The Role of Local and Regional Museums in the building of a People’s Europe

Musei e comunità in Europa: passato, presente e futuro The Role of Local and Regional Museums in the building of a People’s Europe

Musei e comunità in Europa: passato, presente e futuro

European Conference 2017 Bologna (Italia), Chiesa di San Mattia 13-14 novembre 2017

Atti A cura di Giuliana Ericani ICOM Europe ICOM Europe ringrazia: President: Luis Raposo l’Istituto Beni Culturali della Regione Emilia-Romagna (IBC) per il Board: supporto organizzativo, per il progetto grafico e la stampa degli Jacques Terriére (France), Treasurer atti Karen Brown (Ireland)

Katerina Chuyeva (Ukraine) il Polo Museale dell’Emilia Romagna Giuliana Ericani (Italy) per la concessione degli spazi dell’(ex) Chiesa di San Mattia Teti Hadijnicoalau (Greece) Monika Hagedorn-Saupe (Germany) Laura Mueller, Undergraduate Research Assistant to MGCI, Dorit Wolenitz (Israel) University of St Andrews per l’editing dei testi inglesi Nina Zdravic Polic (Slovenia)

network.icom.museum/europe gli sponsor Fondazione del Monte di Bologna e Ravenna 1473 Associazione tra Fondazioni di origine bancaria dell’Emilia Romagna The Role of Local and Regional Museums in the building Fondazione Monteparma of a People’s Europe Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Bologna Musei e comunità in Europa: passato, presente e futuro Società di Santa Cecilia, Amici della Pinacoteca di Bologna Bologna (Italia), Chiesa di San Mattia 13-14 novembre 2017

Comitato scientifico Giuliana Ericani Valentina Galloni Elena Rossoni Margherita Sani Mario Scalini

Traduzione simultanea MPF - The Interpreters - Maria Pia Falcone Sas

Atti a cura di Giuliana Ericani Polo Museale Emilia Romagna Progetto grafico e impaginazione Maria Elena Tosi

ISBN: 978-88-9728-185-6

Editore Istituto per i beni artistici, culturali e naturali della Regione Emilia-Romagna Con il supporto di ibc.regione.emilia-romagna.it Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali Stampato presso Centro Stampa Regione Emilia-Romagna Direzione Generale Educazione e Ricerca

4 5 Sommario

INTRODUZIONI 11 Alberto Garlandini 13 Peter Keller 15 Luis Raposo 19 Tiziana Maffei 21 Francesco Scoppola 23 Mario Scalini 27 Roberto Balzani 31 Anna Maria Visser 33 Roberto Delsignore 35

UN OMAGGIO A ANDREA EMILIANI 37 Giuliana Ericani

IL MUSEO ALLA SUA TERZA ETÀ* 39 Andrea Emiliani

SEZIONE I 55 LOCALE E NAZIONALE NEL DIBATTITO CONTEMPORANEO

«L’ITALA GENTE DALLE MOLTE VITE» 57 piccoli paesi e musei Pietro Clemente

NAZIONALE VS LOCALE E LOCALE VS GLOBALE 75 Daniele Jalla

LOCAL AND NATIONAL MUSEUMS IN FRANCE 81 a tale of collaboration and competition Dominique Poulot

IL SISTEMA MUSEALE NAZIONALE 85 Antonio Lampis

SEZIONE II 91 I MUSEI LOCALI IN ITALIA E IN EUROPA

ITALIAN CIVIC MUSEUMS 93 quantitative trends and evolution of mission and roles Fabrizio Maria Arosio, Giuliana Ericani

6 7 LOCAL AUTHORITY MUSEUMS IN ENGLAND 115 I AM A NATIVE FOREIGNER 245 Iain Watson Maria Vlachou

THE EVOLUTION OF GREEK REGIONAL AND LOCAL MUSEUMS 131 USING THE PRINCIPLE OF MULTI-PERSPECTIVITY 255 mapping the landscape from the creation of combining local, national, and european dimensions the modern greek state to the present in history museums Maria-Xeni Garezou Susanne Popp, Jutta Schumann

LOCAL MUSEUMS IN ISRAEL 151 THINKING TRANSNATIONAL 265 an anchor to the community for building the house of european history identity and preserving cultural heritage Taja Vovk van Gaal Dorit Wolenitz BIOGRAPHIES 273 SEZIONE III 161 DAI MUSEI LOCALI AI MUSEI DI COMUNITÀ Fabrizio Maria Arosio 275 Pietro Clemente 276 DEMOCRACY, COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT AND Giuliana Ericani 276 LOCAL MUSEUMS IN PORTUGAL 163 Hugues De Varine 276 Luís Raposo Daniele Jalla 277 REGIONAL MUSEUMS IN THE CHALLENGING PRESENT 175 Tiziana Maffei 277 Irena Žmuc Susanne Popp and Jutta Schumann 278 Dominique Poulot 278 LE RAGIONI DEI MUSEI DI COMUNITÀ 185 Luís Raposo 278 Claudio Rosati Claudio Rosati 279 Margherita Sani 279 ESPORSI 195 i musei di comunità fra processi partecipativi Mario Scalini 279 e politiche del patrimonio Erminia Sciacchitano 280 Mario Turci Sofia Tsilidou 280 Mario Turci 281 SEZIONE IV 205 Maria Vlachou 281 L’EUROPA E I MUSEI LOCALI E DI COMUNITÀ Taja Vovk Van Gaal 282 LA COMUNITÀ EUROPEA PER I MUSEI Iain Watson 282 INTRODUCTION 207 Dorit Wolenitz 282 Erminia Sciacchitano Maria-Xeni Garezou 283 DE NOUVEAUX MUSEES POUR L’EUROPE DE DEMAIN? 213 Nina Zdravič Polič 283 Conservation des collections ou gestion du patrimoine vivant? Irena Žmuc 284 Conservateur du bien commun ou facilitateur communautaire? Hugues de Varine

BUILDING BRIDGES BETWEEN THE LOCAL AND THE GLOBAL 231 the role of nemo Sofia Tsilidou

THE MUSEUMS OF THE EMILIA-ROMAGNA REGION AND EUROPE 241 The role of IBC - Istituto per i Beni Artistici, Culturali e Naturali della Regione Emilia-Romagna Margherita Sani

8 9 INTRODUZIONI

10 11 Dear friends and colleagues,

Peter Keller and I are honored and grateful to be invited to represent ICOM at this important European seminar. The presence here of both ICOM’s Vice President and Director General is an evidence of how ICOM Europe’s initiatives are important for ICOM. Peter and I are delighted to see how lively ICOM Europe and ICOM Italy are. Peter will talk after me in English and therefore I continue my speech in Italian.

Il tema che oggi discutete è di grande interesse per ICOM e per me che sono stato per alcuni anni membro del Direttivo di ICR il Comitato Internazionale per i Musei Regionali che di musei locali si è tanto occupato. Ascolterò con grande piacere il vostro dibattito purtroppo non totalmente in quanto sono in partenza per Madrid dove porterò il contributo di ICOM alla conferenza internazionale dedicata ai 150 della professione museale in Spagna.

In questo mio saluto iniziale vorrei evidenziare la sempre maggiore attenzione che le comunità e le autorità nazionali e internazionali dedicano ai musei e al patrimonio culturale.

Lo scenario internazionale presenta aspetti contraddittori, da una parte in troppe parti del mondo la diversità non è rispettata e i musei e il patrimonio culturale non sono più solo vittime collaterali dei conflitti ma sono diventati un obiettivo deliberato e vengono colpiti in atti mirati di guerra.

Ma al contempo negli ultimi anni è cresciuta la consapevolezza internazionale dell’importanza dei musei del patrimonio culturale e della diversità nel creare benessere e sviluppo.

Il 2017 è stato un anno importante.

Sulla base di una proposta di Francia e Italia, il 24 marzo 2017 il Security Council delle Nazioni Unite ha adottato la prima risoluzione dedicata alla protezione del patrimonio culturale.

12 13 INTRODUCTION / Garlandini INTRODUCTION / Garlandini

Questa risoluzione storica condanna la distruzione del patrimonio role as well as their primary functions: preservation, research, culturale, gli scavi illegali, il saccheggio e il contrabbando di beni communication and education. They consider ICOM’s Code of Ethics culturali. E stabilisce che questi atti sono crimini di guerra i cui for Museums, its definition of museum and its standards to be the responsabili devono essere perseguiti. Il recente processo Al-Mahdi most widely shared international reference. di fronte alla Corte Internazionale di Giustizia dell’Aia è il primo One of the ICOM’s major tasks is ensuring that the principles caso focalizzato esclusivamente sulla distruzione di beni culturali in of the Code of Ethics guide museum practice in every part of quanto crimine di guerra. Al-Mahdi è processato per avere distrutto the world. As the only global museum network, ICOM has new intenzionalmente monumenti di valore culturale, religioso e storico, responsibilities. ICOM should campaign for broader ratification and e cioè i mausolei di Timbuktu. Inoltre, la Risoluzione afferma per better implementation of international conventions in favour of la prima volta che le missioni di peacekeeping delle Nazioni Unite museums and heritage. ICOM should campaign in order to convince hanno anche il mandato di proteggere il patrimonio culturale. governments to pass from word to action, and put into practice Un secondo esempio dell’interesse crescente al partimonio culturale what they have decided on at international summits. ICOM should e ai musei è stato il G7 della Cultura che si è tenuto a Firenze il 30 campaign so that the ICOM Code be enshrined in more national e 31 marzo 2017. Sotto la presidenza italiana, per la prima volta i laws, as it has happened in Italy with the Reform of State Museums Ministri della cultura di Canada, Francia, Germania, Italia, Giappone, and of the National Museum System. Regno Unito e Stati Uniti , insieme al Commissario Europeo per la ICOM is looking forward to the debate and results of such an Cultura e al Direttore Generale dell’UNESCO, si sono riuniti per interesting seminar on local museums. discutere come rafforzare le misure di salvaguardia del patrimonio culturale. ICOM è stata la sola Organizzazione Non Governativa Thanks for your attention. invitata all’Incontro. Gli esperti e ministri del G7 hanno evidenziato il ruolo importante dei musei nella protezione del patrimonio e il Codice etico e gli standard di ICOM sono stati apprezzati come Alberto Garlandini efficaci strumenti per dare attuazione a convenzioni e risoluzioni Vice President of ICOM internazionali. E quest’anno è anche stato lanciato l’Anno Europeo del Patrimonio Culturale.

Sia le comunità sia le autorità pubbliche chiedono ai musei di aumentare le loro attività sociali. Impegni sempre più gravosi ricadono sulle spalle dei professionisti museali e su ICOM. I musei sono diventati luoghi di riconciliazione e di partecipazione quanto sono luoghi di conservazione, esposizione ed educazione. I musei sono diventati hub di comunicazione e affrontano i temi cruciali del nostro tempo, come l’ambiente, i diritti umani, la diversità, le migrazioni, il recupero urbano.

I will conclude pointing out that UNESCO’s Recommendation on Museums and the Declaration of Shenzen of UNESCO’s High Level Forum on Museums are the remarkable results of the close cooperation between ICOM and UNESCO. These international acts raise awareness of the importance of museums, their new social

14 15 As Europe is facing separation and segregation, with the UK voting to leave the Union, Catalonia seeking independence from Spain, and several countries tightening their borders, ICOM must reinforce its position as a bridge between countries and cultures, a role which ICOM Europe embodies.

When the Lega Lombarda party emerged in Italy in the 1980s and the Maastricht treaty was concluded in 1992, I wondered how on the one hand European regions could call for more autonomy or even independence, and on the other move towards greater integration. Can Regionalisation and Europeanisation co-exist? Is this the ’Europe of the Regions’ we speak of?

Personally, I believe we are unaware of just how European we have become. In 2017, a front garden in a suburb in Lombardy looks much the same as one in a Flanders suburb. I would venture to say that Veneto today looks decidedly more European that the one in which I spent my childhood holidays.

Which role can museums play in this complex context of concurrent segregation and integration: locally, regionally, nationally, and on a European level? I believe that we underestimate the Europeanness of the museum sector. When I was museum director in Salzburg, 20 per cent of our visitors were Italian, so all labels were written in three languages: German, English and Italian. In museums in Trieste, labels appear in four languages: Italian, German, English and Slovenian.

According to ICOM’s definition, museums are ‘institutions in the service of society and its development’. I interpret this sentence in a positive way: among the key missions of museums are cultural exchange and mutual understanding. Museums can carry out this mission effectively at a local, regional, national and European level, as long as they remain relevant and true to their humanistic values.

During its general conference in Milan in 2016, ICOM underlined its values: ’independence, integrity, professionalism’. I would add ‘solidarity’ as a fourth underlying principle of our association.

16 17 INTRODUCTION / Keller

ICOM is the only global association of museums and museum professionals. It is a non-governmental organisation representing a network of museum professionals and institutions, which sets standards for the profession and promotes the protection of cultural heritage worldwide. ICOM helps museums to embrace their mission by providing a forum for discussion and debate on access, inclusion, Buongiorno a tutti! outreach, identity and protection, and by connecting museum professionals who can share experiences and best practices. ICOM’s That’s one of the few words, I dare to say in Italian, so I will speak in National and International Committees and Regional Alliances English, my poor English as I am Portoghese. produce more than 200 conferences per year, as well as numerous I would like to express my joy to be here with you all in this other events and publications. ICOM thus provides a platform for magnificent church; the fortune of Italian congresses is that they museums to enhance their work and strengthen their social and could be housed in magnificent environments like the one we are. political role. I give my thanks for their presence to Alberto Garlandini, ICOM vice The ICOM Europe Regional Alliance brings together National President and Peter Keller, ICOM General Director and I notice, and Committees from 50 countries and almost 30,000 individual and you should notice, that ICOM is present in its highest level, even institutional members. It is the most representative organisation with Tiziana Maffei, ICOM Italy chair, who supported this conference of museums and museum professionals on the continent, and is personally and with the secretariate’s work. profoundly committed to the role and the values described in this article. I greet all the institutions which shared the organization of the conference, the Italian Ministry of Culture, here rappresented Peter Keller by Mario Scalini, Soprintendente del Polo Museale dell’Emilia DG - ICOM Romagna and Leandro Ventura, delegate of the General Direction of Historical, Architectural, Artistic and Archeological Heritage, the City of Bologna, the Institute for the Beni Culturali of the Regione Emilia Romagna, here with its President, Roberto Balzani and also Anna Maria Visser, delegate of the Italian Association of Local and Institutional Museums.

A particular thank should be given to our sponsors, to the Associazion of the Foundations of Emilia-Romagna, to the Foundation CARIPARMA, to the Foundation Del Monte of Bologna and Ravenna and to Foundation CARISBO.

Last but not least a special thank to Giuliana Ericani, member of ICOM Italy and ICOM Europe board, who did a huge work to organize this conference.

This is a conference of ICOM Europe. ICOM Europe is a Regional Alliance of European National Committees and National Committees are anchored in all the seminars and conferences we projected and

18 19 INTRODUCTION / Raposo

did in our mandate 2016-2019. In this case the 2017 Conference, here in Bologna, Italy, which follows the Lisbon 2016 on National museums, is organized with ICOM Italy on a theme particularly important for Italian museology and for the majority of Italian museums, the local and community museums. La comunità museale italiana si misura in poco più di un anno per So, good work to us all! la seconda volta dopo la Conferenza Generale ICOM di Milano in Luís Raposo un confronto a livello internazionale. Non posso che ringraziare Chair ICOM Europe Luis Raposo per aver favorito questo confronto internazionale e Giuliana Ericani, presidente del Collegio dei Probi Viri di ICOM Italia, e membro del Consiglio Direttivo di ICOM Europe, di averlo organizzato.

