supplies. In the Caribbean region, The CARICOM food import bill continues to rise, and currently stands at 4B USD annually. Food security involves getting farmers to produce more food in a sustainable environmentally friendly manner.

The Caribbean Agricultural and Research Institute (CARDI), established in Trinidad and Tobago in 1975, is an autonomous regional research and training institute in the Caribbean. It currently comprises Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, St Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and Trinidad and Tobago with The Bahamas being its newest member. CARDI is well established as the only regional agricultural institution identified in the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas performing a critical role in the implementation and co-ordination of key Technology and Information Systems (TIS). CARDI, through national consultations in Member Countries is impacting on the regional food basket through commodity programmes – small ruminants, sweet potato, and other root crops, cereals and grain legumes, hot peppers and fruits and vegetables.

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Despite numerous recommendations to join CARDI prior to 1982 when agriculture contributed to approximately 5% of the GDP, CARDI welcomed the Bahamas as the newest member in 2016, when this figure was less than 1%. This paper describes the role of CARDI in the Bahamas, as it develops an innovation platform to support Food and Nutrition Security in the country.

Stakeholders

The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and the Government of the Bahamas has recently entered into agreement through which the Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Science Institute (BAMSI) will undertake research and Development towards improving food security and assist in the transfer of technology to the stakeholders.

The Government of the Bahamas has established the Bahamas Agricultural and Marine Science Institute (BAMSI) as a vehicle for the transformation of the local agriculture sector. The Institute which has been established in BARC North Andros has as one of its thrusts, the contribution to import substitution with animal proteins. BAMSI has since 2014 established a herd of small ruminants on the farm. This unit will serve as the nucleus for the demonstration of best practices for small ruminant production as well as to provide superior breeding stocks to expedite the upgrading of stock on the various Islands.

The Bahamas work plan

The Bahamas has identified sweet potato and cassava as crops for increased production. Promising cultivars of cassava and sweet potato have been recognized through previous work in the Caribbean and the Bahamas. Some of the desirable germplasm were held in vitro in a tissue culture facility and have been sent to BAMSI. The material brought to the Bahamas has been placed into facilities and will be used to boost local production through improved varieties through this collaboration. Even though BAMSI has had some of its research staff trained in tissue culture in CICCY in Mexico, the CARDI-Bahamas programmes will train additional persons who have been required to familiarize themselves with the acclimation (hardening) of plants, transferring them to greenhouse conditions. Research, extension and technicians will also be taught how to manage hardened tissue cultured materials and then to establish and maintain them in the field. CARDI has supported the production and development of roots and tubers throughout the region; hence CARDI Bahamas will provide training to personnel in value-added techniques through assistance via national or regional workshop opportunities, especially women, youth, and farmer groups. The groups of participants will include persons from the Bahamas Agricultural Forum for Youth (BAFY) and Nassau (Plot at Sandilands Rehab Center) and Bahamas Network of Rural Women Producers (BAHNROP) based in (Cat Island).

Small ruminant production in the Bahamas will be improved through a number of key interventions. Due to the lack of competitiveness in this sector, CARDI Bahamas has initiated the establishment of silvo- pastoral plots, comprising Lecancea (Leucanea leucocephala), Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium), Mulberry (Morus alba) and Trichantera (Trichantera gigantean) on the Family islands of the Bahamas. This intervention will address the high cost of feed to small ruminants, reducing the cost of production to farmers. Improved husbandry techniques, breeds and assisted reproductive technologies will also be introduced through the National Livestock Survey; a collaborative work between BAMSI and CARDI Bahamas, currently being conducted.

Several agro processing activities have also been planned for the Bahamas. Excess produce will be processed in adherence to industry best practices, facilitated through a series of workshops, seminars and demonstrations throughout the Bahamas. This will work support the BAMSI establishment of community kitchens, which will provide localized sanitary processing facilities for cottage industry development.

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It is expected that this regional collaboration between CARDI and the Bahamas will improve agriculture research and development to this country, generating improved breeds, cultivars and increasing innovation to assist the Bahamas in its journey to food security.

CONCLUSION

Agriculture is a major economic sector in the Caribbean. In CARICOM, it continues to generate significant income; facilitate food supply and food and nutrition sovereignty; contribute to physical and infrastructural development; and reduce poverty and hunger. It provides significant employment opportunities in a region where high levels of unemployment continue to be a major concern. Regional partnerships provide the enabling environment towards achieving food security for individual countries and the Caribbean region.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:171. 2017

PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES FOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTION IN SOUTH FLORIDA

Qingren Wang and Dakshina Seal, UF/IFAS Miami-Dade Extension and UF/IFAS Tropical Research and Education Center.

ABSTRACT: Winter fresh market vegetable production is an important industry in south Florida. It plays a significant role in supporting the local economy, employment, and revenues. Almost all kinds of vegetable crops can grow in this region because of favorable weather associated with a potential market demand. The definition for south Florida is not quite clear, which can range from the Keys to above the Lake Okeechobee including eight (8) counties. Among them, Miami-Dade, Palm Beach, and Broward counties are the largest agricultural producers to support the increasing population and the state industry. For instance, in Miami-Dade County alone, a total of more than $600 million a year can be produced with various commodities, such as nursery, vegetables, tropical fruits and livestock. The total area of vegetables is about 39,000 acres and annual revenue is about $137 million. Among all vegetables, snap beans (11,000 acres), squash (6,000 acres), sweetcorn (5,200 acres), tomato (3,800 acres), and sweet potato (2,800 acres) are dominant vegetables. However, growers are facing enormous challenges, e.g., land value pressure due to residential development, overseas competition for marketing, food safety regulations, pest control, and sustainable development. This presentation will provide an overview of major vegetable crops growing in south Florida, such as beans, squash, sweetcorn, sweet potatoes (Boniato), okra, tomato, lettuce, and Asian vegetables. It will also show challenges growers are facing including strategies for marketing, compliance with food safety, overseas competition, implementation of Best Management Practices (BMPs), and Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The presentation may provide some useful information for the Caribbean region to improve its sustainable development in the agricultural industry.

Keywords: vegetable production, sustainable, industry

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:172-174. 2017

CARACTERIZACIÓN DE CAMBIOS EN LA ESTRUCTURA DE PRODUCCIÓN Y MERCADO DE CAFÉ EN PUERTO RICO Carmen Alamo1, Carlos Flores, Miguel Monroig, Wigmar González y José Dumas2, Colegio de Ciencias Agrícolas, Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez, Universidad de Puerto Rico, [email protected], teléfono 787-767-9705 ext. 2256

La empresa de café de Puerto Rico (PR) muestra cambios en la estructura de producción y mercados. Del 2000 al 2012 se registró una reducción en el número de fincas, beneficiados y cantidad de café producida e incrementos en importación. Se ha identificado al aumento en los costos de producción, escasez de mano de obra, la llegada de nuevas plagas y el cambio climático como los factores principales responsables de las reducciones. Sin embargo, el número de torrefacciones se ha duplicado y las marcas de café se han triplicado.

El objetivo de este escrito es caracterizar los cambios en la producción, beneficiado, torrefacción y mercado de café en Puerto Rico. Para cumplir con los objetivos del estudio se recopiló y analizó data secundaria proveniente del Departamento de Agricultura de Puerto Rico y de los Estados Unidos y estudios realizados por el Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez de la Universidad de Puerto Rico y por el sector privado. La cantidad de tierra dedicada al cultivo de café y el número de fincas han decrecido en más de 40% en un periodo de 10 años. En el año 2002 el Censo Agrícola reportó que en Puerto Rico existían 57.549 cuerdas3(55,823 acres) sembradas en café en 9,805 fincas (USDA-NASS) Las estadísticas oficiales del Censo Agrícola del 2007 informaron que existían 38,535 cuerdas (37,379 acres) de café (33% menos que 2002) y 5,885 fincas (40% menos que el 2002). El Censo Agrícola del 2012 informó que existían 33,213 cuerdas (32,217 acres) sembradas en café (42% menos que en 2002) en 4,671 fincas (52% menos que el 2002). Este estudio usa el número de fincas reportadas por el Censo Agrícola como una representación del número de agricultores.

El número de beneficiadores de café se redujo en 68% del 2000 and 2012. En el beneficiado se despulpa, lava y seca la drupa del café. Según cifras del Departamento de Agricultura de Puerto Rico (DAPR) del año 2000 al 2006 hubo una reducción de 50% en el número de beneficiadores, de 176 a 88 (Álamo et al., 2006). Para el año 2012 la División para la Fiscalización e Investigación del Mercado de Café (OFIMC) del DAPR reportó que existían 55 beneficiadores de café con licencia, esto representa una reducción de 68% comparado con el año 2000 (DAPR, 2013). Se ha registrado una reducción en el número de agricultores y beneficiadores, sin embargo, el número de torrefactores ha aumentado. El componente de los torrefactores registró un aumento de 205% del 2000 al 2012. El número de torrefactores certificados por el DAPR aumentó de 18 a 48 del 2000 al 2006, esto es un incremento de 166% en un periodo de 6 años. Para el 2012

1 Departamento de Economía Agrícola y Sociología Rural 2 Departamento de Cultivos y Ciencias Agroambientales 3 1 cuerda = 0.97 acres 172

existían 55 torrefactores con licencia (DAPR, 2013), datos no oficiales del DAPR sugieren que para el 2016 existían más de 65 torrefacciones. Las marcas de café registradas en Puerto Rico, activas y pasivas, también han aumentado como resultado del crecimiento en el número de torrefacciones y la demanda del mercado. Para el año 2006 se encontraron 65 marcas registradas de café en Puerto Rico (Alamo et al, 2006) y 303 se reportaron en el 2015 (Molina, 2015) para un crecimiento de 361%.

El aumento en el número de torrefacciones y marcas de café sugiere que los agricultores y beneficiadores ven la integración vertical de las fases que van desde la finca hasta la torrefacción como una estrategia para aumentar sus ganancias. Los mayores márgenes de ganancia en la cadena de producción y comercialización del café están en la fase de torrefacción y distribución. El análisis de los datos recopilados evidencia la integración vertical como estrategia ya que en 2006 el 26% de las operaciones con licencia de torrefacción también participaban en las fases de producción y beneficiado. Esta proporción de integración en las operaciones de producción y elaboración aumentó a 45% en el 2012.

La integración vertical ha sido una de las estrategias empleadas por agricultores pequeños y medianos para aumentar sus ganancias mediante la elaboración y mercadeo de marcas de café. Las mayorías de las marcas de café elaboradas por agricultores medianos y pequeños contienen café producido en la isla, tienen un mayor control sobre la calidad y un precio de venta más alto comparado con marcas de café solo elaboradas localmente las cuales contienen cafés importado. La estructura del mercado de café en PR también exhibe cambios. De un mercado compuesto por un segmento de café regular no diferenciado se ha trasformado en un mercado con tres segmentos principales: 1) café regular no diferenciado el cual contiene café producido localmente y más del 70% de café importado, 2) café diferenciado por calidad y origen de producción de PR para venta en el mercado local y 3) cafés especiales diferenciados por calidad (cafés especiales y premium) y origen de producción de PR para los mercados de exportación.

Referencias:

Álamo, Carmen, Monroig, Miguel, González, Wigmar y Brugueras, Alba 2006 Manual Para la Producción y Exportación de Café en Puerto Rico, Estación Experimental Agrícola, Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez, Universidad de Puerto Rico, diciembre 2006 https://issuu.com/bibliotecaeea/docs/manual_para_la_produccion_y_exporta

Departamento de Agricultura de Puerto Rico, 2013, División para la Fiscalización e Investigación del Mercado de Café (OFIMC), Adjuntas, Puerto Rico

Molina, José, 2006 Riqueza Cafetalera de Puerto Rico a Través de su Historia, Marcas y Empaques, Segunda Edición, Imprenta Departamento de Educación de Puerto Rico

USDA-NASSa Census of Agriculture (2007) Puerto Rico, undated document http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2007/Full_Report/Puerto_Rico/st72_1_044_044. pdf (accessed at October 5, 2009)

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USDA-NASSb Census of Agriculture (2012) Puerto Rico, undated document http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2007/Full_Report/Puerto_Rico/st72_1_044_044. pdf (accessed at October, 2014)

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:175-178. 2017

THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF A BROILER DUCK CONTRACT FARMING PROTOCOL FOR TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Elizabeth N. Mc Lean-Tikasingh, Gary W. Garcia and Cicero H. O. Lallo. The Open Tropical Forage-Animal Production Laboratory (OTF-APM), The Department of Food Production, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of West Indies.

ABSTRACT: The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine and understand the structure of the Duck Sector within the broader Trinidad and Tobago (T & T) Poultry Industry, (2) to examine the contract rearing system for broiler chickens used in T & T over the period 2002 to 2014 and (3) to conceptualize a contract rearing protocol for the Broiler Duck using the experiences of the Broiler Chicken arm of the Poultry Sector in T & T. This research was conducted in two (2) phases spanning from 2002 to 2004 and then from 2013 to 2014. The research methodology involved both the acquisition of primary data and secondary data on the Poultry Industry of T & T with emphasis on the Duck Sector via various sources during the aforementioned two (2) phases. The findings were that the Duck Sector accounted for about 15% of the overall Poultry Industry in T & T. However, there were many gaps in the data that was available. The study also concluded that an American-Arawak and Company Ltd. Hybrid Model was the contract farming/ rearing system used by the majority of Broiler Chicken Integrators in T & T. A conceptual Contract Rearing Protocol for Broiler Ducks was suggested using this American-Arawak and Company Ltd. Hybrid Model as its template. The Protocol has been suggested was a theoretical one and further work needs to be done in order for it to become a reality.

Keywords: Ducks, contract farming and broilers

MATERIALS AND METHODS I. An assessment was made of the Poultry Industry in T & T with specific emphasis on the production of ducks based on available secondary information that was accessible. These sources included Industry Reports prepared by the Caribbean Poultry Association (Singh and Seepersad, 2001), articles from academic journals and local newspapers, statistical data collated by the Central Statistical Office (CSO) of the Government of Trinidad and Tobago (GoTT) (Trinidad and Tobago, CSO 2010) and duck production manuals prepared by various agricultural organizations within the Caribbean. II. The collection of primary data was conducted to bridge the gaps in oprder to complete this research. Qualitative and quantitative primary data were obtained through interviews conducted via telephone and in person with stakeholders in the T & T Poultry Sector. This was done during the periods 2002 to 2004 and 2013 to 2014. In 2014 interviews were undertaken with the following stakeholders: three (3) duck farmers in Trinidad, an official from the Poultry Surveillance Unit (PSU) attached to the Animal Production and Health Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources (MALMR), representatives from two (2) major poultry processors in Trinidad and an agent of the Inter-

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American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) who was the Secretary of the Caribbean Poultry Association. RESULTS It was found that there has been an active duck sector that has contributed about 15% of the overall Poultry Industry (Figure 1). This sub-sector of the Poultry Industry has not been organized owing to gaps in the sector and by extension the available literature. An example of this can be drawn from the fact that there does not exist any hard data on the number of duck farmers and the size of their farm holdings in T & T as at 2014. However, it was observed that there were a handful of large-scale commercial farmers (approximately 10 farms), but most of the sector remained on a small-scale basis with the majority of farmers having under 500 heads of ducks (500 farms) (Figure 2). It was realized that the experience in 2013-2014 was similar to that in 2004 where the species of economic importance were the Muscovy Duck, and with less emphasis having been placed on the Mule Duck and the Pekin Duck (Figure 3).

The duck sector has experienced increases in the cost of input supplies. In 2004 the price of ducklings would have ranged between TTD$8-12 per duckling (Figure 4). However, in 2014 the price was TTD$30, that accounted for a hundred and fifty percent (150%) increase. It was also realized that there was a lack of local breeder farms for ducks, which had forced local farmers and input suppliers to source eggs and ducklings from foreign suppliers sometimes with the added disadvantage of low quality eggs. From Figure 5 it can be seen that the cost that has been allocated to the costs of ducklings would have accounted for 35% of the total cost of production. Other data that was collected revealed that the allocation of cost to feed in duck production was also very high. Most stakeholders that were interviewed indicated that feed cost alone would have represented approximately 60% of the total cost of production (Figure 5).

The second objective of this research exercise looked at the Contract Rearing System (CRS) that was used for Broiler Chickens in T & T. It can be suggested that this sector may have been the only vertically integrated of all the livestock sectors that existed in T & T both in 2004 and in 2013-2014. It was learnt that T & T had become self-sufficient in the supply of broiler chicken meat to the local market, wherein the Integrator Processing Plants were responsible for 99% and Pluck Shops filled the remaining 1% of the supply as seen in Figure 6.

The local market has been dominated by five (5) main integrators in the broiler chicken market: Arawak and Company Ltd. has retained 40% of the overall market, Nutrimix Broiler Division followed at 30%, Warner Grain Mills, MasterMix and Independent Farmers possessed smaller market shares of 15%, 10% and 5% respectively. The dominant integrator was found to be Arawak and Company Ltd. from the findings above at 40% of the market share (Figure 7).

It was found that there were two (2) main models used in the CRS for Broiler Chickens in T & T. Namely, the American Hybrid Model and the Buy Back Model as seen in Figure 8. The former has been used by 60% of the broiler industry, while the latter was implemented by 40% of the industry. The Amercian Hybrid Model can thus be said to be more widely used than the Buy Back Model in the Chicken Broiler Industry of T & T.

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The third objective of this research project dealt with the conceptualization of a contract rearing protocol for the Broiler Duck using the experiences of the Broiler Chicken Sector in Trinidad and Tobago. This protocol was based on the American-Arawak and Company Ltd. Hybrid Model that has been used by the integrator, Arawak and Company Ltd. (for broiler chickens), which has held approximately 40% of the local broiler chicken market (Figure 7). The model that has been implemented by Arawak and Company Ltd. was analysed and then adapted to suit the production idiosyncrasies of the duck species. While the research into the model has been purely theoretical, the success of the broiler chicken sector would warrant further work into this field to increase the overall food security issue of the country.

The research conducted has proven to have had many merits. There has existed an unexplored and underexploited market within the poultry sector (namely ducks) that could prove to increase food supply, food security, employment and an increased contribution to agricultural GDP. Another outcome that this research can provide would be to have highlighted the untapped potential that the duck industry presents for production and economic efficiency and by extension success. There have also been limitations associated with this research. Firstly, this exercise had been completed in phases by the researcher. There is need for further embryonic work into this sector to fully realize its potential on a more continuous basis. Secondly, there was a lack of data regarding duck production in Trinidad and Tobago. It would therefore warrant further investigation into the operations of the duck industry and its stakeholders if the model should become a reality.

It was evident that the classical integrator approach in which the integrator provides the animals for grow out, supervision, feed and the guaranteed market to the contractor may not be fully applicable to the T & T broiler duck situation. The reason for this being that the large broiler duck operator(s) may not have the capital to invest in a feed mill. While on the other hand the existing feed milling operations may not be willing to invest in a broiler duck breeder and hatchery operation. In light of this, there can be the implementation of a tripartite model where the integrator could provide the ducklings, advisory packages and support and the guaranteed market, through processing and sale. The feed mill would therefore provide the feed and medication and the contractor would provide the buildings, equipment and labour for the grow out.

CONCLUSIONS

The following were the conclusions drawn from this study. 1) It was found that the duck sector contributed about 15% of the overall Poultry Industry in Trinidad and Tobago in 2014. 2) It was observed in 2014 that there were a handful of large-scale commercial duck farmers (approximately 10 farms), but most of the sector remained on a small-scale basis with the majority of farmers having under 500 heads of ducks (500 farms). 3) In 2004 the majority of duck farmers produced Muscovy Ducks (80%). 4) There was an increase of 150% in the cost of ducklings during the period 2004-2014. 5) It was determined that the feed cost accounted for 60% of total cost of production of ducks in 2014. 6) It was learnt that T & T had become self-sufficient in the supply of broiler chicken meat to the local market, where Integrator Processing Plants supplied most of the local market.

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7) The local market has been dominated by five (5) main integrators in the broiler chicken market with Arawak and Company Ltd. having retained 40% of the overall market. 8) The Amercian- Arawak and Company Ltd. Hybrid Model (60%) can be said to be more widely used than the Buy Back Model (40%) in the Broiler Industry. 9) It has been suggested that the Conceptual Contract Broiler Duck Model for further development be based on the American-Arawak and Company Ltd. Hybrid Model.

LITERATURE CITED

Bisnath, Judy (Animal Health Officer, Poultry Surveillance Unit, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Affairs, Government of Trinidad and Tobago). 2014. Interview by Author, December 3. Centeno, Trinidad and Tobago

Harry, Edric. 1997. The Rearing of Ducks. Trinidad and Tobago: Agricultural Development Bank of Trinidad and Tobago.

Phillips, Robin (Director of Public Relations and Marketing, Arawak, Trinidad and Tobago). 2014. Interview by author, August 29. Mausica, Trinidad and Tobago.

Singh, Ranjit, and Govind Seepersad. 2001. The Caribbean Poultry Industry: Competitveness Trade Policy and Development Strategies, Country Profiles. Kingston: Caribbean Poultry Association.

Trinidad and Tobago. CSO (Central Statistical Office). 2010. Economic Activity Production. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: CSO.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:179-182. 2017

THE INFLUENCE OF ICT ON SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN SURINAME: THE CASE OF DISTRICT WANICA

Dinesh Mohan1, L. Ori2, R. Mangal-Jhari2, H. Ori3. 1Graduate of the MSc. program in Education and Research in Sustainable Agriculture, University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname. 2Faculty Member, Department of Agricultural Production, University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname.3Faculty Member, University of Social Sciences, University of Suriname, Paramaribo, Suriname.

ABSTRACT: This research has focused on the possibility to stimulate the use of a pesticide application (“agricultural app”) among vegetable growers in the district Wanica in Suriname. In Suriname, the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (also known as LVV) is responsible for information and guidance of farmers. Through a quantitative and qualitative research with 181 respondents, the need for the pesticide app, knowledge about pesticides, and the provision of information to vegetable farmers regarding the use of pesticide was investigated. The study was divided into three (3) parts: a survey among 181 respondents, in-depth interviews with 25 vegetable growers and a focus group session consisting of eight (8) respondents. Results revealed that most of the respondents (82.9%) stated that they would like to use the app, despite the fact that 51.9% of respondents indicated that they had no knowledge about the internet. Approximately, 68.2% of the respondents reported that the complexity of the application could be an obstacle for the use of the app. Furthermore, 71.8% of respondents indicated that there is not enough information available about pesticides and their use. Only 60.2% of respondents are taking into account a safety period of at least six days. Most of the respondents stated that they are confused with the safety periods of different pesticides. About 44.8 % of vegetable farmers stated that they get most of the information about pesticides from the owners (or personnel) from shops selling agricultural pesticides. Most farmers (64.6%) stated that the Ministry of LVV does not provide enough information and enough guidance. The need for the application is necessary as these vegetable growers would like to apply pesticides properly and convert to sustainable farming techniques. Furthermore, training is needed for extension staff of LVV to manage the information properly as well for disseminating the information to the stakeholders in the Agricultural community.

Keywords: pesticides, ICT, sustainable agriculture, agricultural extension, pesticide app

INTRODUCTION

The information to the farmers has been very poor during the past years, although several developments in innovative techniques, Information technology (IT) and transfer of knowledge. Several ways of information- and communication technologies (ICT) are available over the internet for the greengrocers. ICT products are efficient, accurate, fast and cheaper in disseminating information (Sene, 2015). ICT has an incredible potential to improve agriculture and in particular the developing countries (Sen & Choudhary, 2011). ICT is used in almost all sectors and agriculture is no exception. Although, the rate at which the introduction of ICT in the agriculture has taken up slowly, nevertheless, steps are made in this 179

direction (such as precision of location, soil types where as sensoring methods (GIS) and satellite information are used). There are several kind of app created to give the farmers access to various relevant information to improve their production, use of pesticides and even on market prices.

In Suriname, the extension division of the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries (Ministry of LVV) is responsible for dissemination of information about the agriculture sector and sustainable agricultural techniques to farmers. Still, the farmers complain of not being enough informed about proper use of applications to farming and the poor communication with this department. The improper use of pesticide in vegetable farming is a serious problem in Suriname, threatening the health of consumers and food safety (Sauers, 2005, 2011; Sewgobind, 2015). This information should come from the Ministry of LVV, because it is responsible for agricultural policy in Suriname. Limited financial resources, bureaucratic restrictions, poor supervision are just some of the obstacles, that cause poor information flow from and to the farmers (Ministerie van Landbouw, Veeteelt en Visserij, 2012,2013). This problem does not occur only in Suriname, but is a worldwide problem witnessed by many research results of scientists around the world. Where is the cause of this phenomenon? Scientists indicate many causes including access to knowledge about pesticides as one of the most crucial reasons indicated. In Suriname, it appears that the information for the user, in particular, the grocery store is not sufficient or not sufficient. This research focuses in this context on disseminating information to the farmers through an IT application.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This research studied if vegetable farmers are interested the using an agricultural app for proper use of pesticides, and what kind of information they are interested in. The research was conducted in district Wanica (Suriname), because the concentration of active vegetables farmers is high in this district according agricultural census of 2009 (Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek – Suriname, 2014). In addition, the accessibility and the willingness to support this research also influenced the choice of location. Those vegetable farmers who are registered by the resort division of the Ministry of LVV (and using their Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) book)4 and farming short annual crops were selected. This descriptive study used a mixed research method namely: quantitatively and qualitatively. The lists for respondents were obtained from the Ministry of LVV, screened and a random choice was made. These respondents were selected after the survey was conducted (among 181 respondents in the quantitative part) and based on their spontaneity during the survey round. The qualitative part consisted of 25 in-depth interviews. The focus group participants were selected by the resort leaders themselves. In this session also one person from the resort offices, and one extension officer and one district manager participated. The surveys and focus group sessions were conducted during the period of January and March, 2015.

RESULTS

The results obtained from the survey were as follows:

4 The GAP list is used by the Ministry of LVV to track the way of farming and harvesting by these growers, given after a short training in GAP. 180

• The most commonly used pesticides are among the respondents were gramoxone (93%), followed by karate (81%), malathion (79%) and paraquat (78%). The survey also showed that 66.3% of the farmers apply at least once a week pesticides in their agricultural fields where they actively plant. • The results regarding the need of ICT in agriculture, thus by using an app for information showed that farmers learn from their children. Almost 83 percent stated that they are willing to use the app, but they need some simple and additional training in the use of ICT.

Table 1: Reasons for not using an app providing pesticide information by respondents Categories Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Too complicated 126 70 No Time 32 18 Not interested 23 12 Total 181 100%

CONCLUSIONS

• The farmers are willing to improve themselves in applying techniques in sustainable farming but intensive supervision from the Ministry of LVV is needed. • There is a threshold and a gap which prevents the elder farmers for using the ICT knowledge. • Training in knowledge transfer within the Ministry of LVV (the extension department, resort or rayon offices ad extension officers) and between farmers should be motivated and supported by use of ICT tools.

LITERATURE CITED Ministerie van Landbouw Veeteelt en Visserij. (2012, maart). Bestrijdingsmiddelen. Bestrijdingsmiddelen, Informatie brochure. Paramaribo, Suriname: Ministerie van Landbouw Veeteelt en Visserij, Onder Directoraat Landbouwkundig Onderzoek.

Ministerie van LVV. (2013). The National Agricultural Innovation Strategy of the Republic of Suriname: Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries.Gedownload op 14 mei, 2015.

Sauers, A. (2005, april). Het etiketteren en opbergen van bestrijdings. Het etiketteren en opbergen van bestrijdings. Paramaribo, Paramaribo, Suriname: Ministerie van LVV.

Sauers, A. (2015, juni). Veilig werken met bestrijdingsmiddelen.Opgeroepen op april 18, 2015, from gov.sr: http://www.gov.sr/media/325470/brochure_pesticiden_en_gap_2011.pdf

Sen, & Choudhary (2011). Module 11: ICTapplications for agriculture. World Bank.http://www.ictinagriculture.org/sites/ictinagriculture.org/files/final_Module11.pdf Sewgobind, P. (2015, december 10). Landbouwvoorlichting. (D. Mohan, Interviewer) 181

AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY AND PLANT BREEDING

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:182-189. 2017

EVALUATION OF 21 CUCUMBER CULTIVARS FOR DOWNY MILDEW RESISTANCE IN THE VIRGIN ISLANDS

Augustus Laurencin Jr.1, Stafford M.A. Crossman1, Vanessa Forbes1, Carlos Montilla2 and Thomas W. Zimmerman2 Cooperative Extension Service1, Agricultural Experiment Station2, University of the Virgin Islands, RR1 Box 10,000 Kingshill, VI 00850 ([email protected]) (340)692-4071

ABSTRACT: The effect of Downy Mildew was studied on production of slicing and pickling cucumber grown in the United States Virgin Islands. Downy Mildew, caused by Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk. and Curt.), is a foliar disease that leads to death of the plants. This research is essential for Virgin Islands farmers because cucumbers are a valuable commodity throughout the U.S. Virgin Islands and can be grown year-round. Downy Mildew is most devastating to cucumber production during humid and wet weather. The objective of the trial was to test 21 cucumber varieties, 8 pickling and 13 slicing, that were bred to be resistant or tolerant to Downy Mildew. The study was conducted during the fall rainy season. The experimental design was randomized complete blocks with three replications. There were 15 plants per row, spaced 1 foot within rows and 4 feet between rows. Leaf damage from Downy Mildew was measured on a scale of 1-6 and was observed and rated during the harvesting period. The results indicated that slicing cucumbers were the most tolerant to Downy Mildew based upon production. ‘Summer Dance’ had the highest total yield and marketable yield of the slicing cultivars. ‘Vlasstar’ and ‘Diamant’ had the highest total yield and marketable yield of the pickling cultivars. This research was funded by the USDA through the V.I. Dept. of Agric. Specialty Crops Block Grant.

Keywords: cucumber; downy mildew; disease tolerance; germplasm evaluation, Cucumis sativus

INTRODUCTION

This trial studied the effects of Downy Mildew on production of slicing and pickling cucumber grown in the United States Virgin Islands. Downy Mildew is a foliar disease caused by Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk. and Curt.) (Colucci, et al, 2006). This is essential for Caribbean farmers because cucumbers are a valuable commodity throughout the U.S. Virgin Islands and can be grown year round (Nandwani, et al, 2014). The objective was to test 21 cucumber cultivars, 8 pickling and 13 slicing, that were bred to be resistant or tolerant to Downy Mildew. Downy mildew can be devastating to cucumber production especially during humid and wet weather. The study was conducted during the fall rainy season. MATERIALS AND METHODS

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Cucumber seeds were obtained from Rupp Seeds (OH), Twillley Seeds (SC), Stokes Seeds (NY) and Johnny’s Selected Seeds (ME). They were selected based on being listed in the seed catalog as Downy Mildew resistant or tolerant. Cucumber varieties were grouped as either pickling or slicing type. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with three replications. There were 15 plants per row with a plant spacing of 1 ft. within rows and 4 ft. between rows. Drip irrigation was installed and the plot was fertilized twice with 20-20-20 plus iron, via fertigation. The plots were observed and subjectively rated for the severity of downy mildew based upon the percentage of leaf area affected by the disease. The rating used was a 1-6 modification of the scale developed by Jenkins and Wehner (Jenkins and Wehner, 1983; Call et al, 2012) as shown on Table 1. The field was sprayed three times to control caterpillars, twice with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) formulations and once with Coragen®. No applications of fungicides were made. Cucumbers plants were monitored for pest infection and severity, floral and fruit development and the severity of downy mildew disease infection was rated subjectively rated (Figures 1-6). Data was collected on total fruit, total fruit weight, total marketable fruit, total weight of marketable fruit and fruit size (weight, width and length.

RESULTS

Cucumber seeds germinated within three days and were field transplanted one week later. During the cucumber growing and production cycle a total of 15.1 inches of rain fell, which averaged 0.25 inches per day (Figure 7). These wet conditions were very conducive for infection by Downy Mildew. The first signs of the disease was observed appearing on the slicing cultivars ‘Dasher II’ and ‘Diva’ on November 7, which was 18 days after transplanting to the field. The first open flowers were also observed on November 7 on cultivars ‘Eos’ and ‘Intimidator’. As the wet conditions continued, the downy mildew disease progressed and all varieties had symptoms of Downy Mildew infection by November 14. The disease symptoms became more severe with time. Harvest was initiated on November 20 and continued to December 21, giving a total of 11 harvests.

Pickling cultivars ‘Diamant’ and ‘Vlasstar’ had the highest quantity of total fruit while ‘Diamant’ produced the highest amount of marketable fruit (Figure 8). ‘Vlasstar’ produced the greatest average total weight of fruit per plant of 1.5 Kg but only 0.66 Kg were marketable (Figure 9). When searching for the best pickling cucumber with a high percentage in marketable fruits, ‘Diamant’ would be the best choice for Virgin Island farmers during the rainy season.

Slicing cultivar ‘Summer Dance’ had the highest amount of total fruit accompanied with 87% marketable fruit (Figure 10). The other slicers did not produce as much fruit as ‘Summer Dance’ and they had a lower percentage of marketable fruit (Figure 10). ‘Summer Dance’ also had the highest average total weight per plant of total fruit, 1.98 Kg, and marketable fruit of 1.89 Kg (Figure 11). When searching for the best slicing cucumber with a large production and high percentage of marketable fruit ‘Summer Dance’ would be the best choice for Virgin Island farmers.

Table 1. Cucumber leaf damage rating due to Downy Mildew infection.

Subjective Rating Percent of leaf area affected by Description of symptoms chlorosis or necrosis 183

1 0 No Symptoms

2 1 - 25 Slight

3 26 - 50 Moderate

4 51 - 75 Severe

5 76 - 95 Extreme

6 96 - 100 Dead

Figure 1. Cucumber plants Figure 2. Cucumber plants Figure 3. Cucumber plants with a disease leaf rating of 1. with a disease leaf rating of with a disease leaf rating of 2. 3.

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Figure 4. Cucumber plants Figure 5. Cucumber plants Figure 6. Cucumber plants with a disease leaf rating of 4. with a disease leaf rating of with a disease leaf rating of 6. 5.

Figure 7. Weekly rainfall and average daily rainfall during the cucumber growth and production period.

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Figure 8. Average pickling cucumber production per plant and marketable fruit per plant.

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Figure 9. Average weight of pickling cucumbers per plant and marketable fruit per plant.

Figure 10. Average slicing cucumber production per plant and marketable fruit per plant.

Figure 11. Average slicing cucumber weight per plant and marketable fruit per plant.

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Figure 12. Leaf damage rating for pickling cucumber varieties.

CONCLUSION

The weather conditions during this trial was ideal for the development of Downy Mildew disease. Rainfall was unusually high and there was dew every night. The results indicated that despite being bred to be resistant to Downy Mildew, the cultivars all succumbed to the disease (Figure 12.) under these very favorable disease conditions. However, this trial helped in determining which varieties would be the best option for farmers to grow in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Based on this cucumber trial, we should recommend our farmers to grow the slicing cucumber cultivar ‘Summer Dance’ because of its ability to produce large quantities of marketable fruit. Farmers who are interested in growing a pickling cucumber should be encouraged to grow ‘Diamant’. This pickling cultivar had a high percentage of marketable fruit to complement its production. It is necessary to conduct additional evaluations of these and other cucumber cultivars during other times of the year before recommendations can be finalized.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was funded by the USDA through the VI Department of Agriculture Specialty Crops Block Grant Program. The assistance of James Gordon, Henry Harris, Raheem Smart and Victor Almodovar was graciously appreciated.

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LITERATURE CITED

Call, A.D., A.D. Criswell, T.C. Wehner, K Ando, and R. Grument. 2012. Resistance of cucumber cultivators to a new strain of cucrbit downy mildew. HortScience 47(2): 171-178

Colucci, S. J., Wehner, T. C., Holmes, G. J., 2006. The downy mildew epidemic of 2004 and 2005 in the eastern United States. Organizing Committee Cucurbitaceae. p 403- 411.

Jenkins, S.F., Jr. and T.C. Wehner. 1983. A system for the measurement of foliar diseases in cucumbers. Cucurbit Gent. Coop. Rpt. 6:10-12.

Nandwani D, J.R. Williamson, S.M. A. Crossman, V Forbes. 2014. Cucumber Cultivar Study in the United States Virgin Islands. Proceedings 50th Caribbean Food Crops Society. 50:157-161.

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AGROECOLOGY SYMPOSIUM

Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 190. 2017

IMPROVING SOCIAL-ECOLOGICAL RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE THROUGH SILVICULTURE IN PUERTO RICO’S NOVEL FORESTS

Oscar J. Abelleira Martínez. Catedrático Asociado, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez P.R.

ABSTRACT: If current trends in greenhouse gas emissions continue, climate change projections for Puerto Rico suggest a future with longer droughts, hotter temperatures and a shift towards drier ecological zones. Landowners and public agencies that depend on and manage forested lands must understand the consequences of this climate change for forests and be aware of the actions they can implement to increase the capacity of forests to adapt and respond to climate change. Currently, most forests found in Puerto Rico are growing on previously deforested lands that were heavily used for agriculture and subsequently abandoned. These “novel” forests are dominated by introduced species that, so far, are mostly of little utility for landowners and are of low protection priority for public agencies. Nevertheless, novel forests can provide opportunities to increase social-ecological resilience to climate change in various ways. Data from previous studies show that deciduous novel forest canopies provide favorable microclimatic conditions for enrichment planting and restoration of native late-successional forest tree species of valuable wood. Because of their restricted geographic distribution, it is precisely this group of late-successional species that are most threatened by climate change. Novel forests can provide stepping stones that facilitate the human-assisted migration of these native tree species and ensure their survival to climate change. On the other hand, novel forest canopies can also provide conditions favorable for the establishment and growth of shade crops, such as cacao and coffee. These and other fruit tree species planted in novel forests may be buffered from climatic extremes by deciduous canopies that may allow sufficient solar radiation to sustain crop productivity while maintaining high humidity to prevent desiccation. Silvicultural management activities, such as forest thinning, can accelerate the growth of planted species and provide raw materials for other uses. This research will use long-term enrichment planting experiments of native late-successional timber and fruit tree species within novel forests combined with other silvicultural treatments to develop management guidelines aimed at supporting and improving social-ecological resilience to climate change and other disturbances in Puerto Rico.