Il confronto internazionale è certamente importante in questo momento di cambiamento nella museologia italiana, in particolare per due motivi. Il prossimo anno, 2018, lavoreremo come Comitato italiano e come comunità nazionale per l’Anno Europeo del patrimonio culturale, affrontando il dibattito da due importanti poli teorici di riferimento, la Convenzione europea del paesaggio e la Convenzione di Faro, di cui la prima definisce i rapporti del patrimonio con i luoghi dell’abitare, la seconda il diritto, i doveri e le responsabilità alla cultura delle comunità.

Come comunità museale italiana abbiamo offerto al dibattito teorico la Carta di Siena 2.0, che unisce le istanze delle due convenzioni, riaffermando che la cultura non è solo spazio di svago ma articolazione che lega il patrimonio culturale al senso dell’abitare dell’uomo, assumendosi responsabilità alle quali non ci si può sottrarre, in un’articolazione che lega i musei al proprio contesto e ne fa uno strumento per vivere con senso critico la propria esistenza.

Il Museo, ora nella sua quarta età, lo abbiamo detto più volte, non lavora solo e più per gli oggetti ma è uno strumento per rendere migliori le persone.

Il patrimonio culturale come contenitore di memorie, in una bulimia tipicamente italiana, che è un’istanza sulla quale dovremo lavorare prossimamente, richiede il superamento delle barriere interdisciplinari, richiede lavoro congiunto, e un’enorme mole di lavoro di elaborazione.

20 21 INTRODUCTION / Maffei

Tale lavoro riguarda non solo il patrimonio fisico ma anche quello immateriale, in un confronto continuo con la pesantezza di tradizione vista in una dimensione spaziale e in una dimensione temporale, che ogni volta ci fa lavorare sulla valorizzazione, sul sedimentarsi di questa per la sua conseguente patrimonializzazione. I musei locali e di comunità, che il più delle volte sono piccoli musei, Nella complessità della situazione museale europea, importante costituiscono nella logica attuale il ramo non redditizio del sistema sarà ed è stato, come questi atti documentano, lavorare sui musei di museale. Infatti spesso le spese per la loro semplice conservazione comunità, per il senso allargato che ha assunto il termine comunità superano di molto i ricavi che se ne possono trarre. Ma questa e per il valore ancora più complesso che ha assunto il termine logica, secondo la quale ogni organismo e ogni parte di organismo identità, come dimostra la fluidità temporale e spaziale che questo deve potersi autoalimentare ed essere autosufficiente, è la logica valore assume nella nostra vita quotidiana. dei muschi, delle muffe, dei batteri, del plancton: insomma degli I due giorni della conferenza, e la sua valenza internazionale, è organismi elementari. Tutte le forme di vita più evolute accettano stata un momento importante, e pieno di spunti e significati, in serenamente che alcuni organi e alcuni distretti siano specializzati questo momento di dibattito italiano sul sistema museale nazionale per svolgere alcune funzioni e che le varie parti siano in sostanza anche perché ragioniamo sempre più in termini di gestione che di interdipendenti in un rapporto di mutuo sostentamento. Si tratta salvaguardia e quando è tanto più importante, nella complessità in sintesi della integrazione tra sistema gerarchici o ad albero e di questa gestione e nella nuova visione museologica, definire il sistemi equilibrati a rete (o a bosco) che ha costituito l’ossatura nel nostro rapporto con il patrimonio in modo chiaro. trasferimento di nozioni dalla biologia all’urbanistica, operato da Henri Laborit.

Per fare un esempio forse astruso nel provare a dar ragione a chi Tiziana Maffei vorrebbe solo promuovere grandi musei ad alto reddito e massima Presidente ICOM Italia frequentazione, sarebbe come se l’organismo di una farfalla ripudiasse e tagliasse fuori dai propri circuiti di alimentazione e controllo gli attrattori, quali i colori sulle ali, la produzione di quelle polveri senza le quali peraltro la farfalla non può volare, sostenendo che non producono nulla e sono solo un peso. Di esempi naturalmente se ne possono fare moltissimi e parecchio più appropriati, ma l’essenziale è riconoscere che la bellezza e l’attrattiva, il saper fare e il saper vivere, il conservare e mostrare risultati degni di ammirazione è una funzione vitale per i singoli e per le società in tutto e per tutto equiparabile alla trasmissione del patrimonio genetico. Solo che qui si tratta di trasmissione ancora più fragile, che non è affidata da automatismi e in qualche modo garantita, ma dipende dalle volontà di lascito e di ricezione, in sostanza di trasmissione. Se questa catena del sapere, se questa corrente cessa, i danni sono incalcolabili. Per questo si dice patrimonio inestimabile. Se si interrompe la meraviglia di insegnare per piacere e per consolazione e di apprendere per divertimento, per gioco e per

22 23 INTRODUCTION / Scoppola INTRODUCTION / Scoppola

ammirazione ne patisce la scienza, la sapienza. Studiare infatti è Per concludere risollevando questo saluto istituzionale della essenziale, ma si tarda a capire che non è un dovere ma un premio, Direzione Generale Educazione e Ricerca del Ministero per i Beni e un conforto. Gli strumenti di studio da sempre sono le scuole, le le Attività Culturali si può chiedere ancora una volta soccorso alle accademie, le biblioteche, gli archivi e appunto i musei. parole di Corrado Ricci, che a distanza di un secolo non hanno certo perso di attualità. Nella sua prefazione al lavoro curato da Francesco L’errore fatale oggi più che mai in agguato è quello di subordinare Pellati, la prima guida dei musei italiani pubblicata dal nuovo Stato le funzioni primarie, vitali, quali quelle della nutrizione – materiale unitario (I musei e le Gallerie d’Italia, notizie storiche e descrittive e spirituale o mentale che dir si voglia – alle logiche di mercato. È raccolte da Francesco Pellati, stilato tra il 1910 e il 1922) così scriveva: evidente che il mercato sia cieco nel premiare le quantità, le velocità, i “trovar uno di quei piccoli musei […] desta una piacevole curiosità, primati persuasivi, l’attrattiva. La volontà e la bellezza sono connesse quasi si fosse trovata una cosa bella e sconosciuta, mentre invece alla fatica e non costituiscono un polo gravitazionale altrettanto certi grandi musei […] farraginosi, zeppi di cose disparatissime per forte. Ma questa energia debole va supportata. Per l’alimentazione carattere e per valore, arrecano talora turbamento e stanchezza”. fisica non si fa particolare fatica a capirlo al punto che i generi di prima necessità vengono quasi sempre e quasi ovunque calmierati Francesco Scoppola o in certi casi addirittura offerti. Più difficile è comprendere che DG - Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali altrettanto va fatto anche per l’alimento culturale. E se è vero che Direzione Generale Educazione e Ricerca questi correttivi falsano il mercato a discapito del settore che si vorrebbe proteggere e promuovere, perché il contenimento dei prezzi riduce i ricavi e dunque scoraggia, e pur vero che una risposta occorre trovarla.

Fuori dal mercimonio si mantiene con un numero cospicuo di esempi la Gran Bretagna per quel che riguarda i musei, molti altri paesi inclusa l’Italia per quel che concerne le scuole, le accademie e gli altri istituti di istruzione e formazione. Se poi si estende il concetto di museo, anche le chiese, delle diverse confessioni religiose, in gran parte sono ad accesso libero e non pretendono di realizzare in loco un ricavo, se non tramite il meccanismo libero e volontario delle offerte o dei lasciti. Insomma non mancano certo lumi da seguire, esempi da emulare. I mistoforia della antica Grecia hanno compiuto 25 secoli di età e si potrebbe ormai accettare che vi siano spese a carico di tutti perché riverberano i loro benefici su tutta la collettività. Questa crescita dell’umanità ancora non si è però liberata delle esitazioni iniziali che opponevano alle spese per le arti e il decoro del vivere l’urgenza delle spese militari. Siamo oggi però vicini ad una maturazione tale dell’idea di Difesa da poter sperare di superare anche questo persistente ostacolo. Il Comando Carabinieri Tutela Patrimonio Culturale ne è una concretissima solida prova. Ma anche le sinergie tra Protezione Civile ed Esercito, anche i Caschi Blu della Cultura lo provano.

24 25 Il tema di come e cosa sia articolabile quale sistema di musei in una nazione ad altissimo tasso di presenze di beni culturali è una questione che si può assai variamente interpretare. Si dovrebbe innanzi tutto diffidare del fatto che siano applicabili qui modelli come quelli del resto del mondo, dove le presenze di istituti museali non giungono certo ai fantomatici 5.000 istituti italiani, che tuttavia includono di tutto, dall’ecomuseo al Museo Nazionale di fondazione preunitaria e dunque aspirazioni universalistiche in tutto pari a quelle del Prado1.

Le idee in merito a come mettere a sistema la costellazione di luoghi di cultura e di identità sociale della penisola paiono essere anche molto dissonanti, ma per attuare un processo che veda tutti protesi verso un comune obbiettivo credo si dovrebbe cercare un denominatore comune d’intesa che, oltre a costituire un punto di riferimento concreto e non evanescente, sia al tempo stesso un ‘bersaglio’ il cui raggiungimento sia anche quantificabile per tappe di avvicinamento progressive e tale da da motivare i singoli nel raggiungimento degli scopi prefissi.

Perché il Sistema Nazionale sia un modello di gestione sostenibile, così come viene chiamato nella ‘decisione’ europea, esso deve innanzi tutto consentire delle economie rispetto a quanto sin qui fatto e che, con nostro disappunto, certo, risulta eccessivamente oneroso per il flusso economico nazionale, supportato o meno che sia dall’afflusso di denaro da parte dei visitatori delle nostre strutture e siti.

La percezione della stragrande maggioranza dei fruitori si concentra sui nostri massimi complessi e già troppi sono gli istituti cui è stata data autonomia e che rapidamente si sono rivelati incapaci, non certo per colpa di chi è alla loro guida, di sviluppare autonomie che neppure colossi economici, privati o governativi, riescono a consolidare. Inutile studiare modelli fortunati come il Getty, ove a una ristretta dotazione di opere cui badare fa da supporto un gettito economico di rendite provenienti da ben altro, che consentono di stipendiare adeguatamente quelle che per noi sono vere folle di personale.

26 27 INTRODUCTION / Scalini INTRODUCTION / Scalini

Non intendo entrare nel merito di musei non d’arte. La loro (non necessariamente inquadrati nei musei ma in essi bene accetti fisionomia, funzionamento e ragion d’essere, non può che essere e se possibile motivati e coordinati), ed è forse proprio in questo diversa, e forse oggi persino in sintonia maggiore con le aspettative che una diversa narrazione dei fatti antichi del nostro passato e di del pubblico, persino adolescenziale, che tanto stenta a varcare le quelli che ci prefiguriamo nell’immediato futuro, potrà trovare una soglie dei più vetusti e paludati istituti. A queste istituzioni si può ragion d’essere per sviluppare sensibilità ed apprezzamenti per cose chiedere di colmare il vuoto di relazione sociale e anche di tessere altrimenti mute e senza vita. una rete di interazioni e di dati che possano confluire in pacchetti Il mondo della trasmissione digitale, che già ha travolto qualsiasi altra educativi adeguati alla dinamicità della nostra società. Basta però forma di comunicazione nella quotidianità, è il solo che ha la vitalità a questo scopo la fitta rete disocial che da Facebook ad Instagram e l’ attrattività sufficiente per garantire un futuro anche ai musei, non hanno già documentato e messo a fuoco ogni bene che per il c’è che lasciarlo entrare e governarne attentamente la modulazione pubblico medio possa, anche nei suoi particolari, costituire stimolo con chi di questo è capace di farne un mestiere, i giovani. e sollecitazione. Basterebbe provvedere a modificare le incredibili e diffusissime improprietà e banalità che vengono ricapitolate In questo panorama in divenire i musei devono essere accoglienti, ogni giorno da centinaia di utenti disinformati per costituire inclusivi, il più possibile tecnologici e sopratutto puliti e caldi, ospitali una enciclopedia culturale straordinaria. Malgrado ciò mi pare e friendly. Se veicolato adeguatamente un messaggio che riporti innegabile che nel brulicare di errori e inverosimili affermazioni, ai cittadini anche gli istituti che non sono oggetto di vero assalto il flusso informativo sia talmente potente da non richiedere che di visitatori, si potrà certo contare in un ritorno graduale ad una un’assidua presenza nello sforzo, (scesi dal cavallo bianco della riappropriazione di quei luoghi che sono nati come specchio della cultura di cui ci si sente unici alfieri e depositari) nell’indirizzare identità delle collettività civili, locali o generali che siano poco cambia. con qualche stimolo i nostri curiosi simili verso forme di maggiore precisione conoscitiva e di accurata definizione. Trasferire in rete il Credo convenga, poiché ve ne sono gli estremi, essere ottimisti, sapere dei nostri libri sarebbe già uno straordinario risultato che il lavorare insieme per un obbiettivo di apertura, se mai mondo dei social comunque sta già attuando da solo. salvaguardando le specificità dei complessi e dei siti e stando bene attenti a non voler rinnovare quello che è invece caratteristico e Intendo dire che le ore che i nostri giovani passano sullo smartphone distintivo. Se avessero continuamente riallestito Capodimonte ben sono tutt’altro che inutili, sempre che venga in loro stimolata poco del fascino del luogo sarebbe rimasto e solo il tocco felice di un quella naturale curiosità per il diverso e l’altro, che li tenga un poco architetto scenografo come Pizzi ha saputo ridare vita e leggibilità meno ‘adesi’ alle cose che conoscono del loro piccolo nucleo sociale all’allure della corte che si era perso. A noi spetta salvaguardare con (scuola, fan-club o altro). acribia e lungimiranza.

Molto si può imparare anche da operatori di cultura dalla vena Mario Scalini commerciale del mondo digitale, copiando, improvvisando Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali (apparentemente ma la strategia va ben calettata) eventi, gare Polo museale dell’Emilia- Romagna telematiche, happenings e via dicendo, così che sfruttando quei mezzi si sia in grado di mobilitare soggetti altri rispetto alle cinquantenni bene educate che tutte le ormai inutili ricerche di customer satisfaction riscoprono essere gli abituali fruitori dei musei, zoccolo duro della ‘cultura da maestrine dalla penna rossa’ di cui si spera nessuno senta più il bisogno.

La comunità dei musei è forse la comunità degli operatori di cultura

28 29 INTRODUCTION / Scalini

Endnotes 1 Mi pare d’obbligo anche se mi rivolgo ad addetti ai lavori, che nessun raffronto è possibile con l’impianto ‘cosmico’ di un British Museum, poichè mai uno stato itlaiano ebbe in epoche recenti un impero paragonabile a quello vittoriano e così il Louvre inteso da Napoleone come Museo Centrale di un mondo repubblicano/imperiale, trattenendo tanto dai sequestri e acquisti forzosi operati nelle terre occupate, potè strutturarsi Porto qui il saluto di tutti i colleghi dell’IBC, orgogliosi che il come un organismo di mole ben diversa dai nostri contesti museali che oggi Convegno abbia avuto luogo a Bologna in una fattiva e virtuosa appaiono locali anche quando furono al tempo di loro fondazione centri di sultura di veri Stati sovrani. collaborazione con il Comitato Nazionale italiano di ICOM e con ICOM Europe, oltre naturalmente a tutte istituzioni nazionali e territoriali che operano per la tutela e valorizzazione del patrimonio nella nostra regione e non solo.

Nello scusarmi per non aver potuto affidare ad un testo scritto le suggestioni che avevo espresso in occasione del Convegno, mi permetto di sintetizzarle, nella speranza che questi veloci appunti coprano il compito che mi era stato dato nell’economia generale degli argomenti delle sezioni, che dovevano svolgere un tema così importante per la museologia italiana, quella dei musei locali e di comunità, cioè dei musei territoriali, che affiancano le grandi strutture storiche, nazionali.

Il mio discorso svolgeva prima di tutto il rapporto tra luoghi e musei, tra il Museo e gli spazi della città, in secondo luogo il dialogo e le relazioni tra l’oggetto museo e la collezione, puntando l’attenzione ad approfondimenti sulla città di Bologna. Da queste prime analisi derivava la verifica della relazione tra amministrazione, gestione e curatela scientifica.

La scaletta della mia analisi puntava su quattro aspetti:

1. Geografia dei luoghi del patrimonio;

2. Mobilità degli oggetti nello stesso spazio e fuori di esso;

3. Potenziale narrativo transnazionale degli oggetti;

4. Azioni di public engagment affiancato alla valorizzazione.

Affidando a queste analisi il mio apporto alla discussione, ripeto la mia soddisfazione che l’IBC abbia offerto, anche pubblicando gli atti del Convegno, una duratura memoria all’importante dibattito svolto dalla conferenza in un momento fondamentale per la crescita

30 31 INTRODUCTION / Balzani

culturale e la definizione organizzativa e gestionale dei musei locali e di comunità in Italia.

Roberto Balzani Presidente dell’IBC, Istituto per i Beni Artistici, Culturali e Naturali Buongiorno, della Regione Emilia-Romagna con grande piacere porto il saluto dell’ANMLI (Associazione Nazionale Musei di Enti Locali e Istituzionali) a questo importante e interessante convegno. I temi affrontati e sviluppati in queste due giornate di lavori sono, infatti, il cuore della missione e dell’azione della nostra associazione, fondata nel 1950, che raccoglie i professionisti, gli operatori e i ricercatori che lavorano nei musei e per i musei degli Enti locali italiani.

Le finalità fondamentali dell’ANMLI consistono nel promuovere l’autonomia dei musei, come condizione strategica per la loro efficacia, e nel valorizzare le professionalità specifiche dei musei, con particolare riferimento alle figure dei direttori, unitamente a quelle legate alla tutela e valorizzazione del patrimonio culturale di pertinenza locale e regionale.

Autonomia e dignità del personale quindi sono stati i principi che hanno guidato in questo lungo percorso di anni le attività dell’associazione, sempre cercando di rappresentare l’identità delle comunità locali e di interpretare le esigenze dei territori.

Oggi le riforme del Ministero e dei musei statali hanno cambiato lo scenario e aperto opportunità nuove. L’autonomia conferita a importanti musei dello stato, con la creazione di figure di direttori responsabili, rovesciando un ordinamento più che secolare, ha prodotto il miglioramento in tempi rapidi della situazione dei musei e la crescita di una consapevolezza e di una partecipazione da parte dei cittadini veramente sorprendente, che può costituire il fattore decisivo per sottrarre tutti i musei, a qualunque amministrazione appartengano, dalla loro tradizionale marginalità.

ANMLI quindi, in questo contesto, assume una posizione attiva e propositiva, ma è consapevole delle criticità che ancora permangono nella dialettica fra lo stato e le autonomie locali. La creazione del sistema museale nazionale, indispensabile per superare la crisi e per adeguare i musei italiani ai livelli internazionali, può essere

32 33 INTRODUCTION / Visser

l’occasione per mettere a frutto l’esperienza innovativa e la cultura gestionale che i musei civici hanno maturato con una laboriosa attività nel territorio, sempre in primo piano nell’interpretare i bisogni della comunità come attivatori di processi e connessioni anche al di fuori del puro contesto istituzionale e conservativo. Gentilissimi, Infine, non si può non segnalare la grande difficoltà dei musei civici stretti dalla crisi, dove la mancanza di risorse e la difficoltà sono molto dispiaciuto di non poter essere presente alla Conferenza ad assumere personale stanno minacciando il funzionamento stesso Europea di ICOM, un evento che, per i prestigiosi relatori previsti e degli istituti. Occorre a nostro avviso che siano messe in campo per i fondamentali temi trattati, rappresenta un’occasione unica di azioni di sostegno, in analogia a quanto è stato fatto per i musei confronto e di approfondimento sul museo, inteso come luogo in cui statali, che hanno potuto fare assunzioni in deroga e ottenere una comunità sedimenta e preserva nel tempo la propria identità, risorse straordinarie. ma anche e soprattutto come spazio vivo in continua evoluzione.

Con questo auspicio, vi ringrazio di avermi ascoltata e auguro a tutti La tradizione unita alla trasformazione, la conservazione unita buon convegno: occasione preziosa per inserire questi temi, ai quali alla valorizzazione, il locale che dialoga col globale: è a tutti noto vi ho fatto cenno, in un quadro più ampio di riflessione generale. quanto tali direttrici rappresentino linee di sviluppo imprescindibili Grazie. per delineare un futuro in cui il museo abbia ancora e sempre un ruolo fondamentale, come custode della memoria collettiva e come Anna Maria Visser promotore attivo di cultura. Già Presidente ANMLI, Associazione Nazionale Musei di Enti Locali e Istituzionali. L’impegno di Fondazione Monteparma è da sempre profondamente orientato alla valorizzazione delle arti e della cultura e presto si rafforzerà ulteriormente con l’apertura al pubblico, in un palazzo del centro storico di Parma recentemente restaurato, di un innovativo centro culturale, dotato di ampi spazi per esposizioni permanenti e temporanee, di sale conferenze, di ambienti polifunzionali e di laboratori didattici.

Nell’attuale fase interrogarci sul museo è quindi divenuto per noi un imperativo, così come supportare manifestazioni, quali la presente, che favoriscono attivamente il dialogo su tale ambito a livello internazionale e con la partecipazione dei maggiori esperti. Per questo la dott.ssa Carla Dini, Segretario Generale della Fondazione Monteparma, ha fortemente sostenuto l’attuazione di questa iniziativa culturale.

Mi congedo augurandovi che il convegno possa costituire una proficua opportunità di incontro e crescita.

Roberto Delsignore Presidente di Fondazione Monteparma

34 35 UN OMAGGIO A ANDREA EMILIANI Giuliana Ericani

Prima di dare inizio alla prima sessione dei lavori abbiamo riservato un brevissimo omaggio a colui che negli ultimi quarant’anni ha dato molto al patrimonio ed ai musei dell’Emilia Romagna e di tutto il paese, Andrea Emiliani.

Abbiamo ristampato, e tutti i partecipanti lo hanno nel block notes del Convegno, un suo testo del 1985, Il Museo alla sua terza età, un testo – per la cui individuazione ringrazio Daniele Jalla – che, malgrado la sua età, mantiene una freschezza ed una presenza assolute. Non abbiamo ritenuto di pubblicare, invece, in questi atti – il suo intervento è, tuttavia, nelle bobine della conferenza - l’intervento di Andrea Emiliani per l’impossibilità intervenuta di una verifica da parte sua a causa della malattia, che lo ha portato alla morte (marzo 2019). Il suo intervento, peraltro, partendo dal presupposto di una eccezionale stagione per il patrimonio e per le discipline artistiche del dopoguerra, e per i professionisti che avevano vissuto quella stagione, insisteva sulla crisi dei musei italiani dagli anni ’80, esprimeva forti perplessità sull’attuazione della riforma, sull’organizzazione delle mostre e su erronee interpretazioni della valorizzazione in atto nella gestione museale italiana.

Siamo molto lieti di lasciare alle parole di Andrea Emiliani l’apertura di questa conferenza.

36 37 IL MUSEO ALLA SUA TERZA ETÀ* Andrea Emiliani

Non è per una banale palindrome, in fondo, che mi vedo quasi costretto a ripercorrere alla rovescia una strada nella quale già s’era inoltrato un mio libretto di una decina d’anni fa. Allora, Dal museo al territorio voleva indicare con qualche esattezza l’espandersi di un modello, l’ampliarsi di un metodo che, dal chiuso di quel vecchio strumento assai esperto che era il museo, andava segretamente verso il nuovo, inedito e quasi imprendibile concetto di territorio: tanto imprendibile da parer quasi fantastico, almeno fino a quando non venisse - come raramente avvenne - collegato alla realtà. Premeva dunque in quegli anni, e con la veloce precarietà che li esaltava e insieme li affliggeva, di dare una forma, un modello mentale all’organizzazione di quel concetto; e di trarne insieme il disegno di un comportamento rigoroso. Programmazione e pianificazione furono le parole sante, le prime ad apparire ma anche le prime a scomparire. Il museo sembrava il nocciolo primo di quella discussione, cosi come il suo stesso consistere nella città assumeva, se ben studiato, la forma concettuale e soprattutto fisica che meglio poteva «spiegare» la città intera. Ciò che là dentro si era stratificato, e che poteva spiegarsi eloquentemente attraverso il «modo» con il quale era entrato in quello strato, rifletteva all’esterno più vaste e sonanti possibilità. La città e il suo territorio si illuminavano nel museo e grazie al museo.

Di qui a dire: la città è un museo, il passo non fu lungo, anche se l’affermazione non è stata mai chiaramente intesa. In realtà, l’efficacia culturale e politica dei piani regolatori era così fortemente legata - già negli anni ’70 - ad un adeguato e moderno comportamento di conservazione, che davvero non era dato distinguere fra l’imperativo del museologo e quello dell’urbanista. E che questa fosse una scelta importante anche sotto il profilo economico, fu forse compreso più tardi: ma certo non allora. Il fatto è che, dieci anni fa, prevalevano almeno le ragioni del ‘pubblico’ interesse. La conservazione stessa

38 39 Il MUSEO ALLA SUA TERZA ETÀ / Emiliani Il MUSEO ALLA SUA TERZA ETÀ / Emiliani

offriva una sua versione moderna intesa come ‘pubblico servizio’ In queste pagine si narrano del resto le faticose imprese che, fra (questo è il titolo di un libretto da me scritto nel 1971). Il piano verifica e progetto, presiedettero alla identificazione di alcuni buoni regolatore stesso rispondeva pienamente ai postulati generali di o buonissimi musei italiani, al disegno di un loro rinnovamento un’età dove i grandi comportamenti sociali e culturali, e le scelte inteso come pieno rispetto del modello originario. Ma non mi politiche relative, si affacciavano con grande fervore sulla scena della vergogno di dire che anche buona parte di questi stessi progetti moderna cultura della città e del territorio (ma nel contempo non o non hanno progredito o non hanno mai avuto conclusione. Essi ne avviavano la necessaria economia). Ciò finiva per far sembrare sono stati messi in ginocchio, certo, dalla crisi finanziaria locale; ma davvero che ogni imposizione dello strumento urbanistico fosse un assai più hanno sofferto dell’imponente deviazione dei bilanci verso atto illuminato sì, ma anche allineato pienamente a quella trincea di le strade della precarietà. costrizioni, di atti imperativi e cogenti, di sacrifici del privato che in fondo è la linea storica delle leggi di tutela artistica e architettonica E qui sento già suonare le campane degli oppositori e le trombe dei nel nostro paese; prima e soprattutto dopo l’unità nazionale. convinti settatori. Il problema in realtà non è quello di una festa in più o in meno, in questo paese che comunque di feste ha bisogno. Il L’accesso dell’economia privata nel grande campo urbanistico e problema è quello di non trasferire la morale della ‘manutenzione’ territoriale italiano ha corrisposto in pieno alla riduzione e talora al verso l’immoralità della ‘sostituzione’; e dunque di non travestire degrado del concetto di ‘pubblico servizio’ e di ‘decoro comunitario’ la scomparsa della buona spesa ordinaria, continua, programmata che erano alla base della nostra retorica educazione civile. Non c’è e prospettica, con le fiaccolate della spesa straordinaria, dell’una bisogno di riandare con la memoria ad una vicenda che è del resto tantum. Personalmente, sono convinto che questa Italia avrebbe lunghissima da narrare, ma assai fresca. Un evento come il condono potuto tranquillamente sopportare sia l’una che l’altra spesa. edilizio è, in fondo, la sanzione più iniqua che si è portata su quella Ma sono anche convinto che la spesa precaria sia stata un modo dignità culturale: vecchia, sclerotica e appassita fin che si vuole, per nulla educativo di trascurare e alla fine di sopprimere l’altra ma non reazionaria. Reazionario è stato semmai cedere su quelle spesa. Quest’ultima, per giunta, non è mai - per sua stessa natura - posizioni. clamorosa, ma è al contrario fatta di continui, faticati e giudiziosi avanzamenti. Proprio come la manutenzione, così grigia con le E il museo? Questi scritti, qui raccolti per spirito di mera sue mezze maniche, così poco avventurosa o colorita, così poco documentazione, ne seguono in discreta parte il cammino decennale, redditizia in senso politico. nel corso del quale un po’ di strada è stata forse fatta — specie da parte di alcuni Comuni — ma non certo tanta quanto il fervore dei Ma con queste parole siamo già tornati dal territorio al museo, congressi e delle tavole rotonde, un vero furor oratorio di opinione proprio perché i malanni del museo sono quelli che abbiamo or ora tecnica, scientifica, sociologica, didattica, economica, turistica ecc. letto: e che hanno la loro prima origine e coltura nella città e nel ecc. avrebbe dovuto maturare. In qualche luogo ho scritto che i territorio. convegni somigliano molto alle piccole carte che accompagnano i flaconi delle medicine; lette le quali, ci si sente in fondo esentati Il museo è ancora una volta la lente di ingrandimento e di dall’assumere il medicamento, e si volta gallone spegnendo il lume osservazione che rende possibile identificare il fenomeno in tanti sul comodino. suoi minuti dettagli che forse, en plein air, si nascondono più agevolmente. Credo che il museo abbia fortemente sofferto, quanto a organismo fisico e concreto, proprio dell’astrattezza di questo metodo messo È abbastanza probabile che il significato, la volontà stessa delle in campo per lo più dagli amministratori locali. Per non parlare di decisioni politiche e amministrative che per molti versi determinano quelli dell’amministrazione statale, per i quali neppure valgono - più che guidare - la sorte delle istituzioni culturali, abbia finito queste considerazioni, stante la totale indecorosa povertà di mezzi. per soffrire anche della consistente caduta di personalità della