Keywords: silviculture, novel forest, climate change

190 Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 191-194. 2017

ADDRESSING THE NEED FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY AND INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH TRAINING IN GLOBAL AGROECOSYSTEMS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

Diane L. Rowland and Romain M. Gloaguen. University of Florida.

ABSTRACT: Agricultural sustainability is one of the most unifying challenges facing all regions, all cultures, and all communities throughout the globe. We have come to learn that this challenge is composed of extremely diverse issues. One of them certainly is ensuring the adequate training of graduate students to prepare them for the increasingly complex employment requirements in agricultural science whether for academic, industry, research, extension or teaching positions. To better identify the current concerns of agricultural science employers, a prior study by Chakraborty et al. (2017) was conducted in 2014 and included a survey of 55 agricultural companies as to their assessment of the preparedness and qualifications of current potential employees from agricultural science graduate programs. Results showed that the industry was asking for better trained, more competent students, with some field experience and a global, multidisciplinary skill set. At the University of Florida, we have met this challenge by forming new graduate programs that apply the rigorous ecological scientific principles to the study of agroecosystems. One of the unique opportunities in these offerings is the requirement for a 3-6 month international research experience for students during their program. This focused international research training opportunity allows students to choose from a portfolio of partner institutions we have developed over the last two years and be paired with a mentor and research group with particular interests at that institution. At its base purpose, this international experience will allow students to gain hands on experiences within global cropping systems and expand their research professional network to colleagues around the world. Other opportunities have developed from these collaborations including shared courses, lectureships, reciprocal research experiences within UF research programs, and co-developed grant submissions. The first cohort of students completed their international research tenure in the spring of 2017, and we will present these as case studies to evaluate this program component to date. Finally, as a continuing effort to develop new partnerships, our program, due to the proximity between UF and the Caribbean, is looking to collaborate with local universities in this region.

Keywords: Agroecology; International Research; Graduate Training, Agricultural Science

INTRODUCTION

Based on anecdotal comments and feedback from stakeholders, and an increasing awareness of the diverse nature of problems facing new agricultural science graduates in their careers, a survey study was conducted to gauge the graduate programmatic needs seen by potential employers of crop and soil science graduate students. This culminated in the study by Chakraborty et al. (2017), carried out in 2014, that targeted 55 agricultural companies asking these 3 main questions:

Question 1): Is there a lack of agricultural sciences graduates overall? This question was divided into two sub-questions: Q1a) There is a shortage of qualified agricultural graduates in the job

191 market and (Disagree/Neutral/Agree); and Q1b) There will be increased demand for agricultural scientists in the coming years (Disagree/Neutral/Agree). Answers to this question showed that a vast majority of the surveyed companies agreed on the fact that there is a lack of qualified agricultural graduates and that they believed the need for agricultural scientists will increase in the near future. This question clearly illustrates the need for some shift in training agricultural graduate students with revisions to current programs that not only attract more students, but help to prepare them more effectively once they begin their career.

Question 2): Is there a lack of breadth in multidisciplinary training? This question was divided into three sub-questions: Q2a) Most new agricultural graduates lack a diversified knowledge base (Disagree/Neutral/Agree); Q2b) Program content and focus should be inter-disciplinary curriculum or traditional agriculture curriculum (chose between the two); and Q2c) Program content and focus should be multidisciplinary topic range or specific topics addressing industry needs (chose between the two). Answers to this question showed that there is a strong demand from the industry for multi-disciplinary training that would allow graduate students to become more proficient and better equipped to face the diversified demands of today’s agricultural industry. It is thus critical to break down the training barriers between different disciplines and merge them in order to build new academic programs encompassing various topics.

Question 3): Is there a lack of direct experience with agriculture, including hands-on experience? This question was divided into three sub-questions where companies had to assess the level of proficiency observed (Low/Medium/High) in job candidates for: Q3a) Professional experience in an agricultural field; Q3b) Practical understanding of product or production systems; and Q3c) Hands-on experience in an agricultural setting. Then a follow up “consequences” statement was included where companies had to state their level of agreement with: Q3d) Companies need to spend a considerable amount of time and resources to train the hired employees to stay competitive in the market. Responses to this question showed that there are two main factors lacking in job candidates including the practical understanding of production systems, and hands-on experience in an agricultural setting. An overwhelming majority of the surveyed companies spend a lot of time and resources to train the hired employees to stay competitive in the market. This represents a loss of revenue for the companies, and it highlights the possible avenues for improvement in graduate education.

The results from Chakraborty et al., (2017) highlight the need for a shift in the traditional paradigm for training graduate students in agricultural science. Possible solutions include revisions to curricula that include course work from a wider diversity of topics that focus not only on the crop itself, but cover the whole agroecosystem, providing students a more systematic understanding of production characteristics and challenges. Additionally, providing hands-on experiential learning opportunities for students that occurs in cropping systems representing some global range in system diversity would also address some of the issues identified by potential employers. If the issues identified in Chakraborty et al. (2017) are not addressed, in the future this could potentially lead to companies not hiring recent graduates and requiring some level of experience beyond their graduate degree, a situation that is not optimal for the students themselves. It is therefore critical to consider revising graduate programs to ensure that graduates have all the tools in their hands to be competitive as soon as they enter the job market.

192 MATERIALS AND METHODS

To address all of the aforementioned problems revealed by the Chakraborty et al. (2017) study, faculty from the University of Florida put together a new academic program, UF Agroecology. The foundational purpose of this new program was to achieve some level of multi-disciplinary training along with exposure to international systems during the graduate training program. The development of the program involved the establishment of an M.S. concentration offered in collaboration between the UF Agronomy and Soil and Water Sciences departments. It now includes additions of a Ph.D., and two graduate certificates, and has recently incorporated the Agricultural and Biological Engineering department. This program is striving to train students with a new outlook on agricultural production through the scope of the discipline of Agroecology. In this program, the paradigm has focused on the assessment of agroecosystem in both agricultural, environmental, and social dimensions. The program aims to give students the tools to find efficient and innovative solutions to the new complex problems in agriculture through diversified, multidisciplinary coursework as well as opportunities and requirements for international experience in global cropping systems. The UF Agroecology Program thus offers diversified coursework including: crop ecology, soils, water sustainability, and global agroecosystems. All curricula have been approved by faculty from each department as well as by the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, and the University governing system as well, attesting to the quality and coherence of these curricula.

In addition, the concern over the increasing need for hands-on experience was met by the development of an international network of partner institutions offering short-term mentorships for students in the program. This international experience is available to all students within the program, and has also been made a program requirement for the Ph.D. concentration and the Global Agroecosystems Certificate. Currently, UF Agroecology has 8 partner institutions in 6 countries: the University of New England and Western Sydney University in Australia, Harper Adams University and Cranfield University in the UK, UFRPE in Brazil, ISARA-Lyon in France, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel, and the University of the Virgin Islands in the U.S. Virgin Islands, with upcoming agreements with University College Dublin in Ireland and Wageningen University in the Netherlands. In addition to the research experiences, these partnerships bring along with them other shared curriculum opportunities such as: guest lecturing, common reading programs, distance education modules, and shared courses. UF Agroecology is always looking to expand this network, and the geographic and climatic proximity between UF and the Caribbean would make for an easy collaboration.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Since its creation in 2012, the program has known a steady increase in students’ application: at the beginning of 2017, there were more than 45 students enrolled in UF Agroecology, from a wide variety of backgrounds. One of the main strength of this is that it offers 100% of the classes for the certificates and the M.S. degree online. Utilizing this distance education (DE) approach, UF Agroecology can reach people that would never have attended classes on campus, such as professionals or students from across the U.S. and the world. For example, one student spent the entirety of his M.S. program in his home country in Peru, and was able to develop a research project leading to a thesis in close collaboration between a Peruvian and UF advisor.

193 The international dimension of this program has been made easier through the development of these DE classes. Indeed, as students can follow a class from anywhere around the world, it becomes simpler to send them abroad as it does not impair their coursework. During their international research experience, students are required to take an active part in an ongoing research project from the host institution. Upon their return, students are required to give a short presentation about their activities while abroad, yielding 3 credits counting towards completion of their degree. These international partnerships go beyond this internship opportunity as a multitude of collaborations have been implemented with success, as mentioned earlier: guest lectures, shared courses, co-mentorships of students, and exchange opportunities for partner institution students at UF. UF Agroecology is always trying to expand that catalogue of partners so as to provide students with a greater diversity of cropping systems, climates and environments and aid them in achieving that necessary global vision, as shown by Chakraborty et al., (2017) in their study.

Finally, in 2017 with the official establishment of the Ph.D. and the Global Agroecology Certificate, UF Agroecology saw its first 2 students sent abroad for this research internship: Ph.D. student Kelly Racette went to Harper Adams University in the UK, and M.S. student David Hensley went to the University of the Virgin Islands in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Both students were working on completely different projects from their thesis research, allowing them to see different crop systems in a diverse setting, with their own constraints and challenges. They both enjoyed their experience a lot, and account of their respective journeys are available online, on the UF Agroecology website: http://uf- agroecology.com/

CONCLUSION:

Chakraborty et al. (2017) showed there is a strong need for modified graduate programs in agriculture: they need to become multi-disciplinary, global and more driven towards guaranteeing the adequate preparation of students for immediate inclusion in the job market. UF Agroecology tries to bring necessary solutions to these issues, through innovative course work and international research experiential opportunities.

194 Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 195-198. 2017

NATURAL MULCHES AND THEIR POTENTIAL NITRIFICATION INHIBITOR EFFECTS

Andrea K. Veira and Francis B. López. The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, Barbados.

ABSTRACT: Nitrification inhibitors can benefit farm systems by reducing leachate levels of nitrate ions from the soil. The inhibitors prevent the conversion of ammonium to nitrates. This study sought to determine whether natural fresh mulch material contained any inhibitory effects similar to the nitrification inhibitor 3, 4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) on the soil system in Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato) production. Five replicas of four concentrations of DMPP (0.2%, 0.4%, 0.8% and 1.6%), three mulches Azadirachta indica (Neem), Leucaena leucocephala (Leucaena) and Sargassum spp. (Sargassum) and a control (no DMPP or mulch) were applied to the sweet potato variety ‘Blackrock’ in Barbados. The study lasted 14 weeks. Leachate and growth data were collected approximately every two weeks and soil data twice during the study. As the concentration of inhibitor increased from 0% to 0.8%, the nitrate to ammonium ratio in the leachate decreased from 14.16 to 11.06 but increased for the 1.6% DMPP at 19.95. The Leucaena and Neem mulches did not fall into these ranges as their nitrate to ammonium ratios were greater than 22. The Sargassum ratio of 13.49 fell within 0.2% to 0.4% DMPP. Statistical significance was found between the treatments (P=0.016). The 0.8% DMPP showed the strongest inhibitory effects followed by 0.4% DMPP and the Sargassum mulch. The 0.4% DMPP showed the greatest decrease in nitrates over time followed by the Leucaena mulch while the ammonium levels in the leachate were inconsistent. The yield of tubers was negatively correlated with the nitrate to ammonium ratios. This study suggested that the Sargassum mulch has some inhibition abilities within the range 0.2-0.4% DMPP. Further work is needed to determine if and where the Neem and Leucaena mulches would fall given the higher ratios of nitrate to ammonium observed.

Keywords: yield, spadmeter, ISE probes, moisture, EC

INTRODUCTION

The use of nitrification inhibitors in crop systems and research can be beneficial in reducing loss of nitrates from the soil. They can allow more nitrates to become available to the plant throughout its growth as the conversion of ammonium to nitrates is slowed. The use of DMPP has shown promising results on yield and soil health (Zerulla et al. 2001). Some natural mulch materials have been found to have similar nitrification inhibitor effects like neem (Slangen and Kerkhoff 1984) and this can be useful when selecting mulches for use in crop systems. The study sought to investigate the nitrification inhibitor properties of three mulches: Leucaena, Neem and Sargassum along with their effects when compared to varying concentrations of DMPP.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was set up as a pot study at The University of the West Indies Barbados Campus for a 14 week period during December 2016 to March 2017. Buckets were used as the pots and

195 were each filled with 13 kg of a 1:1 mixture of sand to soil. A randomised block design was used with 8 treatments consisting of four concentrations (0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6%) of the nitrification inhibitor 3, 4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) and three mulches (Sargassum, Leucaena and Neem). The control treatment had no inhibitor and no mulch. Young stems and leaves were cut and used as fresh mulch for the Leucaena and Neem while fresh Sargassum was collected and left exposed in the rainfall for ten days. Mulches were applied at planting. One slip of the sweet potato variety ‘Blackrock’ was treated with insecticide and planted in each bucket. 19 days after planting and mulching, aluminium sulphate fertilizer was applied along with the four concentrations of DMPP. 13 days after fertiliser and DMPP application, measurements of soil respiration, soil temperature, soil moisture levels and electrical conductivity (EC) along with leachate output were recorded approximately every two weeks. These measurements were taken using a collar and soil respiration chamber along with the Portable CO2 Gas Analyzer (EGM-5, PP Systems, USA). Nitrate and ammonium levels along with pH and EC in the leachate were analysed in the laboratory. Soil samples were taken at 51 and 88 days after planting with laboratory analysis conducted for nitrate, ammonium, pH and EC. All nitrate, ammonium, pH and EC measurements in the laboratory were carried out using the ISE, pH and EC probes (NO3181, NH4181, PHW77- SS, HACH, USA and IQ170l, IQ Scientific Instruments, USA). Leaf chlorophyll index was also measured (SPAD, Spectrum Technologies Inc., USA).

RESULTS

As the concentration of inhibitor increased from 0% to 0.8%, the ratio of nitrate to ammonium in the leachate decreased from 14.16 to 11.06 but increased sharply for the 1.6% DMPP at 19.95. The Leucaena and Neem mulches were even higher as their nitrate to ammonium ratios were greater than 22 (Figure 1). The Sargassum ratio was found to be between the DMPP concentrations of 0.2% to 0.4% with a ratio of 13.49. There was statistical significance shown between the treatments (P=0.016) with 0.8% DMPP showing the strongest inhibitory effects followed by 0.4% DMPP and the Sargassum mulch. However, statistically the only treatment which behaved differently was the Leucaena (Figure 1). Nitrate levels in the leachate decreased with time (Table 1). The 0.4% DMPP showed the greatest decrease over time followed by the Leucaena mulch. Contrastingly, the ammonium levels in the leachate appeared to show inconsistent patterns with initial decreases followed by increases and decreases again as time passed but this was not significant. However, the Neem and Sargassum mulches appeared to show very close ammonium levels in the actual leachate sample to the ammonium levels in the leachate sample from the 0.8% DMPP. The total mass of the potatoes as well as the number of tubers in the yield showed a negative relationship to the leachate nitrate to ammonium ratios. This relationship showed that as the yield increased the ratio decreased. Similarly, as the number of tubers increased the ratio also decreased. The Sargassum mulch and the 1.6 DMPP showed the highest EC values of the soil.

196 30 b

24 a a a

18 a a a a 12

6 Nitrate to Ammonium Leachate toAmmonium RatioNitratein 0

Treatment

Figure 1: Inhibitor and mulch treatment effects on the nitrate to ammonium ratio in the leachate

Table 1: Nitrate levels in the leachate for each treatment

Days 0.2 0.4 0.8 DMPP 1.6 Control Leucaena Neem Sargassum After DMPP DMPP DMPP Planting 39 41.69 54.88 36.33 27.43 64.24 125.55 83.83 63.64 52 7.88 5.43 9.33 29.17 6.81 25.46 16.03 10.2 67 3.64 0.66 0.52 0.54 1.36 2.24 2.71 1.43 83 1.73 1.47 1.42 0.84 2.35 3.49 3.12 2.45 95 0.26 0.23 0.26 0 0.42 1.03 0.51 0.27

CONCLUSION

The conversion of ammonium to nitrate appeared to be slowed by the use of inhibitors and some effects of mulches were observed where the Sargassum, was found to be comparable to 0.2-0.4% DMPP with some nitrification inhibitor properties. The Neem showed very close levels of ammonium to the 0.8% DMPP but there appeared to be inconsistencies in the data for the leachate

197 ammonium values. Further work is needed to determine what concentrations of DMPP, if any, the Neem and Leucaena mulch would work similarly to given the much higher ratios of nitrate to ammonium observed. Overall, the yield of the potatoes increased while the nitrate to ammonium ratios decreased. The effect on the ratio itself appeared to be from the nitrate levels and not the ammonium.

LITERATURE CITED

Slangen, J. H. G., and P. Kerkhoff. 1984. "Nitrification inhibitors in agriculture and horticulture: A literature review." Fertilizer research 5 (1):1-76. doi: 10.1007/BF01049492.

Zerulla, Wolfram, Thomas Barth, Jürgen Dressel, Klaus Erhardt, Klaus Horchler von Locquenghien, Gregor Pasda, Matthias Rädle, and Alexander Wissemeier. 2001. "3,4- Dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) – a new nitrification inhibitor for agriculture and horticulture." Biology and Fertility of Soils 34 (2):79-84. doi: 10.1007/s003740100380.

198 Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 199-202. 2017

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION, PHENOLOGY, AND PROPAGATION OF BUXUS VAHLII AND CATESBAEA MELANOCARPA; TWO FEDERALLY ENDANGERED NATIVE TREES

Michael Morgan and Thomas W. Zimmerman. University of the Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station, RR1 Box 10,000, Kingshill, VI 00850.

ABSTRACT: Buxus vahlii Baill. is a small evergreen tree in the Boxwood or Buxaceae family. It occurs on 4 sites on St. Croix and two sites in Puerto Rico. Catesbaea melanocarpa Krug and Urb. is a thorny with striking white flowers. It is a member of the Rubiaceae or Coffee family. Besides one site on St Croix, it is found on two sites in Puerto Rico, plus the island nations of Antigua, Barbuda and Guadeloupe. Through a research grant provided by the US Fish and Wildlife Foundation, the agroforestry and biotechnology program of the University of the Virgin Islands is studying the phenology, population distribution, and propagating these two federally endangered plant species in order to establish or reinforce existing protected populations at the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge. Both species are endangered by wildfires and habitat destruction because most of the populations are outside of protected area, the exception being the Sandy Point Wildlife Refuge on St Croix. Our research efforts have been concentrated in developing protocols to propagate these species in the greenhouse and in the laboratory. Seedlings thus produced are planted either in the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge, where a small population of Buxus vahlii already exists or the UVI-AES agroforestry plot.

Keywords: subtropical dry forest, Rubiaceae, Buxaceae

INTRODUCTION

Buxus vahlii Baill. is a small evergreen tree in the Boxwood or Buxaceae family. It occurs on 4 sites on St. Croix and two sites in Puerto Rico. Catesbaea melanocarpa Krug and Urb. is thorny with striking white flowers. It is a member of the Rubiaceae or Coffee family. Besides one isolated site on St Croix, it is found on two sites in Puerto Rico, plus the island nations of Antigua, Barbuda and Guadeloupe. Both species are endangered by wildfires and habitat destruction because most of the populations are outside of protected area, the exception being the Sandy Point Wildlife Refuge on St Croix. Other than some internal US Fish and Wildlife documents reporting on the status of these two rare species and a master’s thesis from the University of Puerto Rico on B. vahlii there is very little published information about them (Carrera-Rivera 2001; USFWS, 1987; USFWS 2005).

Our research efforts have been concentrated in developing protocols to propagate these species in the greenhouse. Seedlings thus produced are planted either in the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), where a small population of B. vahlii already exists or the UVI-AES agroforestry plot.

Through a research grant provided by the US Fish and Wildlife Foundation, the agroforestry and biotechnology program of the University of the Virgin Islands is studying the phenology,

199 population distribution, and propagating these two federally endangered plant species in order to establish or reinforce existing protected populations at the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three of the four populations of B. vahlii and the one population of C. melanocarpaa were visited monthly to review periods of flowering and production of fruit. When fruit were mature but had not yet dehisced seed capsules of B. vahlii or ripe berries in the case of C. melanocarpa, representative samples were collected and the seed extracted. Seed were then placed in germination trays filled with a 50:50 mixture of sand and peat moss. The seedlings were placed on the surface of the soil and then covered with a thin layer of sand. The trays were watered whenever the planting substrate started to dry out. This was approximately every other day, but sometimes daily if weather conditions were very hot and sunny.

Propagation from 60 small soft wood cutting and 60 hardwood cuttings was attempted using samples of 20 from each of the three populations: Sandy Point, Seven Flags Ridge and the Christiansted Antennas or Spyglass Hill population. A humidity tent was constructed, in this case was a transparent plastic bag over the cutting and the container it is planted in. The planting substrate in the soil needs to be periodically watered but the plastic bag recycles the water that either evaporates from the soil or is produced as a by-product of photosynthesis. The vapor condenses on the plastic as droplets of water and fall back into the tray. For another treatment, we used a mist bench with a timer to periodically spray the cuttings twice a day for four minutes. The first misting or fogging was at 4:00 am and the second misting was at 4:00 pm. (O’Donnell and O’Reilly, 1997).

We also continued a previously started census of the different populations of these two endangered species (Daley and Valiulis, 2013). Individual plants or clumps in 3 of the 4 Buxus populations, and the Catesbaea population were counted, measured and located with a GPS. Overstory species were noted and the amount of canopy cover in percent was measured with a convex glass densitometer.

Another facet of our project is the out planting of planted produced in the greenhouse at the Sandy Point NWR. Since propagation by seed of B. vahlii was unsuccessful in 2015, Buxus seedlings found growing under 3 Buxus shrubs at the St George Botanical Garden were dug out and transplanted into 3 gallon pots. When they reached 20 to 30 cm, tall they were relocated to two sites in at the Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge on St. Croix, US Virgin Islands and planted in at the end of 2015 and in 2017.

RESULTS

Both species grow in what is considered the subtropical dry forest life zone, where precipitation is between 500 and 1100 mm and bio-temperature is less than 24° C (Holdridge,1967; Ewel and Whitmore, 1973). At Sandy Point NWR, B. vahlii trees actually form the canopy of a low stature forest where trees are 5m tall. On the Christiansted Antennas/ Spyglass Hill site, B. vahlli forms a shrub layer under a canopy of Water Mampoo (Pisonia subcordata, Sw.) which is also present at Sandy Point NWR. At the Seven Flags Hill site, B. vahlii grows amongst small trees of Amyris

200 elemifera L. A fourth population consists of a single plant in an abandoned aluminium smelter. Access is restricted to the public because the smelter has a dock and is considered a port.

The C. melanocarpa population is bisected by a dirt road that leads to the South Shore. On the eastern side of the road plants occur in an abandoned pasture that is dotted with small tree islands of Tamarindus indica L., Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd., and Haematoylum campechianum L. This pasture, while not being actively grazed, has been subject to wildfire and periodic hay cutting. On the west side of the road the C. melanocarpa plants grow along a dry stream bed where the large multi-stemmed bush Cordia sulcate DC. is the predominant overstory specie. There was no significant difference between percent canopy cover over the Catesbaea trees on either side of the road; 615 west side and 54% eastside, with P=0.1458).

There does not appear to be a fixed period of fruiting or flowering for either species because rain fall events often are very localized on the island of St. Croix. Buxus plants on one site might be flowering and on another site not. Flowering and fruiting of C. melanocarpa plants appears to be very individualistic as well. They do not flower and fruit all at once. However, unlike B. vahllii, on St. Croix C. melanocarpa only grows on one site. In this study C. melanocarpa seeds had an approximately 60 % germination rate. Seeds germinate after 17 days.

Unfortunately, we cannot say the same for B. vahlii. Seeds have a very low percentage of germination. Three seeds out 5,000 germinated some seven months later. Seeds appear to take a long time to germinate. Two seeds germinated after 67 days and the third after 117 days, and do not germinate in a uniform way. Random seeds will germinate years after planting.

Vegetative propagation via the use of cuttings for B. vahlii can work, but have only a 14% chance of putting out new leaves and roots. It appears that there is no difference whether hardwood or soft wood cuttings are used, or whether rooting hormone is used or not. Cuttings can stay alive and even put out new leaves, but they eventually die out if they don’t put out new roots. One must keep the cuttings moist for a month by using either a humidity tent or a mist bench. Both mist benches and humidity tents give the same results.

CONCLUSION

Although much has been learned about the ecology and life history of both species. Propagation in a greenhouse setting still proves to be difficult for B. vahlii. The propagation of C. melanocarpa is simple. The biggest problem this species faces is growing in a non-protected area. Phenology could be better estimated if rain gauges and other weather sensing devices that can be read remotely were installed on all of the sites

REFERENCES

Carrero Rivera, G. 2001. Population Ecology and Reproductive Biology of the Endangered Buxus vahlii (Baillon), Master’s Thesis submitted to the University of Puerto Rico Mayaguez campus. 94 pp.

Daley, B. F. and Valiulis, J., March, 2013. Rapid assessment of four endangered plant populations

201 of St Croix, US Virgin Islands. Report elaborated for the Virgin Island Department of Planning and Natural Resources.15p

Ewell, J. J.; Whitmore, J. L.; 1973; The Ecological Life Zones of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Forest Service Research Paper IITF-18. USDA Forest Service, 74p

Holdridge, L. R., 1978. Ecología Basada en Zonas de Vida. Serie Libros y materiales educativos, no. 34. San José, Costa Rica: Instituto Interamericano de Ciencias Agrícolas. 216p

O’Donnell, J. and O’Reilly, R.G.1997. Propagating Native Tree Species by Cuttings. Natural Resources Factsheet NO. 2, June 1997. Published by The University of the Virgin Islands, Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture and the USDA Forest Service. 2pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service. 1987. Vahl’s Boxwood Recovery Plan., Atlanta, GA. 34pp.

US Fish and Wildlife Service. 2005. Recovery plan for Catesbaea melanocarpa, Atlanta, GA, 32pp.

202 Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 203-207. 2017

SURVEY OF NATIVE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS AGAINST THE COFFEE BERRY BORER HYPOTHENEMUS HAMPEI

José M. García Peña1, José C. Verle Rodrigues1,2. 1Department of Biology, UPR-Rio Piedras, 2 Center for Excellence in Quarantine & Invasive Species, Agricultural Experimental Station-Río Piedras, Agro-Environmental Sciences Department, University of Puerto Rico-Mayagüez, 1193 Guayacán St, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, USA.

ABSTRACT: The control of coffee berry borer (CBB) is a major challenge because this insect spends most of its life inside the coffee beans. The fruits that fall to the soil or remain on the tree by the end of the crop season are considered the main sources of CBB infestation for the next crop cycle. The use of entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi may represent important tools to reduce the CBB resilient populations. The objective of this work was to determine the presence of native entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi in the coffee soils that can be work as biocontrol of CBB. We took soil samples from the coffee producer area in Puerto Rico and used Galleria mellonela as bait for nematodes and fungi. The recovery frequency was 85.71%, in which we have 340 nematode positive larvae and 152 by fungi. The result suggests a high prevalence of potential entomopathogenic nematodes and fungus that can play crucial role suppressing CBB populations.

Keywords: coffee berry borer, entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi

INTRODUCTION

Coffee is the second largest export product of developing countries (Talbot, 2004). Worldwide, more than 10 million hectares are planted in 80 countries (FAOSTAT, 2016). It is one of the ten most important cultivated crops in Puerto Rico, especially in the mountainous region (Flores, 2011). The coffee berry borer (CBB) Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari (1967) is considered to be the most destructive pest in all coffee producing areas worldwide (Soto-Pinto et al., 2002). The economic losses associated with this pest have been estimated to be about US$ 500 million annually (Barker, 1999). In Puerto Rico, it was reported for the first time in 2007 (NAPPO, 2007).

The CBB spends most of its life inside the coffee beans, which makes it difficult to control (Baker et al., 1992). The remaining fruits that fall to the soil during and after harvesting are considered one of the main sources of shelter and food to survive for the next season (Bernal et al., 1999). There are several alternatives to manage this source of infestation, mainly the use of insecticides, which has not been effective (Damon, 2000). In addition, environmental damage and the development of resistance, makes the implementation of biological control tools such as the use of entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi important tactics for the survival and sustainability of this crop (Bustillo et al., 1998).

Entomopathogenic nematodes (NEP) are obligate parasites of insects that inhabit the soil (Shapiro- Ilan et al., 2002). Their strength is widely recognized as a biological control agent (Downes and Griffin, 1996). Steinernema feltiae, Heterorhabditis bacteiophora and Steinernema carpocapsae, have the ability to move, penetrate the fruit and cause mortality to the CBB (Baker, 1999; Manton

203 et. al., 2012; Molina and López, 2002; Molina et. al., 2009;), others such as Metaparasitylenchus hypothenemi (Tylenchida: Allantonematidae), have been reported parasitizing larvae, pupae and adults causing partial or complete sterilization of the adult females of the CBB (Poinar et al., 2004).

On the other hand, entomopathogenic fungi are among the first organisms used for the biological control of pests (Amer et al., 2008) and of which more than 700 species have been described in 90 genera (Butt, 2002). Some of the most used genera are Metarhizium, Beauveria, Paecilomyces, Verticillium, Rhizopus and Fusarium (Shah and Pell, 2003). Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae sprays on the soil for control of borer that emerges from fallen fruits showed levels of infection in the first five days were close to 30% for and 11% respectively (Pardey, 2006).

The origin of the agents is an important factor in biological control practice, because indigenous strains might be more adapted to the biotic conditions of the treated ecosystem (Noujeim, 2015). The objective of this work is to determine the presence of native entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi in the coffee soils that can be developed as biocontrol of CBB.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We sampled throughout the coffee production area in Puerto Rico, which is located in the central mountain range covering about 17 municipalities (Figure 1). It is a humid region with an annual precipitation average of 1,905 millimeters and presents an altitude ranging 35 to 982 meters above sea level. The predominant types of soil are clay and silt.

Each farm was subdivided into 3 replicas where 5 sub-soil samples were collected around the canopy of the coffee trees. The tools used to take the samples were disinfected with 1.0% NaOCl and washed with water before moving to another replica. The soil samples were passed through sieves, mesh number 8 (2.38 mm), to remove segments of roots, stones and to homogenize. Three plastic containers of 450 mL of capacity were filled with soil and put 10 larvae of wax worm, Galleria mellonella. After 7 days, the larvae will be carefully extracted and observed if they are parasitized by nematodes or fungi.

The larvae parasitized by nematodes was individually placed in White traps (White, 1927) with Ringer's solution, for 7 days to collect entomopathogenic nematodes. Dead larvae with fungi, was dried on a Petri dish with filter paper for 3 days, then larvae were disinfected and seeded in PDA following the method described by (Zimmermann, 1986). It was calculated the percentage of mortality caused by nematodes or fungi per replica. Besides, we used the recovery frequency (number of positive replicas/ total number of replicas) to assess the detection of entomopathogens in the survey.

RESULTS

Considering a total of 66 replicas from 22 farms sampled. The recovery frequency was 85.71%, in which 340 bait larvae were positive to nematodes and 152 larvae had their death associated to fungi infestation. The percentage of mortality for Galleria mellonela larvae on each replica was between 5 to 100% (Table 1). This insect provides efficient detection of entomopathogenic

204 nematodes and fungi in the field or for laboratory-processed samples in agreement with several authors (Bedding and Akhurst 1975; Vänninen, 1997; Zimmermann 1986).

CONCLUSION

We had successfully isolated a variety of nematodes and fungi, which are potential biological control agents associated with coffee soils in Puerto Rico. This information may help in designing effective strategies for the control of CBB using entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi. Additional experiments might be needed to study the impact, efficiency, taxonomy and biology of each strain to assess its control ability in an open field situation.

LITERATURE CITED

Amer, M. M., El-Sayed, T. I., Bakheit, H. K., Moustafa, S. A., & El-Sayed, Y. A. (2008). Pathogenicity and genetic variability of five entomopathogenic fungi against Spodoptera littoralis. Res J Agric Biol Sci, 4, 354-367.

Baker, P. S. (1999). The coffee berry borer in Colombia: Final report of the DFID-Cenicafé-CABI Bioscience IPM for coffee project (CNTR 93/1536A) (p. 154). DFID-CENICAFÉ.

Baker, P. S., Barrera, J. F., & Rivas, A. (1992). Life-history studies of the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei, Scolytidae) on coffee trees in southern Mexico. Journal of Applied Ecology, 656-662.

Bedding, R. A., & Akhurst, R. J. (1975). A simple technique for the detection of insect parasitic Rhabditid nematodes in soil. Nematologica, 21(1), 109-110.

Bernal, M. G., Bustillo, A. E., Chaves, B., & Benavides, P. (1999). Efecto de Beauveria bassiana y Metarhizium anisopliae sobre poblaciones de Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) que emergen de frutos en el suelo. Revista Colomb. Entomol., 25, 11-16.

Bustillo p., A. E.; Cardenas m., R.; Villalba g., D.; Benavides m, p.; Orozco h., J.; Posada f., J. (1998). Manejo integrado de la broca del café Hypothenemus hampei (ferr.) En colombia. Centro nacional de investigaciones de café "pedro uribe mejía" cenicafé. 127 p.

Butt, T. M. (2002). Use of entomogenous fungi for the control of insect pests. Agricultural Applications (pp. 111-134). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

Damon, A. (2000). A review of the biology and control of the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Bulletin of entomological research, 90(06), 453-465.

Downes, M. J., & Griffin, C. T. (1996). Dispersal behavior and transmission strategies of the entomopathogenic nematodes Heterorhabditis and Steinernema. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 6(3), 347-356.

205 FAOSTAT, 2016. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division. Available online at:http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC. Last accessed: 20 march 2017.

Flores C. (2011). Informe empresa de café 2011 - 2012. Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto Universitario de Mayaguez, Colegio de Ciencias Agrícolas. Estación Experimental Agrícola Río Piedras, 29 p.

Manton, J. L., Hollingsworth, R. G., & Cabos, R. Y. (2012). Potential of Steinernema carpocapsae (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) Against Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Hawai'i. Florida Entomologist, 95(4), 1194-1197.

Molina Acevedo, J. P., & López Núñez, J. C. (2009). Efeito da aplicação de nematoides entomopatogênicos sobre frutos infestados com broca-do-café, Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Nematologia Brasileira, 33, 115-122.

Molina, J. P., & López, J. C. (2002). Desplazamiento y parasitismo de entomonematodos hacia frutos infestados con la broca del café, Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Revista Colombiana de Entomología 28 (2): 145-151.

NAPPO (2007). Detection of the Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus hampei, in Puerto Rico - United States. Official Pest Reports http://www.pestalert.org/oprDetail.cfm?oprID=281 (last accessed 25 march 2017).

Noujeim, E., Rehayem, M., & Nemer, N. (2015). Comparison of indigenous and exotic entomopathogenic nematode strains for control of the cedar web-spinning sawfly, Cephalcia tannourinensis in vitro. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 25(7), 843-851.

Pardey, A. B. (2006). Una revisión sobre la broca del café, Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), en Colombia. Revista Colombiana de Entomología, 32, 101-116.

Poinar G. O. Jr., Vega, F. E., Castillo, A., Chavez, I., & Infante, F. (2004). Metaparasitylenchus hypothenemi n. sp. (Nematoda: Allantonematidae), a parasite of the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Curculionidae: Scolytinae). Journal of Parasitology, 90(5), 1106-1110.

Soto-Pinto, L., Perfecto, I., & Caballero-Nieto, J. (2002). Shade over coffee: its effects on berry borer, leaf rust and spontaneous herbs in Chiapas, Mexico. Agroforestry systems, 55(1), 37-45.

Shah, P. A., & Pell, J. K. (2003). Entomopathogenic fungi as biological control agents. Applied microbiology and biotechnology, 61(5-6), 413-423.

Shapiro-Ilan, D. I., Gaugler, R., Tedders, W. L., Brown, I., & Lewis, E. E. (2002). Optimization of inoculation for in vivo production of entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal of Nematology, 34(4), 343.

Talbot, J. M. (2004). Grounds for agreement: The political economy of the coffee commodity chain. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

206 Vänninen, I. (1996). Distribution and occurrence of four entomopathogenic fungi in Finland: effect of geographical location, habitat type and soil type. Mycological Research, 100(1), 93-101.

White, C. F. (1927). A method for obtaining infective larvae from culture. Science 66: 302-303.

Zimmermann, G. (1986). The ‘Galleria bait method’ for detection of entomopathogenic fungi in soil. Journal of Applied Entomology, 102(1‐5), 213-215.

Figure 1. Survey locations of entomopathogens. X indicates the sampled locations. The gray area represents the main coffee production area in Puerto Rico, 2016-2017. Table 1. Percentage of Galleria mellonella mortality.

Farms

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

% Mortality*

Replica 1 30 85 10 0 30 20 100 0 0 15 6 25 55 50 15 30 40 40 7 17 0 0

Replica 2 30 65 5 5 75 - 45 10 0 10 11 50 70 45 25 5 20 50 0 13 0 7

Replica 3 45 45 55 0 80 - - 30 15 10 7 85 30 70 55 10 40 60 10 23 0 10

Average 35 65 23.3 1.6 61.6 20 72.5 13.3 5 11.6 8 53.3 51.6 55 31.6 15 33.3 50 5.6 17.6 0 5.6

*Based on 30 larvae per replica.