40 41 Il MUSEO ALLA SUA TERZA ETÀ / Emiliani Il MUSEO ALLA SUA TERZA ETÀ / Emiliani

cosiddetta ‘società politica’: cosicché più facile e corrivo è stato riandare immediatamente al passato. E ciò non per mescolare le lo sgambetto operato proprio alle istituzioni, a vantaggio di una indubbie difficoltà del presente con una più pacificata e lusinghiera serialità stravagante e importuna. Una politica «per le istituzioni» immagine del passato. È bene dire subito che il distacco fra società è stata fatta sviare in una improvvisazione «fuori dalle istituzioni». e beni culturali è stato sempre vasto, nel nostro paese; ma è anche Nel folto incomprensibile e non disaggregabile dei bilanci, la spesa bene sottolineare che questo distacco ha assunto motivazioni culturale non si evidenzia quasi mai. Le mostre stesse hanno assunto diverse, volta a volta ed età per età; anche se, sull’orizzonte, esso talora il valore di precaria impalcatura progettuale, sforzando resta sempre inscritto in quella profonda frattura che divide il anche la volontà e la capacità dei tecnici, e comunque sbalordendo cosiddetto paese reale dal paese legale. l’Europa per l’inaudita feracità degli eventi e la liquefatta eloquenza In effetti, il primo pubblico segnale (che è insiemi istituzionale e dei cataloghi e delle pubblicazioni. Ma, del resto, è questa una scientifico), è nitidamente contenuto nella famosa lettera che risposta immediata anche ad una disciplina, la storia dell’arte, Raffaello invia a Leone X nel 1515: e proprio in quella occasione che già imballante sul suo fragile statuto scientifico, ha oggi la Roma dell’umanesimo neoplatonico e quella dell’investitura ritrovato l’indubbio piacere della degustazione palatale (la qualità, europea tentata da Leone X per la sua Chiesa, si saldano in modo cosiddetta, che assomiglia tanto alla catarsi d’ogni idealismo), la paradigmatico. Sarà infatti sempre in che il destino stesso della celebrazione tesaurizzante (il mercato, sublimazione materialistica società verrà di fatto saldato con quello dell’eredità artistica del della conoscenza), il peso speculatorio (il turismo, alba promettente passato. Dalla lettera di Raffaello nasce un vero piano di lavoro, un dell’età terziaria), e infine la dismissione dagli obblighi profondi, programma di salvezza e di identità, si direbbe oggi: non diverso, civili e politici di un patrimonio nel quale si condensa, in fondo, la del resto, da ciò che Raffaello attua, in pittura, nella ricerca di una più vera e concreta eredità del paese, il suo tramonto storico. lingua nazionale. In questi ultimi anni, destinata ad assumere velocemente l’aspetto Per questa antica ragione, le leggi pontificie saranno, fin dai grazioso di una panacea dei mali della conservazione e della stessa primi anni del ’600, il diagramma perfetto di ciò che si poteva museografia italiana, si è poi rivelata anche una sorta di libido intendere come «bene culturale» per due secoli: più ampio e più intellettuale: quasi che, grazie all’abbraccio del capitale privato e alla accogliente in ogni modo delle parole degli accademici. Magari sua compiacenza, fosse possibile sottrarsi agli obblighi elementari affisso alle cantonate, o alle porte delle locande, un bando sull’ di un pubblico servizio culturale, alle spese fondamentali perché «extraregnazione» delle opere d’arte finisce per essere la sola elementari, e ancora una volta alla «manutenzione» ordinaria efficace immagine sociale del patrimonio e dell’arte stessa. proprio perché si affacciava all’orizzonte la possibilità di una nuova «sostituzione». Ma il documento più solidamente strutturato per coscienza storica e per ingegneria tecnica, ed anche più minuziosamente laico, sarà Il museo fra storia e produttività quel chirografo di Pio VII nel quale - è il caso di sottolinearlo - si versano le ultime virtù dei ceti intellettuali romani, e gli ultimi sforzi Ma allora è davvero necessario ripercorrere almeno per sommi capi di ecumenismo della Roma papale e riformista. Vi collaborano il la vicenda che ha promosso e istituito il museo, in Italia, e ne ha Canova e il Borghesi, insieme al Fea e al camerlengo Pacca. Vi si consentito il codice sociale e di cultura. Lo farò brevemente qui, avverte già la posizione straordinaria di Quatremère de Quincy. Nel rinviando tuttavia ad alcune generale convinzioni meglio espresse 1802 la sferza - come già nel 1515 - è di una storia che ora con in un mio capitolo, dedicato appunto al museo, nella Storia d’Italia Napoleone, minaccia di far ruotare di molti gradi e definitivamente Einaudi, nel 1976. il destino d’Europa. Ma in questo documento si parla già molto di Quando si affronta il tema del rapporto, e dell’intimità del rapporto, artigianato e perfino, mutatis verbis, di moderno turismo. Esso è la che lega in Italia il patrimonio culturale alla società, vien fatto di summa di tutta l’intelligenza illuminista, il compendio prestigioso

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dell’età quella che ha visto la letterale fondazione della disciplina che ne esce con le difficoltà strutturali di un Ministero senza più storica ed estetica. Imperativa e cogente, la norma legislativa che portafoglio, e con le insistenti, troppo insistenti virtuosità offerte ne derivava era un aureo comandamento autocratico. Quale fu il dal privato nel suo abbraccio pubblico. suo successo nella società borghese? Nonostante la sua perfezione, E qui mi spiego subito, perché è doveroso e necessario. L’accesso sia Romagnosi che Cattaneo affronteranno il tema dell’eredità del del privato alla tutela, al recupero e perfino all’uso del patrimonio passato come quello di un gigantesco dovere sociale e culturale, di culturale, nelle sue infinite parti, è sacrosanto: e lo è sia nella cui lo stato moderno deve farsi carico. E sembra di avvertire, specie concretezza finanziaria ed ergonomica, ergoterapica; sia come nelle intersezioni di Cattaneo, fra espressione artistica e lavoro processo di rianimazione di un rapporto che per troppo tempo o umano, un solido precipitato di pensiero positivo: quasi che il senso per disaffezione o per incapacità culturale è rimasto inattivo. A mio di strato, di sedimento, di totalità che è la chiave per la comprensione modo di vedere, il mezzo migliore e più semplice di osservare questo dell’arte italiana (e dunque, delle città, delle campagne, delle case, fenomeno che oggi si vien sottolineando con forse troppa enfasi - delle chiese, dei castelli e delle stesse colture agrarie) fosse già ben quasi che del tutto morto fosse uno stato capace di fornire servizi - è delineato, quasi presente nel suo muto esistere testimoniale, nella quello di immaginare che il privato stia giustamente riprendendo sua pressione esistenziale, come avverrà più tardi, un secolo dopo, in esame la possibilità di tutelare, gestire ed usare parti importanti nelle affermazioni di Riegl e di Warburg. di quel patrimonio che l’economia storica proprio a lui avevano La seconda e indispensabile fase della nostra storia è quella che vede consentito di creare, di tutelare e usare. In questo senso, più che di l’unità nazionale realizzata sulla base di un liberismo destinato a accesso, parlerei proprio di culturale e coordinata riappropriazione, cozzare violentemente proprio contro l’imperatività e la dimensione capace di tornare ad approfondire i vincoli profondi del concetto di eminentemente pubblica che il pensiero conservativo aveva quotidiana, cautelosa, minuziosa manutenzione; anziché che i gesti maturato nel secolo dei lumi: prova ne sia il fatto che il giovane sonanti e approssimativi di certe sponsorizzazioni. stato italiano impiegherà 42 anni a varare una sua legge di tutela; Se la rivoluzione francese, come affermava Starobinski, insegnò aggiungendone poi altri 7 per raggiungere quel 1909 che segna, in al cittadino a muovere i suoi primi passi, nei musei finalmente senso giolittiano, il punto di massima maturazione dell’incontro fra pubblici, con l’andamento, la sicurezza e anche l’orgoglio del uno statalismo volonterosamente moderno, e le necessità di una nuovo «proprietario»; il nostro compito oggi ancora non è diverso società affluente. da quell’insegnamento. La riappropriazione che lo stato dei servizi ci ha proposto non è riuscita a far fronte all’immensità di Dire che da quel 1909 a oggi non è mutato gran che nel panorama ciò che oggi intendiamo come patrimonio artistico e culturale. Mi del rapporto fra società e patrimonio sarebbe eccessivo. Ma sembra che in uno stato più pragmatico ed attivo, o pluralista, la occorre almeno registrare, con qualche malinconia, che i metodi diretta partecipazione dei cittadini passi una volta ancora entro un centrali della nostra Costituzione repubblicana, il decentramento coinvolgimento diretto e responsabile. e l’autonomia, che tanto moderno vantaggio potevano in ipotesi recare alla tutela dei beni culturali, sono stati presto abbandonati Si può far risalire la fondazione del museo, naturalmente del museo e per giunta fra i ferrivecchi di un dibattito che stenta a riprendersi inteso come servizio pubblico, al dibattito riformista della seconda e che gli stessi governi ed enti locali - che l’hanno peraltro troppo metà del secolo XVIII: a quel dibattito che insomma trovò una sua spesso usato come schema di rivendicazione piuttosto che di militare, ovvero politica accelerazione nella soppressione dei luoghi appropriazione culturale - non raccolgono dal terreno ove esso sacri, compiuta nel corso della Campagna d’Italia da Napoleone giace: preferendo, tutti insieme ed appassionatamente, mescolare Bonaparte. Il meccanismo è quello, all’inizio, della quadreria; ed i concetti basilari di istituzione e di manutenzione, a quelli di è siglato paradigmaticamente nell’equazione spazio-tempo quale precarietà e di sostituzione. È appena il caso di ritoccare il quadro la fissa, sul più antico modello fiorentino (araldico-familiare-

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dinastico), Luigi Lanzi, nella Galleria degli Uffizi. La pittura vince secolo, dove già fiammeggia il gran conflitto mondiale. E dove già su ogni altra presenza: e ciò non perché l’estetica del tempo non s’affaccia, per quel che riguarda il panopticon del museo civico, il possa prevedere altre e contestuali presenze; ma proprio perché il nuovo cannocchiale dell’accentramento statale, la mira più alta del primato della pittura è almeno pari, per altri versi, a quello sublime giudizio storico assoluto, l’estetismo assurto a norma di metodo, e e già stabilito dell’ «antico» e dell’archeologia. altre cose ancora che tutte nella rivoluzione anche fisica che i musei sopportano (almeno fino al 1950-60) si leggono concretamente. Dal milieu culturale dell’ultima Roma possibile, e cioè dal milieu di Pio VII Chiaramonti, si esprime già nel 1802 una realtà nuova, La terza età può iniziare dal dopoguerra. La grande transizione forse non indifferente alle tematiche dell’Enciclopèdie; e più del paese reale ha avuto inizio sfrenato intorno al 1945 e la guerra di quelle (che osservavano la transizione con un forte senso di stessa ne è stata in fondo l’orrida immagine pronuba. Sul velario fissazione del «cessato» dello «scomparso» con un malcelato senso della tutela e della conservazione si sono presto iscritti i traumi che, di aspettazione verso le «magnifiche sorti e progressive»), innestata anzitutto, hanno investito, con massicce speculazioni, l’urbanistica nel primo affiorare di una diversa lettura della civiltà italiana: quella e le coste: ma hanno poi assunto gradualmente una figura forse che insomma dovrebbe definire la «società in ritardo» rispetto meno traumatica ma infine più sottilmente degradante, e cioè il al restante d’Europa. Una economia ritardata entro la quale voci lento avvelenamento della creatività e della professionalità di protagoniste inedite sono quelle, destinate a durare ben a lungo, di un’intera area culturale mediterranea. «artigianato» e di «turismo». È troppo chiaro che la caduta d’ogni sistema o modello di Il chirografo di Pio VII, cui farà da cassa di risonanza nel 1820 la trasmissione della professionalità artigiana rappresenta uno jato circolare attuativa del suo camerlengo, Ermenegildo Pacca, ha un troppo pesante per un paese avviato per giunta, a tardiva velocità, cammino lento, apparentemente pigro. Eppure, il suo dettato ha verso gli appiattimenti di personalità tipici della civiltà industriale, una funzione magistrale, che vale la pena di esaltare non solo perché verso la divisione del lavoro, la cultura della separazione e della finta destinata a durare fino al 1909 quanto a legge e a invenzione di tecnologia avanzata. Oggi il museo è davvero il luogo istituzionale giuridica normativa (lo Stato italiano post unitario non saprà far ove questo paese può riconoscersi, al di là e al di fuori della scuola e nulla di diverso per quasi mezzo secolo); ma anche perché insomma della tradizione didattico-accademica, che non ha fornito il minimo quelle due voci nuove - l’artigianato come tema della produttività aiuto alla necessaria traditio artigiana. e creatività dell’arte, e il turismo come produttività del patrimonio L’attuale condizione post-industriale lascia dunque sul terreno visto nel profilo di un dinamismo sociale, e progredito - sono due cosparso di frammenti culturali, una capacità di lavoro disanimata strutture culturali ed economiche nuove, anzi rivoluzionarie. e ormai cachetica. E poiché il lavoro del recupero e del restauro Ed ecco dunque le costanti sulle quali far nascere la nuova è certamente - assai più di quanto non credano i tecnici - lavoro aggregazione museografica, quella più complessa e tutto sommato assiduamente e criticamente artigiano, i grandi sistemi ambientali più pretenziosa che si imposta nella seconda metà del XIX secolo, a dell’architettura e della sua organizzazione urbanistica, così come cent’anni di distanza dalla prima. È questa la aggregazione definita i macrosistemi ambientali e della loro sovrana organizzazione «civica», primo frutto della cultura italiana intesa come unita e agricola, sono entrati in crisi clamorosa: mentre ormai mancano nazionale: ma, a differenza di ciò che di polveroso e di inerte il anche i gesti, gli utensili, le materie, i trattamenti, le sperimentali nostro secolo le ha addebitato, follemente intrisa di volontà storica sapienze, il lessico e la lingua stessa del lavoro. Dietro, soltanto dietro e antropologica. Proprio su questa convergenza i grandi Musei civici questo terreno disseminato di frammenti sia dell’età industriale e si incontrano con eccezionale prestigio; fino a cessare lentamente della sua rapina, sia dell’età artigiana e del suo già italiano «sapere dal proprio compito quando meno insinuante si fa quella cultura, della prassi», si distende un paese di case e di città, di chiese di campi e le prime faci dell’idealismo e del nazionalismo aprono il nuovo e di oggetti ancora integro, qua e là, e spesso miracolosamente