207 Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 208-214. 2017

FLUCTUACIÓN POBLACIONAL DE LA PALOMILLA DEL REPOLLO, PLUTELLA XYLOSTELLA (L.) (LEPIDOPTERA: PLUTELLIDAE), Y SU PARASITOIDE DIADEGMA INSULARE CRESSON (HYMENOPTERA: ICHNEUMONIDAE) BAJO LA INFLUENCIA DE TRATAMIENTOS COMERCIALES Y SELECTIVOS

Laura D. López F.1, Manuel de Jesús Sosa A.1 y Colmar Serra2. 1 Estudiantes de Maestría en Diversificación Agrícola, Universidad Nacional Pedro Henríquez Ureña (UNPHU); 2Asesor, Investigador Titular, Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales (IDIAF). RESUMEN: Se determinó la fluctuación poblacional de la polilla dorso de diamante (PDD) del repollo, P. xylostella, y su principal parasitoide D. insulare bajo la influencia de la aplicación de insecticidas comerciales, determinando la capacidad de sobrevivencia del parasitoide con relación a los tratamientos. La investigación fue realizada en la Estación Experimental de Constanza del IDIAF, provincia La Vega, en la Cordillera Central (a 1,150 m.s.n.m.), considerándose esta localidad la mayor productora de repollo (Brassica oleracea L.). La temperatura promedio anual es de 18.4 OC y la precipitación promedio de 922 mm. Se determinó la fluctuación poblacional de P. xylostella, y de su parasitoide D. insulare bajo la influencia de los tratamientos realizados. El experimento se estableció en diseño de bloques completos al azar con seis tratamientos y cuatro repeticiones. Los tratamientos fueron 2 insecticidas químico-sintéticos, 2 entomopatógenos (bacteria y hongo) y uno botánico: 1) Testigo, 2) Clorfenapir, 3) Diafentiuron, 4) Bacillus thuringiensis, 5) Beauveria bassiana, 6) Aceite formulado (50%) de nim , Azadirachta indica. Las evaluaciones se realizaron semanalmente tomándose 10 plantas al azar por repetición y tres hojas por planta en las cuales se cuantificaron los estadios de la plaga. Las pupas recolectadas fueron llevadas al laboratorio para esperar la emergencia de adultos de la plaga o de parasitoides. Todos los productos comerciales probados, excepto el aceite de nim redujeron significativamente las poblaciones de la PDD. El parasitismo de D. insulare varió entre de 14-44 %, registrándose el mayor porcentaje para B. thuringiensis, siendo el menor para el hongo B. bassiana, mientras que el parasitismo total varió entre 21 (B. bassiana) y 59% (nim). En la cosecha del 2001, se consiguió un significativo mayor peso del repollo para el tratamiento B. bassiana y Diafentiuron comparado con el testigo. Además de D. insulare se encontraron otros parasitoides como Oomyzus sokolowskii (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), Conura sp. (Hym.: Chalcididae) y otros dos aún no identificados. Como forma de regular las poblaciones de la polilla del repollo en el campo deben conservarse los enemigos naturales, constituyendo estos últimos un recurso importante en un programa de Manejo Integrado de Plagas. Palabras claves: repollo, palomilla, parasitoides, control biológico, insecticidas sintéticos, microbiológicos, entomopatógenos, Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana, botánicos, Azadirachta indica.

Abstract The population fluctuations of of the diamondback moth (PDD) of the cabbage, P. xylostella, and its main parasitoid D. insulare were determined under the influence of the application of commercial insecticides, determining the survival capacity of the parasitoid in relation to the treatments. The research was carried out in the Experimental Station of Constanza of the IDIAF, province of La Vega, in the Cordillera Central (at 1,150 m.s.n.m.), being the locality considered

208 the largest producing area of cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.). The average annual temperature is 18.4 ºC and the average precipitation is 922 mm. The population fluctuation, P. xylostella, and its parasitoid D. insulare under the influence of the treatments were determined. The experiment was established in randomized complete block design with six treatments and four replicates. The treatments were 2 chemical-synthetic insecticides, 2 entomopathogens (bacterium and fungus) and one botanical: 1) untreated check, 2) Chlorfenapyr, 3) Diafentiuron, 4) Bacillus thuringiensis, 5) Beauveria bassiana, 6) 50% formulated oil neem oil, Azadirachta indica. The evaluations were carried out weekly by taking 10 random plants per replicate and three leaves per plant in which the stages of the pest were quantified. The collected pupae were taken to the laboratory to await the emergence of adults from the pest or parasitoids. All commercial products tested, except for nim oil, significantly reduced the populations of PDD. The parasitism of D. insulare ranged from 14-44%, with the highest percentage for B. thuringiensis, being the lowest for the B. bassiana fungus, while the overall parasitism ranged between 21 (B. bassiana) and 59% (neem). In the 2001 harvest, a significant greater weight of the cabbage was obtained for the treatment B. bassiana and Diafentiuron compared to the control. In addition to D. insulare, other parasitoids such as Oomyzus sokolowskii (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), Conura sp. (Hym.: Chalcididae) and two as yet unidentified. As a way of regulating cabbage moth populations in the field, natural enemies should be preserved, the latter being an important resource in an Integrated Pest Management program.

Keywords: cabbage, moth, parasitoids, biological control, synthetic insecticides, entomopatogens, Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana, botanicals, Azadirachta indica. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS El estudio fue realizado en la estación experimental del Instituto Dominicano de Investigación Agropecuaria y Forestal (IDIAF) en Constanza, provincia La Vega ubicada en la cordillera central a unos 1,150 metros sobre el nivel del mar entre las coordenadas geográficas 180 35, latitud Norte 700 43, longitud Oeste. La temperatura promedio anual es de 18-200c y una precipitación promedio de 922 mm con 108 días promedio de lluvia, en la zona predomina el bosque húmedo montañoso bajo según la clasificación de zona de vida. El estudio de campo comprendió dos ciclos del cultivo de 2 de mayo al 25 de julio del año 2000 y del 12 de julio al 7 de septiembre del 2001; la variedad utilizada fue “Izalco NK” que fue la mayormente sembrada en la zona. El trabajo de laboratorio fue realizado en el Laboratorio de Manejo Integrado de Plagas, Facultad de Agronomía de la Universidad Nacional Pedro Henríquez Ureña (UNPHU). Los experimentos se establecieron en diseño de bloques completos al azar (6 tratamientos y 4 repeticiones). Cada parcela (unidad experimental) contó con 150 m2, separados a 0.40 m entre plantas y 0.70 m entre hilera, con una separación entre bloques de 3 m, para un tamaño de bloque de 1,124 m2, siendo el total del área experimental de 0.45 ha.

Tabla 1. Tratamientos en estudio

No. Ingrediente activo Nombre comercial Dosis aplicada 1 Testigo (agua) 2 Clorfenapir Pirate ® 400ml/ha 3 Diafentiuron Pegasus® 1.1 litro/ha 4 Bacillus thuringiensis Turilav® 250 g/200litros 5 Beauveria bassiana Bauveril® 50 g/200litros 6 Azadirachta indica, aceite formulado Ace neem® 5 ml /litro

209 Después de cada evaluación se hacían las aplicaciones de los tratamientos si la información obtenida en el campo así lo requería; es decir si se registró 1 o más larvas por planta se realizaba la aplicación, exceptuando el testigo. Evaluaciones: El muestreo se realizó semanalmente, iniciándose una semana después del trasplante y finalizando una semana antes de la cosecha (ensayo 2: 19/7-25/9/2001). En cada parcela experimental se muestrearon 10 plantas seleccionadas al azar y 3 hojas por planta, utilizando método de muestreo visual para un total de 240 plantas muestreadas en todo el experimento, de cada planta seleccionada para el muestreo fueron revisada 3 hojas para un total de 720 hojas en todo el experimento, las cuales se revisaban tanto en el haz como en el envés. Las variables evaluadas fueron: huevos, larvas, pupas, adultos de P. xylostella, D. insulare u otros parasitoides. Los inmaduros (huevos y larvas) fueron contados directamente en las hojas seleccionadas al azar para evaluar las plantas de repollo, las pupas fueron colectadas en las hojas evaluadas y llevadas al laboratorio de Manejo Integrado de Plagas de la UNPHU para esperar la emergencias de los diferentes estados adultos tanto de la plaga, el parasitoide D. insulare como otras especies de parasitoides. Las pupas fueron colectadas en viales o frascos de vidrio debidamente identificados y trasladado al laboratorio de la UNPHU bajo temperatura controlada de 280C donde fueron colocados en nuevos frascos y observados todos los días esperando la emergencia de adultos de la polilla P. xylostella, de su parasitoide D. insulare u otros. Los parasitoides emergidos fueron colocados en frascos con alcohol al 70o para su conservación y posterior identificación (Bertolaccini et al. 2010). A las pupas que no emergieron se les hizo disección con ayuda de una lupa y pinza para determinar si estaban parasitadas o contenían la polilla del repollo. Las trampas amarillas fueron colocadas en todas las parcelas y expuesta durante una semana, las cuales fueron retiradas y llevadas al laboratorio para su conteo con ayuda de un estereoscopio o lupa. La cosecha se realizó 75 días después de la siembra. Se tomaron 10 cabezas de repollo por bloque y por tratamiento, de las cuales se midió el diámetro y se tomó el peso sacándose una media de los mismos.

Estadísticas: Los datos obtenidos tanto en campo como en laboratorio en las fechas de evaluaciones se sometieron usando el paquete estadístístico Infostat® (Univ.Nac. de Córdoba, Argentina, versión 2010) a un análisis de varianza (ANAVA) comparando medias con la prueba de Tukey con un nivel de significancia de (p≤ 0.05) luego que se comprobó que cumplían con los prerrequisitos de distribución normal de datos y homogeneidad de varianza. Los datos aquí presentados cumplieron con los requisitos por lo que no fue necesario someterlos a pruebas no paramétricas (Kruskal-Wallis) seguido de una comparación de rangos medios.

RESULTADOS

Otras plagas encontradas durante los ensayos fueron: Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Trichoplusia ni, Frankliniella occidentalis, áfidos, moscas blancas Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Algunos resultados del 2do. Ensayo serán presentados a continuación. En Figura 1 están representadas las fluctuaciones poblacionales de la plaga, la polilla del repollo, P. xylostella, medido en huevos, larvas y pupas contadas semanalmente en las plantas de repollo. En cuanto a los huevos contados, los valores se mantuvieron relativamente bajos para el aceite formulado de nim (A. indica) durante todo el periodo evaluado. La mayor cantidad de huevos se registró el 9/8, 21 días después de la siembra (dds) en etapa de crecimiento, donde plantas tratadas

210 con el químico-sintético Clorfenapir superaron signitivamente (p=0.016*) a aquellas de nim y la bacteria B. thuringiensis sin presencia de huevos o solo minimamente (testigo) y valores intermedios para el hongo entomopatógeno B. bassiana y el otro insecticida químico sintético Diafentiuron. La curva de densidades de larvas mostró picos entre 14 y 21 dds (2/9 y 9/8), con diferencias significativas (p<0.0001***) a los 21 dds entre el B. thuringiensis superando en promedio a todos los tratamientos excepto el testigo, mientras que el nim difiere solamente con el B. thuringiensis. En cuanto a las pupas, se registraron niveles de significancia en todas las siete fechas (p=0.039* hasta <0.0001***), No se observaron diferencias estadísticas a los 28 dds en etapa de crecimiento entre Clorfenapir, Diafentiuron, B. thuringiensis y B. bassiana, pero si existen diferencias muy altamente significativas (p= 0.0002 ***, TT) entre estos tratamientos con A. indica y el testigo. La mayor cantidad de pupas se produjo el 16/8 (35 dds) en el testigo con 18.75 pupas/30 hojas existiendo diferencias altamente significativas (p= 0.0046**, K-W) con Clorfenapir, Diafentiuron, B. thuringiensis, B. bassiana. Hay diferencias significativas entre A. indica superando a B. bassiana. En la Figura 2 en las primeras dos y a partir de la quinta evaluación no hubo diferencias estadísticas entre los tratamientos concerniente la emergencia de polillas (P. xylostella). A. indica (nim) registró su mayor valor a los 28 dds (9/8), a niveles similares que el testigo. Ambos presentan diferencias muy altamente significativas (p= 0.0008***) con todos los demás tratamientos. El testigo obtuvo el máximo promedio a los 35 dds (16/8) con 8.75 teniendo diferencia altamente significativa (p= 0.0031** TT) con los tratamientos de B. bassiana, B. thuringiensis, Clorfenapir, Diafentiuron, A. indica. En cuanto al parasitoide, D. insulare, en tres evaluaciones (28, 35 y 44 dds, 9/8, 16/8 y 25/8) hubo diferencias altamente significativas (p=0.0011**, 0.0011** y 0.0018**, respectivamente). Los mayores valores de emergencia del parasitoide (D. insulare) se produjeron en la segunda de estas fecha (16/8), coincidiendo con la mayor emergencia de polillas. De pupas recolectadas en el testigo, se obtuvieron significativamente más parasitoides que de todos los demás tratamientos, excepto del nim, el cual tampoco se diferenció del B. thuringiensis, Diafentiuron y Clorfenapir. En Tabla 1 están representadas la emergencia porcentual de estadios adultos de las pupas colectadas en las parcelas. Tanto en el total de pupas obtenidas como el porciento de polillas, D. insulare y parasitismo total hubo diferencias altamente significativas (p= 0.0059**, 0.0149* y 0.0197*, respectivamente), no así para los otros parasitoides en cantidades menores correspondiendo según Sánchez (2000) a las especies Oomyzus zokolowskii (Hymenoptera: Chacididae) y Conura spp. (Hym.: Eulophidae). En cuanto a las pupas en muestras del testigo y del nim (A. indica) se colectaron significativamente más que en los otros tratamientos. Para las polillas emergidas, las diferencias significativas existieron entre las muestras de los tratamientos Clorfenapir y B. bassiana, superando las del aceite de nim, mientras que no se diferenciaron de los demás. El % del parasitoide D. insulare arrojó diferencias estadísticas entre el mayor promedio de la bacteria B. thuringiensis y los menores del Clorfenapir y del hongo B. bassiana. Para el % del parasitismo total, el nim superó significativamente al hongo, sin diferencias estadísticas entre los demás tratamientos. Tabla 2 presenta los resultados de la cosecha en cuanto a los promedios de diámetros de repollos y sus respectivos pesos con diferencias significativas (p= 0.0042** y 0.0097**, respectivamente). En ambos parámetros, repollos provenientes de parcelas tratadas con el hongo B. bassiana y Diafentiuron superaron a los del testigo, mientras hubo similitud entre los demás tratamientos.

211

40 35 30 25 20 15

10 Huevos/ 30 30 hojas Huevos/ 5 0 19-Jul 25-Jul 2-Agost 9-agos 16-agos 25-agos 30-agos 7-Sept Prom. huevo

120 100 80 60

40 Larvas/ 30 hojas Larvas/30 20 0 19-Jul 25-Jul 2-Agost 9-agos 16-agos 25-agos 30-agos Prom. larvas

Testigo Clorfenapir Diafentiuron B. thuringiensis B. bassiana A. indica 20

15

10

5 Pupas 30 / Pupas hojas

0 25-Jul 2-Ago 9-agos 16-agos 25-agos 30-agos 7-Sept Prom. pupa Fecha de Evaluacion

Figura 1. Huevos, larvas y pupas de P. xylostella evaluadas en 30 hojas de 10 plantas de repollo (Constanza 19/7-7/9/2001, 7-57 dds).

212 10

8

en en Lab. 6

4

2 P. xylostella P. 0 25-Jul 2-Ago 9-Ago 16-Ago 25-Ago 30-Ago 7-Sep

Figura 2. Emergencia a partir de pupas recolectadas (13-57 dds) de polillas (P. xylostella) de adultos y sus parasitoides (D. insulare) en el laboratorio, UNPHU

Tabla 1. Emergencia porcentual de polillas y parasitoides de pupas colectadas en repollo (Constanza, 2001). Total % polillas % Parasitismo Trat. pupas P. xylostella D. insulare Otros Total Testigo 43.2 b 50.0ab 33.4ab 13.8 47.3ab Clorfenapir 12.5a 72.8 b 13.4a 13.4 26.8ab Diafentiuron 13.7a 65.6ab 20.3ab 8.8 29.1ab B. thuringiensis 13.7a 47.4ab 44.3 b 6.7 52.6ab B. bassiana 10.8a 79.1 b 14.2a 19.3 20.9a A. indica (nim) 38.5 b 39.9a 39.5ab 8.3 58.8 b sign. (p=) <.0001*** 0.0059** 0.0149* 0.56 ns 0.0197* C.V. 26.88 23.63 46.69 89.69 39.64 Medias de una columna con una letra común no son significativamente diferentes (p>0.05, ANAVA-Tukey test).

213 Tabla 2. Diámetro y peso de repollo (Constanza, 2001).

Tratamientos Ø en cm Peso (Kg) Testigo 16.0a_ 0.20a_ Clorfenapir 23.4ab 0.60ab Diafentiuron 28.9 b 0.92 b B. thuringiensis 24.4ab 0.54ab B. bassiana 29.9 b 0.95 b A. indica (nim) 19.8 b 0.58ab sign. (p=) 0.0042** 0.0097 C.V. 18.86 41.31 Medias de una columna con una letra común no son significativamente diferentes (p>0.05, ANAVA-Tukey test).

CONCLUSIÓN Con ciertas inconsistencias, los menores índices de infestación y obtención de pupas de la polilla se lograron en los tratamientos químico-sintéticos Clofenapir y Diafentiuron, sin embargo, fueron, sobre todo el primero, los que más afectaron al parasitismo de la plaga. Mientras tanto, el aceite de nim, que solamente contiene residuos del ingrediente activo azadiractina (Serra 1992), por lo que no fue apenas efectivo contra la polilla al contrario de extractos de semillas y torta de nim. Quizas se logro un efecto deterrente a la oviposición, no afectó a los parasitoides de forma similar que el testigo. El principal parasitoide D. insulare y las dos especies mostraron una relativamente alta eficiencia. En el ensayo presentado, solamente dos tratamientos (B. bassiana y Diafentiuron lograron incrementar el rendimiento y la calidad de los reporllos. Por los problemas conocidos con insecticidas y la prohibición de productos químicos-sintéticos como los usados en el ensayo, se debería utilizar productos selectivos para garantizar un manejo sostenible de la polilla, integrando otros métodos agro-ecológicos. LITERATURA CITADA Bertolaccini, I.; Sánchez, D. Y Arregui, C. 2010. Incidencia de Algunos Factores Naturales de Mortalidad de Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), en el área Centro-Este de Santa Fe, Argentina. Horticultura Argentina 29(68): 20-24. Sánchez, L. 2000. Inventario de los Parasitoides de Plutella xylostella L., en La República Dominicana. Tesis de Ingeniería Agronómica. Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD). Santo Domingo, Rep. Dom. pp. 43. Serra, C. 1992: Untersuchungen zum Einsatz von Niemsamenextrakten im Rahmen integrierter Ansätze zur Bekämpfung von Tomatenschädlingen in der Dominikanischen Republik (Investigaciones para el uso de extractos de semillas de nim en conceptos integrados para el control de plagas del tomate en la R.D.). Tesis de doctorado (Ph.D.), Universidad de Giessen, Alemania, Wissenschaftlicher Fachverlag, Giessen/ Alemania,186 pp.(ISBN 3-928563-39-4)

214 Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 215. 2017

NEW BACHELOR ́S DEGREE IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PUERTO RICO-UTUADO Olgaly Ramos, Mariangie Ramos, Marisol Dávila, Freddie Pérez, Carlos Semidei, Andre Sanfiorenzo and Eladio González, University of Puerto Rico, Utuado Campus.

ABSTRACT: The Department of Agricultural Technology at the University of Puerto Rico- Utuado will begin to offer a new Bachelor of Arts in Sustainable Agriculture. This new undergraduate degree is unique in that it integrates, through theory and practice, the three pillars of sustainability: economic, environmental, and social aspects. The curriculum incorporates these three pillars in order to develop professionals with an interdisciplinary vision of global agriculture and food systems, while considering the environmental and social challenges humans face. The new program requires 121 credits for its completion, and gives the students flexibility to adjust and customize their coursework with the advice of their academic counselor. To promote this individuality, the proposed curriculum provides 15 credits for directed electives, distributed among the three pillars of sustainability, and 12 credits for free electives. The new program addresses the demand from students interested in learning agricultural practices that are compatible with environmental conservation efforts. This program is mainly focused on students who: want to continue developing their family farms; are new to farming and want to start an organic or agro- ecological farm; want to work for national and international sustainable development projects; or, want to continue graduate studies in the emerging disciplines related to sustainable food systems. Graduates will be capable of sustainably managing the agroecosystems, considering the environment, the economic viability of their practices, and the social, cultural and community contexts of their surroundings.

Keywords: Sustainable agriculture, University of Puerto Rico, Bachelor Degree

215 Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 216-219. 2017

ASSESSMENT OF TRANSITION TOWARD CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE IN GUADELOUPE

Stan Selbonne and Jean-Marc Blazy, Institut National de Recherche Agronomique (INRA).

ABSTRACT: Unlike conventional agriculture, agro-ecology can’t provide a common model for the arrangement of a farming system. Due to the complexity of ecosystems and the specificity of each situation, the arrangement of an integrated system would always be based on specific strategies using more or less common practices.

INTRODUCTION

In order to cope with the challenge of a better harmonization between economic, social and environmental performances, this project aims to collect, propose and experiment original knowledge to explore potential of agro-ecological and sustainable soil management practices for the transition toward climate-smart farming systems. A climate-smart micro-farm is currently being set- up in the region of Nord Basse-Terre (NBT) at Duclos INRA’s experimental station (Guadeloupe).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

2 In order to investigate obstacles and constraints for an agro-ecological transition, a 6100 m field was chosen to set up a pilot farm. Indeed, the first assumption is that integration of ecology into agro- systems as well as the study of a transition from conventional systems to agro-ecology can’t be handle at a lower scale than the farm. The first question was how to start? Where shall we begin?

I. In accordance with the first question, increasing diversity was assumed as the main agro- ecological lever. To define the most suitable way of integrating diversity into actual systems, a typology of the most typical cropping systems found in the region of Nord Basse-Terre (NBT) was built. The typology was carried out using a data base of 4251 farming systems.

II.The second step was to introduce agro-ecological practices in each cropping systems using a method called “innovation tracking” (Meynard, 2014). This method is currently in progress and is mobilizing expert knowledge to define the best innovative practices.

III. The third step of the prototyping was to organize the different cropping systems at the farm level as a function of decision factors clearly defined.

IV. The fourth step will be to present the prototype to stakeholders (farmers and researchers) for discussion and optimization.

V. The fifth step is the establishment of the micro-farm.

216 VI. The sixth step will be to gather data during several years and use them through two tools in order to improve the micro-farm functioning: emergy evaluation with a set of other indicators, and MOSAICA software. In addition, the micro-farm will be the place for regular meeting and exchange with different stakeholders, farmers in particular.

RESULTS

Five cropping systems were selected for the prototyping of the micro-farm in accordance with the typology of figure 1: sugar cane, pasture, banana, garden market and tuber. A supplementary cropping system called “Caribbean” was introduced in order to experiment pre-Columbian crops and practices (cassava, sweet potatoes, pepper, pineapple). Some of them are currently marginally produced but could we well adapted to develop low-input cropping systems.

“Innovation tracking” is currently carrying out using different sources: farmer’s survey, literature, expert knowledge and traditional practices through peasant’s survey. The current choices are presented in table 1. The massive use of compost (up to 200 t/ha) was found to be an important factor that could be used as a lever for the transition toward climate-smart farming systems. The organization of the micro-farm (position and area of the different blocks, conformation) was conducted following the decision factors listed in table 2. A schema of this organization is presented in figure 2.

217 Table 1. Agro-ecological practices used in the cropping systems

Table 2. Main decision factors for the organization of the different blocks.

DISCUSSION

Through this project a systemic approach is proposed to investigate climate-smart agriculture and transition barriers toward such practices. Rather than measuring resilience of the system with artificial disturbances, the resilience will be measured using indicators through a long term experiment and the natural perturbation that will occur. An initial economic assessment showed -1 -1 - that the net income would be about 13900€.yr .ha with an initial investment cost of 8100€.ha 1 . Biological regulation, ability to mitigate climate change, agronomic and economic performance (e.g. carbon flow, income variability, etc.) will be measured from direct and regular measures on the system. The main constraints identified a priori are the absence of any chemical inputs (fertilizers, pesticides), the time and cost of implementing the system and the commercial work for selling a high diversity of products. An emergy evaluation will also be conducted in order to assess the environmental performance of the system. During the experimentation, stakeholder will also greatly be involved in the system analysis and adaptation.

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Figure 3. Overviews of Duclo’s micro-farm (6100m2).

REFERENCES

MEYNARD J.M. (2014). La reconception est en marche ! Conclusion au Colloque « Vers des systèmes de culture innovants et performants : De la théorie à la pratique pour concevoir, piloter, évaluer, conseiller et former ». Innovations Agronomiques 20, 143-153.

219 Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 220-225. 2017

SARGASSUM SEAWEED MULCH EFFECTS IN POTTED TOMATO PLANTS

Kaeiron Saunders and Francis Lopez. Biological and Chemical Sciences Department, The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, Barbados

ABSTRACT: Sargassum seaweed (Sargassum spp.) mulches are likely to have beneficial agro- ecological effects on soil properties and plant growth while reducing inorganic fertilizer needs. Sargassum seaweed mulches (5cm thick) were applied to tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. ‘HA 3019’) plants grown in pots under field conditions. In the first study, the effects of applying Sargassum mulches at varying stages of decomposition (0, 3 and 8 months-old) were investigated alongside no-mulch and inert-mulch control treatments. Fresh Sargassum seaweed (0-months-old) was removed from the beach and washed before application to pots within 48 hours. The 3- and 8-months-old Sargassum mulches were stored under open environmental conditions prior to treatment application. Possible interactive effects between mulch and fertilizer application were explored in a second study involving two mulch treatments (3-months-old Sargassum, inert-mulch Control) and soluble inorganic fertilizer (NPK 24:8:16) applied at 0, 1.5 and 3 g L-1 in irrigation water. Pots were monitored for approximately one month after treatment application and observations on soil properties and plant growth were made at weekly intervals. Soil biological activity and electrical conductivity and plant leaf production were highest for the 3-months-old Sargassum mulch followed by the 8-months-old mulch treatment. Soil properties and plant growth were not significantly affected by the fresh Sargassum mulch treatment compared to the Control treatments. In the second study, plant height, number of leaves and soil moisture content were increased by the Sargassum mulch. Plant dry mass was highest at the 1.5 g L-1 fertilizer level. Leaf chlorophyll index (SPAD) and plant dry mass were significantly increased by the Sargassum mulch treatment only at the 0 g L-1 fertilizer level. The 3-months-old Sargassum mulch appears to give the best results and can contribute significantly to plant nutrient supply, moisture retention and soil biological activity.

Keywords: Soil respiration, SOLVITA, soil pH,

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Two potted plant studies were conducted under open field conditions at the University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, Barbados, during the period January to April 2016. In both studies, tomato ‘HA 3019’ seedlings (3-5 weeks old) were transplanted into 4L pots containing 1:1 sand/soil growing medium filled to 6cm below the rim of each pot. Mulch treatments were applied to the pots at one week after transplanting.

In the first study, soluble fertilizer (24:8:16, Scotts Miracle-Gro Products Inc., USA) was applied to all pots by watering to excess using a solution containing 3 g L-1 fertilizer prior to treatment application. A randomized block design was used in this study with 5 replications and five mulch treatments were applied to the pots: 1. Control (no mulch) 2. Vermiculite (inert mulch)

220 3. Fresh Sargassum (washed) 4. 3-month old Sargassum 5. 8-month old Sargassum

All mulches were applied in a 5cm thick layer above the soil in each pot. Fresh Sargassum was removed from a beach and washed by directing a stream of water from a garden hose to the material in a porous sack for 15 minutes. Prior to use, the 3-month and 8-month old Sargassum were stored under open conditions exposed to rainfall.

In the second study, factorial combinations of two factors (mulch and fertilizer rate) were investigated using a randomized block design with six replications. Two mulches were applied: 1. Control (inert mulch, Vermiculite) 2. 3-months-old Sargassum

Fertilizer was applied just before mulch application and three fertilizer (24:8:16, Miracle-Gro) levels were used: 1. 0 g L-1 2. 1.5 g L-1 3. 3.0 g L-1

Pots in both studies were monitored for one month after treatment application. Plant height, number of leaves and chlorophyll index were determined weekly. A chlorophyll index meter (SPAD 502 Plus, Konica Minolta Sensing Inc., Japan) was used to measure the chlorophyll index on the first fully expanded leaf from the apex of each plant. Plants were harvested after one month by cutting at the base of the stem and total plant dry mass was determined after drying at 80°C for 4 days. After harvesting, samples of the soil rooting medium below the mulch layer were obtained from each pot. These samples were dried at 40°C for 24h, ground and sieved to 2 mm particle size. Soil pH and electrical conductivity were determined using a 1:2.5 soil/water ratio (IQ170, IQ Scientific Instruments, USA). The CO2-Burst method (SOLVITA, Woods End Laboratories Inc., USA) was used to determine soil respiration of the samples.

RESULTS

In the first study, the number of leaves per plant was increased by the mulch treatments compared to the ‘no mulch’ treatment at 15 days after treatment application (Figure 1). Plants treated with the 8-months-old Sargassum mulch had the most leaves per plant at this time. At 23 days after treatment application, the 3-months-old Sargassum mulch treatment had the most of leaves per plant followed by the 8-months-old mulch treatment (Figure 1). After 3 weeks of growth, plant height was not significantly increased by the Sargassum mulch treatments (data not shown).

Soil respiration (SOLVITA) was significantly increased by the 3-months-old Sargassum mulch treatment with some increase also seen for the 8-months-old mulch treatment (Figure 2). There was no significant difference in soil respiration between the ‘no mulch’ and ‘inert mulch’ Control treatments. No significant effects of the fresh Sargassum mulch treatment on soil respiration were noted in this pot study unlike what was found in a recent field study (Saunders et al. 2016). It is likely that differences in the soil medium may account for the differences observed in comparison

221 to the previous study. Differences in soil electrical conductivity paralleled those of soil respiration and there were no significant effects of the mulch treatments on soil pH (data not shown).

In the second study, plant height was significantly increased by the Sargassum mulch over the inert (Vermiculite) mulch treatment at 23 days after treatment application (Figure 3). Significant interactions between fertilizer level and mulch treatment were observed for leaf chlorophyll index (SPAD, Figure 4) and plant dry mass (Figure 5). Leaf chlorophyll index was significantly increased by the Sargassum mulch treatment only at the lowest fertilizer level (0 g L-1, Figure 4). Leaf chlorophyll index for the Sargassum mulch with 0 g L-1 fertilizer treatment was similar to values obtained at higher fertilizer levels. Plant dry mass was greatest for the 1.5 g L-1 fertilizer treatment and was significantly increased by the Sargassum mulch only at the 0 g L-1 fertilizer level (Figure 5). Plant moisture content at harvest was significantly higher for the Sargassum mulch treatment (mean = 60.9%) compared to the inert mulch control (mean = 46.1%, se = 3.35%, p = 0.005, n = 15).

Figure 1. Effects of mulch treatment with Sargassum of different decomposition ages (0, 3 and 8 months) on the number of leaves per plant of tomato over 3 measurement times. A ‘no mulch’ treatment and an inert mulch (vermiculite) were used as Controls.

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Figure 2. Effects of mulch treatment with Sargassum of different decomposition ages (0, 3 and 8 months) on soil respiration (SOLVITA Soil CO2 release) in potted tomato plants, using a no mulch treatment and an inert mulch (vermiculite) as Controls.

Figure 3. Effects of 3-months-old Sargassum Mulch on plant height of tomato using an inert mulch (Vermiculite) as a Control. * indicates a significant difference from the corresponding value of the Vermiculite Control at the 5% significance level.

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Figure 4. Effects of 3-months-old Sargassum mulch and fertilizer level on Chlorophyll Index (SPAD) of tomato leaves using an inert mulch (Vermiculite) as a Control. * indicates a significant difference from the corresponding value of the Vermiculite Control at the 5% significance level.

Figure 5. Effects of 3-months-old Sargassum mulch and fertilizer level on plant dry mass of tomato using an inert mulch (Vermiculite) as a Control. * indicates a significant difference from the corresponding value of the Vermiculite Control at the 5% significance level.

224 CONCLUSION

Soil biological activity and plant growth were significantly increased with the application Sargassum mulch to potted tomato plants. The 3-months-old Sargassum mulch appears to give the best results compared to fresh and 8-months-old Sargassum. In the absence of fertilizer, decaying Sargassum mulch can supply plant nutrients leading to improved leaf chlorophyll indices, plant growth and tissue moisture content. Results indicate that the Sargassum mulch performed much better than the inert (Vermiculite) mulch used as a Control.

LITERATURE CITED

Saunders, K., J. Belgrave and F. B. Lopez. 2016. “Mulching effects of fresh Sargassum seaweed on soil properties and plant growth.” Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society 52.

225 ROOTS AND TUBERS SYMPOSIUM Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:226-228. 2017

SITUACIÓN DEL CULTIVO DE RAÍCES Y TUBÉRCULOS EN PUERTO RICO

Mildred Cortes. Departamento de Economía Agrícola, Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez. [email protected] RESUMEN: El cultivo de raíces y tubérculos en Puerto Rico tienen gran importancia para los puertorriqueños como alimento básico, sobre todo en zona central del país. Además de ser un elemento de seguridad alimentaria también genera empleos e ingreso para quienes los producen. Puerto Rico ha visto reducirse su producción en los pasados años. Varios factores han tenido que ver con esto, entre ellos nuestros altos costos de producción, la competencia de las importaciones, plagas y enfermedades y cambio en gustos y preferencias. El cultivo de ñame es el de mayor importancia económica , seguido por la yautía, el apio, la batata, el jengibre y la yuca. La mayor parte del consumo local proviene de las importaciones. Actualmente producimos de entre el 2% al 52% de lo que consumimos. El valor a nivel de la finca de estos cultivos ascendió a $6.0 millones. Palabras claves: farináceos, ñame, malanga, yautía, yuca, batata, apio, jengibre

INTRODUCCIÓN En Puerto Rico la producción de raíces y tubérculos son un sector de importancia para los consumidores. En los pasados años su producción se ha reducido por múltiples razones, tales como altos costos de producción, competencia de las importaciones, plagas y enfermedades y cambio en gustos y preferencias. El valor a nivel de la finca de su producción ascendió a $6.0 millones en el 2015 (Fig. 1). Cada uno de estos puntos que se han identificado como factores que van en detrimento del sector y por ende de nuestros agricultores, especialmente los de la zona de la montaña. Los mismos en una acción coordinada se están tratando de atender para minimizar su impacto y lograr que estos cultivos vuelvan a posicionarse como fuente de alimentos y generador de empleos e ingresos. Tanto el Colegio de Ciencias Agrícolas a través de sus tres componentes: Estación Experimental Agrícola, Servicio de Extensión Agrícola y Facultad así como el Departamento de Agricultura de Puerto Rico han tomado medidas para atender la situación. La mayor parte del consumo de estos cultivos provienen de las importaciones. La producción local podría decirse que es mínima en relación al total del consumo, la proporción del consumo local que atendemos fluctúan entre 52% la mayor con el apio y 1.6% la proporción menor con el cultivo de malangas (Fig. 2). Por el consumo actual sabemos que la producción local tiene una demanda importante y tenemos la oportunidad de sustituir importaciones. Para atender esta situación se han tomado medidas puntuales a través de proyectos de importancia para el sector. Estos proyectos están coordinados entre las agencias concernidas.

MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS Se evaluaron los proyectos de investigación vigentes en el Colegio de Ciencias Agrícolas manejados en la Oficina de Investigaciones de la Estación Experimental Agrícola. El cultivo de ñame es el de mayor importancia económica en Puerto Rico, la Dra. Merari Feliciano tiene su cargo un importante proyecto para atender situaciones de enfermedades en el cultivo. En lo que

226

respecta a la yautía el Prof. Ángel Bosques ha liderado exitosamente durante los pasados años un proyecto para atender la situación del mal seco y la necesidad de semilla de calidad para los agricultores. El Prof. Luis Ernesto Rivera ha liderado un proyecto para siembra y manejo de malanga en la zona semi árida de Puerto Rico con el propósito de establecer un protocolo de siembra en esta zona zona que requiere riego por goteo y además proveer semilla de calidad a los agricultores. Con respecto al cultivo d apio la Dra. Martha Cecilia Giraldo ha estado liderando un proyecto dirigido a evaluar las causas de la pudrición del apio (Arracacia Xanthorriza Bancroft)) y proveer semilla sana a los agricultores, evaluando más de un método de propagación. También ha sido un proyecto exitoso. Además de los proyectos antes mencionados se continúan evaluando en campo los cultivos de yuca, batata y jengibre. Para estos proyectos bandera de la empresa se han diseñado talleres de capacitación para los agricultores con el propósito de que la entrega de semilla sana vaya acompañada con el conocimiento del manejo del cultivo por zona y variedad.

RESULTADOS Todos los proyectos considerados han arrojado resultados promisorios para los cultivos de raíces y tubérculos en Puerto Rico. En lo que respecta al cultivo de ñame, como resultado de las investigaciones realizadas se preparó una guía de producción tomando en consideración aspectos importantes para una cosecha exitosa. Respecto al cultivo de yautía se ha entregado a los agricultores semilla de yautía y además se les ha capacitado en el manejo de la misma. También se ha entregado semilla de malanga a agricultores y se ha ofrecido capacitación a los agricultores para el manejo exitoso del cultivo en la zona del llano. Como resultado del proyecto de apio se ha producido semilla en municipios no tradicionales, la semilla que se ha cosechado así como la producida a través de cultivo de tejido se ha compartido con los agricultores.

CONCLUSIONES A la luz de los resultados preliminares de los proyectos antes mencionados esperamos un aumento importante en los cultivos de raíces y tubérculos en Puerto Rico para los próximos años. Además de poder sustituir importaciones se espera generar mayor ingresos y empleos, aumentado las cantidades sembradas de cada uno de los cultivos. Los farináceos representan para Puerto Rico seguridad alimentaria. Estudios realizados previamente reportan el apoyo de los consumidores por producto local ( Cortés y Gayol, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2013)

LITERATURA CITADA Cortés, M. y L. Gayol, 2006. Componentes de la empresa de plátanos en Puerto Rico. J. Agric. Univ. P.R. 90 (3-4): 237-244.

Cortés, M. y L. Gayol, 2009. Análisis descriptivo de las preferencias de los consumidores de raíces y tubérculos en Puerto Rico. J. Agric. Univ. P.R. 93(3-4):273-276

Cortés, M. y L. Gayol, 2012. Cambio en las preferencias del consumidor de plátano en Puerto Rico, 2003-2008. J. Agric. Univ. P.R. 96, (1-2) 107-116

Cortés M. y L. Gayol, 2013. Preferencia de los consumidores de fruita del pais en Puerto Rico. Bol. 307. Esta. Exp. Agric., CCA. Recinto Univ. Mayaguez

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Departamento de Agricultura de Puerto Rico, 2017. Ingreso Bruto Agrícola, Oficicina de Estadisticas Agrícolas.

Departamento de Agricultura de Puerto Rico, 2017. Tablas de Consumo de Ñame, Yautia, Malanga, Yuca, Apio, Jengibre, Oficicina de Estadisticas Agrícolas.

Figura 1. Ingreso bruto de los farináceos 2014-15.

Figura 2. Consumo per cápita y producción de farináceos.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:229. 2017

CONTROL METHODS FOR "CORM-ROT DISEASE" IN APIO (ARRACACIA XANTHORRHIZA BANCROFT) IN PUERTO RICO

1Mayra Cathme, 2Martha C. Giraldo, 3José A. Chavarría-Carvajal, 3Raúl Macchiavelli and 3Agenol González-Vélez1. Master Student; 2Assistant Professor; 3Professor, Department of Agro-Environmental Sciences, Mayagüez Campus, University of Puerto Rico. P.O. Box 9000, Mayagüez P.R. 00681. Corresponding author: [email protected]. 7878590012

ABSTRACT: The “Corm-rot disease” of apio (Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancroft) is the most important limitation of its commercial production in the highlands of Puerto Rico. The disease could reach a 100% of yield losses (Ortiz, et al 2003). The principal symptoms include wilt and yellowing of the plant, and wet-corm rot. Previous studies, reported this disease as a fungus and bacteria complex. Phytophthora palmivora, Rhizoctonia spp., Fusarium spp. and Erwinia spp., were associated to the disease (Ortiz-Vázquez 2007; Rosa-Márquez et al., 2000). Recent studies, found nematodes in higher population in soil from the most affected apio farms, and the most frequent was the phytonematode Rotylenchulus reniformis. We begin our study under the presumption that the “Corm-rot disease” is caused by secondary organisms like fungi and bacteria that colonized the corm after nematode damage. In the last ten years the apio crop yield has decrees since the disease appears and it obligates to import apio from other countries (Cortés, 2015). There is no information about this disease and methods for its control, moreover there are any registered product to reduce the field losses due to this disease. The objective of our research is to evaluate some cultural practices to reduce the nematode populations and the losses by the “Corm-rot disease” of apio. Keywords: apio, corm-rot disease, cultural practices, plant-parasitic nematodes.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:230-235. 2017

RESILIENCE OF COLLETOTRICHUM GLOESPORIOIDES STRAINS INFECTING WATER YAMS TO DRY PERIOD AND ELEVATED TEMPERATURE STRESSES. GUYADER Sébastien, SALLES Michèle, LOMBARD Corinne, PENET Laurent, PETRO Dalila, BUSSIERE François. ASTRO Agrosystèmes tropicaux, INRA, 97170, Petit-Bourg (Guadeloupe), France email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: Many studies have used epidemic models in conjunction with climate change projections to predict the effects of climate on plant pests, but have focused on the effects of average air temperature, humidity and rainfall. However, in most scenarios climate change is expected to increase the variability in climatic parameters, leading to potentially more extreme records in temperature, rainfall, or drought periods. In this paper, we studied the survival capacity of the anthracnose pathogen Colletotrichum gloesporioides infecting water yam (Dioscorea alata) to prolonged dry periods (6 to 48h) and supraoptimal temperatures (36 to 40°C). Our results show that i) spores of C. gloeosporioides can survive in the absence of leaf wetness for up to 48h and recover a high infectious capacity when water is provided subsequently, and ii) infectious capacity is recovered after high temperature stress of up to 40°C, depending on the strain. INTRODUCTION

Climate change has the potential to affect crops as well as their pests and pathogens (Chakraborty 2005). Indeed, some of the main climatic variables such as temperature, rainfall and humidity, account not only for the development of crop plants, but also for the growth rates and the spread of pests and diseases. Many early studies on plant pests have focused on how average temperature and humidity of the environment affect some of the infection processes, e.g. growth rate, sporulation capacity, spore germination, measured in vitro or in planta (Arauz et al. 2010; Guyader et al. 2013; Te Beest et al. 2008; Papastamati and van den Bosch 2007). For instance, pathogens have been allowed to grow at various temperatures and humidity to investigate the ranges within which growth can be observed, leading to the production of reaction norms (growth rate vs. temperature or humidity). Often, these reaction norms have been used to mathematically model the reaction of a pest to climatic variables, in order to include the resulting equations in epidemiological and disease forecasting models. Very few studies, however, have tried to cast light on how extreme values in these climatic variables can affect the pests life cycle. As a consequence, whether a pathogen can survive to high temperatures, and for how long, remains unknown in most cases. Here, we show that Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, a widespread, polyphagous fungus which can infect yams (Dioscorea spp.) can survive when it is subject to supraotimal temperatures of up to 40°C for prolonged time, and recover capacity to grow on culture medium and for the conidia to germinate and form appressoria, when back to optimal temperatures. MATERIAL AND METHODS

Four distinct strains of C. gloeosporioides, labeled as 20, 23, 101, and 257, isolated from D. alata leaves, were selected from a preliminary work in which they expressed contrasting behavior as regards to supraoptimal temperatures (above 36°C). This temperature was found to be close to the maximal temperature at which the pathogen can infect yam leaves in a previous study (Guyader et al. 2013).

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The experiments were initiated from 7-day old cultures grown at 26°C on PDA medium. Two experiments were conducted, in order to measure the effect of supraotimal temperatures i) on the growth rate of the mycelium on PDA medium, and ii) on the capacity of conidia to germinate and produce appressoria. For the first experiment, six 5mm plugs were taken from the periphery of fungus colonies, placed upside down at the center of fresh PDA plates. Treatment plates were placed in an incubator at either 36, 38 or 40°C for 3 days (“High temperature treatment”). Afterwards, the treatment plates were returned at 26°C for another 3 days (“Post treatment”). Following each 3-day period, the diameter of the colonies was measured in two directions, and after substracting the initial plug diameter the radial growth rate (in mm/day) was calculated as the mean of the two diameters divided by two and by the number of growth days. For the second experiment, spore suspensions were obtained from culture plates by pouring sterile distilled water, scraping the surface of the fungus colonies with a paintbrush and filtering the resulting suspension with a filter mat. The concentration of the spore suspensions was adjusted to around 10⁶ spores/mL. Drops of spore suspensions were deposited on microscope slides and covered with slide covers, and the slides were placed on wet paper in large petri dishes to prevent the slides from drying. The slides were placed in an incubator at either 36, 38 or 40°C for 2 days (“High temperature treatment”). Afterwards, the treatment slides were returned at 26°C for another 2 days (“Post treatment”). Following each 2-day period, the percentages of spores germinated and that of spores with appressoria were counted (100 spores were sampled each time). For each experiment, six replicates (plates or slides) were monitored. RESULTS

No mycelium growth was observed following the high temperature treatment (fig. 1), but strains 23, 101 and 257 recovered partially or tetally their growth capacity at 26° after the 36°C treatment. Strain 257 was the only one to recover a significant growth capacity at 26°C after treatments at the highest tempratures (38 to 40°C). Spore germination (fig. 2) was negatively affected by supraotimal temperatures, and the percentage of germinated spores was lower after the high temperature treatment. Even after post treatment at 26°C, germination capacity was mostly not recovered. However, the formation of appressoria (fig. 3) was severely inhibited at supraotimal temperatures, and only very few appressoria were formed. Post treatment at 26°C could not recover appressoria formation capability, except for strain 257 which was able to produce appressoria at 26° after having experienced temperatures of 36 to 38°C. CONCLUSION

We showed that both the mycelium growth and the formation of appressoria (required to initiate leaf infection) were severely inhibited during supraoptimal temperature treatments, and that subsequent return at optimal tempreature didn’t allow most strains to recover. However, we found that one strain expressed stronger resistance to supraoptimal temperatures. With raising temperatures due to global warming, anthracnose populations are likely to adapt and keep causing damages to yam crops.

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LITERATURE CITED

Arauz, L. F., K. N. Neufeld, A. L. Lloyd, and P. S. Ojiambo. 2010. “Quantitative Models for Germination and Infection of Pseudoperonospora Cubensis in Response to Temperature and Duration of Leaf Wetness.” Phytopathology 100 (9): 959–67. doi:10.1094/PHYTO-100-9-0959.

Chakraborty, Sukumar. 2005. “Potential Impact of Climate Change on Plant-Pathogen Interactions.” Australasian Plant Pathology 34 (4): 443–48. doi:10.1071/AP05084.

Guyader, Sébastien, Julia Crombez, Michèle Salles, François Bussière, and Thierry Bajazet. 2013. “Modelling the Effects of Temperature and Leaf Wetness on Monocyclic Infection in a Tropical Fungal Pathosystem.” European Journal of Plant Pathology 136 (3): 535–45. doi:10.1007/s10658-013-0185-8.

Papastamati, Konstantina, and Frank van den Bosch. 2007. “The Sensitivity of the Epidemic Growth Rate to Weather Variables, with an Application to Yellow Rust on Wheat.” Phytopathology 97 (2): 202–10. doi:10.1094/PHYTO-97-2-0202.

Te Beest, D E, N D Paveley, M W Shaw, and F van den Bosch. 2008. “Disease-Weather Relationships for Powdery Mildew and Yellow Rust on Winter Wheat.” Phytopathology 98 (5). doi:10.1094/PHYTO-98-5-0609.

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Figure 1. Mycelium growth rates of four C. gloeosporioides strains measured after treatment at temperatures of 36, 38 or 40°C for 3 days (top panel), after a post high temperature recovery period at 26°C for 3 additional days (middle panel). Growth rates were also measured at 26°C without high temperature treatment as control (bottom panel).

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Figure 2. Percentage of germinated spores of four C. gloeosporioides strains measured after treatment at temperatures of 36, 38 or 40°C for 2 days (top panel), after a post high temperature recovery period at 26°C for 2 additional days (middle panel). Spore germination was also measured at 26°C without high temperature treatment as control (bottom panel).

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Figure 3. Percentage of spores with appressoria for four C. gloeosporioides strains measured after treatment at temperatures of 36, 38 or 40°C for 2 days (top panel), after a post high temperature recovery period at 26°C for 2 additional days (middle panel). Formation of appressoria was also measured at 26°C without high temperature treatment as control (bottom panel).

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:236-. 2017

DETECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF PENICILLIUM SPECIES CAUSING INTERNAL DRY ROT OF YAM (DIOSCOREA ROTUNDATA)

Casiani Soto-Ramos, Merari Feliciano-Rivera, and Jesús M. Cardona, Department of Agro- Environmental Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. ABSTRACT: Dioscorea rotundata is the most cultivated yam worldwide and one of the most susceptible species to internal dry rot disease. In Puerto Rico, one significant constraint in yam production is the lack of registered pesticides for disease management. Thus, the objective of this research was to identify the Penicillium species associated with the internal dry rot and evaluate four antifungal treatments to manage the disease. Ten symptomatic yams were collected at the yam storage facilities of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Isabela and processed in the Plant Pathology/Epidemiology Laboratory of Isabela. Symptomatic tissue was isolated onto artificial media and purified to morphological and pathogenicity (Koch’s postulates) characterization. Evaluated treatments for diseases management on inoculated tubers included Powder Manzate®, Commercial Calcium Hydroxide, Manzate® 50%, Sodium Hypochlorite, water treated tubers and the untreated control. Experiments were performed twice. A total of 49 isolates were isolated, of which 33 were identified as Penicillium spp., based on morphological features such as the conidiophores shapes and mycelial growth. Ten selected isolates of Penicillium resulted pathogenic with different levels of disease severity. Powder Manzate® was the most effective fungicide to control the disease on the tubers. This pathogen could represent a threat to yam production, particularly in poor and developing countries due to its high level of virulence.

Keywords: post-harvest disease, tuber rot, internal dry rot, fungicides

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:237-240. 2017

USING SCARIFICATION TO ENHANCE SEED GERMINATION RATE IN SWEETPOTATO

Thomas W. Zimmerman and Shamoy Bideau, University of the Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station, RR#1 Box 10,000, Kingshill, VI 00850 ([email protected])

ABSTRACT: Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas), is a tuberous root crop that can be grown with three to four harvests a year in the Caribbean. Sweetpotatoes are normally propagated by cutting or slips, while breeding uses seed production to develop new varieties. Germination of true sweetpotato seeds is irregular over time. The research objective was to use scarification to shorten the length of time and enhance germination uniformity of hard coated sweetpotato seeds. Sweetpotato seeds were obtained from reciprocal crosses between varieties in an attempt to obtain a weevil resistant purple sweetpotato. A nail clipper was used to cut through one of the three edges of the sweetpotato seed. Scarified and un-scarified seeds were planted in sterile potting mix and placed in a light and temperature controlled growth room. Data on the rate of seed germination was recorded over time. Within four days 80% of the scarified seeds had emerged while none of the unscarified seeds had emerged. The germination of unscarified seeds ranged from one week to over 50 days. Scarification can be used to enhance germination rate and uniformity of the hard coated sweetpotato seed.

Keywords: Ipomoea batatas, root crops, breeding

INTRODUCTION

Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas), is a dicotyledonous plant which belongs to the convolvulaceae family. In more than 1000 species of this family, only Ipomoea batatas is of major importance as food (Woolfe, 1992). This crop is called by many names in Latin America like duce and kumara (Huaman, 1997). The research objective was to use scarification to shorten the length of time and enhance germination of hard coated sweetpotato seeds. Normally, slips would be taken from parent plants and then planted in a new area to grow; this is the process of cloning. However, sweetpotato seeds were used as the initial plant material. So there was no cloning done, but also a method of inducing germination was used; scarification. Scarification is any process of breaking, scratching or mechanically altering or softening the seed coverings to make them permeable to water and gases (Hartman et al, 1989). The seeds were scarified using a nail clipper to cut through one of the three edges on the seed coat. This type is called mechanical scarification. To understand how scarification impacted the rate of germination, varieties with an even number were separated and half of those were scarified and the remainder left untouched. In going through this paper a better understanding of what occurred and why this research was conducted will be met.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sweetpotato seeds were obtained from crosses of the varieties: ‘Black Rock’(BR), ‘Bonita’(Bon), ‘Charleston Scarlet’(CS), ‘Murasaki’ (Mur) and ‘Virgin Island Purple’ (VIP). The seeds have a

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very hard triangular seed coat. These seeds were divided in half with the first set directly seeded and the remaining set scarified with a nail clipper used to wound one of the three seed edges. Seeds were planted in a commercial potting mix that was sterilized for 15 min. at 120ºC and 1.2 Kg/cm2. The potting mix was placed in 36 cell trays with 5 cm2 cells that were 8 cm deep. Each cell was labeled indicating the cross and seed treatment. The trays with the seeds were placed in a light and temperature controlled growth room at 23ºC with a 16-hour photoperiod. Germination data was recorded twice a week and pictures taken to record plant development. Data was entered into an Excel Spreadsheet and percentage germination calculated. The Excel program was used to generate graphic representation of germination over time.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The rate of germination of the reciprocal crosses would provide insight on how the genetics influences the germination of the seedlings. Differences between germination of scarified and unscarified seeds were evident by the 4th day (Figure 1) and the advanced stage of growth by day 25. Figure 2 indicates that scarification of seeds from this reciprocal cross resulted in 100% germination in four days. The unscarified seeds, BonxBR germinated within 8 to 11 days and BRxBon started to germinate on the 8th day and reached maximum at 23 days (Figure 2). VIPx MUR/ MURxVIP, there was no variation between the two scarified seed sets they both germinated within the first 8 days giving a 100% germination rate (Figure 3). For the unscarified seeds it took 35 days for VIPxMUR and 53 days for MURxVIP to reach 100% germination. In two other sweetpotato crosses (Figure 4), scarification of the seed was found to reduce the time of germination by a week. Seedlings of scarified seeds had no indication of plant damage from the scarification process.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that scarification of sweetpotato seeds has a huge influence on increasing the rate of germination. Variation between crosses that influence rate of seed germination can be eliminated by scarifying seeds. Scarified sweetpotato seeds germinate uniformly over a short period of time, 4-10 days, while unscarified seeds germinated slower, over longer periods of time, up to 52 days. Scarification of sweetpotato seeds can be used by breeders to save germination time and get seedlings quicker to the field for evaluation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research was funded by the USDA through the VI department of Agriculture Specialty Crops Block Grant program and the USDA-NIFA-Insular Tropical Grant.

LITERATURE CITED Hartman, H. T., Kester, D. E., and Davies, F. T., Jr. (1989). Chapter 7, p. 137-148 in Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices (Fifth ed.). Huamán, Z. and Zhang, D.P. 1997. Sweetpotato. Chapter 3, pp. 29-38 in Biodiversity in Trust: Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources in CGIAR Centres (Dominic Fuccillo, Linda Sears and Paul Stapleton, editors). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

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Woolfe, J. A. (1992). Sweet potato: an untapped food resource. Cambridge u.a.: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Figure 1. Sweetpotato germination of scarified seed at 4 days (Left) and both treatments on day 25 (right).

Figure 2. Seed germination rates of scarified and unscarified sweetpotato seeds from reciprocal crosses between ‘Bonita’ and ‘Black Rock’ over time.

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Figure 3. Seed germination rates of scarified and unscarified sweetpotato seeds from reciprocal crosses between ‘VIP’ and ‘Murasaki’ over time.

Figure 4. Seed germination rates of scarified and unscarified sweetpotato seeds from crosses between ‘’VIP’ and ‘Charleston Scarlet’ or ‘Black Rock’ and ‘Murasaki’ over time.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:241. 2017

EVALUATION OF MEDIA FORMULATIONS FOR IN VITRO SWEETPOTATO

Thomas W. Zimmerman, University of the Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station, VI.

ABSTRACT: Tissue culture of sweetpotato shoots is a way to maintain disease-free varieties. However, a medium is needed that is able to maintain and promote growth within the great diversity of sweetpotato germplasm and newly developed varieties. The objective was to evaluated in vitro media with different salt formulations on in vitro sweet potato growth. Sweetpotato germplasm of twelve varieties with diverse skin and tuberous-root flesh color were grown from nodal segments on four salt formulations. The media formulations were DKW basal medium, Loyd and McKown WPM, MS modified by Finer and Nagasawa, and MS modified BC potato medium. All media contained 3% sucrose, 1g.L-1 Phytagel and pH adjusted to 5.8 prior to autoclaving and dispensing 20 ml in 25 mm test tubes. Nodal segments were placed in tubes sealed with Micropore surgical tape and grown in a light and temperature controlled room for seven weeks. All nodal segments rooted within a week on the media. The healthiest growth was obtained on the BC potato medium with the least chlorotic or necrotic leaves and vibrant roots. WPM resulted in aerial roots, necrotic leaves and terminals in 90% of the cultures. Shoots on DKW had the least amount of roots while WPM had the most. For extended maintenance of sweetpotato diverse germplasm in vitro, BC potato medium results in the healthiest plant growth. Keywords: sweetpotato, in vitro, nodal segments

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53:242-263. 2017

ASSESSMENT OF VARIETAL PERFORMANCE OF CASSAVA ON SMALL PLOTS IN GRENADA AND GUYANA (2014-2015)

Joan Petersen1, Reginald Andall1, Francis Asiedu1, Dionne Clarke-Harris1, Oudho Homenauth2 and Vyjayanthi Lopez3. 1Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI). 2National Agricultural Research and Extension Institute (NAREI), Guyana. 3Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Sub-regional Office for the Caribbean, Barbados

ABSTRACT: Under a Letter of Agreement with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) conducted field assessments of two cassava varieties each in Grenada and Guyana during 2014/2015 on observational study plots of 1-acre (0.4 ha) established on farmers’ holdings. In Grenada, M-Col- 1468 (an early-maturing variety) and M-Cub-74 (Senorita) were used while in Guyana the three indigenous varieties planted were Uncle Mack, Bad Woman and Red Stem (an early-maturing variety). Sampling was carried out to determine i) varietal performance relative to yields, ii) plot economics related to production costs and iii) comparisons between factors of interest of the varieties. Data from the two countries is presented on vegetative growth parameters and root weights. At both sites, the early maturing variety out-yielded those maturing late. In Grenada, the application of the CARDI standard cassava technical package resulted in yields in excess of the regional average of 5.7 - 16.8 t/ha for both varieties tested, although the difference in yield/hectare between varieties was not statistically significant. In Guyana, despite constraints to optimal crop performance (high water table, flooding, low soil pH and pest incidence) all three varieties performed above the national average for small scale cassava production using traditional methods. Difference in production costs is attributable to higher cost of weeding and harvesting in Grenada which underscores the need to evaluate the cost effectiveness of weed management interventions.

Keywords: cassava, FAO, CARDI

BACKGROUND

Since 2013, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has been implementing a regional programme, titled, An integrated approach to the Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) value chain development in the Caribbean. In December 2013, a project titled Services towards establishing demonstration pilot plots and carrying out training of farmers in support of the initiative, ‘Integrated Development of Cassava in the Caribbean’, was conceptualised and developed for implementation by CARDI to provide specific services to enhance on-farm production and productivity of cassava. Funded by FAO under a Letter of

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Agreement (LOA) with CARDI, the project activities were implemented from January 2014 to October 2016.

One of the activities under the LOA was the demonstration, assessment and validation of varietal performance small-size plots in Grenada and Guyana, using a specific technology package that was based primarily on the CARDI Cassava Technical Manual1.The study aimed to collect and analyse data related to varietal performance and plot economics.

INTRODUCTION

The roots of the cassava plant form an important dietary staple and key source of carbohydrate in many developing nations of tropical Africa, Asia and Latin America. In these regions, the roots are consumed after cooking2 in various traditional culinary preparations or as an ingredient in convenience or snack foods. In the more developed regions, cassava is better known as a component in some types of animal feeds rather than as a human food staple. Where advanced processing technologies are available, cassava roots are often utilised for the production of an increasing range of biomaterials and derivatives with industrial usage including starch, sweeteners, taste enhancers, pharmaceuticals and biofuel (Graffham, 2000). Despite its origins in South America between Brazil and Paraguay and southern Mexico, the major production areas are now outside the Americas occurring in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of West Africa and South and Southeast Asia (Prakash, 2014). The latest available FAO records indicate that worldwide production in 20143 was 268,277,743 tonnes and that since 1998, there has been an annual rise in production yields. Cassava is not the principal source of dietary carbohydrate in most Member States of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM4), where it is often ranked behind wheat, maize and rice (FAO 2014). Cassava does have important historical and cultural significance, however, and is cultivated at both subsistence and commercial levels (Lawrence 2014) in almost all CARICOM States. The plant has agronomic features that have contributed to the crop having a persistent presence in regional cropping systems for hundreds of years: these include being relatively pest-free; tolerant of poor soils, high temperatures and low rainfall; and allowing an extended harvest period (FAO, 2003; Prakash, 2014; FAO, 2014). In addition, there are several productive landraces with unique marketing qualities favoured by local markets and many introduced high-yielding hybrids that have adapted well to regional conditions (Titus et al., 2011; Lawrence, 2014). Although cassava value chains in the Caribbean are relatively simple and not highly integrated (mainly driven by the production and consumption of cassava food products), regional stakeholders have, over the last decade, prioritised increased value chain development as part of a wider cassava industry development strategy. A key strategy is to exploit the significant processing versatility of cassava for value chain strengthening and to take advantage of import substitution opportunities with the

1 http://www.cardi.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Commercial-Cassava-Production-Technical_Bulletin-Final.pdf 2 Depending on the variety, prior to cooking various traditional methods are used to remove cyanogenic compounds which can be at toxically high levels in some varieties 3 2014 is the latest available FAOSTAT data 4 CARICOM Member States are: Antigua and Bermuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago 243

resultant saving of foreign exchange (FAO, 2013a). There is also stated interest in several other expected benefits of improved regional cassava value chains including increased options for climate-resilient cropping, the stabilisation of rural economies, and, especially where the use of cassava leaves and or bio-fortification of roots are concerned, the achievement of domestic and regional food and nutrition security targets (IICA, 2009). Apart from the existence of a few large farms (>two hectares) in Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, cassava production in CARICOM States is primarily on small-sized farms (typically <0.5 ha) in multi-cropped systems on marginal lands including hillsides and with little or no inputs (Titus et al., 2011 and Lawrence, 2014). With the exception of mechanised land preparation, most other production operations including planting and harvesting are manual. Fresh roots are often offered for sale in local markets and to some extent in regional trade. In many Member States, there is some small-scale value-addition through the processing of the roots into fried chips, frozen chips or more commonly ‘farine’ (a dried, lightly toasted granular meal derived from grated cassava which is used to produce various versions of traditional cassava flat breads or as a thickener) (Titus et al., 2013). Recently, it has been demonstrated that grated cassava can successfully replace from 10-40 % of wheat flour in the production of bread and other bakery products. Products from these ‘composite’ flours are now available in several countries in the region (FAO 2015b).

Over the last decade, the economics of regional cassava value chain development has been extensively studied and several agro-industry experts have determined that the current cassava yields in the region will not support increased value-added processing to levels that can contribute to meaningful reduction in the importation of wheat and corn. Several publications contain regional target yields including the FAO’s Global AgroEcology Zone (GAEZ) model (cited in Little and Lopez, 2014) which established that a yield of 13 tons per hectare is needed as a break- even point from a commercial perspective. At present, the yields across the region are erratic and average less than 10 t per hectare (FAOSTAT, 2010, 2014; Little and Lopez, 2014); but there are some countries with consistently higher productivity levels including Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica and Suriname with individual regions within these countries producing several times the national average (Titus et al., 2013). It should be noted that globally, cassava productivity stands at around 12 tons per hectare (Prakash, 2014), however, yields as high as 80 t per hectare are known (FAO 2013b), emphasising large productivity differentials within the world’s producing regions. Some high productivity levels exist in areas with similar agro- economic environments to those existing in the Caribbean, which means that the strategy of targeting improved regional productivity through varietal selection and updated methodologies can be a valid strategy in cassava industry and value-chain development. This strategy may be particularly useful for to increase the productivity of small-scale, resource-poor farmers who cannot afford to mechanise or expand acreage.

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With the recent interest in increased cassava production and more specifically value-addition initiatives, a key strategy for value-chain development is focussing on the constraints of small- scale production systems. This is in recognition that the vast majority of cassava cultivation in the Region has always taken place on small acreages and consequently, interventions that support increased production and plot productivities of these small scale systems are likely to be the most viable short-term strategy for sustainable and overall development of the cassava value chain.

The FAO project, titled, ‘An integrated approach to the Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) value chain development in the Caribbean (SO4 LAC Region)’ included collaboration with the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) that focussed on, among other outcomes, “Increased on-farm production and raw material supply” (FAO, 2014; Lopez, 2015). Within this activity, one key objective was improving the yields and plot productivity of small cassava production systems as this was identified as a major constraint. One of the activities towards this objective was an assessment of varietal performance of cassava on small plots in Grenada and Guyana utilising a specific technical package. Grenada and Guyana were selected to represent the insular and continental agro-economic environments of the region. The technical package of updated production practices was based in large part on the CARDI Technical Bulletin, Commercial Cassava Production (Titus et al., 2011), and the investigated varieties were those identified for intensification by the related Ministries of Agriculture during stakeholder meetings related to the Initiative; it should be noted that there was a focus on known low-cyanide (‘sweet’) varieties to allay a prevailing consumer concern of the risks of toxicity with high-cyanide (‘bitter’) varieties. The expected outcome of the trial was to determine the potential productivity of the target varieties utilising a specific technical package of updated methodologies. The results and conclusions of these trials form the basis of this report. Status of cassava production in Grenada

In Grenada, cassava production takes place in rain-fed cropping systems on areas <0.5 ha (FAO, 2016). The main varieties grown are MCol 1468, Senorita Blanca, CMC-40 and Valencia (all introduced) with yields averaging around 8.0 t/ ha (FAOSTAT, 2014; Little and Lopez, 2014). On flatter lands, mechanised land preparation (with the formation of ridges) is popular but generally all other operations including harvesting are manual. The area harvested has been recorded at 26 ha with a yield of 217 t (equivalent of 8.43 t/ha) (FAOSTAT, 2014). Currently, the majority of cassava roots is used for the production of farine which is sold in local supermarkets. There is some small-scale value-added processing (frozen cassava mash and pieces; flour; chips). Cassava roots are not usually consumed ‘fresh’ (unprocessed) in Grenada (e.g. boiled) because there is widespread belief that such dishes can be toxic, even leading to death. In recognition of this public perception, the current national initiative for reducing wheat flour importation by 1,200 metric tons is targeting the agro-processing industry, mainly local bakeries (Grenada Chronicle 2016).

Status of cassava production in Guyana Although cassava is the main root crop grown in Guyana, small-scale and manually-managed cropping systems dominate production. Both bitter (high cyanide content types) and sweet (low 245

cyanide types) are grown with larger acreage under ‘bitter’ cassava. The crop is a staple of the hinterland Amerindian communities, where bitter cassava varieties are preferred. These communities employ traditional post- harvest handling and processing methods to remove the cyanogenic compounds from the bitter varieties. There are more than 70 landraces in national accessions including many that are cultivated and valued for unique marketing qualities and resilience to climate stress. Estimations of average yields range from 10-12 t/ha. (Robertson 2016) but there are also estimations of higher national yield averages of 19.1 t/ha when improved varieties are used (FAO 2016). Based on FAOSTAT (2014), an area of 742 ha was harvested in Guyana, with a yield of 6,781t, equivalent to 9.144 t/ha

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Observational study plots of 1-acre (0.4 ha) were established on farmers’ holdings, one each in Levera, Grenada and Craig, Guyana, respectively, with the objective of assessing small-scale cassava production using one or more target varieties and a specific technology package.

Description of field sites The plots in Levara, Grenada and Craig Village, Demarara, Guyana were on private farm holdings and selected by in-country project personnel. Levera is located in the north-eastern parish of St Patrick (12o 12' 00'' North, 61o 37' 00'' West). Craig village is located on the East Bank of the Demerara River in Guyana (6o 44' 00'' North, -57o 59' 00'' West). The plot is surrounded by canals filled with freshwater, and the area records over 39 inches (1,000 mm) of rain per year. The plot is prone to flooding in some areas.

Soil analysis The soil analysis for Grenada was done by Agro Services International Inc., Florida. Results indicated below-critical levels of nitrogen and phosphorus, low to adequate levels of potassium and adequate levels of calcium. In Guyana, the soil was analysed by the laboratory of the Guyana Sugar Company, GUYSUCO. Interpretation of the results by NAREI soil scientists cited highly acidic soil but adequate levels of all major plant nutrients. Accordingly, the recommendation was for the application of limestone to achieve a target pH of 5.5 in order to increase the availability of the inherent plant nutrients.

Land preparation, including field-based pre-emergent herbicide application The existing weed cover on the plot in Grenada was treated with one application of a herbicide, following which the plot was disc-ploughed, harrowed and prepared into ridges 36 inches (90 cm) apart with a height of 18 inches (50 cm).

In Guyana, the land was tilled by disc ploughing and harrowing and then formed into ridges 36 inches (90 cm) apart with a height of 28-31 inches (70-80 cm). The ridges were comparatively higher than recommended in the technical package due to a need to avoid root growth penetrating

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to the high water table present in this locality. After ridge formation, the pre-emergent herbicide was applied at the rate of 10 mL/3.8 L.

Irrigation and drainage

In Grenada, overhead irrigation provided by the farmer was available. However, due to drought conditions during the cropping season from mid-February 2015 to the start of July 2015, water for irrigation was very limited and the proposed irrigation schedule could not be followed.

A decision was made not to have irrigation installed at the Craig plot in Guyana due to the following factors: i) year round presence of fresh water in the nearby surrounding canals, and ii) the presence of a high water table in the soil.

Planting material – type, source and preparation

The identification of planting material stock plants, collection, preparation and treatment of planting material were guided by the project’s specific technology package. Each plot was established with at least one early-maturing variety. With regard to cassava maturity, this project considers an early maturing cassava variety as one that produces harvestable roots after about six months’ growth.

Two cassava cultivars utilised in Grenada were i) M Col 1468, (an early-maturing variety) and, ii) M Cub 74. The planting material selected consisted of physiologically mature cassava stems which were procured from the Mirabeau Propagation Station of the MOA and the CARDI Grenada Field Station. In a pre-plant operation, the stems were cut into 4-6 node pieces, approximately 8 inches (20 cm) in length and treated with a fungicide solution of Rizolex 50 WP ® at a rate of 23 g/3.8 L and air dried overnight (approximately 8 h). No insecticide was used in the pre-plant mix due to the absence of serious cassava pest threats in Grenada. In Guyana, three indigenous sweet cassava varieties, namely: i) Uncle Mack, ii) Bad Woman and iii) Red Stem, an early-maturing variety, were identified by the Ministry of Agriculture for sustainable intensification. For the Craig plot, the Uncle Mack planting material was sourced primarily from NAREI stations while Red Stem and Bad Woman were sourced from private farmers. The planting material was cut into pieces 6-8 inches (15-20 cm) in length which were then treated by immersing in a fungicide solution of Carbendazim®, 10 mL/3.8 L and then a pesticide solution of Inimectin 1.8 EC® at the rate of 10 mL /3.8 L each for 10 minutes, followed by air-drying overnight (approximately 8 h).

Crop establishment

The treated cuttings were inserted into the soil at a 35o – 45o angle with at least two nodes in the soil. The area established under each variety approximately the same, i.e., 0.5 acre (0.2 ha).

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The plot in Grenada was planted on 22 October 2014 with the treated stem cuttings of two varieties, M Col 1468 and M Cub 74. On each ridge, two rows of cuttings were established 30 inches (76 cm) apart with alternate plant placement, that is, in a ‘zig-zag’ fashion.

The plot in Guyana was planted on 8 and 9 February 2015 with the treated cuttings of the three varieties, (Red Stem, Bad Woman and Uncle Mack). The cuttings were planted in a single row in the middle of each ridge 2 feet (60 cm) apart. Double row planting was not done to avoid root competition between plants and allow maximum available soil volume for root development in the area above the high water table in this locality. The treated cuttings were inserted into the soil at a 35o – 45o angle with at least two nodes in the soil.

Fertilisation, including limestone application

In Grenada, a total of 516 lb (234 kg) of 15-30-15 granular fertiliser was applied 42 DAP on 5 December 2014 at a rate of 60 g (2 oz)/plant in one application.

There was one application of agricultural limestone (40% CaCO3) in Guyana, at a rate of 10 oz (300 g)/plant which was calculated to adjust the soil pH to 5.5 in order to ameliorate the effects of an inherently low soil pH of 4.02. Also, there was one application of 12-12-17 +2 MgO at a rate of 330 lb /acre (150 kg/0.4 ha) at 21 DAP.

Crop protection

Weed management - One manual weeding operation (spot weeding) conducted on 21 DAP in Grenada. The presence of a vining Ipomoea weed (Convolvulaeceae family), which covered at least 15% of the plants in some areas of the plot was reported in May 2015. However, at this stage of the crop, the weed infestation was not considered a threat to root development and therefore, no control measures were taken. In Guyana, on the other hand, there were nine weed management exercises over the cropping period, consisting of i) three operations of brush-cutting in the furrows and edges of the plot, ii) two herbicide operations (Glyphosate® @ 20 mL/3.8 L, iii) three applications of Paraquat® at the rate of 25 mL/3.8 L and iv) one application of Round up® at the rate of 15 mL/3.8 L.

Pest and disease management - No pesticide applications were required as there were no significant pest and disease problems in Grenada. The plants were generally free of pests and foliar disorders, except for isolated cases of cassava shoot fly Neosilba perezi (Romero & Ruppell) and caterpillars at levels which did not warrant pesticide applications. However, the activity of Hepestes auropunctatus, the Indian mongoose was observed in the area and traps were set to limit their activities in the plot as they are known to uproot and feed on cassava roots. It was observed that as the crop matured, there was an increase in the number of damaged roots from the feeding activity of mongooses.

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In Guyana, following observations on the presence of several pests in nearby plots - gall midge, Jatrophobia brasiliensis (Rübsaamen), cassava shoot fly, Neosilba perezi (Romero & Ruppell) and Cercospora henningsii Allesch (brown leaf spot)- a preventative spraying programme was executed. There were nine operations consisting of i) two applications of Abamectin® 10 mL/3.8 L, ii) one application of Alpha Cyperetrin® 10 mL/3.8 L, iii) two applications of Bestac® 10 mL/3.8 L, iv) one application of Fastac® 10 mL/3.8L, v) one application of Triazophos® 12 mL/3.8 L, vi) one application of Carbendazim® 15 mL/3.8 L and vii) one application of Pestac®10 mL/3.8 L.

Monitoring

All efforts were made for the plots in each country to be visited on a weekly basis to observe crop growth and health.

Sampling and data collection

Sampling in both plots was carried out for the determination of: i) variety performance related to yields, ii) plot economics related to costs of production, and iii) comparisons between factors of interest of the varieties at Levera, Grenada and Craig, Guyana.

Sampling procedures: A summary of the sampling procedures utilised in the two plots are outlined in Table 1.

Data collected from the plots at Levera, Grenada and Craig, Guyana were related to:

• Total yields related to root weight per unit area at crop maturity. • Determination of cost of production profiles of each project plot utilising the actual costs of all goods and services. • Rate of crop development of cassava varieties at Levera, Grenada and Craig, Guyana determined through a series of destructive sampling operations (Plate 1) during the following periods, i) 00-140 DAP; 170-190 DAP; 210-230 DAP and 240-280 DAP. The parameters of interest were: • weight of aerial shoot system (g) • plant height (cm) • canopy width (cm) • number of roots • total weight of roots (g) and • weight per root (g).

RESULTS

In keeping with the objective of investigating impact on yields utilising a specific technology package, the parameters of interest related directly to root yields were analysed. The number of

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storage roots of two varieties, M Col 1468 and M Cub 74 over the investigated period in Grenada is indicated in Table 2.

The difference in the number of storage roots produced by M Col 1468 (Mean 5.1 roots/plant) and M Cub 74 (Mean 6.3 roots/ plant) was statistically significant (P=0.007), but for both varieties the number of roots did not increase significantly with time over the period 135-190 DAP. The total root weight of two varieties, M Col 1468 and M Cub 74 over the investigated period is indicated in Table 3. Data analysis of the total weight of roots per plant indicated significant differences in the observed means related to time (DAP), P<0.001 and variety, P=0.018. There was no significant impact on total root weight per plant related to variety × time interaction, (P=0.136). Over the same period, the M Col 1468 plants produced comparatively higher total root yields than the M Cub 74 plants from fewer roots, with the varietal mean yields being 1,478.1 g and 1,222.6 g, respectively. This is further borne out in the weight per root data of the two varieties, M Col 1468 and M Cub 74 recorded for the corresponding period and presented in Table 4.