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e per miseria, o abbandono, oppure spopolamento, o ancora sociale e nella stessa politica generale dell’urbanistica e del territorio. sradicamento, intatto. Ma quali i mezzi, non solo economici, ma Il Museo-sistema deve accogliere e far fruttare molte altre immagini anche culturali per andargli incontro? e cose, che hanno intensamente a che fare anche con la proprietà Il museo è là, in quei profili indimenticabili: in quel territorio che è privata o con quella dimensione semi-privata di patrimoni di enti divenuta finalmente parola inerte, ed è ritornato ad essere - non diversi e di Istituti di credito il cui livello di pubblicizzazione è so per quanto - un orizzonte di città e di campagne, di coltivazioni oggi molto basso. A questo grande sistema qualcuno, oggi, potrà e di case, di chiese e di palazzi. Ma cosa c’entra tutto ciò con il opporre il fatto che sono proprio le strutture dello Stato, e cioè le museo? Ma è chiaro: come anticipavo dianzi, se ha avuto un senso Soprintendenze, che sembrano «gestire» questo possibile sistema metodologico sfogarsi fuori dal museo verso il cosiddetto territorio, dall’alto di un pigro ma rinnovato processo di centralizzazione; e ha ora un senso terribilmente più urgente ripercorrere all’indietro che ciò facendo respingono il Museo Civico verso emarginazioni quel cammino, ma con il peso dell’incombenza concreta: cioè della specialistiche. Bene, se ciò è vero, dobbiamo però ammettere che salvezza, della tutela e della conservazione di quell’immensità, di tutto il lavoro politico e culturale previsto dalla Costituzione e quello spessore che si chiamava Italia. dall’attuazione fondamentale del decentramento regionale è andato deluso e forse neppure impostato. Anche una visione infantilistica Il museo ospiterà dunque il paese? Non c’è da stupirsi, è almeno del decentramento ha infatti preteso costantemente «rivendicare» dalle parole di Pio VII Chiaramonti che questa prospettiva pende su quote tecniche e specialistiche (il restauro, per esempio) che di noi: e nella stessa evoluzione da quadreria napoleonica a museo potevano benissimo essere attuate dallo Stato; ed ha così preferito civico è già in nuce il senso di crescita della nuova dimensione dimenticare, dall’attico della capitale regionale, l’interesse diretto prospettica tanto culturale quanto tecnico-scientifica. dell’ente locale e cioè del Comune. Per noi dunque, la dimenticanza delle istituzioni museografiche locali è significativa di un cammino La terza età: il «sistema» museografico politico incerto nelle sue finalità. La Regione non deve sostituirsi all’ente locale, dimenticandone per giunta gli immediati interessi. La terza età del museo non è ancora individuata, ed eppure da Essa è il luogo del dibattito programmatorio, certo, ma non deve molti accenni è lecito prevederla, e lavorare su quella immagine. erigersi a controparte: sia dei comuni che dell’organizzazione Personalmente, penso che l’estensione della formula «civica» statale. Ecco la semplice, pulita ragione per la quale l’Istituto per sia quella più piena di destino, anche per le vie assunte - almeno i beni culturali della Regione Emilia-Romagna, proprio in quanto quanto a proposizione di metodo - dall’invocatissimo «museo della fisico luogo di discussione e di dibattito, «laicamente» assunto città» e così pure per le vie fortunate (e a volte anche sbadatamente e liberamente gestito, ha avuto fortuna. Questa fortuna lo folkloristiche) del «museo della cultura contadina». Così, dunque, accompagnerà fino a quando la Regione resisterà alla tentazione di il Museo della terza età è - nella mia mente - un «sistema» farlo diventare uno dei suoi uffici maggiori, grazie al sistema delle eminentemente civico che aggrega luoghi diversi e vocazioni sue deleghe. integrate attorno ad una istituzione sola. Il Museo del resto non è certo nuovo a queste evoluzioni, a queste che devono essere Queste valutazioni possono sembrare estranee al tema offerto, in chiamate crescite opportune. Ma nell’ambito di quel «sistema» queste pagine, dal Museo. Eppure, proprio attraverso queste strade devono entrare i luoghi delle professioni artigiane e della loro difficili passa buona parte del suo futuro istituzionale e culturale. documentazione, conservarsi i patrimoni della società urbana assistita e protetta (IPAB, per intenderci, USL e ex Ospedali), e come Proviamo a riassumere qualche tratto di una discussione antica, questi anche i problemi davvero non semplici di documentazione probabilmente mai rinnovata: e cioè quella dei rapporti effettivi fra le di un’età come la nostra (1945-1980) che sembra quasi non volersi caratteristiche di un «sistema civico» nell’ambito del decentramento testimoniare, nelle sue grandi opere pubbliche, nell’architettura regionale italiano, e le caratteristiche della tradizionale struttura

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statale italiana (Soprintendenze e Musei Nazionali). Va da sé che, hanno finito per adottare modelli di amministrazione chiusa proprio all’alba del decentramento, tutti abbiamo pensato che il varo delle ereditati dai primi. Né può dirsi che oggi la vita dell’amministratore Regioni avrebbe finalmente consentito ai grandi comparti delegati, locale, e specialmente di coloro che hanno cercato le vie di una - e dunque a musei, biblioteche e archivi di enti locali di muoversi più immaginosa, necessaria amministrazione, sia molto facile. La culturalmente e anche amministrativamente secondo versatilità stessa migliore stella del decentramento sembra essersi spenta maggiori e con una agilità sconosciuta al vecchio mammut statale. sull’orizzonte delle tante inadempienze italiane. È giusto ricordare Questa era la speranza che ci animava dieci anni fa, e che forse che i primi anni ’70 hanno segnato per la cultura artistica e storica faceva anche dimenticare proprio quel rivendicazionismo che - fra italiana un vertice assai alto del dibattito, superiore a quello di stato centrale e stato regionale - ha finito invece per diventare il molti altri paesi. Anche la sfortuna del decentramento, dunque, solo argomento di una discussione acerba, per molti aspetti inutile. entra nel quadro di quella pressione politica che vediamo, in questi Ma qual è la situazione oggi? stessi giorni, cercare di ricostruire il modello italiano degli anni ’50.

L’intero specchio di osservazione del problema dei rapporti fra Quando dico che l’amministrazione di un museo statale è chiusa, museo e società civile deve essere corredato anche di una preliminare proprio - come l’indimenticabile «Humpty Dumpty» - intendo dire indagine storica. Troppo difficile, o addirittura incomprensibile - che è chiusa. E che cioè ogni comportamento, iniziativa, decisione, diversamente - apparirebbe la odierna condizione «statica» e in realizzazione o si contiene entro i capitoli anch’essi verticali e molti modi inamovibile di istituzioni museografiche, specie statali, discendenti del bilancio, oppure entra in immediata collisione con di fronte alla versatilità e alla mobilità richieste oggi dalle cosiddette la rigidità della norma amministrativa. Ognuno sa quanto poveri economie miste. Una affermazione forse brutale, ma necessaria, deve siano questi capitoli: ma non è neppure questo il tema centrale, ciò fin da ora proporsi come necessario riepilogo di ciò che andremo a che davvero conta è che - se per caso il direttore di museo oppure il dire: ed è che la macchina statalistica italiana non è nelle condizioni soprintendente decidono di intraprendere una qualsiasi manovra di di rispondere affermativamente e in modi positivi alla sollecitazione sponsorizzazione, di coniugazione, di collaborazione - è pressoché che da più parti viene avanzata per un reale, concreto ingresso impossibile che ne escano senza le ossa rotte. Qualche promessa di del museo nell’area della produttività, certo culturale ma - come lecito dinamismo è quella che oggi si presenta con la legge 512, e cioè insistentemente viene chiesto - anche economica. Ed è bene che ciò la legge sulle agevolazioni fiscali per il patrimonio artistico. Ma è pur emerga nitidamente, perché in tal modo e anche grazie al nostro vero il fatto che essa sembra avvantaggiare soprattutto il patrimonio vecchio e pur intramontabile strumento di storia, e cioè il museo, immobiliare, ben poco il patrimonio degli oggetti d’arte. potrà aggiungersi un altro frammento significativo per l’avvio di giuste, attese riforme dello stesso generale apparato dello stato. Non è da oggi che la minaccia delle gestioni extra bilancio grava, sui dirigenti ogni volta che essi decidano di aprire una finestra La paralisi del museo italiano è tutta spiegabile - al di là delle sulla vita. Basta pensare alla attuale incapacità di fornire servizi di condizioni culturali del paese - dall’interno della sua chiusa guardaroba, di vendita di cataloghi e di libri, di materiale illustrativo struttura amministrativa, verticale e impermeabile perfino quanto e di cartoline: una incapacità che non deve essere addebitata a comunicazioni fra museo e museo. Se mai esiste un comparto ai dirigenti dei musei, e tanto meno al personale esecutivo, e dell’amministrazione che mai s’è mosso dalla rigida impostazione infine neppure ai sindacati. Gli è che le figure professionali del statalistica impresso dalla tradizione napoleonica, questo è quello guardarobiere, del venditore non sono mai entrate nel disegno dell’amministrazione artistica. Naturalmente, dovremo tracciare generale di una struttura come quella dei musei e degli scavi, che una linea di demarcazione fra stabilimenti dello stato e stabilimenti pure si promette come una tipica struttura di servizio. E se l’offerta dei comuni, e identificare due diversi comportamenti. E tuttavia, di questo servizio per lunghi decenni, e ormai più di un secolo, si è non possiamo dimenticare che, per lunga tradizione, questi secondi paragonata con l’esiguità perfino ridicola del biglietto di ingresso,

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oggi non è più così: dal momento che è stato deciso che quella ha segnato il solo, ancorché debole tentativo di dare moderna del biglietto di ingresso è la vera, la sola produttività concreta del struttura ai musei e agli organismi della tutela artistica. Se la patrimonio artistico italiano, e che dunque questo servizio viene situazione oggi sembra ritornata ad un suo punto zero, ecco una venduto a un prezzo che varia fra le 2000 e le 5000 lire. E allora, ragione per la quale ci sembra utile discutere. Spiace di dover cessato spettacolo della semiseria gratuità, è doveroso restituire ripassare le sfortunate ovvietà del passato recente, il suo carisma uno strumento funzionante, decoroso, inappuntabile. retorico: ma il problema è ancora una volta politico.

Del resto, per tornare ad una storia che è ancora presente, tutta Il Museo è giunto alla sua terza età. Vi è giunto per sua forza creativa la struttura così organizzativa che amministrativa italiana decorre e istituzionale: sia nel caso della grande raccolta nazionale, così da straordinari esempi culturali collocati fra quel XVIII secolo che archeologica che pittorica, frutto della tassonomia settecentesca; pragmaticamente innovò l’idea stessa di tutela, e quel XIX secolo cui sia nel caso, ancor più interessante, della raccolta di carattere toccò il compito di innovare il ben più pericoloso concetto di storia. civico, cioè «locale». Ma soprattutto oggi l’incerta fisionomia di un In Italia, il punto di collisione fra la norma imperativa, cogente museo - che io chiamerei inevitabilmente civico - si coagula in una dell’illuminismo e la nuova libertà liberistica e imprenditoriale visione sistematica dei musei. L’età della transizione delle forme e della società che aveva fatto la patria, è quello dei primi mesi post- delle materie esige enormi spazi di documentazione, gigantesche unitari. Solo pensando a una empasse che va dal 1860 al 1902, e entità di contenimento che - di fronte alla velocità del trapasso e cioè dal plebiscito italiano fino alla prima, debole legge di tutela alla quantità di scorie e «fossili» storici che esso ingenerosamente del nuovo stato, si riesce a evidenziare il dramma di una moderna produce - sappiano almeno raccogliere, classificare, disinfestare, nazione che, per i primi suoi 42 anni di vita, non è in grado di igienizzare la immensa «eredità del passato». Che poi questo passato mettere d’accordo il dovere conservativo con le variabili della sua trovi nel museo la sua sola e insostituibile dimora e sede, è oggi produttività. Infatti, il conflitto di questo mezzo secolo o quasi è constatazione ancor più decisa che per il passato. La trasmissione tutto contenuto fra il dovere dell’aureo statalismo illuminista e le scritta, anche nobilmente accademica, è pur sempre difficile - per urgenti richieste imprenditoriali e, dunque, ben poco statalistiche non dire impossibile - di fronte a spessori il cui livello di conoscenza, del liberalismo vincente. di decifrazione, di spiegazione non è neppure stato ancora oggi tentato. L’oggetto è là, ammucchiato e incomunicabile: salvarlo In fondo, il Museo Civico nasce proprio come proposta tipica di e classificarlo è la prima operazione possibile e necessaria. La sua questa produttività, luogo degli archetipi artigianali e meccanici fisica entità sarà la sua sola e vera garanzia: il museo ha già provato sottoposti all’attenzione delle culture positive, della scuola seriamente - fin dalla sua prima origine - di essere essenzialmente il professionale e di avviamento al lavoro, dell’intrapresa libera di modello di una possibile «archeologia del sapere». modellarsi - assai più di quella dello stato - sulla città intesa come cantiere di crescita, di progresso e di miglioramento. Un cantiere Di quanti frammenti si comporrà il Museo inteso come sistema? Ma di dove l’antica discrasìa fra arti meccaniche e arti liberali si annulla, tutti quelli, ovviamente, che entrano nella prospettiva della grande o tenta di annullarsi, anche sul nuovo concetto di merce, scaturito transizione: un esempio per tutti è quello delle trasformazioni dall’età dei commerci. Io credo che grande sia stata la prima spinta penose che l’arte edile subisce oggi e per l’annullamento graduale propulsiva dei musei civici italiani - da Padova a Milano, da Bologna delle capacità artigiane, e per il dilagare delle pratiche facilmente a Brescia - e che tuttavia anch’essi dovranno soggiacere in breve industriali. Intonaci e coloriture segnano il punto più vile del pur termine alla riorganizzazione tipica del centralismo giolittiano. La volonteroso assetto conservativo: potrà mai il Museo disinteressarsi nefandezza della prima guerra mondiale e l’avvento del fascismo di essi? Potrà mai del resto l’urbanistica fingere che la sua sia faranno facilmente il resto. Diciamo la verità, oggi: a quasi 80 anni soltanto una pratica spaziale e sociale, senza affrontare di peso da quel momento, la battaglia per le riforme e per il decentramento anche il tema del vero restauro?

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La grande vocazione storica della città europea, inaugurata con il Denkmalkultus di Alois Riegl (e significativamente all’alba di una tragica transizione, quella della finis Austriae) ammonisce che la tutela della città passa soprattutto attraverso una serie di atti istituzionali, capaci di dare sostanza e vitalità a luoghi cessati: i quali tuttavia non «cessano» affatto, ma - trasformati ieri in musei biblioteche archivi SEZIONE I oggi in contenitori classificatori laboratori - proseguono l’inevitabile corso di una vicenda che è quella dettata dalla stessa esistenziale, LOCALE E NAZIONALE antropologica verità: quella di una comunità che intende proseguire il suo cammino, costruire consciamente le sue opere e i suoi giorni. NEL DIBATTITO CONTEMPORANEO

* Andrea Emiliani, Il museo alla sua terza età in A. Emiliani, Il museo alla sua terza età, Nuova Alfa Editoriale, Bologna 1985, pp. 7-26

54 55 «L’ITALA GENTE DALLE MOLTE VITE» PICCOLI PAESI E MUSEI Pietro Clemente

Paesi Lamberto Loria, tra i fondatori della museografia etnografica italiana, usò nel 1911, per la prima mostra etnografica nazionale, un verso di Giosuè Carducci per parlare dell’Italia come nazione fatta di diversità locali: «L’itala gente dalle molte vite» (1899). Molti anni dopo ho usato una espressione non lontana da questa: «La mia idea è che l’Italia è un paese speciale, in quanto è forse l’unico al mondo che si riconosce come tale perché al tempo stesso ammette tutti i paesi che la compongono 1 nella sua identità, quindi è un paese di paesi» .

Itala gente da le molte vite, dove che albeggi la tua notte e un’ombra vagoli spersa de’ vecchi anni, vedi … (da G.Carducci, La chiesa di Polenta In Rime e ritmi, 1899. Versi 37-40)

‘Paese’ viene chiamata l’Italia, e «Il bel Paese» è sia una autorappresentazione che il nome di un formaggio. Ma «paesano» è per noi non un altro italiano, ma un abitante dello stesso paese nella stessa regione. Ci sono studi che testimoniano che nell’ emigrazione ci si riconosce prima di tutto per l’appartenere allo stesso paese, poi alla 2 stessa regione e infine alla stessa nazione .