The mean weight per root of the two varieties indicated significant differences with respect to time (DAP), P<0.001, variety, P<0.001 and time × variety effects, P = 0.044. As expected, the individual root weights increased with time, P<0.001 but M Col 1468 bulked up more rapidly. Varietal differences related to mean weight of the individual roots were also significant, P <0.001 with M Col 1468 producing heavier roots than M Cub 74, mean weights 287.8 g and 197.7 g, respectively.

Although M Col 1468 gave greater yields, other trends from observations of the above ground parameters of plant height, aerial weight and canopy width (Table 5 a-c) indicated more vigorous vegetative growth by M Cub 74 compared to M Col 1468.

The greater mean aerial weight 1,455.6 cm recorded for M Cub 74 (Table 5a) was not significantly different (P = 0.316) than 1,360.9 cm recorded for M Col 1468. However, the corresponding differences in mean plant height; 153.8 cm versus 142.4 cm, respectively (Table 5b) and mean canopy width 48.6 cm versus 42.4 cm (Table 5c) were statistically significant (P = 0.003) and (P <0.001), respectively.

In Guyana, over the entire investigative period, 100-280 DAP, the rate of crop development of three varieties, Uncle Mack, Red Stem and Bad Woman was determined by procuring the means of the factors of interest as a function of time. The number of storage roots of three varieties over the investigative period is indicated in Table 6.

Data analysis of means related to the number of storage roots produced by the three varieties indicated that all factors of interest, i.e. time (DAP), P <0.001, variety, P=0.003 and the effects of time on variety, P=0.01 had a statistically valid difference in means. Bad woman had the highest

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number of roots of 5.4 compared to 4.8 and 4.5 for Uncle Mack and Red Stem, respectively. The corresponding mean total weight of roots over time of three varieties (Table 7) indicates Red stem (the early maturing variety) having the highest yield (Mean -1,184g) > Uncle Mack (Mean - 1,100g) > Bad woman (Mean 1,074g) (P=0.003). The weight per root over time of the three varieties over the investigative period (Table 8) shows the same trend in ranking of the varieties i.e. Red stem (the early maturing variety) having the highest weight per root (Mean 249.6 g) > Uncle Mack (Mean 228.2 g) > Bad woman (Mean 206.0 g) (P = 0.009).

Mean differences in the observations of the above ground parameters of aerial weight, plant height and canopy width (Table 9 a-c) were all significant (P <0.001). As observed with data for Levera, again there was an inverse trend of varietal performance with respect to vegetative growth when compared with corresponding yields. More vigorous vegetative growth was observed in Uncle Mack for all three parameters while Red Stem and Bad Woman were less but comparable relative to each other. It is noteworthy that at both sites, the early maturing variety out-yielded later maturing one(s).

Crop Yield The mean yield for the entire 1-acre plot at Levera, Grenada was 17,756 kg/ha. The mean yields (in kg/ ha) per variety grown at Levera, Grenada are presented below:

• M Col 1468 - 18,522 • M Cub 74 - 16,990

In terms of variety performance, there is no statistical difference between the yields of the two varieties [S.E.D. for comparing means: Variety = 1269.4 (d.f. 22, P=0.240)]. The total yield at the one acre Levera plot was 17,949 lb, which is equivalent to 20T/ha.

The breakdown by variety was:

• M Col 1468 - 9,768 lb (0.5 acre) equivalent to 19,536 lb/acre or 22 t/ha • M Cub 74 - 8,178 lb (0.5 acre) equivalent to 16,356 lb/acre or 18 t/ha The average yield of cassava production in the Caribbean is 8-15 t/ha. It appears that the application of the CARDI standard cassava technical package resulted in yields in excess of the regional average utilising both M Col 1468 and M Cub 74.

The mean yields of each of the three varieties grown at Craig, Guyana from February 2015 to November 2015 are presented below. Mean yield of three varieties grown at Craig, Guyana, was as follows: Red Stem 19,956 kg/ha (20 t/ha) >Uncle Mack – 18,082 kg/ha (18.1 t/ha) >Bad Woman – 16,585 kg/ha (16.6 t/ha). The grand mean was 18,208 kg/ha (18.2 t/ha); S.E.D. for comparing means: Variety = 1,351.8 (d.f. 87, P=0.049), The variance in yields between the three varieties is 251

valid, P=0.049, the LSD of 2,686.9 indicates that there is no statistical difference between the yields Uncle Mack and Bad Woman and Uncle Mack and Red Stem but there is a valid difference between the mean yields of Red Stem and Bad Woman.

It should be noted that there were constraints to optimal crop performance at the Craig site. The plot was prone to flooding from the nearby freshwater canals, the pH of the soils was low (4.2), there was a high water table in the plot and a high incidence of shoot flies. Notwithstanding these challenging conditions, all varieties performed creditably and produced yields that were higher than the national average.

Costs of production small plots

Cost of production profiles were generated utilising the actual costs of inputs for cassava production on small plots at Levera, Grenada and Craig, Guyana.

At Levara, Grenada, the cost of cassava production on one acre is US $3,240 (Table 10). When Cost of supervision is excluded the cost is US$2,895.39. Based on estimated yields of 17,756 kg/ha the production cost is US$0.16.

The cost to produce 1 acre of cassava at Craig, Guyana was USD 2,645.23 (Table 11). When cost of supervision is excluded the cost is US$2,366.48. Based on estimated yields of 18,208 kg/ha the production cost is US$0.13/kg.

Difference in production costs between the two countries is in large part attributable to higher cost of weeding and harvesting in Grenada. This underscores the need to evaluate the cost effectiveness of weed management interventions and the use of mechanical harvesters.

Table 1. Outline of sampling procedures related to Levera and Craig plots. October 2014 – August 2015 Levera, Grenada Craig, Guyana

Variety performance From the period, 265-275 days Incremental harvests; yields of each of related to yields, at crop after planting (DAP), incremental the three varieties, Uncle Mack, Red maturity harvest, destructive sampling and Stem and Bad Woman at crop harvest extrapolation, based on weight were recorded; there were two means from destructive sampling harvesting operations for the one acre. exercises.

Costs of production All costs related to materials used; labour costs prorated

Varietal comparisons Destructive sampling Destructive sampling

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Table 2. Mean number of storage roots produced over 100-280 days after planting (DAP) of two varieties grown at Levera, Grenada, October 2014 – August 2015. Number of roots of two cassava varieties, Levera, Grenada DAP M Col 1468 M Cub 74 Mean 135 4.2 5.8 5.0 190 4.6 6.4 5.5 230 6.3 6.3 6.3 278 5.4 6.5 6.0 Mean 5.1 6.3 S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 0.541 (d.f. 21.88, P = 0.125), variety = 0.314 (d.f. 8.00, P = 0.007), DAP × variety = 0.733 (d.f. 28.82, P = 0.363)

Table 3. Total weight of roots produced over 100 – 280 DAP of two varieties grown at Levera, Grenada, October 2014 – August 2015. Days after planting M Col 1468 M Cub 74 Mean

135 387.9 365.7 376.8

190 1,553.8 1,154.5 1,354.2

230 1,893.4 1,625.3 1,759.4

278 2,077.4 1,744.9 1,911.2

Mean 1,478.1 1,222.6

S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 78.9 (d.f. 18.61, P <0.001), variety = 85.6 (d.f. 8, P = 0.018), DAP × variety = 129.1 (d.f. 24.36, P = 0.136)

Table 4. Mean weight per root (g) over 100 – 280 DAP of two varieties grown at Levera, Grenada, October 2014 – August 2015. Days after planting M Col 1468 M Cub 74 Mean

135 94.8 72.6 83.7

190 356.8 183.8 270.3

230 302.8 263.3 283.1

278 396.9 271.0 334.0

Mean 287.8 197.7

S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 24.85 (d.f. 13.8, P<0.001), variety = 13.38 (d.f. 8.00, P <0.001), DAP × variety = 33.24 (d.f. 18.55, P = 0.044)

Table 5 a-c – Means of the above ground parameters; aerial weight, plant height and canopy width over 100 – 280 DAP of two varieties grown at Levera, Grenada, October 2014 – August 2015. 253

(a) Plant aerial weight (g)

Days after planting M Col 1468 M Cub 74 Mean

135 161.3 198.6 180.0

190 1,514.2 1,525.0 1,519.6

230 1,810.8 1,864.3 1,837.6

278 1,957.2 2,234.3 2,095.8

Mean 1,360.9 1,455.6

S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 89.3 (d.f. 16.8, P<0.001), variety = 88.4 (d.f. 8.00, P =0.316), DAP × variety = 140.6 (d.f. 24.21, P = 0.412)

(b) Plant height (cm)

Days after planting M Col 1468 M Cub 74 Mean

135 101.7 113.7 107.7

190 145.0 157.6 151.3

230 161.2 174.8 168.0

278 161.6 169.2 165.4

Mean 142.4 153.8

SED for comparing means: DAP = 2.751 (d.f. 17.13, P<0.001), variety = 2.721 (d.f. 8.00, P=0.003), DAP x variety = 4.331 (d.f. 24.47, P=0.656)

(c) Canopy width (cm)

Days after planting M Col 1468 M Cub 74 Mean

135 28.4 40.0 34.2

190 50.8 61.5 56.2

230 47.8 47.7 47.8

278 42.8 45.1 43.9

Mean 42.4 48.6

S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 0.710 (d.f. 18.31, P<0.001), variety = 0.712 (d.f. 8.00, P <0.001), DAP × variety = 1.124 (d.f. 25.19, P <0.001)

Table 6. Mean number of storage roots produced over 100-280 DAP of three varieties grown at Craig, Guyana, February 2015 – November 2015. 254

Number of storage roots of three cassava varieties, Craig, Guyana DAP Uncle Mack Bad Woman Red Stem Mean

158 3.8 5.1 3.2 4.0

218 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.5 280 5.3 5.5 4.9 5.2

Mean 4.8 5.4 4.5

S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 0.2408 (d.f. 112.70, P <0.001), variety = 0.2476 (d.f. 57.0, P=0.003), DAP × variety = 0.4211 (d.f. 169.62, P=0.010) Table 7. Mean weight of total weight of roots over 100-280 DAP of three varieties grown at Craig, Guyana, February 2015 – November 2015. Total roots weight (g) of three cassava varieties, Craig, Guyana DAP Uncle Mack Bad Woman Red Stem Mean 158 363.5 458.8 273.8 365.4 218 1,299.2 1,297.8 1,646.0 1,414.3

280 1,637.2 1,457.1 1,633.7 1,576.0

Mean 1,100.0 1,071.2 1,184.5

S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 42.7 (d.f. 105.97, P<0.001), variety = 39.1 (d.f. 57.0, P = 0.003), DAP × variety = 72.0 (d.f. 160.90, P <0.001)

Table 8. Mean weight per root over 100-280 DAP of three varieties grown at Craig, Guyana, February 2015 – November 2015. Weight per root (g) of three cassava varieties, Craig, Guyana DAP Uncle Mack Bad Woman Red Stem Mean

158 104.5 91.1 80.3 92.0 218 258.9 246.1 298.0 267.7 280 321.3 280.8 370.5 324.2

Mean 228.2 206.0 249.6

S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 14.37 (d.f. 95.11, P <0.001), variety = 13.62 (d.f. 57.0, P = 0.009), DAP × variety = 24.46 (d.f. 149.45, P = 0.067)

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Table 9 a-c – Means of the above-ground parameters; aerial weight, plant height and canopy width over 100-280 DAP of two varieties grown at Craig Guyana, February 2015 – November 2015. (a) Plant aerial weight (g)

Days after planting Uncle Mack Bad Woman Red Stem Mean

158 326.5 266.5 246.3 279.8

218 899.3 677.0 728.9 768.4

280 1,037.0 810.3 778.5 875.3

Mean 754.3 584.6 584.6

S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 21.71 (d.f. 96.94, P<0.001), variety = 21.58 (d.f. 57.0, P<0.001), DAP × variety = 37.53 (d.f. 152.91, P=0.005)

(b) Plant height (cm) Days after planting Uncle Mack Bad Woman Red Stem Mean

158 73.3 69.3 68.1 70.2

218 137.9 121.8 121.1 126.9

280 140.3 132.6 132.9 135.2

Mean 117.2 107.9 107.3

S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 1.421 (d.f. 110.59, P<0.001), variety = 1.373 (d.f. 57.0, P <0.001), DAP × variety = 2.433 (d.f. 167.24, P = 0.872)

(c) Canopy width (cm) Days after planting Uncle Mack Bad Woman Red Stem Mean

158 39.4 36.7 38.2 38.1

218 54.0 43.9 46.6 48.1

280 57.0 49.5 46.4 50.9

Mean 50.1 43.3 43.7

S.E.D. for comparing means: DAP = 0.863 (d.f. 108.96, P <0.001), variety = 0.752 (d.f. 57.0, P <0.001), DAP × variety = 1.434 (d.f. 162.61, P < 0.001)

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Table 10. Cassava cost of production, 1 acre, Levera Grenana 2014-2015.

No. Total Total of Cost/ Cost Cost Labour Operations units unit (XCD) (USD) Land clearing 1 79.00 79.00 29.26 Land preparation (ploughing harrowing, furrowing) 2 65.00 130.00 48.15 Prepare Planting Material 2 50 100.00 37.04 Planting 11 50.00 550.00 203.70 Weeding (manual) 24 50.00 1,200.00 444.44 Application of fertilizers 5 50.00 250.00 92.59 Application of weedicides 6 50 300.00 111.11 Harvesting 40 50.00 2,000.00 740.74 SUBTOTAL 4,609.00 1,707.04 Material Inputs Planting Material (pieces) 4100 0.1 410.00 151.85 Herbicide (Glyphosate) (litre) 6 26 156.96 58.13 Fungicide (Rhizolex 50 WP) (350 g/bag) 1.5 15.25 22.88 8.47 Fertiliser (15:30:15) (50 lb. bag) 11.5 86.40 993.60 368.00 SUBTOTAL 1,583.44 586.46 Other Costs Transportation (10% of material inputs) 158.34 58.65 Contingencies (10 % of labour operations) 460.90 170.70 Harvest crates/boxes (discounted for 5 yrs) (90 units) 855.85 316.98 Tools (fork, hoe, shovel, machete etc) 150.00 55.56 Supervision (15% of labour & material) 928.87 344.02 SUBTOTAL 2,553.96 945.91 Total operating expenditure per crop cycle 8,746.39 3,239.41 Conversion rate: 1 USD = 2.699 ECD @ 11/3/2016

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Table 11. Cassava cost of production, 1 acre, Craig, Guyana 2015-2016.

Total Total No. of Cost Cost Cost Labour Operations units /unit (GYD) (USD) Land clearing 5 5,000 25,000 120.65 Land preparation (ploughing harrowing, furrowing) 3 15,000 45,000 217.17 Prepare Planting Material 1 4,000 4,000 19.30 Planting 5 4,000 20,000 96.52 Weeding (manual) 12 4,000 48,000 231.65 Application of fertilisers 5 4,000 20,000 96.52 Application of insecticides 2 4,000 8,000 38.61 Application of weedicides 3 4,000 12,000 57.91 Application of limestone 10 4,000 40,000 193.04 Harvesting 20 4,000 80,000 386.08 SUBTOTAL 302,000 1,457.46 Material Inputs Planting Material (stakes – 120 cm) 800 37.50 30,000 144.78 Limestone (Bag – 100 lbs) 30 500 15,000 72.39 Insecticide (Alpha Cypermetrin) (litre) 0.12 2,500 300 1.45 Insecticide (Abamectin) (litre) 0.42 2,500 1,050 5.07 Herbicide (Glyphosate) (litre) 4 2,500 10,000 48.26 Fungicide (Carbendazim) (litre) 0.3 3,000 900 4.34 Fertiliser (12-12-17:2) (Bag – 100 lbs) 3 8,500 25,500 123.06 SUBTOTAL 82,750 399.35 Other Costs Transportation10% of material inputs 8,275 39.94 Contingencies(fork, hoe, shovel, machete etc) 30,200 145.75 Harvest crates/boxes (discounted for 5 yrs) (90 units) 65,681 316.98 Tools 1,500 7.24 Supervision15% of labour & material 57,713 278.52 SUBTOTAL 163,369 788.42 Total operating expenditure per crop cycle 548,119 2,645.23 1 USD = 207.21 GYD @ 11/3/2016

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DISCUSSION Crop development

For data from the Levera site, the difference in the number of storage roots produced by M Col 1468 (Mean 5.1 roots/plant) and M Cub 74 (Mean 6.3 roots/plant) was statistically significant, (P = 0.007) However, over the period of observation, the M Col 1468 plants produced comparatively higher total root weights than the M Cub 74 plants from fewer roots, the varietal mean weights being 1,478.1 g and 1,222.6 g, respectively. This is further borne out in the mean weight per root data of the two varieties, M Col 1468 and M Cub 74 recorded; 287.8 g and 197.7 g, respectively. Although M Col 1468 gave greater yields, the above ground parameters of plant height, aerial weight and canopy width indicated more vigorous vegetative growth by M Cub 74 compared to M Col 1468. Differences in mean plant height; 153.8 cm versus 142. 4 cm, respectively and mean canopy width 48.6 cm versus 42.4cm were statistically significant (P=0.003) and (P>0.001), respectively. There appears to be an absence of published research results related to varietal performance of M Col 1468 and M Cub 74 in Grenada so that useful comparisons with the results of these trials cannot be made.

Data analysis of the performance of the varieties at Craig, Guyana indicated that the mean number of storage roots produced by the three varieties was significantly different with respect to DAP, P<0.001; and variety, P = 0.003. The effects of time × variety interaction was also significant, P = 0.010. For mean number of roots per plant Bad Woman (5.4) > Uncle Mack (4.8) > Red Stem (4.5). The corresponding mean total weight of roots over time of three varieties shows Red stem (the early maturing variety having the highest yield (Mean - 1,184g) > Uncle Mack (Mean - 1,100g) > Bad woman (Mean - 1,074g) (P = 0.003). The weight per root of three varieties over the investigative period indicated the same trend as above in ranking of the varieties i.e. .Red stem (the early maturing variety) having the highest weight per root (Mean 249.6 g) > Uncle Mack (Mean 228.2 g) > Bad Woman (Mean 206.0 g) (P = 0.009). Differences in means recorded from observations of the above-ground parameters (aerial weight, plant height and canopy width) were all significant (P<0.001). As observed with the Levera data, there was an inverse trend of varietal performance with respect to vegetative growth when compared with corresponding yields. More vigorous vegetative growth was observed in Uncle Mack for all three parameters while Red Stem and Bad Woman were less but comparable relative to each other.

It is noteworthy that at both sites (Grenada and Guyana), the early maturing variety out-yielded later maturing one(s).

Crop yields The total yield at the one acre Levera plot was 17,949 lbs, which is equivalent to 20 t/ha. The breakdown by variety was: • MCol 1468 - 9,768 lbs (0.5 acre) equivalent to 19,536 lbs/acre or 22 t/ha • M Cub 74 - 8,178 lbs (0.5 acre) equivalent to 16,356 lbs/acre, equivalent to 18 t/ha 259

The average yields of cassava production in the Caribbean is 5.7-16.8 t/ha (Lawrence, 2014). The application of the specific technical package at Levera, Grenada resulted in yields in excess of the regional average utilising both M Col 1468 and M Cub 74. The difference in yield per hectare for each of the varieties was, however, not statistically significant.

Mean yield of three varieties grown at Craig, Guyana, February 2015 – November 2015 was as follows:

Uncle Mack – 18,082 kg/ha > Red Stem 19,956 kg/ha > Bad Woman – 16,585 kg/ha

The grand mean 18,208 kg/ha; S.E.D. for comparing means: Variety = 1,351.8 (d.f. 87, P = 0.049)

It should be noted that there were constraints to optimal crop performance at the Craig site. The plot was prone to flooding from the nearby freshwater canals, the soils had low pH (4.2), there was a high water table in the plot and a high incidence of shoot flies. Notwithstanding these conditions, all varieties performed creditably.

The average yield of cassava production in the Caribbean is 5.66 - 16.8 t/ha (Lawrence, 2014). Based on FAOSTAT (2014), the national average yield in 2014 was 9.1 t/ha and investigations reported in FAO 2016 stated the national average yield for small scale areas, using traditional cassava production technologies ranged from 8-10 t/ha. Comparisons with the aforementioned data indicate that the utilisation of the specific technical package of updated methodologies in Craig, Guyana resulted in yields averaging 18.2 t/ha, which is in excess of both the regional and national averages.

Cost of production

The cost of cassava production in 1-acre in Levera Grenada is US$ 3,240 and details are presented in Table 12. When Cost of supervision is excluded, the cost is US$ 2,895.39. Based on estimated yields of 17,756 kg/ha, the production cost is US$ 0.16/kg (without supervision costs).

The cost to produce 1 acre of cassava at Craig, Guyana was US$ 2,645.23. Details are presented in Table 12. When cost of supervision is excluded, the cost is US$ 2,366.48. Based on estimated yields of 18,208 kg/ha, the production cost is US$ 0.13/kg (without supervision costs).

Difference in production costs is in large part attributable to higher cost of weeding and harvesting in Grenada. This underscores the need to evaluate the cost effectiveness of weed management interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

• Producers should consider taking advantage of the superior yield potential of the available early maturing variety MCol 1468 in Grenada and Red Stem in Guyana.

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• Statistically significant varietal differences exist for several above –ground parameters which are known to be physiologically linked to yields which indicate that varying crop densities based on variety may be appropriate. • The known negative impacts of low soil pH and flooded soil conditions appear to be somewhat ameliorated with the utilization of the specific technical package in Guyana. • Costs of production of small scale cassava production in Grenada is around 22% higher than related costs in Guyana. • The cost of weed management is a major contributor to the overall cost of production in small scale cassava production. • Only cost effective weed management options should be utilised where the cost of labour is high. • Small scale cassava yields in Levera, Grenada utilising the specific technical package (20 t/ ha) exceed both the national average of 8.43 t/ha (FAOSTAT, 2014) and the regional average of 6.25 - 18.53 t/ ha (Lawrence, 2014). • In Guyana, it appears that Red Stem and Bad Woman cassava varieties produce similar yields, and Uncle Mack is a higher yielding variety compared to both Red Stem and Bad Woman. • Average small scale cassava yields in Guyana utilising the specific technical package, 18.2 t/ha appear to exceed both the national average for small scale holdings utilising traditional production techniques of 8-10 t/ha (FAO, 2016) and 9.1 t /ha (FAOSTAT, 2014) but is closer to the higher values of the range for regional crop yields of 5.6 - 16.8 t/ha (Lawrence, 2014).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The support and contributions of the following persons are gratefully acknowledged - Omaira Avila Rostant, for methodology development and technical supervision, Premdat Beecham of the National Agricultural Research and Extension Institute for methodology execution and data collection in Guyana, Rebecca Mason for methodology execution and data collection in Grenada, Foluke Elcock and Aziz Mohammed for technical input related to yield and cost of production and Videsh Jagroo and Frank B Lauckner for data analysis.

LITERATURE CITED

Anonymous (2016). grenadachronicle.com - Breaking News http://grenadachronicle.com/cassava-is-a-food-of-the-present-says-min-bhola/

FAO (1996). Guyana: Country Report. Compiled by National Agricultural Research Institute, Georgetown. Presented at the FAO International Technical Conference of Plant Genetic Resource. May 1995, Leipzeg. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

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FAO (2003). Encyclopaedia of Food and Culture – Cassava. The Gale Group Inc. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.encyclopedia.com/plants-and- animals/plants/plants/cassava

FAO (2013a). CARICOM Food Import Bill, Food Security and Nutrition - Issue Brief #4 October 2013. FAO Subregional Office for the Caribbean. http://www.fao.org/3/a-ax740e.pdf

FAO (2013b). Cassava - A guide to sustainable production intensification. Save and Grow series. Rome Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

FAO (2014). Contributing to the development of a cassava industry - Issue Brief #11. October 2014. FAO Sub-regional office for the Caribbean. http://www.fao.org/3/a-ax511e.pdf.

FAO (2015). State of food insecurity in CARICOM. Meeting the 2015 hunger targets: taking stock of uneven progress. FAO Sub-regional Office for the Caribbean, Bridgetown, Barbados.

FAO (2015b). CARICOM Leaders Served Cassava-Based Dishes at CARICOM Heads of Government Summit. FAO, Bridgetown, 6 July 2015. FAO News 2015. http://www.fao.org/americas/noticias/ver/en/c/297864/.

FAO (2016). Cassava in the Caribbean Region - A look at the potential of the crop to promote agricultural development and economic growth. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Clayuca Corporation and Inter American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture, Barbados. www.fao.org/3/a-i5974e.pdf.

FAOSTAT (2014). http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/visualize.

Graffham, A. (2000). Expanded markets for cassava: industrial options. Presented at: Brong Ahafo Regional Awareness Creation Forum of the Root and Tuber Improvement Programme (RTIP). Tropical Hotel, Sunyani, Ghana, Wednesday 21st June 2000. pp 8. IICA (2009). Investing in Food and Nutrition Security - Identifying Potential Investment Opportunities in the Agriculture and Food Industries in CARICOM. Eds. Charles Carmichael, Andrew Jacque and Diana Francis. Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture, Port of Spain.

Lawrence J. (2014). Status of cassava in the Caribbean: multipurpose crop of the 21st Century. In Conference Report of Regional Conference on Cassava in the Caribbean and Latin America 10-12 February 2014. www.fao.org/3/a-i4548e.pdf

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Little, V. and Lopez, V. (2014). Cassava – Constraints and Challenges: the Caribbean perspective. In Conference Report of Regional Conference on Cassava in the Caribbean and Latin America 10-12 February 2014. www.fao.org/3/a-i4548e.pdf

Long, S.P., De Souza, A.P., and Massenburg, L. (2017). Research shows how to grow more cassava, one of the world’s key food crops. [Blog] ‘THE CONVERSATION’ 26 January 2017. http://theconversation.com/research-shows-how-to-grow-more-cassava-one-of-the-worlds-key- food-crops-68115. [Accessed 20 March 2017].

Lopez, V. (2015). FAO Launches a Regional Project to Support the Development of the Cassava Industry in CARICOM Countries. FAO News http://www.fao.org/americas/noticias/ver/en/c/282746/ (Accessed: 07 April 2017).

Prakash, A. (2014). Global Cassava Trends. In Conference Report of Regional Conference on Cassava in the Caribbean and Latin America 10-12 February 2014. pp 7-8. www.fao.org/3/a- i4548e.pdf.

Robertson, R. (2016). Compendium of research on cassava biodiversity in Guyana: contribution of such research to the commercialization of cassava. A presentation by FAO Guyana Country Representative Mr. Reuben Robertson at International Congress on Biodiversity of the Guiana Shield Georgetown, Guyana. August 8-12, 2016.

Russell, R. and Palmer, N (2012). “Rambo root” could beat climate change in Sub-Saharan Africa – cassava expected to “enjoy” climate change – could produce more food for millions of people Press Release February 2012 International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/46675/retrieve

Titus, P., Lawrence, J. and Seesahai, A. (2011). Commercial Cassava Production. Technical Bulletin Issue 5. Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Trinidad and Tobago. http://www.cardi.org/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2014/03/CARDI-contribution-to- development-Cassava-industry-over-past-3-decades.pdf

Titus, P., Lawrence, J. and Reid, N. (2013). Strengthening the Food Basket of the Caribbean Region: CARDI’s contribution to the development of the cassava industry over the past three decades Revised September 2013. Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Trinidad and Tobago. http://www.cardi.org/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2014/03/CARDI- contribution-to-development-Cassava-industry-over-past-3-decades.pdf

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 264. 2017

FITORREMEDIACIÓN DE LIXIVIADOS, CONTROL DE EROSIÓN Y ESTABILIZACIÓN DE TALUDES CON VETIVER (CHRYSOPOGON ZIZANIOIDES L.) EN FAJARDO, PUERTO RICO

Eric E. Rivera Santiago y Luis Pérez Alegría. Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez.

RESUMEN: Un ecosistema de vetiver fue establecido para la fitoremediación del lixiviado creado por la descomposición de la basura en el vertedero. El lugar consiste de 4 Acres en el municipio de Fajardo, Puerto Rico, bajo el “Suplemental Enviromental Program” por la USEPA. El enfoque es reducir el volumen de lixiviado de los vertederos creando un sistema de planta de vetiver sostenible en una pendiente tratada. Las plantas fueron sembradas a un metro vertical de cada una y 6 pulgadas por separado en líneas al contorno. Un total de 53,104 plantas fueron sembradas en la pendiente. Esto se traduce a 13,276 plantas por acre (pp/Ac). El monitoreo del vetiver fue facilitado por la instalación de una estación meteorológica, seis (6) trampas que recogen el sedimento desplazado bajo un evento de lluvia y muestras de erosión después que pasa por varias líneas de vetiver. Cinco (5) lisímetros de 24 pulgadas de largo fueron instalados a lo largo de la pendiente permitiendo el muestreo de agua para determinar como el ecosistema procesa los compuestos orgánicos en el lixiviado. El lixiviado recuperado es aplicado por un sistema de riego por goteo diseñado bajo las especificaciones y requerimientos necesitados por el sistema de vetiver. El promedio de la altura del vetiver presentó una mejora de 13.7 pulgadas a 40.6 pulgadas respectivamente. La densidad del vetiver incremento de 4 plantas por metro lineal a 5 plantas por metro lineal respectivamente. La escorrentía superficial promedio se redujo considerablemente de 1.24 kg a 0.24 kg respectivamente.

Palabras claves: fitoremediación, lixiviado, vetiver

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 265. 2017

RICE (ORYZA SATIVA) YIELD RESPONSE TO FERTILIZER-N IN SOILS OF THE LAJAS VALLEY

Juan G. Rodríguez-Monsegur, David Sotomayor-Ramírez, Lucas Avilés, and Anthony Rivera, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus.

ABSTRACT: Rice (Oryza sativa) production is an important grain crop and energy source for a large share of the world’s population. In Puerto Rico rice accounts for a major portion of the daily caloric consumption. Selection of the proper variety or hybrid accompanied by good agricultural practices, including fertilizer-N management are important strategies for maximizing crop yield and economic gain. In this paper we report two experiments conducted in Lajas Agricultural Experiment Station during 2016, that evaluated the effects of five fertilizer-N levels (at rates of 0, 90, 120, 150 and 200 kg N/ha) on rough-rice yield and a variety trial evaluating four varieties (from the Louisiana State University variety program) and six hybrids (from Rice-Tec). In the fertilizer-N experiments, Rice-Tec XL-753 was more vigorous with greater plant height, plant biomass, panicle density, filled grains and specific seed weight, and greater crop yield, than Catahoula. Plant color as measured with leaf color chart (LCC) and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) varied more as a result of fertilizer-N treatment application than to the material tested. NDVI readings was quantitatively related to rice yields using a non-linear model for Catahoula and a linear model for Rice-Tec XL-753. SPAD readings of indicator leaf were not quantitatively related to rice yields. In Catahoula, optimum rough rice yield of 3,842 kg/ha was obtained with fertilizer-N of 90 kg N/ha. In Rice-Tec XL-753 optimum rough rice yield of 9,849 kg/ha was obtained with fertilizer-N of 200 kg N/ha. There was no significant difference in rice yield with fertilizer-N in the range of 90 to 150 kg N/ha. Harvest index at fertilizer-N of 90 kg N/ha was 37 for Catahoula and at fertilizer-N of 200 kg N/ha was 48 for Rice-Tec XL-753. The two highest yielding hybrids were XP and XL-753; the two highest yielding varieties were Caffey and Jupiter.

Keywords: Oryza sativa, Lajas, fertilizer-N

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 266. 2017

EFECTO DE MEZCLAS DE CULTIVOS DE COBERTURA SOBRE PARÁMETROS DE CALIDAD DE SUELOS DE UN OXISOL

Annelisse Ramos Pérez1, Julia M. O’Hallorans2, Miguel A. Muñoz3 y Elide Valencia3, 1Estudiante Graduada, 2Catedrático Asociado, 3Catedrático, Departamento de Ciencias Agroambientales, Universidad de Puerto Rico en Mayagüez.

RESUMEN: La calidad de suelos es la capacidad de un suelo de realizar funciones esenciales que afectan la sustentabilidad y productividad del mismo. La calidad no se puede medir directamente, pero se utilizan una serie de indicadores sensitivos a los cambios. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar el uso de mezclas de cultivos de cobertura sobre propiedades físicas, químicas y biológicas del suelo bajo sistemas de labranza mínima y labranza convencional. El experimento se estableció en la EEA de Isabela en un suelo de la serie Coto (Typic Eutrustrox). Las mezclas consistieron de tres combinaciones diferentes de semillas: leguminosas, hoja ancha, gramíneas y brassicas. La siembra de cobertoras se dividió en cuatro ciclos de ocho semanas de crecimiento y final de cada ciclo eran taladas. Las cobertoras en las parcelas de labranza convencional se incorporaron como abono verde y en las parcelas de labranza mínima se dejaron sobre la superficie. Se realizaron tres muestreos de suelo; previo a la siembra, seis meses y un año después de la siembra. Para el factor de mezcla se encontraron diferencias significativas (p<0.05) respecto al control para las variables: -3 -1 -1 carbono orgánico total (1.43%) y respiración basal (290.61 x10 μg CO2-C. g . h ). La densidad aparente mostró diferencias significativas (p<0.05) para el factor de labranza mínima y labranza convencional con valores de 1.43 g/cm3 y 1.33 g/cm3 respectivamente. El factor de muestreo arrojó diferencias significativas (p<0.05) para las variables de pH, carbono orgánico total, nitrógeno, fósforo disponible y densidad aparente. Se pudieron identificaron correlaciones lineales para la variable de carbono orgánico total con deshidrogenasa (r=0.53), nitrógeno (r=0.60) y fósforo (r=0.70) y fosfatasa ácida con el P disponible (r=-0.53). Las mezclas de cobertoras fueron capaces de mejorar las propiedades y función del suelo a corto plazo.

Palabras clave: calidad de suelos, cobertoras, labranza mínima

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 267. 2017

METABOLISMO BÉNTICO EN SEDIMENTOS DE DRENAJES EN LA CUENCA DEL VALLE DE LAJAS, PUERTO RICO

Paloma Rodriguez1, David Sotomayor Ramírez1, Gustavo Martínez1 y Carlos Santos2, 1Departamento de Ciencias Agroambientales, Colegio de Ciencias Agrícolas, Universidad de Puerto Rico-Mayagüez, 2Departamento de Biología, Universidad de Puerto Rico-Mayagüez.

RESUMEN: La parte este de la cuenca del Valle de Lajas tiene un área de 36,229 acres, una población de alrededor de 33,000 personas y el uso de terrenos predominante es 9.1% urbano/sub- urbano, 30% agrícola y 61% barbecho/descanso. Esta cuenca tiene quebradas que drenan aguas de zonas urbanas como la Quebrada Mondongo y de zonas agrícolas como la Quebrada Bárbara. Estudios previos demuestran que los niveles nutricionales de las aguas que drenan de las cuencas tienen concentraciones de nitrógeno (N) total y fósforo (P) total en la categoría de “enriquecido” y en ocasiones se viola el estándar de calidad de agua para P total de 0.160 mg P/L. La utilización de indicadores biológicos y químicos en las aguas y el sedimento de las quebradas y canales de drenaje puede ayudar a identificar el impacto de nutrientes sobre integridad ecológica. Se condujeron ensayos de respiración (R), productividad primaria (NPP), y productividad primaria bruta (GPP) en aguas arriba y aguas debajo del punto de descarga de una planta de tratamiento en la Quebrada Mondongo y de una finca agrícola en la Quebrada Bárbara. Las concentraciones de N total aumentaron significativamente aguas abajo de la planta de tratamiento en la Quebrada Mondongo, pero no en la Quebrada Bárbara. Se observó un aumento significativo en las concentraciones de P total aguas abajo en ambas quebradas. Las tasas de GPP, NPP y R variaron 2 de -0.02 a 0.08, de -0.12 a -0.16, y de 0.12 a 0.20 g O2 /m h, respectivamente en la Quebrada Mondongo. En el caso de la Quebrada Bárbara, las tasas de GPP, NPP, y R variaron de 0.12 a 2 0.14, -0.05 a -0.11 y 0.09 a 0.11 g O2 /m h, respectivamente. Estas tasas de GPP, NPP y R representan los flujos de energía en el sedimento de las quebradas y están ligadas a las concentraciones de nutrientes pues un aumento en las mismas afecta la producción de energía que existe en el sistema. Los resultados evidencian un cambio en el estado natural que puede comprometer la integridad ecológica de las quebradas y la necesidad de emplear prácticas para reducir el impacto.

Palabras clave: concentraciones de nutrientes, fósforo total, nitrógeno total, sedimentos, Valle de Lajas

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 268-270. 2017

A COMPARATIVE LOOK INTO MILK CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, DRAMANSKI SCORE AND MILK YIELD OF DAIRY CATTLE AND WATER BUFFALOS IN MID LACTATION

Andell Edwards1 and Louis Farrel2. 1University of Trinidad and Tobago, Eastern Caribbean Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, Faculty of Biosciences, Agriculture and Food Technology, Caroni North Bank Road, Centeno Arima, Trinidad. 2Aripo Livestock Station, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries.