3 Paesani - ‘paisà’ - si chiamano soprattutto gli italiani del sud. Nel centro nord quasi tutti quelli che nel sud sono detti paesi, sono chiamati città. Un paese della Puglia di 30.000 abitanti resta un paese, uno della Toscana di 4000 abitanti è invece una città, una piccola città. Sono tracce di storia comunale, di Italia feudale e contadina, di Italie urbane e artigiane e commerciali. Sono tracce ancora vivaci nonostante i cambiamenti epocali.

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La struttura più radicata dell’Italia è comunque fatta dai ‘piccoli assenza dei requisiti minimi per i riconoscimenti ufficiali, la mancanza centri’ (paesi o città) delle sue ‘zone interne’. Quelle più colpite di personale professionale, hanno resistito, pur declinando e spesso dall’emigrazione verso la pianura, quelle più colpite dal dissesto non riscendo a coinvolgere nuove generazioni. Ma è quella resistenza idrogeologico e dai terremoti. Ma nonostante il gigantesco esodo e i che rende oggi possibile un cambio di missione e una rinascita: essi oggi terremoti degli ultimi anni, la gente è ancora radicata in quelle terre diventano utili nell’avvio di un debole ma significativo controesodo e le vive in modalità assai diverse dall’abitato urbano, sia in termini con importanti problemi di rilancio dello sviluppo locale. Si può dire di servizi che di consumi. L’espressione «Itala gente dalle molte vite» che da qualche anno questi musei sono chiamati a una nuova vita, a sembra dunque ancora significativa anche dopo il Novecento. transitare dalla funzione di ‘memoria del passato’ a quella di presidio della cultura delle differenze, in territori di cui mantengono esperienza Raccogliere oggetti del passato e particolarità, ma da riusare per nuovi progetti: turistici, gastronomici, di allevamento, di artigianato, di agricoltura biologica, di prodotti A questa dispersa struttura di piccoli centri ha aderito la nascita diffusa di nicchia, di rinascita. Questo fenomeno comincia ad essere visibile dei piccoli musei, spesso creati da volontari, appassionati dilettanti, a livello nazionale, anche a causa dell’attenzione che i terremoti ma competenti e testimoni della vita passata in quei luoghi prima dell’Italia centrale hanno prodotto sul ‘paesaggio fragile’, mostrando della modernizzazione e dell’esodo dalle campagne. Secondo alcuni l’importanza - per l’Italia urbana e per il mondo – delle zone ‘interne’, museografi4, i musei locali in questi piccoli centri hanno sostituito che sono produttrici di qualità della vita, del paesaggio e del territorio, la scuola e la chiesa, che venivano accorpate e allontanate, salvando sono nati movimenti di rivalorizzazione ‘poetica’ dei piccoli centri e di la società civile dalla desertificazione e dalla perdita di memoria. quelli abbandonati (la ‘paesologia’), ma anche movimenti per il ritorno Forse è una tesi ottimista, perché anche i musei sono talora chiusi e (rete dei piccoli paesi, rete del ritorno) abbandonati, ma dà l’idea del ruolo che possono rivestire i musei nella rinascita dei piccoli paesi abbandonati. Nel nascere dei musei ci sono forti tratti di resistenza del luogo ai processi di modernizzazione, che tutelano anche le diversità delle culture territoriali. Una sorta di Piccoli comuni e musei presidio di quella che Alberto Magnaghi ha chiamato ‘Coscienza di 5 luogo’ . I musei locali sono nati prevalentemente tra il 1960 e il 2010. Una legge recente mostra una attenzione particolare ai piccoli comuni, Il fenomeno iniziale si manifesta essenzialmente tra la fine degli anni essa «promuove e favorisce il sostenibile sviluppo economico, sociale, ’60 e i primi anni ’70 seguendo il ritmo della dialettica tra abbandono ambientale e culturale dei piccoli comuni, …. promuove l’equilibrio e modernizzazione: si raccoglieva quel che veniva abbandonato e demografico del Paese, favorendo la residenza in tali comuni, e nascevano musei soprattutto di cultura materiale del mondo contadino, tutela e valorizza il loro patrimonio naturale, rurale, storico-culturale che furono spesso chiamati musei della civiltà contadina. A partire dagli e architettonico. La presente legge favorisce l’adozione di misure in anni ‘90 la ‘patrimonializzazione’ realizzata da questi piccoli musei favore dei residenti nei piccoli comuni e delle attività produttive ivi diventò riflessiva, e si avviò un processo di rivalutazione delle identità insediate, con particolare riferimento al sistema dei servizi essenziali, al locali e periferiche. Molti musei si trasformarono utilizzando nuove fine di contrastarne lo spopolamento e di incentivare l’afflusso turistico. tecnologie: i finanziamenti delle Fondazioni bancarie e dell’Europa L’insediamento nei piccoli comuni costituisce una risorsa a presidio favorirono il rilancio di una ulteriore crescita dei musei locali, il cui del territorio, soprattutto per le attività di contrasto del dissesto numero peraltro era già considerato eccessivo. Negli anni 2000-2017 idrogeologico e per le attività di piccola e diffusa manutenzione e 6 la crisi economica ha azzerato i contributi, ma qualche nuovo museo tutela dei beni comuni». è nato ancora, mentre altri chiudevano. Nell’insieme i musei locali che fanno da memoria e da custodi del know how dei passati modi Le statistiche segnalano che i piccoli comuni, quelli al di sotto di 5000 di produzione, nonostante la assenza di coordinamento, spesso la abitanti, sono il 70% dei comuni italiani, 5.567 su 7.978, con il 16,51%

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della popolazione locale e il 51% del territorio. Le regioni che hanno il locale vedendo nel museo stesso un sostituto all’ultimo negozio di maggiore numero di piccoli comuni sono il Piemonte e la Lombardia (le prossimità, alla panetteria che chiude, al parroco che abbandona la regioni più industriali e moderne) nelle loro aree montane e interne. chiesa, al deserto di ogni pratica di socialità. Il museo rappresenta dunque l’ultima moderna forma resistenziale che una popolazione Il 19 dicembre 2016 l’Istat ha reso pubblici i risultati di una indagine mette in atto quando vede minacciata la sua sopravvivenza: una 7 relativa a I musei, le aree archeologiche e i monumenti in Italia , frutto di memoria attiva, un percorso didattico indispensabile per la conoscenza un rilevamento che ha come anno di riferimento il 2015. I dati offerti e la formazione delle nuove generazioni, un bene culturale che diventa restituiscono fortemente l’idea dell’Italia quale «paese del “museo prezioso e indispensabile quando la scuola del territorio minaccia di diffuso”». Su un totale di 4.976 musei censiti le regioni più rappresentate chiudere e i saperi materiali e immateriali del museo diventano dunque sono Toscana (548), Emilia-Romagna (477), Piemonte (427) per un 30% l’unico patrimonio organizzato, olistico, critico, tale da continuare a del totale, ma segnala anche che un comune su tre ha un museo. La narrare il paese. Nella misura in cui i vecchi muoiono e i saperi della tipologia prevalente è quella etnografica e antropologica (16,6%), tradizione non vengono più tramandati, il museo diventa l’archivio seguita da quella di arte antica (15,9) e archeologica (14,7%) e di storia sostitutivo del patrimonio comunitario che veniva trasmesso da una (11,5). Il 63,8% delle strutture è pubblica, il 41,6% di esse (1.909 unità) generazione all’altra attraverso il gesto e la parola, e che tale non è più 10 sono comunali. Il 16,9% dei musei sono dislocati in comuni con meno nei paesi minacciati dal nuovo che avanza . di 2.000 abitanti. Un dato analogo del 2013 ricordava che il 47,9% (2.199) dei musei è stato inaugurato tra il 1960 e il 1999 e 1.565 sono stati aperti dopo il 2000. Il patrimonio museale nazionale appare, Museo di comunità museo di prossimità nel complesso, piuttosto giovane e assai diffuso, anche se il consumo turistico ha il 52% nelle sole Toscana, Lazio e Campania. Secondo Mario Turci la funzione attuale del museo locale è diventare museo di prossimità, esso ha il compito di partire dalla percezione I musei locali che il Ministero dei Beni culturali considera ‘etnografici’ collettiva del patrimonio, per attivare una «coscienza di appartenenza» o meglio, secondo l’uso italiano, demo-etno-antropologici, sono stati che nasca da una negoziazione fra i suoi significati d’eredità e quelli oggetto di vari censimenti. Ne Il patrimonio museale antropologico. di socialità, di risorsa patrimoniale disponibile alle qualità della vita e 8 Itinerari nelle regioni italiane: riflessioni e prospettive in tutto vengono alle pratiche di cittadinanza attiva. E’ un nuovo modo di designare il censite 1.606 strutture. museo sulla base del suo modo di relazionarsi al territorio più che per le sue collezioni. Il museo di prossimità è un museo in cui la relazione 9 Se incrociamo i 328 musei piemontesi censiti nel 2009 con l’altitudine si presenta come risorsa fondamentale, ma la relazione si nutre di dei rispettivi comuni risulta che fino agli 800 metri s.l.m. sono presenti tempo dedicato, pazienza, fiducia, presenza, ascolto, partecipazione, 11 270 musei. Questo valore decresce significativamente all’aumentare co-progettazione, disponibilità, sostanzialmente: dono . dell’altitudine e, in particolare, nelle 107 municipalità situate oltre gli 800 metri (s.l.m.) riscontriamo la presenza di ben 46 musei: il rapporto Nella versione finale della Carta di Siena (ICOM Italia) del 2014 è indica circa un museo ogni due comuni. Le comunità poste oltre gli 800 stato introdotto per i musei il concetto di «centro di responsabilità metri di quota sono interessate da un museo ogni due. Si evidenzia patrimoniale», accostandolo a quello di «presidio territoriale di tutela quindi il bisogno delle terre alte di attestare e di conservare la loro attiva» per rendere più esplicita, anche alla luce della Convenzione memoria collettiva, tratto che non troviamo nelle fonti che fanno di Faro, una funzione del museo non limitata ai soli beni «museali», riferimento alla pianura e alla collina. Nella ricerca di Grimaldi e tradizionalmente mobili e materiali, ma estesa all’intero patrimonio, Porporato questi dati sono interpretati come bisogno della comunità materiale e immateriale e dunque anche al paesaggio. di attivarsi per la sopravvivenza, riconoscendo al museo etnografico la funzione di ultimo baluardo alla dissoluzione del paese e della memoria

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13 Casi locali: piccoli paesi e musei successivi di ricerca , anche per poter capire che tipo di dinamiche la ricerca avrebbe animato nel luogo. Il paese reagì al Museo (2000) e Armungia agli stages (1998-200) con interesse ma senza che venissero attivate nuove iniziative. Nel 2009 fu aperto anche un nuovo museo in una Propongo, come esempi significativi di rapporto piccoli paesi – musei, struttura edilizia storica importante: il Museo Storico Emilio e Joyce tre casi tra Sardegna, Abruzzo, Toscana. In questi tre piccoli casi è in Lussu. Ma è solo quando ad Armungia arrivano Barbara e Tommaso atto un processo di rinascita di comunità, lento, difficile, incerto. Ma ci che qualche cosa cambia. Tommaso Lussu è il nipote di Emilio, cresciuto sono dei quarantenni che vogliono restare sul luogo, o che ritornano a Roma, archeologo, lavora in una area nuragica sarda e riabita la casa e vogliono guadagnare da vivere lì, e ci sono iniziative culturali, del nonno, Barbara Cardia è figlia di una armungese e nipote della associazioni o cooperative e musei. Presenterò da vicino questa tessitrice più considerata dalla comunità. I due decidono di vivere ad resistenza e resilienza locale, senza miti, ma con qualche piccola dose Armungia apprendendo l’arte della tessitura tradizionale e creando di ottimismo. un nuovo mercato per essa. Gestendo e salvaguardando Casa Lussu come casa storica, con piccoli adattamenti e uno spazio per un bed & Il primo caso è Armungia un comune sardo di 476 (1314 nel 1951) breakfast. Questi aspetti nel 2016 sono riconosciuti dall’Associazione 12 14 abitanti, nel Gerrei, in provincia di Cagliari . Qui è nato nel 1890 Emilio Bianchi Bandinelli come un caso di ‘tutela come impegno civile’ . Lussu, protagonista del Novecento sardo, tra prima guerra mondiale, Dal 2014 Barbara e Tommaso avevano trasferito il loro laboratorio di sardismo, antifascismo, Costituente e socialismo. Ad Armungia oggi ci tessitura a mano all’interno del museo. Dal 2016 l’Associazione Casa sono due musei e un nuraghe. Ma il paese continua a perdere abitanti Lussu è protagonista del Festival ‘un caffè ad Armungia’, e i due musei e non nascono bambini, negli anni Ottanta del Novecento fu fatta cominciano a ritrovare un ruolo, dei visitatori, uno scenario adeguato. una raccolta di oggetti del mondo contadino che, molti anni dopo, Intorno a casa Lussu viene a definirsi una comunità intesa secondo vide nascere un progetto di museo che durò lungo gli anni novanta la Convenzione di Faro (2005) come una «comunità di eredità che e fu realizzato con la consulenza dell’Università: Sa domu de is ainas valorizza l’importanza di aspetti specifici del patrimonio culturale e (il luogo degli attrezzi). Alla fine degli anni ’90 con un gruppo di intende, nel quadro dell’azione pubblica, sostenerle e trasmetterle alle studenti dell’Università di Roma facemmo ad Armungia tre stages generazioni future». Museo Sa domu de Museo Storico is ainas Emilio e Joyce Armungia Lussu sala panificazione

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Un caffè Un caffè ad Armungia ad Armungia

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Cocullo La proprietà è del Comune e la gestione è dell’Associazione Di Nola: Alfonso Di Nola è stato uno storico delle religioni e antropologo che negli anni ‘70 scrisse una monografia sul santo e il culto dei sepenti, 16 Cocullo è un comune di 246 (popolazione massima 1732 nel 1871, dandone una forte valorizzazione . Il museo ha un’impostazione un nel 1951 1187) abitanti nella Provincia de L’Aquila, Alta Valle del po’ tradizionale con i costumi, le piante, la storia di San Domenico Sagittario, tra Valle Peligna e Marsica. Dai primi del Novecento la e il culto dei serpenti, ma il processo di riconoscimento Unesco popolazione è in caduta libera, dal 1981 si è dimezzata. Dal 2010 lo ha riattivato ed esso è ora una sponda conoscitiva per chi va a in collaborazione con SIMBDEA (Società Italiana per la Museografia Cocullo per la grande festa del 1 maggio. Nel quadro del processo di e i Beni Demoetnoantropologici), il Comune di Cocullo è attivo in valorizzazione sono nate pagine Facebook che propongono la visita un progetto di riconoscimento Unesco, per la convenzione del 2003 dei boschi con il ‘serparo’, quindi valorizzazione e trasmissione di un 15 sul Patrimonio Culturale Immateriale (Unesco ICH) . L’oggetto di saper fare immateriale naturalistico. riconoscimento, nella forma della salvaguardia urgente, è una parte della sua cultura locale: la festa del primo maggio dedicata a San Domenico abate (X° secolo) e legata al rapporto con i serpenti dei boschi. La cultura immateriale da salvaguardare è una cultura di Anche qui una traccia di come nei piccoli paesi sono le attività della conoscenza e di esperienza del bosco, di gestione dei serpenti, come società civile che creano cultura e vitalità in contesti di desolazione. amici, e sotto la protezione del Santo. I ‘serpari’ sono i principali Anche la autonomia dei musei è messa alla prova. Essi non possono agenti della festa e del culto di San Domenico. L’economia del paese vivere aspettando il raro turista dei 364 giorni diversi dal primo è poverissima e la salvaguardia urgente Unesco avrebbe anche il maggio. Debbono diventare agenzia di animazione culturale del compito di frenare il crollo demografico e invertire il processo . Il territorio o esserlo in contatto e dialogo con altri soggetti locali e 17 museo di Cocullo nasce nel 2007, ma l’assetto attuale è del 2014. del territorio più ampio .

Il comune di Il rito dei Serpari a Cocullo Cocullo

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Manifesto del Monticchiello Rito dei Serpari che si tiene ogni anno a Cocullo il Monticchiello è l’unica frazione del comune di Pienza, in provincia di 1° maggio Siena. È un borgo medioevale della campagna senese a 500 metri sul livello del mare, e nel 2011 vi risiedevano 202 abitanti. L’intero comune di Pienza, nonostante sia stato coinvolto in processi di crescita successivi all’esodo dalle campagne a mezzadria (insediamento di pastori sardi, turismo internazionale, ‘gentrification’) segna una decrescita demografica rilevante, dal suo acme di 4770 abitanti del 1951 è sceso nel 2011 a 2141, con un certo rallentamento della decrescita a partire 18 dagli anni ’80.

A Monticchiello un processo di difesa del territorio dall’esodo è cominciato nel 1968 con il teatro in piazza. I temi sono quelli della vita locale e del suo futuro, gli attori sono la gente del luogo di tutte le generazioni. Il ‘Teatro Povero di Monticchiello’ è diventato una cooperativa che gestisce per la comunità le entrate del teatro che si svolge tra Luglio e Agosto in una area e in un periodo tra i più intensi a livello internazionale della Toscana turistica. In questo quadro nel 1999 fu messo in scena lo spettacolo Quota 300 dedicato ai temi dello spopolamento e alla critica delle scelte centraliste del potere politico ed economico. Lungo gli anni Novanta il Teatro Povero ha voluto costruire un Museo del Teatro Popolare Tradizionale Toscano (TEPOTRATOS) per arricchire l’offerta turistica, ha creato un ristorante aperto d’estate e Monticchiello, Monticchiello, Museo del interno del Teatro Popolare museo del Tradizionale Teatro Popolare Toscano Tradizionale Toscano

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in occasione degli eventi nelle altre stagioni, con i prodotti locali, da Musei e dintorni tempo il paese è legato alla presenza di seconde case di villeggiatura con il fenomeno della ‘gentrification’. E’ il caso più completo di turismo I tre casi che sono stati presentati sono piuttosto significativi sia della globale gestito dalla comunità, tra mura storiche, chiesa del 1400, ampia e informale presenza della museografia locale ‘non in rete’, solo paesaggio, cibo di qualità, teatro di autodramma. Ciononostante qua e là riconosciuta negli standard dalle Regioni, e forse in futuro i giovani vanno via e la lotta per non perdere abitanti continua, la anche dal sistema nazionale dei musei, che sembra avere una maggiore cooperativa è riuscita ad assumere tre persone per i servizi tra i quali apertura alla inclusione. Sono tre casi che qui rappresentano una vitalità il museo. Tra i servizi sociali che eroga c’è l’accoglienza organizzata e una promessa di sviluppo locale che non è un dato generalizzato ma e finalizzata all’integrazione di un gruppo di giovani del Gambia, una possibilità. Questa possibilità si apre se non si parla solo dei musei, e l’assistenza agli anziani in un centro in cui manca la farmacia e il ma li si connette al territorio e alle sue agenzie attive nella società medico. Il museo è stato allestito dal regista del Teatro Povero, con la civile. Una della modalità proposte ai musei per una nuova missione 19 partecipazione di esperti dell’Università di Siena . E’ un museo che cerca dalla Carta di Siena 2.0 messa a punto da ICOM-Italia e condivisa dalle di completare l’offerta teatrale, locale, e il senso del Teatro Povero, associazioni museali italiane. Se si va nel dettaglio è possibile osservare che è teatro moderno, con una rappresentazione del teatro popolare che nei tre musei citati non c’è una vera applicazione della carta proprio della tradizione toscana. Anche in questo caso il museo non è delle professioni museali, né di tutti i requisiti dell’accreditamento. centro e focus della proposta culturale, turistica, di sviluppo, semmai Nessuno dei tre musei ha un direttore, il museo di Armungia e quello si integra con esse e le completa. Ma i musei locali non possono avere di Monticchiello sono musei con allestimenti professionali e di nuova la pretesa di essere i protagonisti dei contesti difficili e complessi, la concezione, quello di Cocullo ha un allestimento elementare. I due critica fatta ai musei locali - cresciuti senza progetto unitario - tra anni musei di Armungia e Monticchiello sono gestiti da cooperative, quello ‘70 e ‘80 è fondata. Ma quei musei nascevano da domande locali che di Cocullo da una Associazione Culturale. non venivano interpretate e mediate dalla politica, e nel tempo sono rimasti legati alla generazione dei fondatori, hanno finito per restare La prospettiva dell’autonomia museale, e della professionalità della ai margini. Sono i processi locali di sviluppo centrati sulla cultura che gestione, giustamente perseguita da ICOM, appare lontana man - come nei nostri tre casi - possono rianimarli e farli diventare presidio mano che ci si avvicina alle realtà periferiche. Qui non ci saranno del territorio della sua memoria, della sua diversità, e dei suoi saperi. mai direttori, curatori, conservatori, catalogatori etc….se ci sarà

Ingresso e mura di qualcuno sarà un tuttofare, se no ci sarà o un volontario o un Monticchiello funzionario del comune che se ne occupa a tempo perso. Oggi le amministrazioni comunali ha perso il senso del museo come risorsa della differenza culturale e della memoria storica anche dell’uso dello spazio e del know how, vedono piuttosto i luoghi come occasione di ‘location’ temporanea, occasionale, valorizzatrice nei media. Ma nel momento in cui ci siano sul territorio soggetti attivi nel riabitare, nel ritornare, nel valorizzare differenze culturali o biologiche, immateriali o materiali, i musei tornano ad essere tesori, quasi scatole nere della efficienza del mondo passato e dei suoi saperi dello spazio e del lavoro ancora attivabili. Sono anche punti di attrazione per dei festival, occasioni di mostre, di trasformazioni, di reti e sinergie. E’ vero che fare oggi un museo in un piccolo paese è davvero un rischio: quello di nascere senza risorse e senza gestione possibile. Ma è anche vero che se le forze culturali di

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un territorio si attivano il museo dove c’è diventa un presidio, si Endnotes scongela dall’obsolescenza della comunicazione e si scuote davanti 1 Clemente P., Paese, in Bossi M., Maraschio N., Io parlo da cittadino. Viaggio allo sguardo dei sindaci che vedono solo ragnatele nel passato. Essi tra le parole della Costituzione Italiana, Regione Toscana, Consiglio Regionale, sono risorse particolarmente importanti per le comunità a rischio 2008, pp. 174 - 176, vedi anche Clemente P., Paese/paesi, in Isnenghi M. (a scomparsa, ma non hanno autonomia di iniziativa, anzi in questa cura di), I luoghi della memoria. Struttura ed eventi dell’Italia unita, Bari, Laterza, 1997, pp. 5-39 fase vengono traversati e quasi travolti se iniziative esterne li usano 2 Signorelli A., Tiriticco M.C., Rossi S., Scelte senza potere. Il ritorno degli per far rinascere la comunità. Da un lato questo significa che i musei emigranti nelle zone di esodo, Milano, Officina, 1977 sono effettivamente risorse sociali e culturali. Non patrimonio da 3 Paisà è uno dei film di Rossellini sull’Italia della seconda guerra mondiale custodire, in senso astratto. 1946, ed è la parola che connette i nativi siciliani nel film con i soldati americani originari dell’Italia o della Sicilia Ma è anche vero che perché i piccoli paesi e le zone interne trovino 4 Grimaldi P. e Porporato D., I musei etnografici locali. Una base di conoscenza la forza di una rinascita che occorrerà un processo poderoso di per la didattica, in Roselli T., Andronico A., Berni F., Di Bitonto P., Rossano V. (a cura di), Didamatica, Tecnologie informatiche per la didattica, Milano, AICA innovazione in cui, sostenuti dalle Regioni e dallo Stato, i piccoli 2012. musei e i piccoli paesi siano protagonisti di una nuova fase, che 5 Magnaghi A., Il progetto locale. Verso la coscienza di luogo, Torino, Bollati Boringhieri, affidi ai musei alla guida dei processi. Quella teorizzata da Daniele 2000. Jalla come quarta fase dei musei per cui «un indirizzo museografico 6 Legge 6 ottobre 2017 n. 158 innovativo consiste nel passare da un ordinamento fondato 7 https://www.istat.it/it/files//2016/12/Report-Musei.pdf. sull’esposizione di oggetti contestualizzati a modelli espositivi 8 Sotto la direzione di Valeria Cottini Petrucci, Il patrimonio museale antropologici. centrati sull’esposizione di contesti, ricorrendo agli oggetti come Itinerari nelle regioni italiane: riflessioni e prospettive, a cura di I. Cianfarani, Gangemi, 2008, pp.477 testimonianze materiali dei paesaggi culturali posti al centro 9 Mi riferisco qui ad un’altra indagine citata da Grimaldi e Porporato, della riflessione scientifica e della scena espositiva. A tutti i musei I musei etnografici locali, cit., 2012. tocca il compito di sviluppare un costante confronto con le visioni 10 Ancora in Grimaldi, Porporato, I musei etnografici locali cit. patrimoniali delle comunità di cui sono espressione, all’insegna di 11 Il tema antropologico del ‘dono’ a partire da Marcel Mauss, Saggio sul un diritto alla differenza e al pluralismo culturale che considera dono. Forma e motivo dello scambio nelle società arcaiche, Torino, Einaudi, patrimonio non solo quanto gli esperti, ma la società individua 2002 (ed.or.1925), ha una ampia eco sia in campo economico che in campo sociologico ancora oggi. E l’analisi di Mario Turci la recupera fortemente alle come tale, nei modi che ha a disposizione, non sempre i migliori, pratiche museali viste in una chiave di scambi non economici: Turci M., Museo. ma non per questo da non osservare, capire. Confrontarsi con le Valori di legame e dono partecipativo. Appunti per una discussione, in «AM» , n. 30, visioni patrimoniali della società e dei pubblici cui si rivolgono, 2013, pp. 51-53. per i musei significa esprimere la propria funzione educativa 12 Tiragallo F. Restare paese: antropologia dello spopolamento nella Sardegna in forme radicalmente diverse dal passato: non ponendosi più, sud-orientale, Cagliari, Cuec, 1999 nella posizione di chi, dall’alto delle sue competenze scientifiche, 13 Una ampia documentazione in «Lares rivista quadrimestrale di studi demoetnoantropologici», n.1, 2006 insegna, ma cercando anche di imparare, dai visitatori in primo 14 Clemente P., Casa Lussu. La casa della storia e delle storie, in Dialoghi luogo, ascoltando, confrontando la propria visione con quelle, Mediterranei, maggio, 2016, http://www.istitutoeuroarabo.it/DM. diverse, confuse, ma radicate di chi si reca al museo e quelle, assai 15 Zingari V., La festa di San Domenico Abate e il rito dei serpari di Cocullo. Per 20 ancora più difficili da cogliere, di chi nei musei non va» la candidatura Unesco, in Dialoghi Mediterranei, on line, n.27, 2017 16 Di Nola A. Gli aspetti magico-religiosi di una cultura subalterna italiana,

Torino, Boringhieri, 1976 17 Per il riconoscimento Unesco Cocullo si è messa in rete con altri paesi dell’area, in cui è attivo il culto di San Domenico 18 Scarpelli F., La memoria del territorio. Patrimonio culturale e nostalgia a Pienza, Pisa. Pacini, 2007

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19 http://www.icom-italia.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/ICOMItalia. CartadiSienasuMuseiePaesaggiCulturali.Documenti.Siena_.2014.pdf 20 Jalla D., Paesaggi culturali e musei. Il museo nella sua quarta età, in Sistema Museale Provincia di Ravenna; http://www.sistemamusei.ra.it/main/index. php?id_pag=99&op=lrs&id_riv_articolo=1032, 2017

NAZIONALE VS LOCALE E LOCALE VS GLOBALE Daniele Jalla

Musei di seconda generazione, civici e patriottici

I musei locali appartengono alla seconda generazione del museo moderno, quella immediatamente successiva alla nascita dei musei nazionali, di norma eredi delle collezioni dinastiche aperte al pubblico dalla metà del Settecento in poi. Nascono più o meno negli stessi tempi e crescono di numero e importanza nel corso di tutto l’Ottocento, in particolare nel suo ultimo quarto. Sono diversi dai musei nazionali perché, anziché nelle capitali di Stato, sorgono negli altri centri urbani come rappresentazione delle identità locali o regionali e non di quelle nazionali e come espressione delle amministrazioni municipali e delle élite – borghesi, ma anche aristocratiche – che ne costituiscono il notabilato, sociale, economico e politico. Sono musei di provincia che competono, ma non confliggono con i musei nazionali. Condividono con essi la stessa missione patriottica che articolano però su scala cittadina o territoriale, fondamentalmente in due direzioni, a volte distinte, in altri casi complementari.

Locale - Nazionale Molti di questi musei, nel raccogliere e custodire le memorie locali, dalla preistoria se non dalla geologia del proprio territorio sino ai tempi moderni, si propongono di valorizzare l’apporto, civico o regionale, alla costruzione della Nazione. Rappresentano i caratteri originali dei territori per evidenziarne la singolarità, ma anche per porre in evidenza il contributo attivo che essi hanno dato e danno alla costruzione della Nazione. Lo fanno certamente in modo diverso da Paese a Paese, le cui storie

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nazionali sono molto diverse tra loro, con accenti che mutano se, Musei, nazione e nazionalismi nel presentare le specificità delle “piccole patrie”, le pongono a È un processo da studiare, nei suoi aspetti negativi – l’omologazione base di rivendicazioni autonomistiche, politiche o quanto meno di regime – quanto in quelli positivi: la standardizzazione dei linguistiche e culturali. modelli espositivi esporta in periferia i modelli alti della museografia Mentre i musei nazionali vanno differenziandosi e specializzandosi nazionale. E il taglio idealistico e ideologico dei dispositivi espositivi sul piano disciplinare e ai grandi musei d’arte si affiancano quelli si traduce in una museografia di grande impatto comunicativo e di scienze naturali, di archeologia e storia e della tecnica, sul in un rinnovamento dei musei da riconsiderare nella sua qualità, piano locale i musei sono tendenzialmente più “enciclopedici” o senza per questo non considerare che i valori e i messaggi veicolati multidisciplinari per scelta o per necessità, considerata l’eterogeneità imporranno, a guerra mondiale finita, una netta presa di distanza. delle loro collezioni, composte da reperti archeologici generati Da un rapporto inizialmente non regolato fra nazionale e locale, in dalla crescita urbana, da raccolte di opere d’arte, da cimeli storici cui l’articolazione del sistema museale non è frutto di un disegno, di epoche diverse, da oggetti d’interesse etnografico, da specimen ma della propagazione e dell’adattamento dei modelli delle capitali naturalistici, pervenuti per lo più per donazione di raccolte personali alle altre città, con l’avvento dei regimi totalitari, alla diversità si o di istituzionali locali. sostituisce l’omologazione, l’emarginazione di chi non la subisce e, Mantengono più o meno la stessa identità, lo stesso posizionamento, in casi più rari, cerca di farne un utilizzo rovesciato rispetto ai modelli la stessa missione fino alla metà del Novecento, evolvendo da un di regime. Queste considerazioni sono un’estrapolazione dal caso punto di vista museografico più lentamente dei musei nazionali. italiano tra le due guerre, un caso molto diverso da quello tedesco o sovietico, sollecitando una comparazione su scala europea.