ABSTRACT: Information in the literature is sparse as it relates to the chemical characterization of buffalo’s milk and its comparison to the milk composition of dairy cows. The study was designed to investigate whether a significant difference exist between the milk of cows and buffalos. Cow’s milk had a significantly higher fat content (12.9 %) when compared to that of buffalo’s (4.35 %). In contrast, solid non-fat was higher (p<0.05) in buffalo’s milk (9.8 %) when compared to cow’s milk (8.2 %). Similarly, milk density was higher (p<0.05) in buffalo’s milk (37.7 %) when compared to cow milk (27.6 %). Protein and lactose content was significantly lower (p<0.05) in cow’s milk (2.9 & 4.3 %) when compared with that of buffalos (3.8 & 5.6 %). Water was found to be highest (p<0.05) in cow’s milk (5.6 %) when compared to buffalo’s milk (3.3 %). Similarly, the freezing point and salt levels were lower (p<0.05) in cow’s milk (0.500 and 0.642 %) when compared to buffalo’s milk (0.609 and 0.807 %). Milk conductivity levels and milk temperature were higher (p<0.05) in cow’s milk (6.73 % and 37 ⁰C) when compared to buffalo’s milk (3.68 % and 35.1 ⁰C). Cows had a significantly higher milk yield (20.8 L) when compared to buffalo’s milk (9.0 L). It was concluded that animal species can influence the chemical composition of milk.

Keywords: Lactation stage, chemical composition, forage, crude protein

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study site The study was conducted at the Aripo Livestock Station, Wallerfield, Trinidad. The seasons are rainy (June - November) and dry (December - May) with an average daily temperature of 27 ⁰C. The land is flat to undulating with mixed grass species of tanner, elephant and mulato. Animals and Animal Management Data was collected from 10 clinically healthy cross bred Holstein cows and 10 water buffalos that were in mid lactation (101-200). The both species were managed as one herd exposed to the same pastures with clean drinking water. Milk sampling About 20 mls of milk was collected per species from each quarter after stripping for mastitis. The milk samples were then be stored in a cooler before taking to the lab in less than 40 minutes. Milk composition analysis was conducted using the (Lactoscan SP) and dramanski score testing by the (DRAMANSKI Mastitis Detector).

Forage sampling and analysis

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Mixed grass samples were taken from heaps fed to both Dairy cows and Buffalos on a weekly basis over the eight-week period. Samples were dried in the oven at 65 ° C for 48 hours. Samples were then milled (using Wiley Mill, Glen Creston Limited, UK) to pass through a 1 mm screen and then stored in brown paper bags pending chemical analysis. Analyses were then made for dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), ether extract (EE), crude fibre (CF) and nitrogen. Nitrogen content was determined by the Kjeldahl method (AOAC 1995) and crude protein (CP) was calculated by multiplying percentage N content by 6.25. Organic matter values were obtained by igniting 1 g sample in a muffle furnace at 550 ºC and estimated as the loss in weight of sample. Statistical Analysis The species effect on milk yield, milk chemical composition, and Dramanski score was analysed using the General Linear Models (GLM) procedure of MINITAB (MINITAB Version 17).

RESULTS

The crude protein (CP) levels of the basal tanner grass mix (Brachiaria radicans) (CP 7-12% approx.) as seen in Tables 1, would prove inadequate for feeding milk producing animals as their CP requirement ranges from 14 to 18 % (dairy cows giving 15kg of milk/day) (NRC, 2001). The crude fibre (CF) content of the basal tanner grass (Brachiaria radicans), falls within the average range for dairy animals (30-34%, Tables 1).

The crude fat (Ether extract) levels appear to be low (2 %, Tables 1) for tanner mix (Brachiaria radicans). These levels may be appropriate for rumen health as high levels of dietary fat (> 5 %) can be toxic to rumen microbes which can result in reduced dry matter intake. Milk fat content could increase minimally or show no change at low levels of dietary fat (Henrichs et al., 2005). The chemical composition of buffalo and cow’s milk in mid lactation is presented in Table 2. Cow’s milk possesses a significantly higher fat content (12.9 %) when compared to that of buffalo’s (4.35 %). In contrast, solid non-fat was higher (p<0.05) in buffalo’s milk (9.8 %) when compared to cow’s milk (8.2 %). Similarly, milk density was higher (p<0.05) in buffalo’s milk (37.7 %) when compared to cow milk (27.6 %) (Table 2). Protein and lactose content was significantly lower (p<0.05) in cow’s milk (2.9 & 4.3 %) when compared with that of buffalos (3.8 & 5.6 %). Water was found to be highest (p<0.05) in cow’s milk (5.6 %) when compared to buffalo’s milk (3.3 %). The dramanski score and chemical composition of buffalo and cow’s milk is presented in Table 3. The dramanski score was significantly higher in buffalo’s milk (538) when compared cow’s milk (342). Similarly, the freezing point and salt levels were lower (p<0.05) in cow’s milk (0.500 and 0.642 %) when compared to buffalo’s milk (0.609 and 0.807 %) (Table 3). Milk conductivity levels and milk temperature were higher (p<0.05) in cow’s milk (6.73 % and 37 ⁰C) when compared to buffalo’s milk (3.68 % and 35.1 ⁰C). Cows had a significantly higher milk yield (20.8 L) when compared to buffalo’s milk (9.0 L) (Table 3). LITERATURE CITED

AOAC. 1990. Official methods of analysis. 15th Ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Inc., Arlington, Virginia, USA.

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Davies, D. T., C. Holt, and W. W. Christie. 1983. The composition of milk. Ch. 5 in Biochemistry of Lactation, T. B. Mepham, editor, ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Henderson, S. J., H. E. Amos, and J. J. Evans. 1985. Influence of dietary crude protein concentration and degradability on milk production, composition, and ruminal protein metabolism. J. Dairy Sci. 68:2227.

Lachlan Mac, E.E. 1959. Some notes on the Water Buffalo, Paper presented to the Caribbean Veterinary Association in 1959.

NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. seventh Rev ed. National Academy Press; Washington, DC, USA: 2001.

Rastogi, L., Youssef, F. G. and Gonzalez, F.O. 1978: Beef Type Buffalo of Trinidad: Buffalypso: World Review of Animal Production. Vol XIII:53-62.

Rastogi, L. Rastogi, R.K. (2004): Buffalypso: The Water Buffaloes of Trinidad and Tobago. An Occasional Publication of the Livestock and Livestock Products Board, Trinidad and Tobago: 13.

Schneider, P. L., D. K. Beede, and C. J. Wilcox. 1986. Responses of lactating cows to dietary sodium source and quantity and potassium quantity during heat stress. J. Dairy Sci. 69:99.

Sutton, J. D. 1980. Influence of nutritional factors on the yield and content of milk fat: Dietary components other than fat. Int. Dairy Fed. Bull. Doc. 125:126.

Williams, H.E., 1989: Milk from water buffaloes in Trinidad and Tobago, Extension Newsletter. Faculty of Agriculture, The University of the West Indies. 20 (1).

Woodford, J. A., N. A. Jorgensen, and G. P. Barrington. 1986. Impact of dietary fiber and physical form on performance of lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 69:1035.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 271-273. 2017

EVALUATION OF A SUPPLEMENTATION WITH FERMENTATION PRODUCTS AND DIGESTIVE ENZYMES IN THE WEIGHT GAIN OF JERSEY AND HOLSTEIN CALVES UNDER TROPICAL CONDITIONS

Melissa A. Vaz-Ramírez, Jaime E. Curbelo-Rodríguez and Guillermo Ortiz-Colón. Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agricultural Sciences, University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, Mayagüez, PR, Puerto Rico.

ABSTRACT: The effect of a supplementation with Aspergillus (A) oryzae and A. niger fermentation products and digestive enzymes ( amylase, pectinase, endoglucanase,  glucanase, xylanase, and mannase) on the weight gain of Holstein and Jersey calves was evaluated. Individually housed Holstein (n=11) and Jersey (n=9) calves were used in the study. The experimental period lasted 49 days. All calves were fed 2 L of milk at 0600 and 1800 and fed ad libitum a calf starter that contained 18% CP; 2.5% fat; 8% CF; 14% ADF; 1.5% Ca; 0.5% P; 0.20 ppm Se; 2,273 IU/kg vitamin A; and 66 g/Tm of Lasalocid. Treated animals (5 Holsteins and 4 Jerseys) were fed 2 g of commercial mixture of A. oryzae and A. niger fermentation products and digestive enzymes. Using a Nasco© Weight by Breed Dairy Cow measuring tape calves weights were collected weekly. There was no interaction of treatment by breed by period (P=0.9636). Treatment did not affect weight gain across periods (P≥0.7215). As expected, Holsteins were heavier than Jerseys (P=0.0284) and weight increased over time (P<0.0001). During the experimental period, Holstein calves gained on average 0.63 kg/d and Jersey calves gained 0.68 kg/d. Our data suggest that a supplementation with A. oryzae and A. niger fermentation products and digestive enzymes do not enhance weight gain in Holstein and Jersey calves fed waste milk under tropical conditions.

Keywords: fermentation products dairy calves waste milk

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was carried out in a commercial dairy farm in southwest Puerto Rico. The calves were housed in individual pens (53.34 cm wide x 121.92 cm long). Standard operating procedures of the farm were followed for the selected experimental animals. The experimental period lasted 49 days. Twenty calves (11 Holstein and 9 Jersey) of 2-3 days old, were randomly selected for this experiment. Both breeds were separated into treatment (6 Holstein, 4 Jerseys) and control groups (5 Holstein, 5 Jerseys). All calves were fed 2L of waste milk at 0600 and at 1800. All calves were fed ad libitum a calf starter that contained 18% CP; 2.5% fat; 8% CF; 14 % ADF; 1.5 % Ca; 0.5 % P; 0.20 ppm Se; 2,273 IU/kg vitamin A; and 66g/Tm of Lasalocid. Group 1 was the untreated control (CON) and Group 2 received 2g of a prebiotic commercial mixture containing A. oryzae and A. niger fermentation products (TRT). In addition, the product contained the digestive enzymes  amylase, pectinase, endoglucanase,  glucanase, xylanase, and mannase. The vehicle to provide the product was wheat bran. The product was mixed with the milk during the A.M feeding. Weight was collected on a weekly basis using a Nasco© Weight by Breed Dairy Cow measuring tape.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

For calves to be excellent producers in the future, a good rearing management must be followed. One of the most important management practices to consider is feed management (colostrum, milk and solid feed). Whole, saleable milk is the best liquid feed for calves until at least 90 days of age (Abb-Schwedler, 2014). However, in countries like Puerto Rico, dairy farmers use waste milk (from mastitic cows) to feed the calves, a practice that compromises the growth and well being of dairy calves (Kesler, 1981). Research shows that current feeding systems prevent animals from growing at their natural rate, which negatively affects their welfare and health compared to calves that can ingest their mother’s milk ad libitum (Podgham, 2008).

Prebiotics are nondigestible food ingredients that selectively stimulate the growth and activity of one or a limited number of genera of bacteria in the microbiota, thereby conferring benefits to the health and well-being of the host (Amaral, 2013). Once ingested, prebiotics pass through the small intestine to the lower gut and become accessible for beneficial bacteria without being utilized by other intestinal bacteria (Al-Sheraji, 2013). Some strains of the fungus A. oryzae produce substances with a wide range of antibacterial activities against pathogenic bacteria promoting beneficial bacteria (Raper et al.,1965).

It has already been proven that supplementation with A. oryzae increased ruminal microbial activity in calves, and influences the metabolism of ruminal microorganism. Therefore, our study consisted of supplementing waste milk with a mixture of A. oryzae and A. niger fermentation products and digestive enzymes ( amylase, pectinase, endoglucanase,  glucanase, xylanase, and mannase) in order to help the intestinal microflora of milk-fed healthy calves. Therefore, diarrhea and other health problems might be prevented or minimized, and consequently weight gain can be enhanced. However, we found that there was no interaction of treatment by breed by period (P=0.9636). As expected, Holstein were heavier than Jerseys (P=0.0284) and weight increased over time (P<0.0001). During the experimental period, Holstein calves gained an average of 0.63 kg/d and Jersey calves gained 0.68 kg/d. Because treatment did not affect weight gain across periods (P>0.7215), our data suggest that supplementation with A. orizae and A. niger fermentation products and digestive enzymes do not enhance weight gain in Holstein and Jersey calves fed waste milk under tropical conditions. Alternatively, because the dairy calves in our study were housed under certain stress conditions (insufficient pen space), what is known tha t make their immune system vulnerable and were exposed to a continuous supply of mastitic bacteria, the treatment evaluated in this study was unable to counteract these managements problems resulting in the lack of enhancement of growth in the treated animals.

CONCLUSION

Under the conditions used in this study, feeding a prebiotic and digestive enzyme to calves had no detectable effect on the growth of the experimental calves during the first 8 weeks of life. Perhaps farmers should optimize their basic management practices before they could gain any benefit from using prebiotics and enzymatic supplements in their calves. Therefore, further studies evaluating direct fed microbials and other type of prebiotics should be performed under optimum management conditions before appropriate assessment of the prebiotics potential over calve growth under tropical conditions can be made.

272

LITERATURE CITED

Abb-Schwedler, K., Maeschli, A., Boss, R., Graber, H., Steiner, A., Klocke, P. 2014. Feeding mastitis milk to organic dairy calves: effect on health and performance during suckling and on udder health at first calving. BMC Veterinary Research 10:267.

Al-Sheraji, S.H., Ismail, A., Manap, M.H., Mustafa, S., Yusof, R.M., Hassan, F.A. 2013. Prebiotics as functional foods: A review. Journal of Functional Foods. Vol. 5, Iss 4: pg 1542-1553.

Amaral Scheid, M.M., Franco Moreno, Y.M., Marostica Junior, M.R., Pastore, C.M. 2013. Effect of prebiotics on the health of the elderly. Food Research International. Pg 426-432.

Kesler, E.M. 1981. Feeding mastitic milk to calves: a review. J. Dairy Science. 64:719.

Podgham B.J. (2008). The potential of suckling systems in calf rearing – Dutch research. Organic Broadcaster, issue 15, 1 Jan–Feb, pp. 1–3.

Raper, K.B., and D.I. Fennell. 1965. The Genus Aspergillus. The Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore, MD.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 274-275. 2017

SURVEY OF GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY COWS IN NORTH, NORTHWESTERN AND WESTERN PUERTO RICO

Mónica. Colón, L. C. Solórzano, and A. A. Rodríguez. University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez 00682.

ABSTRACT: Animal records are important in order to have the most control of management practices and to improve the efficiency of production. In Puerto Rico there is limited information about cow management in dairy farms. Discuss similar surveys conducted elsewhere. The objective of this survey was to assess the management practices in Puerto Rican dairy farms.

Keywords: Survey, Dairy Cows, Management

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Puerto Rico has 7 agricultural regions, for these research three of these were chosen North (Arecibo Regional Office), Northwest (Mayagüez Regional Office) and the West area (San Germán Regional Office). On each region, five dairy farms were chosen for the project, for a total of fifteen farms. Farms within each region were divided according to size, based on cow numbers: large (>500 animals), medium (300 to 500 animals) and small (<300 animals). The selection of farms was done with the help of an Agricultural Extension officer, who accompanied during the visits. During the visit, the owner or the farm administrator was interviewed, face to face, in order to fill out a questionnaire. After the interview, a physical inspection of the farm was performed to assess the size and the quality of the facilities. Other surveys have been done by mail, but the disadvantage of this is that there is a low percentage of producers respond (Fulwider et al., 2008). This survey included questions in the following areas: quantity of animals, reproductive data, and age of the herd, milk production, and milk composition. Others studies have been done with 25 questions about general management, calving, diseases and veterinary service (Heuwieser et al., 2010). Data was analyzed as a completely randomized design with a factorial arrangement 3 (Farms sizes) x 3 (Geographic Regions) using the program Statistical Analysis Software (SAS, 1990).

RESULTS

The percent of milking cows of the total number of animals on the farm, shown in Table 1, (P<0.05) varies with the size within each region. In the West, there are more milking cows in middle sized farms (35.0%). In the North (43.3%) and in the Northwest (50.0%) there is a larger percent of milking cows (as percent of the total animals on farm) in smaller farms. In high- producing herds the average of percent of milking cows is 61% (Bucholtz, 2006). There are more replacement heifers (P<0.05) in big farms (464 heifers) and less in small farms (99 heifers). The use of cow management groups in the production string (P<0.05) was mostly used in the West with an average of five groups per farm. The reasons for dividing the groups may vary within farm, but the most used are reproduction state (33%), production (20%), and milking procedures (6%). In other farms, there are two management groups: lactating and dry cows. In comparison, Bucholtz (2006) indicated that in herds that are <250 cows the mean is 3.8 management groups, 250-500 cows the mean is 5.0 management groups, 500-1000 cows the mean is 7.2 management groups 274 and >1000 cows 12.0 management groups. In Puerto Rico, reproductive state of the cow is used to divide groups of cows in 33% of the surveyed farms. Approximately 40% of the farms do not use any cow management groups. Milk production was higher (P<0.05) in the West (18.9 L/cow/d) and was the lowest in the North (14.3 L/cow/d). Milk production (19.10 L/cow/d) and SCC (502,500) was higher (P<0.05) for middle sized farms, regardless of region. In a high producing herd, the milk yield was 48 L/cow/d (Shaver, 2005). In high producing herds the mean SCC is 146,000 (Bucholtz, 2006). The age of the milking cows appeared to differ across regions. The quantity of cows with three or more calvings appeared to be higher than any other animal group. However, since dairy producers do not have proper records regarding the age of the cow, it was not considered for statistical analysis. There were no other statistically significant findings.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that in the West, there are more cow management groups and higher milk production. Medium sized farms produced the most milk in the three regions. It is clear that Puerto Rican dairy farms could benefit from implementing proper record keeping systems. Puerto Rican dairy farms, do not maintain updated records in their farms, thus it is recommended to educate farmers on their options for creating and maintaining a registry. For future researches, it would be recommended to choose a bigger sample size and include more agricultural regions.

LITERATURE CITED:

Bucholtz, H. 2006. Feeding practices of high-producing herds: what can we learn? WCDS Advances in Dairy Technology. 18:157-177.

Fulwilder, W., T. Grandin, B.E. Rollin, T. E. Engle, N. L. Dalsted and W. D. Lamn. 2008. Survey of dairy management practices on one hundred thirteen north, central, and northeastern United States dairies. J Dairy Sci. 92: 1686-1692.

Heuwieser, W., M. Iwersen, J. Gossellin and M. Drilich. 2010. Short communication: Survey of fresh cow management practices of dairy cattle on small and large commercial farms. J. Dairy Sci. 93: 1065-1068.

Statistics Analysis Systems, 1990. SAS version 6.12 for Windows. User’s Guide. Statistics Analysis Systems Institute. Inc. Cary NC.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 276-277. 2017

SURVEY OF CALF MANAGEMENT AND BIOSECURITY PRACTICES IN NORTH, NORTHWESTERN AND WESTERN PUERTO RICO DAIRY FARMS

Mónica. Colón, L. C. Solórzano, and A. A. Rodríguez. University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez 00682.

ABSTRACT: Calf management and biosecurity measures are an essential part of dairy husbandry because they represent the sustainable future of the dairy enterprise while providing wholesome and healthy milk. In Puerto Rico, there is no information about the management of calves and the implementation of biosecurity measures in dairy farms. A proper biosecurity program can help minimize health risks. The objective of this survey was to assess the management of calves and the biosecurity measures in Puerto Rican dairy farms.

Keywords: calf, dairy farms, biosecurity

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Puerto Rico has 7 agricultural regions, for these research three of these were chosen North (Arecibo Regional Office), Northwest (Mayagüez Regional Office) and the West area (San Germán Regional Office). On each region, five dairy farms were chosen for the project, for a total of fifteen farms. Farms within each region were divided according to size, based on cow numbers: large (>500 animals), medium (300 to 500 animals) and small (<300 animals). The selection of farms was done with the help of an Agricultural Extension officer, who accompanied during the visits. During the visit, the owner or the farm administrator was interviewed, face to face, in order to fill out a questionnaire. After the interview, a physical inspection of the farm was performed to assess the size and the quality of the facilities. The part of the survey that included biosecurity practices included topics like quarantine, veterinary visits, vaccination program, and access to the farm. Other surveys have covered biosecurity, virus detection, monitoring and vaccination (Sarrazin et al, 2014). The part of the survey that included information about the calves included question topics like colostrum consumption and quality, reproductive problems, hygiene conditions. Data was analyzed as a completely randomized design with a factorial arrangement 3 (Farms sizes) x 3 (Geographic Regions) using the program Statistical Analysis Software (SAS, 1990).

RESULTS

Biosecurity measures and calves management have in common that they are key factors to ensure success in a dairy enterprise. About 53% of dairy farms leave calves with their mother, do not measure colostrum quality or insure that the calves consume adequate amounts of colostrum. Approximately 67% of producers use the colostrum from first lactation cows for their calves and then they freeze any excess colostrum. The amount of colostrum (Table 4) offered was higher (P<0.05) for larger dairies (4.33L/hd) than for smaller dairies (1.16L/hd). In the West, calves received more (P<.05) colostrum (3.875 L/hd) while in the Northwest the least amount (1 L/hd). In a study reported by the National Dairy Heifer Evaluation Project, of USDA APHIS it was found that the 80% of farms use fresh colostrum to feed their calves and more than half of the farms use milk replacers to fed calves (Heinrichs et al, 1995). The implementation of management practices 276 like daily cleaning of corrals (80% of farms surveyed), fly control (53%), ammonia odor control (52%), probiotic feeding (47%), weighting the calf (27%), usage of boot baths (13%) and navel disinfection (27%) are inconsistently implemented across all regions and farm sizes. Only 13% of the dairies in the study had vehicle control into the farm. In a study conducted in Belgian cattle farms, it was found that 64% did not let other animals to be present in the calves’ area, 79% had rodent control and 3% used disinfection boot bath (Sarrazin, et al., 2014). Among the farms surveyed, 20% are closed herds and do not quarantine, while 40% do not quarantine incoming animals. Dairy producers that quarantine incoming animals do so for less than ten days. In the study about the Belgian cattle farms, 48% purchased animals and 6% applied a quarantine period of at least 3 weeks when purchasing animals (Sarrazin, et al., 2014). In regards to the health plan, 60% of the producers have scheduled monthly veterinary visits and 73% use vaccines. The most commonly used vaccines include: Inforce (27%), Leptospira (13%), Pink eye (7%) and Black leg (7%).There is no control of vehicular access to the farm (87%) and the few that do are located in the North. In the North and West there are two farms, one on each area, that provide materials to sanitize footwear. No other surveyed variables had significant differences.

CONCLUSION

In terms of the calves, it would be recommended, to implement a way of testing colostrum quality in order to ensure a strong immune system. Ensuring the proper colostrum consumption and controlling diseases in calves helps results in healthier animals. Puerto Rican dairy farms, could implement biosecurity measures, like foot baths and vehicle control that would improve disease control in dairy herds. For future researches, it would be recommended to choose a bigger sample size and include more agricultural regions.

LITERATURE CITED

Can, M. F., & Altug, N. (2014). Socioeconomic implications of biosecurity practices in small- scale dairy farms . Veterinary Quarterly , 67-73. Kanyima M, B., Owny, D. O., Bage, R., Nassuna-Musoke, M. G., Humblot, P., & Magnusson, U. (2015 ). Managerial practices and factors influencing reproductive performance of dairy cows in urban/peri-urban area of Kampala and Gulu, Uganda . Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica , 57. Sarrazin, S., Cay, A. B., Laureyns, J., & Dewulf, J. (2014). A survey on biosecurity and management practices in selected Belgian cattle farms . Preventive Veterinary Medicine , 129-139. Statistics Analysis Systems, 1990. SAS version 6.12 for Windows. User’s Guide. Statistics Analysis Systems Institute. Inc. Cary NC.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 278-283. 2017

ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SANITIZER SPRAY AND ROLLER TREATMENT ON REDUCING THE POPULATION OF A FIVE-STRAIN SALMONELLA COCKTAIL ON MANGO SURFACES

Xinyue Wang1 and Michelle D. Danyluk2. Citrus Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Lake Alfred, Florida.

ABSTRACT: Mangoes have been associated with five documented Salmonella outbreaks in North America. Sanitizer wash treatments have been documented as an effective means of reducing Salmonella populations on the surface of certain produce like tomatoes. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the reduction of Salmonella populations on the surface of mangoes during brush and PVC roller washing with overhead spray of either chlorine or peroxyacetic acid (PAA). Whole ‘Tommy Atkins’ mangoes were spot inoculated with a 5-strain Salmonella (rifampicin-resistant) cocktail (7 log CFU/mango) onto the equator and dried for 1 h. Mangoes were washed with a lab scale brush or PVC roller system with either ground water (control), or sanitizers (100 ppm chlorine (pH=7), or 80 ppm PAA) for 0, 5, 15, 30 and 60 s respectively (n=15 mangoes). Dey/Engley buffer (100 ml) was added to whole mangoes in sterile bags to remove Salmonella from the surface using a rub-shake-rub method, then plated in duplicate onto selective and non-selective agar. Control samples were not inoculated and not treated, inoculated but not treated, or not inoculated and treated. There are statistically significant differences (P<0.05) in Salmonella reductions between water, chlorine, and PAA treatment regardless of washing time when brush rollers were used; there are no statistically significant difference (P>0.05) between chlorine and PAA treatment on PVC rollers. Salmonella reductions achieved by brush rollers or PVC rollers was not statistically different (P>0.05). The highest log reduction of Salmonella with PAA treatment was with brush rollers at 60 s (5.12±1.07 log CFU/mango reduction), while PAA treatment achieved 4.65±1.41 log CFU/mango reductions at 60 s on PVC rollers. In all cases, log reductions increased with longer treatment times. On both brush and PVC rollers, chlorine and PAA wash achieved significantly higher log CFU/mango reduction than water spray alone. Addition of chlorine or PAA to spray water used during brush washing can lead to more effective food safety management, which will help to minimize potential for contaminated mangoes entering the market.

Keywords: chlorine; peroxyacetic acid; Salmonella; mango

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, there has been an increase of incidences of fresh produce contaminated with Salmonella spp. in the United States. There are five documented Salmonella outbreaks implicating imported fresh mangoes in North America (Beatty et al., 2004; CDC, 2003; PHAC, 1998; Sivapalasingam et al., 2003; CDC, 2012). Poor quality wash water is a route connecting produce production with foodborne outbreaks. The Produce Safety Rule of the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) requires postharvest intervention and postharvest storage time for mangoes if low microbiological quality irrigation water was used. Sanitizer spray and brush roller treatment have been documented as an effective means of reducing Salmonella populations on the surface of tomatoes (Chang and Schneider 278

2012). However, published literature evaluates methods to control pathogen populations that may be present on the surface of mangoes is limited. This study was conducted to evaluate the reduction of Salmonella populations on the surface of mangoes during overhead sanitizer spray and roller treatment.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

‘Tommy Atkins’ mangoes were spot inoculated with a 5-strain Salmonella (rifampicin- resistant) cocktail (7 log CFU/mango) onto the equator and dried for 1 h. Mangoes were washed with a lab scale brush or PVC roller system with either ground water (control), or sanitizers (100 ppm chlorine (pH=7), or 80 ppm PAA) for 0, 5, 15, 30 and 60 s (n=15 mangoes). Dey/Engley buffer (100 ml) was added to whole mangoes in sterile bags to remove Salmonella from the surface using a rub-shake-rub method, then plated in duplicate onto both tryptic soy agar and bismuth sulfite agar supplemented with 80 µg/ml rifampicin (abbreviated as TSAR and BSAR respectively). Control samples were not inoculated and not treated, inoculated but not treated, or not inoculated and treated. Data were statistically analyzed by ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD test for sanitizer and time. Differences were considered significant at P≤0.05.

RESULTS

No significant difference (P>0.05) was found between Salmonella reductions on TSAR and BSAR. Salmonella reduction achieved by brush rollers or PVC rollers was not significantly different (P>0.5). In all cases, log reductions increased with longer treatment times. There were statistically significant differences (P<0.05) in Salmonella reductions between water (Figure 1), chlorine (Figure 2), and PAA (Figure 3) treatment regardless of washing time when brush rollers were used; there was no statistically significant difference (P>0.05) between chlorine (Figure 5) and PAA (Figure 6) treatment on PVC rollers, but Salmonella reductions between water (Figure 4) and chlorine, water and PAA treatment were significantly different (P<0.05) regardless of washing time. The highest log reduction of Salmonella with PAA treatment was with brush rollers at 60 s (5.07±1.06 log CFU/mango reduction), compared with chlorine (4.43±0.95 log CFU/mango reduction) and water treatment (3.27±0.58 log CFU/mango reduction). With PVC rollers, PAA treatment reached 4.20±0.94 log CFU/mango reduction at 60 s, compared with chlorine (4.46±0.85 log CFU/mango reduction) and water treatment (3.66±0.65 log CFU/mango reduction). On both brush and PVC rollers, chlorine and PAA wash achieved significantly higher log CFU/mango reduction than water spray alone.

279

8.00

7.00

6.00

5.00

4.00 TSAR

3.00 BSAR

Population (log (log CFU/mango) Population LOD 2.00

1.00

Salmonella 0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Time (s)

Figure 1. Salmonella populations inoculated on mango surfaces treated with water spray for 0, 5, 15, 30, to 60 s on brush rollers (n=15). LOD=limit of detection.

8.00

7.00

6.00

5.00

4.00 TSAR

3.00 BSAR

Population (log (log CFU/mango) Population LOD 2.00

1.00

Salmonella 0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Time (s)

Figure 2. Salmonella populations inoculated on mango surfaces treated with chlorine spray for 0, 5, 15, 30, to 60 s on brush rollers (n=15). LOD=limit of detection.

280

7.00

6.00

5.00

4.00 TSAR 3.00 BSAR

Population (log (log CFU/mango) Population 2.00 LOD

1.00

Salmonella 0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Time (s)

Figure 3. Salmonella populations inoculated on mango surfaces treated with PAA spray for 0, 5, 15, 30, to 60 s on brush rollers (n=15). LOD=limit of detection.

7.00

6.00

5.00

4.00 TSAR 3.00 BSAR

Population (log (log CFU/mango) Population 2.00 LOD

1.00

Salmonella 0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Time (s)

Figure 4. Salmonella populations inoculated on mango surfaces treated with water spray for 0, 5, 15, 30, to 60 s on PVC rollers (n=15). LOD=limit of detection.

281

7.00

6.00

5.00

4.00 TSAR 3.00 BSAR

Population (log (log CFU/mango) Population 2.00 LOD

1.00

Salmonella 0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Time (s)

Figure 5. Salmonella populations inoculated on mango surfaces treated with chlorine spray for 0, 5, 15, 30, to 60 s on PVC rollers (n=15). LOD=limit of detection.

7.00

6.00

5.00

4.00 TSAR 3.00 BSAR

Population (log (log CFU/mango) Population 2.00 LOD

1.00

Salmonella 0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Time (s)

Figure 6. Salmonella populations inoculated on mango surfaces treated with PAA spray for 0, 5, 15, 30, to 60 s on PVC rollers (n=15). LOD=limit of detection.

CONCLUSION

The addition of chlorine or PAA to spray water used during brush washing can lead to more effective food safety management, which will help to minimize potential for contaminated mangoes entering the market.

282

LITERATURE CITED

Beatty, M. E., T.N. LaPorte, Q. Phan, S.V. Van Duyne, and C. Braden. 2004. A multistate outbreak of Salmonella enterica serotype Saintpaul infections linked to mango consumption: a recurrent theme. Clinical Infectious Disease. 38:1337-1338.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2003. Foodborne outbreaks due to confirmed bacterial etiologies, 2006. http://www.cdc.gov/foodborneoutbreaks/us_outb/fbo2003/fbofinal2003.pdf. Accessed on 3 May 12, 2016.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2012. Multistate outbreak of Salmonella Braenderup infections associated with mangoes (Final Update). http://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/braenderup-08-12/. Accessed on May 12, 2016.

Chang, A.S. and K.R. Schneider. 2012. Evaluation of overhead spray-applied sanitizers for the reduction of Salmonella on tomato surfaces. Journal of Food Science. 71:65-69.

PHAC. 1998. Salmonella Oranienburg, Ontario. In: Canadian Communicable Disease Report; 24- 22:15.

Sivapalasingam S., E. Barrett, A. Kimura, S.V. Duyne, W.D. Witt, M. Ying, A. Frisch, Q. Phan, E. Gould, P. Shilam, V. Reddy, T. Cooper, M. Hoekstra, C. Higgins, J.P. Sanders, R.V. Tauxe, and L. Slutsker. 2003. A multistate outbreak of Salmonella enterica Serotype Newport infection linked to mango consumption: impact of water-dip disinfestation technology. Clinical Infectious Disease. 37:1585-1590.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 284-287. 2017

PRODUCCIÓN DE GRANOS E INFLUENCIA DE LA TEMPERATURA SOBRE EL VALOR NUTRICIONAL DE LOS GRANOS DE SOYA FORRAJERA [GLYCINE MAX (L.) MERR.]

Diana Álvarez Vargas1, Elide Valencia2, María Plaza1, Suzika Pagán Riestra3. 1Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, 2Departamento de Ciencias Agro-ambientales y 3Servicio de Extensión Agrícola, Colegio de Ciencias Agrícolas, Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez

RESUMEN: Se determinó la producción de semilla y valor nutricional [proteína bruta (PB), fibra detergente neutra (FDN), fibra detergente ácida (FDA), y energías neta de leche (NEL), ganancia (NEG) y de mantenimiento (NEM)] de la semilla de soya forrajera [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. Se utilizaron tres líneas (PR 11-2, PR 16-2 y 22-3) y el cultivar Hinson Long Juvenile (HLJ) sometidas a temperatura de 0 (control) 115, 130 y 145 ̊ C por 30 minutos en un horno, siguiendo un diseño experimental de bloques aleatorizados con cuatro repeticiones. Se tomaron cinco muestras de campo (1.5 m2) para estimar el rendimiento de granos (madurez fisiológica de la semilla <18% humedad). Muestras representativas de lotes de semilla de las cuatro variedades (4 kg) se dividieron en 500 g después de limpieza (cuatro réplicas) se sometieron a cuatro tratamiento térmicos en un horno de convección y molidas (pasar un cedazo de 1mm). El N se determinó por el método Kjeldahl y su PB se estimó (% N * 6.25). Se utilizó un análisis de varianza (INFOSTAT) y diferencias de medias distintas se separó con Fisher LSD. No se encontró diferencia (P>0.05) significativa en rendimiento de semillas por fecha de siembra. Se combinaron las siembras y se encontró diferencias en producción de semilla entre líneas y HLJ. La línea PR- 1-1 supero en rendimiento (2.3 Mg ha-1) a la línea PR 22-3 (1.8 Mg ha-1) y a la HLJ (1.6 Mg ha-1) por más del 75%. El mayor porcentaje de PB se encontró en la línea 22-3 (44%). Sin embargo, los tratamientos térmicos solo afectaron la FDA. En conclusión, la línea PR 1-1 ofrece un potencial a producción de granos en Puerto Rico. No obstante, la línea PR 22-3 al compararse con las demás presentó mayor concentración de PB (43.7%) para la alimentación de rumiantes. Por lo tanto se concluye que el tratamiento térmico no influyo en la composición nutricional de la mayoría de las variables analizadas.

Palabras claves:

INTRODUCCIÓN

En los Estados Unidos y otras partes del mundo, la soya [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] se cultiva para la producción de aceite y el subproducto restante se utiliza en la alimentación animal (fuente de proteína). El método de extracción del aceite se realiza por procesos convencionales (mecánicos) o procesos acuosos (extracción por solvente), (Grasso, 2013) resultando en un subproducto conocido como el afrecho de soya. En Puerto Rico, no existe una industria destinada a la extracción del aceite. Por tal razón, hay que buscar alternativas para el uso de los granos con miras a mejorar la fuente proteica y energética en animales en producción como son las vacas lecheras. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la producción de granos de soya [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] en siembras repetidas en el tiempo y medir el efecto de cuatro niveles de temperatura (0, 115, 130 y 145 ̊ C por 30 minutos) sobre su composición nutricional. 284

MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS

Se establecieron dos siembras (la primera en marzo, 2016 y la segunda en julio, 2016) de tres líneas de soya y HLJ se establecieron en hileras (0.75 cm) en la Estación Experimental de Isabela, Universidad de Puerto Rico, Mayagüez en un Oxisol de la serie Coto. El diseño fue de bloques completos (unidades experimentales de 0.25 ha) con cuatro repeticiones. Las siembras se mantuvieron libres de malezas mecánicamente y al adquirir su madurez fisiológica (<18% secado del grano) se cosecharon mecánicamente. En cada unidad experimental se cosecharon cinco sub- muestras (1.5m2) y las semillas secadas en un ambiente controlado para estimar el rendimiento de granos. El resto se cosechó mecánicamente con una combinada (finales de junio del 2016 y finales de octubre, 2016) y se secaron también, en mesas bajo un ambiente controlado por un periodo de dos semanas hasta llegar a aproximadamente a 12% de humedad para luego ser almacenadas en un cuarto frío (4°C). De los lotes de las tres líneas de soya y HLJ almacenadas se tomaran aleatoriamente muestras de 4 kg y se limpiaron manualmente removiendo todo material inerte. Las semillas pequeñas y dañadas se eliminaran pasando la muestra por un tamiz. Luego de la limpieza manual, se dividieron en cuatro muestras representativas (500 g de cada línea; para tener cuatro replicas) las cuales se almacenaron bajo refrigeración nuevamente. Las muestras se tostaron en un horno de convección a 115, 130 y 145 ̊C por 30 minutos, (tomando un control sin tratamiento térmico) utilizando cuatro bandejas de aluminio por tratamiento para cada línea y variedad siguiendo la metodología descrita por Rafiee-Yarandi et al. (2015). Luego del tratamiento térmico establecido se almacenaron en bolsas de baja densidad a temperatura ambiente a excepción del control que se mantuvo refrigerado para evitar reacciones enzimáticas. Luego se procedió a la molienda utilizando un molino Wiley y pasadas a través de un cedazo de 1-mm. Estas muestras se empacaron en bolsas de baja densidad bajo las condiciones de almacenamiento anteriormente pautadas y su composición química (PB, FDN, FDA, ENL, ENG y ENM) fueron determinadas en un laboratorio de nutrición animal. La data de los componentes de producción de granos y químicos se sometieron a un análisis de varianza y cuando se encontró diferencia significativa las medias se separaron utilizando la diferencia mínima significativa (INFOSTAT).

RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN

No se encontró diferencia (P>0.05) en rendimiento de semillas por fecha de siembra, pero si se encontró diferencias en producción de semilla entre líneas y cultivar. La línea PR 1-1 superó en rendimiento de grano (2.3 Mg ha-1) a la línea PR 22-3 (1.8 Mg ha-1) y a la HLJ (1.6 Mg ha-1) por más del 75%. Por otra parte, no se encontró una interacción entre variedades x niveles de tostado de los granos para PB, FDN, FDA, NEL, NEG y NEG. Sin embargo, si se encontraron efecto de variedad para PB, FDN y FDA mientras que el efecto de temperatura solo se observó en la FDA (Tabla 2 y 3). La línea 22-3 superó por seis unidades porcentuales en contenido de PB a la línea 16-2 (Tabla 1). Sin embargo, los tratamientos térmicos no afectaron la PB, FDN, NEL, NEG, y NEM (Tabla 2). Por lo tanto, el tratamiento térmico empleado no afectó ninguna de las variables de interés a excepción del % FDA. Investigaciones previas revelan que la composición del contenido nutricional de la semilla de soya cambia dependiendo de la variedad del grano, de las condiciones de crecimiento, así como del estado en que se encuentra (Chavarría, 2010). 285

En la FDA (Tabla 2), se observa una degradación mínima en el porcentaje (P<0.05) en comparación a los tratamientos términos. Reportes de Franco (2015), a tratamiento térmicos similares, establece que la temperatura no presenta ningún efecto sobre sobre la FDA.

Tabla 1. Porcentaje de proteína bruta (PB), fibra detergente neutra (FDN), fibra detergente ácida (FDA), energía neutra de lactancia (NEL), energía neta de ganancia (NEG) y energía neta de mantenimiento (NEM) en tres líneas de soya (PR 1-1, PR 16-2 PR 22-3) y Hinson long Juvenile (HLJ)1.

PB FDN FDA NEL NEG NEM Soya % PR 22-3 43.692a 18.71b 10.36b 2.59ab 2.00ª 2.80ab HLJ 40.86b 19.90ab 11.84b 2.59a 2.01ª 2.80a PR 1-1 39.01c 22.11ª 14.01a 2.55b 1.96b 2.75b PR 16-2 37.90c 21.98ª 14.58a 2.56ab 1.98ab 2.76ab E.E.3 0.32 0.80 0.44 0.01 0.01 0.02 1Los resultados están presentados en base seca. 2Promedios con letras diferentes son significativamente diferentes (P<0.05). 3Error estándar.

Tabla 2. Porcentaje de proteína bruta (PB), fibra detergente neutra (FDN), fibra detergente ácida (FDA), energía neutra de lactancia (NEL), energía neta de ganancia (NEG) y energía neta de mantenimiento (NEM) luego de tratamiento térmico1.

Temperatura PB FDN FDA NEL NEG NEM ( ̊C) % Control 41.00a 19.65b 11.16b 2.60ª 2.01ª 2.81ª 115 39.94a 20.91ab 13.48a 2.57ª 1.99ab 2.77ª 135 40.18a 22.15ª 13.10a 2.57ª 1.98ab 2.77ª 145 40.35a 19.99ab 13.05a 2.56ª 1.97b 2.76ª E.E.3 0.32 0.80 0.44 0.01 0.01 0.02 1Los resultados están presentados en base seca. 2Promedios con letras diferentes son significativamente diferentes (P<0.05). 3Error estándar.

CONCLUSIONES

De acuerdo a los objetivos e hipótesis planteadas y el lugar donde se realizó el experimento se establecen las siguientes conclusiones. Se recomienda la línea PR 1-1 para producción de semilla en la zona Noroeste de Puerto Rico. La línea PR 22-3 fue la que presentó mayor valor de PB, observándose que los tratamientos térmicos no afectaron su concentración de PB y otros componentes. Los tratamientos térmicos no influyeron en la composición nutricional de la mayoría de las variables analizadas, por lo cual se recomienda evaluar el tratamiento térmico mínimo en la preparación de soya para alimentación de rumiantes.

286

LITERATURA CITADA

Rafiee-Yarandi, H., Ghorbani, G., Alikhani, M., Sadeghi-Sefidmazgi, A., & Drackley, J. (2016). A comparison of the effect of soybeans roasted at different temperatures versus calcium salts of fatty acids on performance and milk fatty acid composition of mid- lactation Holstein cows. Dairy Sci. 99:5422-5435.

Grasso. V. (2013). Diseño del proceso: Pre-tratamiento enzimático para extracción de aceites vegetales en un extractor de columna. Argentina: Facultad de Ingeniería Universidad Nacional de la Plata.

Chavarría, L. (2010). Determinación del tiempo de vida útil de la leche de soya mediante un estudio de tiempo real. Ecuador: Escuela Superior Politécnico del Litoral.

Franco, M. (2015). Efecto de la temperatura de extrusión del grano de soja sobre la degradación ruminal de la proteína del expeller. Córdoba: Universidad Nacional de Villa María IAP Ciencias Básicas y Aplicadas.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 288-293. 2017

CITRUS LINERS HEIGHT AND CALIPER IS LIMITED BY CONTAINER VOLUME

Dania Rivera Ocasio, Department of Agro-Environmental Sciences, College of Agricultural Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. Agricultural Experiment Station, Corozal, PR.

ABSTRACT: Citrus greening is a devastating disease that is transmitted by the Asian Citrus Psyllid (Diaphorina citri) and caused by the bacteria Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus. The establishment of pathogen-free nursery systems has been used as one of the management strategies to deal with the CG disease and other vector transmitted diseases. The experiment was conducted at Agricultural Experiment Station citrus screen nursery in Corozal, Puerto Rico. Three citrus rootstocks were evaluated Carrizo citrange (Citrus sinensis [L.] Osbeck x Poncirus trifoliata), Swingle citrumelo (Citrus paradise Macf. X Poncirus trifoliata) and HRS 812 (Citrus reticulate X Poncirus trifoliata [L.] Raf.). After three months of growth the seedlings were transplanted to five different containers. Half of the treatments were also fertilize with 6.19 grams of Triple superphosphate (0-45-0) on the hole before planting. Height and diameter of the trunk was measured every two weeks for eight months after planting. Plants grown in the larger container was statistically significant higher in height and caliper than the others. The addition of the fertilizer also incremented height and caliper significantly. HRS 812 grew taller but had the smallest diameter. Swingle had the larger diameter. These results demonstrate that plant growth can be reduced by the reduction of container volume. Plants grown in larger container with healthier and more robust root systems may be needed to survive the transplanting stress and exposure to citrus greening in the field.

Keywords: citrus greening, container volume, container size, root growth, screen nursery

INTRODUCTION

Citrus is considered the most important tree fruit crop in the world with production in over 100 countries and all six continents (Saunt, 2000). Agricultural Statistics gathered from the Department of Agriculture of Puerto Rico (DAPR) shows that in 2014/2015 oranges had a value of $5,949 million, which represents a decline of 35% when compared with 2008/2009 value of $9,105 million. The decline is most likely related to the introduction of the new disease called citrus greening (CG). The most common management strategies used to treat CG are: insecticide applications to reduce psyllid populations, nutritional applications, removal of infected trees to eliminate sources of bacterial inoculum, and establishment of pathogen-free nursery systems (PFNS) (Albrecht and Bowman, 2009; Albrecht et al., 2012) The establishment of PFNS has to be complemented with new strategies to accelerate growth and production of new citrus trees. Now with CG, trees get infected and start declining, and the production it is not enough to recover the investment. One recommendation to reduce the production cost, is to plant smaller citrus trees at a higher densities on the field (Bouffard, 2012). Trees have to be in production sooner, disease free and at a reasonable cost to make citrus production profitable. In PR, the new PFNS recommendation is to use smaller containers [4 x12 inch container (2,310 cm3)] in substitution of the standard black plastic bag (5,450 cm3). The switch from standard plastic bag to smaller containers increase use of bench space and reduce 288

substrate volume used for each plant. A number of studies have found that larger container and substrate volume may increase root growth (Fare, 2006; Hsu et al., 1996; Keever et al., 1985; Mathers et al., 2007; NeSmith and Duval, 1998). However, in citrus industry, containers size and depth have been choosing primarily to maximize space use and reduce production costs. For that reason, this research evaluates rootstock growth in different container sizes (larger and smaller than the recommended) with different substrate volumes and geometry. The overall goal of this research was to develop new methodologies that will enable an efficient and economical production of citrus trees in screen protected greenhouses and accelerate rootstock growth.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment description. The experiment was conducted at Agricultural Experimental Station (AES) screen protected nursery (SPN) in Corozal, Puerto Rico. The SPN was protected with a mesh (0.24mm x 0.75mm) to avoid most insects. Three citrus rootstocks were evaluated: Carrizo citrange (Citrus sinensis [L.] Osbeck x Poncirus trifoliata), Swingle citrumelo (Citrus paradise Macf. X Poncirus trifoliata) and HRS 812 (Citrus reticulate X Poncirus trifoliata [L.] Raf.). The seeds, of the studied rootstocks, were obtained from Corozal- AES the rootstocks collection. The rootstocks were germinated on a commercial mix of peat moss (Promix BX with mycorrhizae) on 72 holes plastic germination tray. After three months, the seedlings were transplanted to five different containers (Table 1). The same media substrate used to fill up all containers consisted on equal parts by volume (1:1:1) of Commercial peat moss (Promix, Sushine Mix #4), river sand and coffee compost (AES-Adjuntas). The substrate was first sterilized with water vapor (100º C) for four hours at AES Adjuntas. The fertilizer used was 18-6-12 (Caliber Cote, Homogeneous Trace Pack, Helena Chemical Company) applied according to the container volume. Half of the plants from each container/bag and rootstock were also fertilize with 6.19 grams of Triple superphosphate (0-45-0) on the hole before planting. The design of the experiment was a complete random block design with four blocks and 6 replicates.

Variables measured. The height (cm) of each plant was taken from the top of the substrate to the petiole of the newest leaf and the tree diameter was taken at 5 cm from the substrate (Digital caliper, ABSolute AOS Digmatic, Mitutoyo Corp., Japan) every month up to eight months after planting (MAP) every two weeks for 34 weeks. All the data was analyzed statistically using an ANOVA and a Fisher least significant difference (LSD) with a p<0.05.

Table 1. Standard plastic bag and container description, dimensions, volume and commercial code Container Description Dimensions Volume Code* ---inch------cm------L------cm3--- 0 Standard plastic 13.5 x 5.5 x 34.3 x 14 x 7.6 5.45 5,450 --- bag 3 1 Round container 2 x 10 5 x 25.4 0.41 410 D25L 2 Square container 4 x 12 10.2 x 30.5 2.31 2,310 CP412C H 3 Round container 6 x 12 15.2 x 30.5 4.26 4,260 CP612R 4 Square container 6 x 16 15.2 x 40.6 6.23 6,230 TP616 * Stuewe & Sons. Inc., 31933 Rolland Dirve, Tanget, Oregon, 97389 USA

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Height. At planting date, all rootstocks had the same height (~5.5 cm). For rootstock height, the three simple effects: rootstock type, container volume and fertilization were statistically significant. For rootstock type, there was significant difference in height between all rootstocks and measuring dates. Rootstock HRS 812 and Carrizo were similar on initial and at the end of the experiment (8 MAP) (Table 2). The HRS 812 was significantly taller from 1 to 6 MAP when it reached a plateau. Carrizo was the second rootstock in height initially but after 7 MAP was similar to HRS 812. However, Swingle (29.6cm) was significantly smaller in height than the others (Carrizo, 33.1cm and HRS 812 34cm).

Height of the plants in the different containers also was significant in all measurement dates. Tallest plants in the initial measurement were found in containers two (2,310 cm3) and three (4,260 cm3) (Table 2). From one to eight MAP, higher plant height was observed in container four (6,230 cm3); although, no differences were found for containers cero, two and three. The plants in the smallest container (1) were significantly smaller through the experiment. We observed that the growth was affected by the container volume. These results are similar to Fare (2006) who found that smaller liners (small tree) had more height when grown in larger containers than in smaller containers. Newby and Fare (2001) found that Acer rubrum ‘Franksred’ grown from 0.5-inch (12.7mm) caliper liners had greater height growth than larger plants grown from 0.75 inch (19mm) and 1.0-inch (25mm) liners after 18 months of production. When plants were transplanted into 15- gallon (56,781.2 cm3) containers they had greater height than those grown in 7- or 10-gallon (26,497.9 and 37,854.1 cm3 respectively) containers (Newby and Fare, 2001). Mathers et al. (2007) indicated that in certain taxa such as Prunus, Taxodium, Betula, Malus, Cercis, certain Acer and Tilia species, a healthy tree liner, five feet high and 0.5 inch (12.7mm) diameter could be produced in a little over 6 months, June to early November in a Retractable Roof Greenhouse in three-gallon (11,356cm3) containers (Mathers et al., 2007). Our data shows that the increase in container volume results in an increase over 30% in growth.

Triple superphosphate is usually added to the hole before planting on the field. When 6.19g was added before transplanting on containers we observed a significant difference in height. This difference was observed from four MAP continues through the rest of the measurement dates.

Diameter. At planting date, all rootstocks diameter were approximately 1.4mm. At the end of the experiment rootstock (8 MAP), Swingle had the largest diameter; Carrizo was second and the smaller was HRS 812. Diameter of the plants in the container had similar differences than in height measurements. Plants in the container four had the largest diameter. Plants in container two and one had the smaller diameter. These results are similar to Fare (2006) and Newby and Fare (2001) who found that smaller liners had larger diameter when grown in larger containers than in smaller containers. Plants with the addition of the triple superphosphate had a larger diameter. On both height and diameter, after September measurements the fertilizer effect started to show with more growth.

CONCLUSION

The production of healthy citrus plants in screen houses is a new methodology in Puerto Rico. The actual recommendation is to use 4x12 square containers (treatment 2) instead of the standard black 290 plastic bag. Similar growth was found when plants were grown in the standard plastic bag and the recommended container. However, our data shows that the larger container (four) had the greatest height and diameter compared to the other containers. This indicates that plant growth is reduced by the reduction of container volume. To accelerate growth and have citrus liners sooner than the conventional production, larger container with more substrate volume will be needed. This is important for citrus production as the diameter of the rootstock determine when it can be grafted. Plants grown in larger container with healthier and more robust root systems may be needed to survive the transplanting stress and exposure to citrus greening in the field. Analysis of this data and production cost should be conducted to determine the best container size that maximizes the nursery space without reducing growth.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Special thanks to Agro. Carlos La Rosa for helping on data collection. This project was funded by Hatch 451 Production of Healthy Citrus Plants in Puerto Rico, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus.

291

Table 2. Mean height and diameter for eight months after planting per rootstock, container and fertilizer treatment.

Rootstock Container Treatment Fertilizer Variable MAP^

Carrizo HRS 812 Swingle 0 1 2 3 4 WF NF

0 6.04 a* 5.97 a 5.17 b 5.72 b 5.11 c 6.09 a 6.0 ab 5.72 b 5.87 a 5.59 b 1 8.64 b 9.29 a 7.71 c 8.44 b 7.82 c 8.62 b 8.68 b 9.19 a 8.32 b 8.77 a 11.54 2 11.3 b 12.9 a 10.1 c 11.12 b 10.21 c 11.48 b 11.48 b 12.95 a 11.35 a a 14.49 3 14.5 b 17.29 a 12.5 c 13.95 b 14.01 b 14.26 b 13.93 b 17.63 a 15.02 a a 19.08 Height 4 19.6 b 23.4 a 17.2 c 19.3 bc 17.89 c 19.58 b 19.0 bc 24.58 a 21.04 a b (cm) 25.28 5 26.4b 30.6 a 23.5 c 26.9 b 21.82 c 25.21 b 25.59 b 34.66 a 28.39 a b 6 29.1 b 32.6 a 26.4 c 29.37 b 23.97 c 27.56 b 27.46 b 38.4 a 31.2 a 27.5 b 29.52 7 32.4 a 33.7 a 29.0 b 31.5 b 25.43 b 29.52 b 30.99 b 41.0 a 33.86 a b 30.04 8 33.1 a 34.0 a 29.6 b 32.09 b 25.76 c 30.04 b 31.87 b 41.58 a 34.5 a b

0 1.47 a 1.4 b 1.39 b 1.42 ab 1.46 a 1.41 ab 1.42ab 1.38 b 1.43 a 1.41 a 1 1.64 a 1.47 c 1.54 b 1.62 a 1.58 b 1.54 b 1.55 b 1.47 b 1.53 a 1.56 a 2 2.21 a 2.0 c 2.12 b 2.22 a 2.11 b 2.08 b 2.04 b 2.1 b 2.05 b 2.17 a 3 2.62 a 2.45 b 2.58 a 2.76 a 2.52 b 2.49 b 2.49 b 2.49 b 2.49 b 2.61 a Diameter 4 3.06 a 2.89 b 3.03 a 3.36 a 2.91 b 2.94 b 2.92 b 2.84 b 2.95 b 3.04 a (mm) 5 3.61 a 3.39 b 3.55 a 3.95 a 3.46 b 3.42 bc 3.46 bc 3.31 c 3.52 a 3.52 a 6 3.92 a 3.73 b 4.06 a 4.41 a 3.82 b 3.77 b 3.86 b 3.67 b 3.96 a 3.85 a 7 4.34 b 4.13 c 4.57 a 4.85 a 4.44 b 4.11 c 4.29 bc 4.07 c 4.47 a 4.23 b 8 4.45 b 4.23 c 4.7 a 4.96 a 4.59 b 4.19 c 4.39 bc 4.16 c 4.6 a 4.32 b ^ MAP-Months after planting, WF- With fertilizer and NF- No Fertilizer *Means with a common letter are not significantly different (p > 0.05)

292

LITERATURE CITED

Albrecht, U., and Bowman, K. D. (2009). Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus and Huanglongbing Effects on Citrus Seeds and Seedlings. HortScience, 44(7), 1967-1973.

Albrecht, U., McCollum, G., & Bowman, K. D. (2012). Influence of rootstock variety on Huanglongbing disease development in field-grown sweet orange (Citrus sinensis [L.] Osbeck) trees. Scientia Horticulturae, 138, 210-220. doi:10.1016/j.scienta.2012.02.027

Bouffard, K. (2012, January 2012). Young tree concerns highlighted at Citrus Research Field Day. Citrus Industry, 93, 16-18.

Fare, D. C. (2006). Container size and initial trunk diameter efffects growth of Acer rubrum L. during production. J. Environ. Hort., 24(1), 18-22.

Hsu, Y. M., Tseng, M. J., & Lin, C. H. (1996). Container Volume Affects Growth and Development of Wax-apple. HortScience, 31(7), 1139-1142.

Keever, G. J., Cobb, G. S., & Reed, R. B. (1985). Effect of container dimension and volume on growth of three woody ornamentals. HortScience, 20, 270-278.

Mathers, H. M., Lowe, S. B., Scagel, C., Struve, D. K., & Case, L. T. (2007). Abiotic Factors Influencing Root Growth of Woody Nursery Plants in Containers. HortTechnology, 17(2), 151- 162.

NeSmith, D. S., and Duval, J. D. (1998). The effects of container size. HortTechnology, 8(495- 498).

Newby, A., and Fare, D. C. (2001). Maple growth affected by container and liner size. Proc. Southern Nursery Assn. Res. Conf., 46, 113-116.

Saunt, J. (2000). Citrus Varieties of the World. An Illustrated Guide: Sinclair International Ltd. Norwich, England.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 294. 2017

EVALUACIÓN DE LA CHINA VALENCIA CAMPBELL (Citrus x aurantium) INJERTADO EN TRES DIFERENTES PATRONES EN UN OXISOL EN PUERTO RICO

Doris M. Laguer-Martínez1, Rebecca Tirado-Corbalá2, Alejandro Segarra- Carmona2, Consuelo Estéves de Jensen2 y Dania Rivera-Ocasio2,1Departamento de Geología, 2Departamento de Ciencias Agroambientales, Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez.

RESUMEN: Desde que el “Citrus Greening” (CG) fue detectado en el 2009 en la isla, se ha evidenciado una disminución en la producción de cítricos y posteriormente, abandono o cambio de cultivos en dichos predios. Parte del H-94Q es probar nuevas variedades de cítricos injertadas en diferentes patrones para determinar su capacidad de crecimiento, establecimiento y resistencia a enfermedades, principalmente, cerca de donde se encuentra el inóculo de CG. Por tal razón, se estableció una siembra de China Valencia Campbell [CVC] injertada en tres patrones (HRS 812, HRS897 y Swingle) en el suelo Coto en la Estación Experimental Agrícola de Isabela en diciembre 2016. Se realizaron mediciones de altura, diámetro del tallo [DT] y número de hojas en los 6 meses después de siembra (MDS), para determinar crecimiento y establecimiento de los árboles experimentales. También se realizó la prueba detección de patógeno de CG utilizando kit de ADN a los 6 MDS. Durante los meses de muestreo, se observó pleno desarrollo de todos los árboles experimentales y los mismos resultaron negativo a CG a los 6 MDS. A los 6MDS, HRS 897obtuvo mayor altura (118 cm) comprado con HRS812 y Swingle (~108 cm). Mientras, los árboles de CVC-HRS 812 poseían mayor número de hojas (78) vs. HRS 897 y Swingle (~65). Sin embargo, no hubo diferencia significativa (P>0.05) entre los patrones durante 6 MDS para diámetro del tallo. Hasta el momento, los árboles de CVV han respondido favorablemente al fertigación y aspersión utilizado para crecimiento, establecimiento y resistencia a CG.

Palabras claves: china var. Valencia Campbell, citrus greening, patrones, Oxisoles

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 295-299. 2017

MANAGEMENT TOOLS FOR BACTERIAL DISEASE IN ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

Georgina Sanahuja Solsona, Michelle Samuel-Foo and Edward Evans. University of Florida.

ABSTRACT: Eighteen products and combinations of products were tested through an IR-4 Ornamental Horticulture study at the University of Florida where foliar applications of the indicated materials were evaluated for control of Xanthomonas leaf spot disease (bacterial leaf spot) on Ficus microcarpa plants. Bacterial leaf spot is considered to be one of the most serious foliar diseases affecting ornamental plants. High relative humidity and high temperatures that are generally prevalent in greenhouse culture contribute significantly to the incidence of bacterial leaf spot. Crowded conditions and overhead watering are important factors in spreading the pathogen from plant to plant, rendering a large percentage of the plants unsalable. In this experiment we evaluate the efficacy of a group of select active ingredients and Biopesticides.

Keywords: Bacterial Disease Management, Biopesticides, IR-4, Ornamental Horticulture, Xanthomonas leaf spot

OBJECTIVE: Determine the efficacy of select active ingredient formulations and biopesticides for managing bacterial diseases in ornamental plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ficus microcarpa plants were potted in 4-inch pots with ProMix BX and fertilized with slow release Osmocote fertilizer. The experiment was conducted outdoors and all plants were placed under direct sunlight. The plants were watered twice daily using overhead irrigation. Experimental units consisted of a plant treated with a single bactericide treatment with 6 replicates arranged in a randomized complete block design.

Bactericide treatments: All plants were treated with bactericides listed in Table 1. Three foliar applications were made on February 8, February 15, and February 23, delivering 13ml per plant. First treatment of TDA was applied on February 9, 1 day before inoculation, and the rest of the applications occurred on the same schedule as other treatments. The second application of ZeroTol was on February 18. Plants treated with Triathlon BA were sprayed once on February 8 and plants treated with Camelot O were sprayed twice on February 8 and February 18.

Inoculation: Inoculum was prepared as a bacterial suspension of 48h Yeast Extract-Dextrose- Calcium carbonate medium (YDC) cultures of Xanthomonas sp. containing approximately 108 CFU/ml by spectrophotometric adjustment (0.06 optical density [OD] at 600 nm). Inoculum was applied as a foliar spray using a hand-pressurized sprayer delivering 5ml/plant. Two inoculations were conducted on February 10 and February14. Phytotoxicity, disease incidence and severity were recorded at 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days post-treatment.

295

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The disease variables measured were incidence (number of leaves spotted per plant) and severity (average visual estimation of the percent of leaf area affected). Percentage ratings of 0-100% for severity were used. All disease variables were submitted to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS v 9.4, and means were separated using Student Newman Keuls test. (Table 1). Disease pressure throughout the trial was moderate. Of all the treatments, plants treated with Prophytex WP at a rate of 32 oz/100gal had the lowest disease incidence and severity throughout the entire trial. Camelot O provided moderate reduction of the disease, containing copper octanoate, at a rate 128 fl oz/100gal. Interestingly, similar results with high disease incidence and severity were obtained with GC Pro plants either treated at a rate of 50 or 150 fl oz/100gal. In contrast, opposite results are shown with plants treated with OxiPhos at a rate of 42 and 128 fl oz/100gal. The highest disease incidence and severity throughout the entire trial was obtained for the plants treated with MBI containing Bacillus amyloliquifaciens Strain F727 at a rate of 1 gal/100gal. No phytotoxicity was observed on any of the treatments.

Environmental conditions: Environmental data was obtained from Florida Automated Weather Network (FAWN) (https://fawn.ifas.ufl.edu/) Weather Station located at the UF/IFAS Tropical Research & Education Center in Homestead, FL. Average temperature during the trial was 70 oF, total rainfall was 0.04 in, solar radiation was 182 w/m2 and average wind speed was 7 mph. Detailed daily average data is shown in Table 2.

Table 1. Xanthomonas leaf spot disease incidence and severity of Ficus microcarpa plants after applications of foliar bactericides based on Protocol #16-003. Disease Product Rate/100gal Incidence Severity 1. Untreated, non-inoculated -- 0.13 c z 1.83 e

2. Untreated, inoculated -- 1.26 ab 14.33 bcd 3. BlightBan A506 5.3 oz 1.56 ab 16.67 abcd Pseudomonas fluorescens A506 4. Bloomtime 5.3 oz 1.6 ab 18.00 abcd Pantoea agglomerans Strain E325 5. GC Pro 50 oz 1.73 ab 19.16 abc Sodium carbonate peroxidase

6. GC Pro 150 oz 2.1 ab 20.33 abc

7. MBI 110 1 gal 2.4 a 26.16 a Bacillus amyloliquifaciens Strain F727

8. Prophytex EC 64 fl oz 1.46 abc 15.33 bcd Bacillus subtilis Strain B1111

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9.Prophytex WP 32 oz 0.73 cd 8.83 de Bacillus subtilis Strain B1111 RTU 1.66 abc 18.5 abcd 10.TDA

11. USF 2018a 220 ml 1.53 abc 14.66 bcd

12. USF 0914 575 g 1.76 ab 17.16 abcd 13. OxiPhos 42 fl oz 1.63 abc 19.50 abc Mono and di potassium salts of phosphorus acid and hydrogen peroxide

14. OxiPhos 128 fl oz 1.6 abc 15.83 bcd

15. Triathlon BA 6 quarts Bacillus amyloliquifaciens Strain D747 1.9 ab 21.8 ab

16. ZeroTol 2.0 2 gal 1.5 abc 13.66 bcd Hydrogen dioxide and peroxyacetic acid

17. Camelot O 128 fl oz 1.3 bc 11.16 cd Copper octanoate

18. Cease + Milstop 1.7 ab 15.33 bcd 3 qt + 1.25 Ib Bacillus subtilis strain QST713 + Potassium bicarbonate z Column means indicated with the same letters are not significantly different (P ≤ 0.05) based on Student Newman Keuls test.

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Figure 1. Healthy Ficus microcarpa plants after transplant to 4-inch pots and placed under full-sun before trial initiation. Photo taken on 02/07/17.

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Table 2. Environmental data obtained from Florida Automated Weather Network (FAWN) (https://fawn.ifas.ufl.edu/) located at UF/TREC in Homestead, FL during the trial of Xanthomonas leaf spot of Ficus microcarpa plants from February 8 to March 7, 2017. Daily average data included temperature in Fahrenheit (oF) taken at 60 centimeters (cm) and at 2 meters (m) height, rainfall in inches taken at 2 m height, solar radiation in watts per square meter (w/m2) taken at 2 m height and wind in miles per hour (mph).

60cm T avg 2m T avg 2m Rain SolRad avg 2m 10m Wind Period (oF) (oF) tot (in) (w/m2) avg (mph) 8-Feb-17 71.59 72.45 0 180.43 4.19 9-Feb-17 71.18 71.85 0 167.62 7.03 10-Feb-17 67.06 67.66 0 214.85 8.31 11-Feb-17 64.87 65.45 0 202.37 4.76 12-Feb-17 66.31 66.9 0 201.35 4.08 13-Feb-17 66.24 66.75 0 206.84 3.57 14-Feb-17 67.65 68.12 0 187.24 3.75 15-Feb-17 70.37 71.13 0 173.12 8.41 16-Feb-17 69.42 69.98 0 156.23 9.16 17-Feb-17 62.62 63.25 0 190.98 5.05 18-Feb-17 68.4 69.18 0 163.05 3.86 19-Feb-17 72.99 73.76 0 177.44 5.4 20-Feb-17 69.86 70.54 0 195.92 5.72 21-Feb-17 67.23 68.16 0 120.6 5.08 22-Feb-17 65.76 66.95 1.09 40.82 4.95 23-Feb-17 66.18 66.79 0 203.55 6.74 24-Feb-17 68.98 69.4 0 172.42 3.94 25-Feb-17 71.72 72.07 0 210.84 5.17 26-Feb-17 71.46 71.96 0 219.87 6.24 27-Feb-17 74.85 75.88 0 174.54 8.84 28-Feb-17 75.45 76.39 0 216.63 9.01 1-Mar-17 73.96 75.11 0 218.37 6.82 2-Mar-17 73.9 74.89 0 165.68 5.32 3-Mar-17 71.49 72.23 0 147.55 8.47 4-Mar-17 70.89 71.55 0 228.2 12.1 5-Mar-17 70.33 70.95 0.01 226.78 15.97 6-Mar-17 69.33 70.1 0 134.96 13.78 7-Mar-17 71.7 72.35 0 199.01 11.37

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 300. 2017

FLORIDA COOPERATIVE AGRICULTURAL PEST SURVEY

Eric LeVeen and Leroy Whilby. Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey. . ABSTRACT: The Florida Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey (CAPS) program is a combined effort by state and federal agricultural agencies to conduct surveillance, early detection, and rapid response to exotic plant pests of agricultural and natural plant resources. Florida serves as the principle port of entry into the United States for nearly all imported plant material and is at an elevated risk year-round for invasion by exotic species. In 2016, the Florida CAPS program conducted surveys of state and national concern targeting over 36 different high-priority, economically important, and invasive exotic pests. A selected few examples include pests such as Old World Bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera), tomato leafminer (Tuta absoluta), light brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana), gypsy moths (Lymantria spp.), emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), and Japanese pine sawyer (Monochamus alternatus). CAPS also conducted commodity surveys in corn, cotton, nurseries, and state forests. These surveys take part throughout the state at locations including nurseries, farms, state parks, campgrounds, maritime ports, and agricultural inspection stations.

Keywords: CAPS, early detection, pest survey

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Florida CAPS uses approved survey methods coordinated and developed by the USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST, and scientific experts on the target species. Each target species has distinctive characteristics that dictate the effective materials and methods used for detection. For all targets, there must be at least one effective method for detection, such as visual techniques, and/or lures and trapping. Examples of traps used by Florida CAPS include Lindgren funnel traps, paper delta traps, and plastic bucket traps.

RESULTS

In 2016, Florida CAPS deployed over 752 traps statewide, processed over 2,562 samples, submitted over 7,350 negative data entries for the target pests, and reported numerous new state and new county records for insect pests in Florida. Fortunately, none of the pests on the priority target list were detected during 2016. Future Surveys: In 2017, Florida CAPS will continue to conduct detection and delimiting surveys for agricultural pests on the prioritized target list of exotic organisms.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 301. 2017

THE TROPICAL GERMPLASM REPOSITORY PROGRAM AT THE USDA-ARS TROPICAL AGRICULTURE RESEARCH STATION, MAYAGUEZ, PUERTO RICO

Tomás Ayala-Silva and Ricardo Goenaga. USDA-ARS Tropical Agriculture Research Station, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico.

ABSTRACT: The absence of well established, characterized and properly maintained germplasm collections could mean the loss of critical genetic resources for a particular crop species. As part of the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) and in a long-term effort for the conservation of germplasm under USDA-ARS National Program 301 (Plant Genetic Resources, Genomics and Genetic Improvement). The Tropical Agriculture Research Station’s (TARS) genetic resources program in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, maintains tropical and subtropical plant germplasm. The program is the primary site for the for the maintenance of bananas and plantains (Musa spp.), cacao (Theobroma cacao), tropical and temperate bamboo collections, in addition to a number of tropical and subtropical fruit collections as well as tropical woody and herbaceous ornamentals. The program’s main responsibilities are to obtain, propagate pathogen-free manner, maintain, characterize, evaluate and distribute (for research and educational purposes) genetic resources. Characterization efforts emphasis is on phenotypic traits useful to distinguish accessions as well as morphological traits of horticultural importance. Novel molecular markers are utilized for the identification of mislabeling, understanding genetic relationships among accessions, estimating genetic diversity and identifying genetic gaps within the collections. Current efforts have focused on a collaborative project for the development of SSR markers and SNP’s for a number of tropical crop germplasm collections maintained at USDA-ARS NPGS repository sites. All passport, morphological (including voucher images) and molecular data for accessions are publicly accessible through the Genetic Resources Information System (GRIN-GLOBAL) database. These program is in collaboration with other USDA/ARS agencies as well as universities, state and federal researchers and international organizations such as Bioversity International and others.

Keywords: germplasm, National Plant Germplasm System, molecular markers

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 302-303. 2017

PUBLISHING AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH DONE IN THE CONTEXT OF THE LIBRARY OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, RÍO PIEDRAS

Rosa M. Lozada Robles. Experiment Agriculture Station Library, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras.

ABSTRACT: Why do we do research? The question can be easy or complicated. Some do it out of curiosity or for the need to know, others to contribute to academic knowledge. But when the subject of agricultural research is food production, the reasons escalate in importance, since it becomes an issue that, in one way or another, concerns everybody. This study focused on the world of agricultural research: how research is done and how the information generated by the research is disseminated. The study was done among the researchers at the Agricultural Experiment Station (AES) of the College of Agricultural Sciences of the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. The study also explored the use of the library and its services by the researchers and which resources are the most used. The study presents the subjects usually researched, how investigations are carried out, what information resources are used, the role played by the AES Library in this process and how the results are presented. The study seeks to identify the level of disclosure of the research and whether it reaches the targeted public.

Keywords: agricultural research, agricultural publication, library use

INTRODUCTION

The main purpose of this investigation was to study the research and dissemination of research results by the agricultural researchers of the College of Agricultural Sciences and its Experiment Stations. My intention was to learn what happens to the investigations done, if they were published, where and to whom. I also wanted to know if they are available to students and other library users. I wanted to determine if an inventory of those investigations exists and to know its location. The main research questions were: How do researchers behave when they investigate? How do they share or disseminate the results of their work?

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This was a qualitative type of investigation. The subjects interviewed in this study were the librarian and the researchers who use the library. Techniques for collecting data and instruments included a questionnaire to collect general data, such as demographic data and questions related to the research topic; an interview with semi-structured questions was also prepared for researchers. I also interviewed the librarian of this unit to ascertain the type of reference service used by researchers, and to learn how he perceives the role of the library in the framework of this investigation.

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RESULTS

All researchers make use of library resources, particularly scientific articles in databases and journals. Most of the respondents had published articles in peer-review journals. Opinions were divided as to whether there are sufficient research publication resources. The Journal of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico is the main resource for publication, followed by posters and presentations at the Annual Assembly of SOPCA (Sociedad Puertorriqueña de Ciencias Agrícolas). All interviewees understood that their publications reached their specialized public.

CONCLUSION

The publication rate of the research completed is very high, especially in peer-reviewed journals, abstracts and posters at scientific conferences. All interviewees report to the AES Research Office and prepare various papers for different publishing media, with JAUPR being the main one. Although the preferred means of publication are magazines, abstracts, and posters, researchers have a variety of options to disseminate their research findings, such as workshops, newspapers, newsletters, and leaflets. One researcher has a Facebook page and participates in the podcast published by the library. There appears to be little participation or publication in other non- traditional media, such as web pages, blogs, e-books and videos.

LITERATURE CITED

Bertin, P., Pereira, F., & Leite, F. (2009). Embrapa technological information: a bridge between research and society. Agricultural Information Worldwide, 2(1), 10-18. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?sid=33b73d21-837b-4263-8650- 771a83dd1a46%40sessionmgr111&vid=0&hid=126&bdata =JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=agr&AN=IND44254834

Monge, Fernando. (1977). “Los usuarios de la información agrícola.” Ciencia da Informaçao 6, no. 2. Retrieved from http://www.brapci.ufpr.br/.

Rege, R. A., Mwangi, P., Kedemi, R., & Maina, P. (2009). Enhancing Access and Exchange of Agricultural Information and Knowledge in Kenya: The Case of Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI). Agricultural Information Worldwide, 2(3), 107-112. Retrieved from http://journals.sfu.ca/iaald/index.php/aginfo/article/view/121.

Reynolds, M. P., Sonder, K., Hobbs, P., Braun, H., Hellin, J., Govaerts, B., & Kosina, P. (2012). Global crop improvement networks to bridge technology gaps. Journal of Experimental Botany, 63(1), 1-12. doi:10.1093/jxb/err241.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 304-306. 2017

THE DIVERSITY OF AGROECOLOGY PROGRAMS OFFERED AT THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA: TAKING A GLOBAL FOCUS AND PARTNERSHIP APPROACH

Diane L. Rowland and Romain M. Gloaguen. University of Florida.

UF Agroecology academic offerings

With the increasing complexity and scope of problems faced in agriculture, real solutions must be provided by interdisciplinary approaches relying on some level of experience in real-world agroecosystems. These challenges call for a real change in problem solving approaches from research and will concomitantly require a shift in teaching and training graduate students in agricultural science. Through consultation with faculty, students and stakeholders, UF developed several offerings under the discipline of Agroecology to address this paradigm shift in more traditional agronomic graduate studies. These offerings incorporate a broader, interdisciplinary study, with opportunities for global research experience and interaction with a host of partner institutions. Further, the distance education delivery of many of the courses offers new opportunities for students to study in diverse cropping systems throughout the world while continuing progress in coursework. The overall goal of the Agroecology offerings is to train students in agriculture through the application of ecological concepts and principles to design, develop and manage sustainable agricultural systems. Core courses include topics in global agroecosystems, crop ecology, ecophysiology and principles of soil science. In addition, students must choose electives from a list in a variety of topic area including pest management, extension, natural resources and precision agriculture.

The UF Agroecology offerings were initiated in 2012 with the establishment of a Master’s concentration shared between the UF departments of Agronomy and Soil and Water Sciences. Over the past four years, the program has expanded to include a Ph.D. concentration and two graduate certificates. In addition, the Agriculture and Biological Engineering Department has joined the program.

The entire coursework for the M.S. concentration and one certificate, Sustainable Agroecosystems, is available 100% online, giving students the flexibility to study from anywhere in the world. This also means students pursuing an M.S. thesis, can conduct their research in a host of international agroecosystems while still completing coursework from UF.

The Ph.D. concentration is called Global Systems Agroecology, and its goal is to provide students with an expanded curriculum in agroecological principles coupled with learning in international cropping systems. It focuses on a strong foundation in the ecological principles that drive the study of diverse cropping systems across the world. These systems encompass the full spectrum of agricultural production from traditional, alternative, and integrated soil-plant-livestock systems. The electives students have to choose from are grouped in three main topic areas: social sciences and economics, modelling and ecology. Finally, students are required to participate in a 3-6 month research internship in one of UF Agroecology’s partners across the world.

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The graduate certificates are short programs which can typically be completed in a year. They were designed to be the entry way for students that might be coming from backgrounds not focused in agriculture, or are often place-bound professionals that can benefit from an additional credential in agriculture science for their employment. We offer two of these certificates within the UF Agroecology concentration: Sustainable Agroecosystems and Global Agroecology. The Sustainable Agroecosystems certificate aims to provide students with an understanding of current global issues related to agriculture and production systems. The Global Agroecology certificate aims to provide students an international exposure in meeting the challenges of food and farming systems with agroecological approaches through a diverse, interdisciplinary curriculum emphasizing sustainability, resources management, crop ecophysiology, environmental nutrient and water management, system productivity and profitability. This certificate has, like the Ph.D., a requirement for students to do a 3-6 month research internship abroad. We also anticipate a third certificate in Tropical Agriculture by Fall 2017 focusing on agroecological challenges specific to these production systems.

UF Agroecology Partner Institutions around the world

Currently, students from the Ph.D. and the Global Agroecology certificate have the opportunity to do their internship in one of the 8 partner institutions of the program, located in 6 different countries (U.K, France, Australia, Brazil, Israel, and the U.S. Virgin Islands). The goal of this collaboration is to offer students the capacity to choose between multiple institutions representing a wide diversity of agricultural backgrounds and practices, along with exposing them to different cultures. Upon their return to the U.S., students are asked to write a report of the activities they took part in while abroad, and to give a short oral presentation to their advisor about that experience. Some of the particular highlights from each institution include:

- The University of New England (UNE), Armidale, Australia. UNE is located within the subtropical highlands of eastern Australia. One of the primary research opportunities for students is interfacing with UNE’s SMART Farm (Sustainable Manageable Accessible Rural Technologies Farm), where they can participate in research focused on technologically advanced precision farming in topics ranging from crops, sheep and cattle, and forage management.

- Western Sydney University (WSU), Sydney, Australia. At WSU, our collaboration is focused at the Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, one of six institutes within WSU, where over 60 scientists focus research on climate instability at ecosystem, organismal, and genetic levels.

- UFRPE, Pernambuco, Brazil. UFRPE offers research experiences in extremely diverse agroecosystems including: silvopasture systems using tree legumes; agroforestry systems using cactus and tree legumes; native legume germplasm collection and evaluation; and a focus on biological nitrogen fixation of native legumes

- ISARA-Lyon, Lyon, France. ISARA-Lyon, located in central France, is an internationally renowned leader in Agroecology. Integrated agroecosystems that utilize a mixture of agronomic, horticultural, and livestock systems are the standard in the region. Faculty research focuses on agriculture and landscape management; agroecological

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cropping practices with some emphasis on the social structure that supports these systems; as well as investigating policies and regulations governing these agroecosystems.

- Cranfield University, Bedfordshire, UK. Cranfield University is a postgraduate university located in central England. It has a history of successful collaboration with industry and through these relationships, is able to provide hands-on, real-world experience for their students working on industry driven problems. It has extremely strong research foundations in plant, soil, water and air sciences.

- Harper Adams University (HAU), Newport, UK. HAU is located in the heart of the traditional agricultural systems of the UK, including production of wheat, maize, alfalfa, and oilseeds. Research expertise includes soil and water nutrient cycling, waste management with a focus on nutrient transfer, sustainable farming systems, and biodiversity and the associated ecosystem services.

- University of the Virgin Islands (UVI), Saint-Croix, US Virgin Islands. Students have the opportunity to work directly with small shareholders working in diverse, tropical systems. Research at UVI focuses on unique cover crop and mulch systems as well as evaluation of green manures for integrated cover-crop/livestock systems. UVI also houses a breeding program for papaya focused on developing regionally specific traits for maturity, disease resistance, and climate resilience.

- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI), Jerusalem, Israel, is the only institute of higher education in Israel offering university degrees in agriculture. Some of HUJI research achievements and innovations include methods of drip irrigation and fertigation, intensive arid-zone agriculture, soil solarization or recycling of waste-water, for instance.

CONCLUSION

Through a diversity of offerings and international partners, UF Agroecology is providing students with a more diverse, globally centered training to be ready to address the ever-increasing complexity of the world’s agricultural systems. Through this program, we aim to deliver students the best tools so they can become successful professionals, engaged towards building a more sustainable and environmentally sound agriculture.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 307. 2017

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ASSOCIATED FARMERS PROGRAM TO STIMULATE INCREASED PRODUCTION IN THE BAHAMAS

Zakita N. S. Bethel1 and Michele Singh2. 1The Associated Farmers Program, The Bahamas Agriculture & Marine Science Institute, 2The Caribbean Agricultural Research & Development Institute, The Bahamas Unit.

ABSTRACT: Although the local and tourist populations in the Bahamas provide a ready market for fresh and processed goods, little attention had been paid to agricultural production. In 2014, the Bahamas Agriculture and Marine Science Institute (BAMSI) introduced the Associated Farmers Program (AFP), a national extension service aimed at bringing primary producers and agro-processors together to increase collective technical capacity and local production – particularly in rural areas. The AFP is a form of contract farming, which provides inputs to producers and secures markets. This research is aimed at measuring the impact of this program on food production for food security in the Bahamas. From 2014 to 2016, 25 farmers signed contracts with BAMSI: cultivating 47 acres of watermelons (Citrillus lanatus), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), onions (Allium cepa), and peppers (Genus: Capsicum). Over 140,000 lb (approximately 64,000 kg) of produce has been processed through the packing house in Andros and shipped and sold both in Andros and in Nassau at BAMSI wholesale and retail stores. As a result of the current work of the BAMSI AFP there has been an increase in the amount of produce sold to the local Andros and Nassau markets.

Keywords: Bahamas Agriculture, Agricultural Extension, Associated Farmer Program

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 308-312. 2017

A DNA BARCODING SUPPORTING THE IDENTIFICATION OF PALMS (ARECACEAE) IN PUERTO RICO

Paola Andrea Agosto Miranda1 and José Carlos Verle Rodrigues 1, 2. 1Department of Biology, UPR-Rio Piedras, 2 Center for Excellence in Quarantine & Invasive Species, Agricultural Experimental Station-Río Piedras, Agro-Environmental Sciences Department, University of Puerto Rico-Mayagüez, 1193 Guayacán St, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00926, USA.

ABSTRACT: A DNA barcode is a tool used to identify organism at taxonomic level. This DNA barcode consist of use a short DNA sequence that is universally present in the target lineage and has the variation necessary to discriminate between species. The Plant Working Group of the Consortium for the Barcode of Life select rbcL as a “core” marker for plant identification. We use the coding ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase gene (rbcL) to determine if it can be used to discriminate between species in palm family Arecaceae occurring in Puerto Rico. For this study we collect samples from over 1,000 palms around the island of Puerto Rico. The sample include representation of almost all palm species and ecosystems of Puerto Rico. We found that rbcL place the species with 100% accurate at family level and exhibited an average of 44.8% of species discrimination. A Fifty-one percent of the sample were place until genus level.

Keywords: palms, rbcL gene, DNA barcode

INTRODUCTION

The lower rates of sequence evolution in plant genomes limited the discovery of a DNA barcode for land plants (Kress, 2007). A DNA barcode consist of use a short DNA sequence for identifying species (Hebert et al., 2003). This DNA sequence needs to be universally present in the lineage under study and has sequence variation sufficiently to differentiate between species. The Plant Working Group of the Consortium for the Barcode of Life select rbcL and matk as “core” markers for plant identification in his search for a universally plant barcode (CBOL Plant Working Group, 2009). The rbcL gene has the advantages that it is readily amplified and sequenced in many land plants and can place a taxon until genus level and in some case until species level. There are approximately 2,700 species of palm in the world that belong to Arecaceae family, the sixth largest monocot family and the third most important plant family for human use (Elliott et al., 2004; Naeem et al., 2014). Palms are almost completely restricted to tropical and sub-tropical areas where they represent an income source, an aesthetic symbol to many families and a key species on several natural environments. Palms are a source of food, oil, fiber, rattan, lumber and drinks. In Puerto Rico, Arecaceae are represented by dozens of introduced species and 10 native species. Many species complexes cannot be resolved using morphological characters alone. The objective of the current study was to generate an rbcL gene barcode to support the identification of Arecaceae family and provide a reliable database to facilitate identification of pest and diseases on those species all over the island.

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MATERIALS & METHODS

Palm samples were collected from July 2015 to February 2017. We collected over 1,000 palm samples around the island of Puerto Rico (Figure 1). The samples include representation of almost all palm species and ecosystems of Puerto Rico. Tissue sample were collected from different palm species showing both leaf discoloration symptoms and from symptomless palm. Plant samples were collected using the methods describe by Harrison et al. (2002) to collect samples for phytoplasma detection. About 6g of vascular tissue were removed from interior basal trunks. Samples were obtained by making a hole 10 to 15 cm in length into the trunk of each palm using a portable electric drill and a sterile bit with 7.8 mm in diameter. DNA was extracted using DNeasy® Plant MiniKits (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, CA, USA). PCRs were conducted in a volume of 15µl containing 5.7µl of H2O molecular grade, 7.5µl Master Mix (2X) (Promega, Madison, WI, USA), 0.15µl of each primer and 1.5µl of DNA template. The amplicon size of rbcL was ~654bp; primers used were rbcLa-reverse (5’- GTAAAATCAAGTCCACCRCG-3’) and rbcLa-forward (5’- ATGTCACCACAAACAGAGACTAAAGC-3’) (Kress & Erickson, 2009). The PCR were run under the following condition, by 36 cycles: initial incubation for 3 min at 95°C, denaturalization for 30s at 94°C, annealing for 1min at 57°C, extension for 1min at 72°, and terminated by an extension of 10 min at 72°C and cooled to 10°C. The PCRs were run in an Applied Biosystems® 2720 Thermal Cycler. PCRs products were purified with ExoSAP-IT (Affymetrix, Inc.). Purified PCRs product were sequenced at Macrogen Inc., Seoul, Korea. Sequences were manually edited using CodonCode Aligner 6.0.1 (Centerville, MA, USA). The process of alignment was conducted using MUSCLE software v3.8.31.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The rbcL-a loci exhibited a PCR amplification success of 100%. All samples where correctly rank at family level. In the sample we found 36 different genus (Table 1). The most common genera in the samples were Cocos sp. (Cocos nucifera), Syagrus sp. and Roystonea sp. (Roystonea borinquena). The rbcL marker showed a percentage of species discrimination of 48%. In cases where the correct species was not matched with a Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLASTn) search, these search returned more than one species to the same genus 52% of times. The rbcL gene is noted for its utility at the rank of family and genus, and for its relatively low power of discrimination at species level (Kress & Erikson, 2007). Our results compare to those of Jeanson et al. (2011), who found that rbcL in combination with matk does not provide good species discrimination. However, additional work has suggested that this region need to be used with supplemental markers (Jeanson et al. 2011; Kress & Erikson, 2007). The rbcL gene fragment has also use for phylogenetic relationships for plant genera (data not showed).

CONCLUSION

As a DNA barcode rbcL alone exhibited clear family placement, a 51.6% genus identification and average species discrimination of forty-four percentage of species discrimination. The use of rbcL

309 in combination with other molecular markers should increase its level of species discrimination and serve as an effective DNA barcode to Arecaceae family.

LITERATURE CITED

CBOL Plant Working Group (2009). A DNA barcode for land plants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106: 12794-12797.

Elliott, M. L., Broschat, T. K., Uchida, J. Y., & Simone, G. W. (2004). Compendium of ornamental palm diseases and disorders. American Phytopathological Society (APS Press). 39-41.

Hebert, P. D., Ratnasingham, S., & de Waard, J. R. (2003). Barcoding animal life: cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 divergences among closely related species. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 270(Suppl 1), S96-S99.

Jeanson, M. L., Labat, J. N., and Little, D. P. (2011). DNA barcoding: a new tool for palm taxonomists? Annals of botany. 108(8): 1445-1451.

Kress WJ, Erickson DL (2007). A Two-Locus Global DNA Barcode for Land Plants: The Coding rbcL Gene Complements the Non-Coding trnHpsbA Spacer Region. PLoS ONE 2(6): e508. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000508

Kress WJ, Erickson DL, Jones FA, Swenson NG, Perez R, et al. (2009). Plant DNA barcodes and a community phylogeny of a tropical forest dynamics plot in Panama. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106: 18621–18626.

Naeem, A., Khan, A. A., Cheema, H. M. N., Khan, I. A., & Buerkert, A. (2014). DNA barcoding for species identification in the Palmae family. Genetics and Molecular Research, 13(4), 10341- 10348.

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Figure 1. Location of palm samples collected in Puerto Rico, 2015-17.

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Table 1. List of palm species collected in Puerto Rico, 2015-2017.

Species Number of trees Corypha sp. 1 Cocos nucifera 218 Cyphosperma balansae 1 Syagrus sp. 184 Cyphosperma sp. 1 Roystonea borinquena 63 Desmoncus sp. 1 Roystonea sp. 45 Euterpe sp. 1 Ptychococcus sp. 43 Latania sp. 1 Veitchia sp. 41 Pritchardia sp. 1 Archontophoenix sp. 39 Ptychococcus paradoxus 1 Washingtonia sp. 38 Wendlandiella sp. 1 unknown 36 Arenga caudata 1 Sabal sp. 29 Burretiokentia hapala 1 Livistona sp. 26 Euterpe sp. 1 Washingtonia robusta 26 Hyphaene sp. 1 Desmoncus orthacanthos 23 Drymophloeus sp. 1 Veitchia arecina 21 Total 1025 Ptychosperma sp. 19

Pritchardia thurstonii 18

Washingtonia robusta 18

Podococcus sp. 16 Phoenix sp. 14 Elaeis guineensis 12 Cryosophila sp. 7 Ptychococcus paradoxus 7 Pseudophoenix sargentii 6 Roystonea sp. 6 Areca sp. 5 Bismarckia nobilis 5 Pritchardia thurstonii 5 Wodyetia bifurcata 5 Licuala sp. 4 Phoenix dactylifera 4 Phoenix dactylifera 4 Ptychosperma burretianum 4 Podococcus barteri 4 Livistona chinensis 3 Aiphanes minima 2 Dypsis lutescens 2 Washingtonia filifera 2 Licuala paludosa 2 Sabal sp. 2 Veitchia arecina 2 Colpothrinax sp. 1

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 313-317. 2017

EVALUACIÓN DE GENOTIPOS DE BATATA CON PULPA AMARILLA (IPOMOEA BATATAS) EN TRES ÉPOCAS DE SIEMBRA Y DOS CICLOS DE COSECHA EN LA ZONA DE ALTURA HÚMEDA EN P.R.

Agenol González Vélez. Catedrático, Estación Experimental Agrícola, Corozal P.R., Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto Universitario de Mayagüez.

RESUMEN: Se evaluaron cuatro genotipos de batata (Ipomoea batatas) de pulpa amarilla en tres épocas de siembra y dos ciclos de cosecha en terrenos de la zona de altura húmeda en P.R. Los genotipos de batata evaluados fueron Canolia y las líneas 04-180, 04-06 y 04-149. Las épocas de siembra evaluadas fueron mayo, septiembre y enero y los ciclos de cosecha fueron cuatro y cinco meses. Los resultados indican que los mejores rendimientos son obtenidos en enero, seguido por mayo y los más bajos son obtenidos en septiembre. En los ciclos de cosecha ocurre un aumento en rendimiento significativo cuando se cosecha a los cinco meses comparado con cuatro sin que ocurran un aumento significativo del daño ocasionado por el piche (Cylas formicarius). Los genotipos de batata que mejor se comportaron en esta zona de producción y que pueden ser recomendados para siembras comerciales son Canolia y la línea 04-180.

Palabras claves: genotipo, raíces tuberosas, pulpa amarilla, Ipomoea batatas.

INTRODUCCIÓN

Datos preliminares del Departamento de Agricultura (2015) indican que la producción de batata en P.R. para el año 2014 fue de 235 Tm con un valor de $0.21 millones. Para suplir la demanda local se importaron 7,176 Tm principalmente de República Dominicana. Esta producción local muestra una disminución de 92% de lo producido 10 años antes. Esta disminución drástica puede estar relacionada con que el mayor productor de batata (160 ha) establecido en la zona sur abandonó su operación agrícola por razones de salud. En Puerto Rico y en la zona del Caribe las batatas preferidas son del tipo tropical. El tipo tropical son variedades que combinan raíces tuberosas con cáscara de color rosado a púrpura, con pulpa color blanco, crema o amarilla y una dulzura al paladar que se percibe entre los tipos no dulces y el tipo de postre (Hernández-Carrión et al., 2010). En Puerto Rico existe preferencia por las de pulpa amarilla y dulces, especialmente para comer hervidas y fritas. A nivel de supermercado estas tienen un precio superior a las de pulpa blanca.

MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS

La investigación se realizó en la Estación Experimental Agrícola en Corozal que está localizada en la zona climatológica norte húmeda a una altitud de 195 metros sobre el nivel del mar. La serie de suelo predominante es Corozal, arcilloso caracterizado por su acidez, baja fertilidad y desagüe lento. También son suelos con declive moderado. Las siembras se realizaron en mayo y septiembre del año 2011 y enero del año 2012 utilizando pedazos de estolones de 30 cm de largo. Los genotipos de batata evaluados fueron Canolia y las líneas 04-180, 04-06 y 04-149. La Canolia es la principal variedad importada de República Dominicana y las demás líneas fueron

313 desarrolladas por la Estación Experimental Agrícola-UPR (Dr. Carlos Ortiz). Como no hay datos de genotipos de pulpa amarilla evaluadas en esta zona de producción se sembró el genotipo Camuy (pulpa blanca) para efecto de comparaciones. La Camuy (línea 98-022) fue evaluada exitosamente en esta zona de producción (González Vélez, 2003) y liberada para uso comercial en Puerto Rico (Ortiz, C. et al., 2012). Para cada época de siembra (mayo, septiembre y enero) se utilizó un diseño de bloques completos al azar con cuatro repeticiones. Se sembraron cuatro hileras de 10 plantas por unidad experimental a una distancia de 1 m x 0.30m). Las plantas se abonaron a las dos semanas de la siembra a razón de 28 g/planta utilizando un abono con análisis 14-3-13. No se utilizó plaguicida para el control del piche (Cylas formicarius var. elengatulus) y tampoco hubo riego suplementario. La cosecha se realizó a los cuatro y cinco meses luego de la siembra. Se tomaron datos de número y peso de raíces mercadeables y no mercadeables; se consideraron raíces mercadeables aquellas que pesaban más de 170 g. Se tomaron 10 batatas al azar por unidad experimental y se cuantificó el número de estas que presentaban más del 20% de la superficie afectada por el piche, bien por presencia de perforaciones o de tejido necrótico. Para el análisis de los datos se utilizó el procedimiento GLIMMIX. Los datos se analizaron separadamente para cada mes de siembra como un factorial (5 líneas x 2 épocas de cosecha). Se uso un modelo que suponía varianzas residuales diferentes para cada línea. Para comparar las medias de los genotipos se uso la prueba LSD.

RESULTADOS

La prueba de F (P<0.05) para efecto principal (época de siembra) resultó significativa para número y peso de raíces mercadeables y para número de raíces no mercadeables. Para porcentaje de raíces afectadas por el piche resultó no significativo. El mayor número y peso de raíces mercadeables resultó en enero y mayo y el menor en las siembras realizadas en septiembre. Por otro lado, el mayor número de raíces no mercadeables resultó en septiembre. Esto nos indica que en esta zona de producción las siembras que se realizan cerca de invierno y que engrosarán en esa temporada tienden a producir menos que en otras épocas de siembra. Factores como bajas temperaturas y radiación solar pueden estar afectando las siembras de batata en esta época de siembra. Por otro lado el que no haya habido efecto significativo con relación al porcentaje de raíces afectados por el piche puede estar relacionada a que estos años donde se realizó la investigación fueron de mucha precipitación. La precipitación promedio para los años 2011 y 2012 fue de 205 y 177 cm, respectivamente. Con relación a los genotipos de batata y los ciclos de cosecha tenemos que para las siembra efectuada en mayo (Cuadro 1) el genotipo Canolia obtuvo el mayor rendimiento con 19,387 kg de raíces mercadeables/ha. Este fue significativamente superior a todos los genotipos de pulpa amarilla pero no diferente a Camuy. La línea de batata 04-149 mostró el menor número de raíces mercadeables y no mercadeables y fue significativamente inferior a las demás líneas de batata. Con relación a los ciclos de cosecha vemos que realizar la misma a los cinco meses causa un aumento significativo de 27% de raíces mercadeables que cuando es realizada a los cuatro meses. El número de raíces mercadeables no fue afectado significativamente pero el número de raíces no mercadeables aumenta en 33% cuando se cosecha a los cinco meses en vez de cuatro. Cuando las batatas se sembraron en septiembre (Cuadro 2) los genotipos Camuy, Canolia, línea 04-180 y línea 04-06 no presentaron diferencias significativas en rendimiento con un promedio de 11,292 kg/ha. Tampoco resultaron diferencias significativas con relación al número de raíces

314 mercadeables/ha con un promedio de 32,272. El mayor número de raíces no mercadeables/ha lo presentó la línea 04-180 con un promedio de 91,884 y fue significativamente superior a los genotipos Canolia y línea 04-149. Con relación a los ciclos de cosecha cuando esta se realiza a los cinco meses aumenta en 54% el peso de raíces mercadeables y 45% el número de raíces mercadeables/ha. El número de raíces no mercadeables no fue afectado significativamente por los ciclos de cosecha con un promedio de 59,577/ha. En la siembra realizada en enero el genotipo Canolia presentó el mayor rendimiento (23,646 kg/ha) y no fue significativamente diferente a Camuy. Los genotipos Canolia, Camuy y la línea 04-180 no presentaron diferencias significativas con relación al número de raíces mercadeables/ha con un promedio de 43,106. La línea 04-180 presentó el mayor número de raíces no mercadeables con 58,987 y no fue significativamente diferente a Camuy y a la línea 04-06. Con relación a los ciclos de cosecha los genotipos evaluados aumentaron su rendimiento promedio en 28% cuando son cosechados a los cinco meses y aumentaron también el número de raíces mercadeables/ha en 24%. El número de raíces no mercadeable no fue afectado significativamente con un promedio de 44,095/ha.

CONCLUSIONES

1. El cultivo de batata se adapta muy bien a los suelos de la zona de altura húmeda en Puerto Rico. Este cultivo puede contribuir a disminuir los daños ocasionados por la erosión ya que es un cultivo rastrero que cubre muy bien el suelo evitando el efecto de las lluvias fuertes. 2. Las mejores épocas para sembrar batata en estas zonas son las que no coincidan con el engrosamiento de las raíces tuberosas en los meses de invierno. 3. Si las siembras coinciden con épocas de buena precipitación o se cuenta con riego suplementario se puede cosechar a los cinco meses ya que ocurre un aumento en los rendimientos sin que haya un aumento de los daños causados por el piche de la batata. 4. Los genotipos de batata amarillas Canolia y línea 04-180 fueron los mejores que se comportaron en esta zona de producción.

LITERATURA CITADA

- Departamento de Agricultura, 2015. Ingreso Bruto Agrícola de Puerto Rico. Oficina de Estadísticas Agrícolas. Santurce, P.R. - González Vélez, A., 2003. Genotipos de batata con potencial de cosecha precoz sembrados en distintas épocas en la zona central de P.R., J. Agric. Univ. P.R. 87 (3-4):102-112. - Hernández-Carrión, T., C.E. Ortiz, R. Montalvo-Zapata and L.E. Rivera, 2010. Sugars in tropical-type sweet potato varieties of Puerto Rico. J. Agric. Univ. P.R. 94 (1-2):205- 209. - Hernández, R. y M. Sosa, 2007. Variedades de batata cultivadas en la República Dominicana. Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales. 64 páginas. - Ortiz, C., A. González, E. Acevedo, M.L. Lugo, M. Díaz y R. Vélez, 2012. Release of “Camuy”. A white-fleshed sweet potato. J. Agric. Univ. P.R. 96 (1-2):123-128.

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Cuadro 1: Rendimiento y parámetros de rendimiento de cinco genotipos de batata en dos ciclos de cosecha sembradas en mayo.

Genotipos Rendimiento Kg/ha Número Raíces Número Raíces No Mercadeables/ha Mercadeables/ha 1. Camuy 17,995 ab1,2 48,096 a 46,055 a 2. Canolia 19,387 a 43,786 a 42,879 a 3. Línea 04-180 13,612 bc 36,300 ab 64,432 a 4. Línea 04-06 10,828 c 27,451 b 58,987 a 5. Línea 04-149 7,373 d 16,561 c 11,116 b Ciclo de cosecha 4 meses 11,715 31,581 35,846 5 meses 15,963 37,298 53,542 Prueba F (0.05) x3 N.S. x 1Cada valor es el promedio obtenido en los dos ciclos de cosecha. 2Promedios en la misma columna seguidos por letras diferentes difieren al P<0.05 según prueba LSD. 3Significativo al P<0.05.

Cuadro 2: Rendimiento y parámetros de rendimiento de cinco genotipos de batata en dos ciclos de cosecha sembradas en septiembre.

Genotipos Rendimiento Kg/ha Número Raíces Número Raíces No Mercadeables/ha Mercadeables/ha 1. Camuy 11,704 a1,2 35,619 a 72,146 ab 2. Canolia 11,550 a 29,947 a 46,736 bc 3. Línea 04-180 10,157 ab 31,535 a 91,884 a 4. Línea 04-06 11,756 a 31,989 a 57,172 abc 5. Línea 04-149 8,250 b 18,376 b 29,947 c Ciclo de cosecha 4 meses 6,765 20,872 60,711 5 meses 14,602 38,115 58,443 Prueba de F(005) x3 x N.S. 1Cada valor es el promedio obtenido en los dos ciclos de cosecha. 2Promedios en la misma columna seguidos por letras diferentes difieren a P<0.05 según prueba LSD. 3Significativo al P<0.05.

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Cuadro 3: Rendimiento y parámetros de rendimiento de cinco genotipos de batata en dos ciclos de cosecha sembrados en enero.

Genotipos Rendimiento Número Raíces Número Raíces No Kg/ha Mercadeables/ha Mercadeables/ha 1. Camuy 19,335 ab1,2 41,745 ab 43,786 ab 2. Canolia 23,646 a 46,736 a 31,081 b 3. Línea 04-180 16,603 bc 40,837 ab 58,987 a 4. Línea 04-06 14,850 c 33,123 b 48,324 ab 5. Línea 04-149 17,634 b 37,207 b 38,115 b Ciclo de cosecha 4 meses 15,419 34,575 40,928 5 meses 21,408 45,284 47,190 Prueba de F (0.05) x3 x N.S. 1Cada valor es el promedio obtenido en los dos ciclos de cosecha. 2Promedios en la misma columna seguidos por letras diferentes difieren al P<0.05 según prueba LSD. 3Significativo al P<0.05.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 318-321. 2017

BIOMASS STUDIES OF TEN SWEETPOTATO VARIETIES IN THE VIRGIN ISLANDS

Carlos Montilla, Henry Harris, James Gordon, Raheem Smart and Thomas W. Zimmerman University of the Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station, RR#1 Box 10,000, Kingshill, VI 00850.

ABSTRACT: Ten sweetpotato varieties were established in raised beds with drip irrigation on March 7, 2016 to evaluate biomass over time. The varieties included: ‘Beauregard-14’, ‘Bonita’, ‘Charleston Scarlet’. ‘Francia’, ‘Liberty’, ‘Murasaki-29’, ‘Ruddy’, ‘Toquecita’, ‘Virgin Island Purple’ and ‘White Jewel’. Harvest and data collection occurred at 18-day intervals up to 90 days and then 15-day interval to day 120. Tuberous root swelling was observed at day 54. ‘Charleston Scarlet’ had the greatest leaf/stem biomass of 892g DW at 105 days and the lowest was ‘Toquecita’ at 186g DW. Marketable tuberous roots were obtained by day 72, but at a low percentage. ‘Toquecita’ was the first to have jumbo sized tuberous roots by 90 days and 50% of the varieties had jumbo sizes by 105 days. ‘White Jewel’ had the most roots per plant at 120 days (6.6) while ‘Francia’ had the least (3.4). Weevil damage to roots was first observed in ‘Toquecita’ at 72 days and 60% of the varieties by day 105. By day 120, over 50% of the ‘Francia’ and ‘Toquecita’ roots were unmarketable due to weevil damage. ‘Charleston Scarlet’, ‘Liberty’, ‘Murasaki-29’, ‘Ruddy’ and ‘White Jewel’ had less than 10% of the tuberous roots damaged unmarketably by weevils at the 120-day harvest.

Keywords: Ipomoea batata, Weevil, Tuberization.

INTRODUCTION

Sweet potato is particularly attractive crop in the Caribbean because of its adaptability to different growing conditions, drought tolerance and low susceptibility to natural disasters. New varieties are appearing on the market but little information is available on how they will perform in a tropical environment. Our objective was to evaluate ten sweet potatoes varieties with focus on foliar and root biomass development. The purpose was to determine when tuberization occurs, marketable size obtained and weevils first attack tuberous roots.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Terminal cuttings from mature sweet potato plants were established in banks. The varieties included: ‘Beauregard-14’, ‘Bonita’, ‘Charleston Scarlet’. ‘Francia’, ‘Liberty’, ‘Murasaki-29’, ‘Ruddy’, ‘Toquecita’, ‘Virgin Island Purple’ and ‘White Jewel’. The in-row plant spacing was one foot and six feet between rows Drip irrigation was installed for fertigation and establish the crop. Harvest and data collection occurred at 18-day intervals up to 90 days and then 15-day interval to day 120. Foliar and root fresh and dry weight recorded from five plants. Marketable and unmarketable tuberous roots as well as weevil damage was recorded.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sweet potatoes take a week to establish and start to develop roots. By 36 days vines have developed to cover the bed and weevils damage to foliage was evident (Figure 1). Tuberous root swelling started after the 36th day and well defined well defined by the 54th day. Marketable tuberous roots with a diameter greater than 1½” were present at 72 days but at a low percentage (Figure 2). ‘Charleston Scarlet’ had the greatest leaf/stem biomass of 892g DW at 105 days and the lowest was ‘Toquecita’ at 186g DW (Figure 3). ‘Toquecita’ was the first to have jumbo sized tuberous roots by 90 days and 50% of the varieties had jumbo sizes by 105 days (Figure 4). ‘White Jewel’ had the most roots per plant at 120 days (6.6) while ‘Francia’ had the least (3.4). Weevil damage to roots was first observed in ‘Toquecita’ at 72 days and 60% of the varieties by day 105. By day 120, over 50% of the ‘Francia’ and ‘Toquecita’ roots were unmarketable due to weevil damage. ‘Charleston Scarlet’, ‘Liberty’, ‘Murasaki-29’, ‘Ruddy’ and ‘White Jewel’ had less than 10% of the tuberous roots damaged unmarketably by weevils at the 120-days harvest.

CONCLUSIONS

Sweet potatoes develop their main roots during the first month and these then develop into tuberous roots. Some varieties have marketable root size by 72 days. Weevil damage to tuberous roots also occurs when a marketable size is obtained. ‘Francia’ and ‘Toquecita’ develop the fewest tuberous roots per plant. Weevil damage to tuberous roots can be reduced by selecting weevil resistant varieties.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research was funded by the USDA-NIFA Hatch and the VI Department of Agriculture Specialty Crops Block Grant.

Figure 1. Foliar development of three sweetpotato varieties on day 36.

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Figure 2. Sweetpotato tuberous root development for three representative varieties at 36, 54 and 72 days.

Figure 3. Leaf stem and dry weight per plant over time of six white-fleshed sweetpotato varieties.

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Figure 4. Tuberous root dry weight per plant of six white-fleshed sweetpotato varieties over time.

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Proceedings of the Caribbean Food Crops Society. 53: 322-324. 2017

PRELIMINARY ANALYSES OF GENETIC DIVERSITY IN THE PATHOGEN FUNGUS COLLETOTRICHUM GLOEOSPORIOIDES ATTACKING YAMS IN THE LESSER ANTILLES

Penet, L. 1, 2, P. Dentika1, S. Briand1, A. Alleyne, D. Petro1, F. Bussière1 & S. Guyader1. 1 INRA, UR1321, ASTRO Agrosystèmes tropicaux, F-97170, Petit-Bourg (Guadeloupe), France.

ABSTRACT: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is a species complex of fungi with a worldwide occurrence and demonstrating pathogenicity on numerous plant crop species both in temperate and tropical areas. We analysed five polymorphic microsatellites in strains sampled from Water Yams (Dioscorea alata) in Guadeloupe, Martinique and Barbados (Lesser Antilles). A very high level of polymorphism is found, and potentially recurrent migration between islands is described. These microsatellite markers will facilitate genetic diversity analyses and population genetics studies for this species complex.

Keywords: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, anthracnose disease, microsatellites, population genetics, Lesser Antilles

INTRODUCTION

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is the main agent responsible for yam anthracnose in the Caribbean, and is the main threat to yam crop in some islands of the region. We have previously demonstrated that once spores are trapped by yams and the disease begins its expansion within plots, rains are the most important factor in plant contamination and soil does not behave as a source of contamination (Penet et al., 2014). As a result, it is perceived as an important disease by farmers (Penet et al., 2015), who are taking steps to avoid epidemics. It is also known that the disease impacted yam variety dynamics, though the effect is not direct but mostly via eroding the economic potential of the crop (Penet et al., 2016). Recent works tend to indicate that the use of resistant varieties might be an important path to keep the disease under control, especially given the high variability in the species. On the other hand, the sustainability of plant resistance is highly dependant on genetic diversity in the pathogen. We therefore take the first steps to describe the natural diversity in the fungus species complex in the Caribbean, and the potential for resistance erosion and risk of pathogen adaptation in the region. We thus explored allelic richness and estimated migration and discuss the risk for resistance turn over.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We recently developed a handful 39 microsatellites markers with varying degrees of polymorphism for Colleotrichum gloeosporioides (Penet et al., 2017). Here, we describe preliminary analyses for samples from three Caribbean islands in the Lesser Antilles (Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Barbados) based on the genotyping of 554 strains for 5 of these markers.

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RESULTS

Each of these markers was very polymorphic, with an average of 50 alleles per locus in our global sample. Diversity was nevertheless uncompletely shared between islands, to the exception of common alles, suggesting that migration occurs casually but not often in the region. Clonality was very low (almost each of the sampled strains were individual genotypes), even at field level, which is surprising, but consistent with mutation rate of microsatellites and huge multiplication potential for the species. High local structuration was thus found. Migration rates were estimated at two spores per generation within the sample area.

======Locus Sample Size Ht Hs Gst Nm* ======cg150 546 0.9170 0.7588 0.1725 2.3989 cg68 517 0.8602 0.6536 0.2402 1.5820 cg71 508 0.9066 0.7248 0.2005 1.9932 cg92 543 0.9080 0.7582 0.1650 2.5308 cg164 539 0.6947 0.5707 0.1786 2.2995 Mean 531 0.8573 0.6932 0.1914 2.1123 ======* Nm = estimate of gene flow from Gst or Gcs. E.g., Nm = 0.5(1 - Gst)/Gst.

CONCLUSION

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides sampled on yams is highly polymorphic in the Lesser Antilles, and demonstrate both strong levels of structuration (possibly indicating a major effect of local dynamics for the disease), and some levels of recurrent migration (reflecting the Achipelago nature of dispersion).

LITERATURE CITED

G Arnau, R Bhattacharjee, MN Sheela, R Malapa, V Lebot, K Abraham, X Perrier, D Petro, L Penet, C Pavis (2017). Understanding the genetic diversity and population structure of yam (Dioscorea alata L.) using microsatellite markers. PloS one 12 (3), e0174150

L Penet, E Barthe, A Alleyne, JM Blazy (2016). Disease risk perception and diversity of management strategies by farmers: the case of anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides on water yams (Dioscorea alata) in Guadeloupe. Crop Protection 88, 7-17

Penet L, Cornet D, Blazy J-M, Alleyne A, Barthe E, Bussière F, Guyader S, Pavis C, Pétro D (2016). Varietal Dynamics and Yam Agro-Diversity Demonstrate Complex Trajectories Intersecting Farmers’ Strategies, Networks, and Disease Experience. Frontiers in Plant Science 7, 1962

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L Penet, S Guyader, D Pétro, M Salles, F Bussière (2014). Direct splash dispersal prevails over indirect and subsequent spread during rains in Colletotrichum gloeosporioides infecting yams. PloS one 9 (12), e115757

L. Penet, S. Briand, D. Petro, F. Bussière & S. Guyader. Isolation and amplification of microsatellites markers in Colletotrichum gloeosporioides s.l.: polymorphisms and diversity range. Data In Brief (in revision).

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