Dalla Seconda guerra mondiale agli anni della ricostruzione Nazionale - Locale La Seconda guerra mondiale investe, assai più della Prima, i musei, Molti di essi si propongono un fine altrettanto ‘patriottico’ dei in un conflitto che coinvolge l’intera Europa con i suoi molteplici musei nazionali, ma in senso inverso, dal locale va al nazionale: si fronti, l’occupazione tedesca di molti Paesi, i bombardamenti aerei e pongono il compito di ridurre le differenze tra la capitale e le città i loro tragici effetti sulle popolazioni e sui territori. Agli ingentissimi – grandi, medie, in alcuni casi piccole – di provincia. Svolgono cioè danni che questi producono sul patrimonio storico e artistico, dalla una missione educativa a fianco della scuola per elevare la cultura Guerra di Spagna sino alla fine della guerra, nel 1945, si sommano le della popolazione locale – dall’arte alle scienze naturali – quando razzie dei beni delle famiglie ebraiche e le depredazioni che i nazisti non sono veri e propri musei ‘didattici’, destinati alla formazione di operano in tutti i paesi occupati. artisti, tecnici, quadri su scala locale. La ricostruzione sarà lenta, sovente posta in seconda linea rispetto ad Se le memorie del passato sono raccolte ed esposte per mostrare altre urgenze. Anche in questo caso sarebbe opportuno un confronto che le radici della Nazione sono estese a tutto il suolo patrio, le europeo. Esaurito lo slancio della ricostruzione e il rinnovamento che loro collezioni si pongono al servizio del suo progresso, educando, ne consegue, quelli che vengono dopo sono anni relativamente bui formando, istruendo su scala locale. per i musei. Per tutti i musei alla ricerca di un ruolo in una società È così nell’Ottocento e almeno sino alla prima Guerra mondiale, cambiata e prossima a cambiamenti ancor più rilevanti, come tutto quando lo slancio nazionale – in Italia e Germania certamente, ma il mondo di cui fanno parte. Sono anni in cui il loro anacronismo forse anche in Francia e Spagna – non inizia ad assumere caratteri diventa più evidente a fronte dei nuovi mezzi di comunicazione – nazionalistici e piega l’intero sistema culturale a fini di stato o, anche del patrimonio culturale – che mettono in crisi tutti gli istituti peggio, di regime, omologando a modelli comuni – nazionali – della cultura e soprattutto a una domanda culturale che resta di élite, anche i musei locali. ma che coinvolge nuovi strati di popolazione.

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La crisi energetica del 1973 ben più ampia dell’orizzonte regionale o nazionale. È una nuova generazione di musei locali, completamente diversa Nel 1973 la crisi energetica innescata dalla Guerra del Kippur, dalla precedente, cui pure si ispira, non solo perché si diffonde oltre l’impennata dei prezzi e la repentina interruzione del flusso il limite delle città per investire i paesi, a volte le borgate, perché dell’approvvigionamento di petrolio verso le nazioni importatrici, porta alla luce un patrimonio – quello contadino e artigianale – non pone fine al ciclo di sviluppo economico dell‘Occidente degli anni nuovo in sé, ma rinnovato da un investimento identitario che prima cinquanta e sessanta. Le conseguenze sull‘industria sono pesanti, non aveva. e per la prima volta il mondo si vede costretto ad affrontare il Sono musei di memoria e di nostalgia, chiusi in una dimensione problema del risparmio energetico. locale ristretta che non a caso si moltiplicano in modo spontaneo Per alcune domeniche in tutt’Europa si va solo a piedi. E, anche se e incontrollato diffondendo una tendenza al fare musei che si è molti dei fenomeni che esplodono a partire dalla metà degli anni prolungata e si prolunga oltre il tempo dell’elaborazione del lutto Settanta affondano le loro radice nel decennio precedente, quelle che era alle sue origini. domeniche del 1973 costituiscono uno spartiacque perché è la Sono entrati infatti in campo nuovi attori – gli eletti, gli organizzatori prima volta nella modernità in cui il progresso cessa di essere una turistici – che assegnano ai musei non solo una funzione identitaria, prospettiva certa. E con la perdita di fiducia nel progresso, cadono essenzialmente rivolta alla comunità locale, ma di promozione del molte altre speranze e prospettive: dal guardare al futuro si passa a territorio al suo esterno, rimodellando quelli esistenti e creandone volgersi indietro e ci si ritira dal mondo per rinchiudersi nel locale… di nuovi. ‘Radici’: un fenomeno europeo Da risorsa a zavorra Nelle radici si cercano le certezze che il presente non sembra poter Questa moltiplicazione senza fine non è necessariamente positiva: più assicurare, la nostalgia soppianta l’utopia. È il tempo della lo stesso patrimonio è ripetitivamente riproposto in musei che memoria e del recupero delle tradizioni, dell’ecologismo e del neo finiscono per essere simili l’uno all’altro e si pone anche il problema ruralismo, del «piccolo è bello» e del relativismo, del ‘locale’ in della sostenibilità di un modello di conservazione e comunicazione tutte le sue dimensioni e di un ‘locale’ svincolato dal globale e dal del patrimonio locale così disperso e dispersivo. In altri termini si nazionale. profila sempre più il rischio che da risorsa questi musei si trasformino È anche il tempo della fioritura spontanea, vertiginosa dei musei in una zavorra, minacciando a lungo termine lo stesso patrimonio locali, in cui nasce un’altra generazione di musei che, pur assumendo che custodiscono. i tratti dei musei del passato, si stacca da essi, perché altri sono i suoi Come fare affinché, nel valorizzare le specificità di ogni luogo, attori, altri gli oggetti raccolti ed esposti, altri gli orizzonti. questi musei assumano una logica non più chiusa nel localismo e In questi musei, come nei libri, nelle feste, nelle attività culturali passatismo che, nella maggior parte dei casi, ha caratterizzato la di quegli anni si celebra un’elaborazione del lutto per una perdita loro nascita? che va al di là della civiltà contadina a cui la maggior parte di In che modo stimolarli a porsi in una relazione cooperativa con essi si dedicano. Una perdita resa ancor più drammatica dalla altri istituti e luoghi della cultura del territorio su una scala più contemporanea dissoluzione del futuro. ampia collocandosi all’interno di sistemi multi-dimensionali di valorizzazione patrimoniali? Locale vs globale Ma soprattutto come far sì che oltre ad acquisire beni, contribuiscano In questi musei il locale cessa di essere in relazione al nazionale: piuttosto a produrre e diffondere conoscenza del patrimonio si pone piuttosto in opposizione a cambiamenti di carattere attraverso strumenti differenziati, on site e online, guardando più globale – l’industrializzazione, l’urbanizzazione, lo sviluppo meno al passato e più al presente, al paesaggio culturale attuale, tecnologico – che portano ad annullare le differenze su una scala facendone una risorsa per il futuro?

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E infine come contribuire farne dei mediatori fra diverse visioni del patrimonio culturale, da quella delle comunità locali a quelle che rappresentano saperi e strumenti di conoscenza ‘scientifici’ non necessariamente locali?

Centri di responsabilità patrimoniale LOCAL AND NATIONAL MUSEUMS IN FRANCE Nel 2016 abbiamo cercato di dare una risposta a queste domande A TALE OF COLLABORATION AND COMPETITION nella Carta di Siena 2.0 proponendo la creazione di “centri di responsabilità Dominique Poulot patrimoniale”. Non si tratta di una formula astratta, ma della proposta concreta di organizzare i musei locali e non solo i musei in sistemi In the French case to define “local” museums versus “national” sovralocali, di autogoverno cooperativo di istituti e luoghi della ones refers to the divide between Paris and the “province” and to a cultura anche eterogenei dal punto di vista formale e istituzionale. history of development of local museums by the nation-State from Di adottare cioè una logica che, nel cercare di affrontare e se the centre to the periphery. The history and the geography of French possibile risolvere, la questione della sostenibilità dei musei locali, local museums have been largely framed by national politics from ne organizzi le attività su una scala territoriale più ampia, sviluppi la the Revolution of 1789 and the birth of the modern Nation-State creazione di servizi comuni, differenzi i dispositivi di valorizzazione onwards. Each of the new eighty three départements was supposed e comunicazione del patrimonio e del paesaggio cultura. to receive a museum, with an encyclopaedic collection partly of their In Italia, la formazione di un Sistema Museale Nazionale può offrire own, partly sent by the central administration at Louvre - to satisfy l’occasione di sperimentare nuove forme di cooperazione partendo the ideals of spatial equity and of cultural utility. These first local dalla disseminata presenza dei musei locali per creare sistemi museums would display some masterpieces (of course of second rate territoriali corrispondenti non più a singoli luoghi, ma ambiti compared to those of the Museums in Paris) and a lot of models of storicamente e culturalmente omogenei, ma più vasti. every sort, for the local school of art, according to the traditions and activities of each provincial city. But their true development occurred during the second part of nineteenth-century because a lot of them In questo intervento mi sono liberamente ispirato a molti autori che hanno disappeared after some years during the Napoleonic period and the studiato i musei locali, in molti casi dal loro interno, riprendendone e Restoration - without any money given by cities or departements. rielaborandone le analisi, le idee, le opinioni. Un debito particolare va a (in Everywhere the local museums had to rely on philanthropists to make ordine alfabetico): a collection and to enlarge it. The biggest provincial towns had some Marc Abelès, Gian Ansaldo, Marc Augé, Alberto Mario Cirese, Pietro “societies”, for example “societies of beaux-arts”, that tried to build Clemente, Mario Cordero, André Desvallées, Fredi Drugman, Jean- a collection of their own, or at least to embellish the local museum Claude Duclos, Andrea Emiliani, Jean Guibal, Roland May, Vincenzo according to a specific agenda. In some cases, as in Amiens, the local Padiglione, Krzysztof Pomian, Edouard Pommier, Dominique Poulot, museum was directly paid by the Emperor Napoleon the Third and Gianni Romano, Roberto Togni, Hugues de Varine. built as a little Louvre.

Under the Third Republic, the Beaux-Arts administration was sending works of art bought at the Salons to local museums – without any real consideration of the characteristics of these works according to their future location. The collections of the local museums were largely the result of a lobbying, more or less successful, of the local elites and of the member of the Parliament (député) in the Parisian

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bureaux. The ideal of a local museum in the French “province” remained The new law about museums in 2002 tried to put an end to the “provisory” more or less linked to a representation of the petite patrie inside the situation of museums linked to the 1945 status. It created a new label bigger fatherland, according to the political and cultural model of «museum of France», according to the ethical and practical definition of the Republic, and to its way to define the ‘nation’ and its pedagogy museum from ICOM, especially, but it maintained the hierarchy between of the «imaginary community» (as Benedict Anderson has coined it). national and local museums, notably in the recruitment of curators, It is only after WWII that the situation changed. In September 1945, even if the divide is less obvious now than before. It made also new rules the Direction of National Museums became the Direction of French about the property of invoices or “dépôts” sent from the Louvre to local Museums with George Salles, a former curator of the Louvre Museum, museums to be displayed: the State can now give the entire property of and a close friend of Picasso, at its head. He has written before the war a the works sent to local museums before 1910, in a decentralized move, fascinating book about collections and museums that Walter Benjamin and many transfers occurred regularly throughout the country to the liked very much. Salles wanted to dedicate the local collections to the «benefit» of local museums. luminaries of the province, department or city. A typical French way to deal with the question of the national museums and local cultural development was to create local During the 1960’s and 1970’s the provincial and local museums branchs of national museums, such as Pompidou-Metz, Louvre Lens, were developed and modernized under the supervision of the new or Marseille national museum of European and Mediterranean Inspection of Museums. Local museums tried to produce inventories civilizations. The idea was decentralizing culture by putting a and catalogues, and to reorganize their displays according to the national museum in another location than Paris. We see today national rules and patterns that were issued by the Parisian experts; the limits of this process that is a top-down government driven they put part of their collections in reserves, often built anew, and reform. An alternative to Louvre Lens or Pompidou Metz would organized temporary exhibitions. The ecomuseums and the so- have been, according to some comments, a policy more favourable called ‘museums of society’ were an exemplary illustration of the to existent local museums, which could have enlarged their invention of new forms of local museums from Paris, as they have previous collections, extend their scientific collaborations, build been invented by Georges-Henri Rivière at the National Museum new networks, for example to cut some costs, and make a better of Arts et traditions populaires. They were devoted to the identity circulating of temporary exhibitions in a larger world. of their territories and seemed to incarnate a kind of «utopia of proximity», as the French historian Jean-Pierre Rioux coined it. The Since the 2000’s the departemental level of museums has known next decades, 1980’s and 1990’s, were an era of decentralization a true move, even if departemental offices for museums were initiated by the socialist governments, and coincided with a general existing since the 1950’s. In the 2000’s the imperative of the so-called boom of local museums in all parts of France. The new regional « creative cities » requires new investments in museums, which powers, and some provincial capitals on the way of a metropolization must be renovated after the boom of 1980-1990, for the tourists process, wanted to build or to renovate their museums to attract but above all for the most affluent population - for the workers of tourists and to elaborate or fortify their images. The refurbishment the new intellectual sectors, in need of fashionable and of cultural of many regional or civic museums put the French museums in the leisure. The case of Lyon and of its department illustrates this kind modern international landscape of museums. But the tradition of of investment, but also the necessity to choose among different the departemental museum of identity is always present today, collections what are the more important for the urban life or for as we can see with the case of the Niort museum, situated since its national and international branding. But people are ready to its renewal some decades ago in a former elementary school, and demonstrate against the lock-down of their museums, as in Lyon for the which reunites a museum of fine arts, a collection of natural history, museum of textile. Besides, some attempts of crowdfunding were very another of science, of instruments of music, and finally of the history successful in big provincial towns to restore parts of the collection or to of schooling, precisely, because of its building. buy complements for the museum, as in Lille Natural History Museum.

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In the territories of urban decline, on the other hand, in the so-called “France périphérique”, some museums suffer a touristic disaffection and more generally a loss of interest for their objects. The crisis of their regular attendance leads to budgets cuts. In the last decades, the national association of the curators of public museums mostly composed of directors and employees of local museums, very small IL SISTEMA MUSEALE NAZIONALE1 for the most part of them, devoted on a regular basis its annual conference to the question of budget issues, networking facilities, Antonio Lampis convenient conservation-restoration, and community’s stakes. Its journal (Musées et collections publiques) lists regularly all the difficulties and challenges of these establishments, and the attempts of the Previsto dalle prime norme di riforma del Ministero dei Beni e delle Ministry of Culture, and of the different communities, Regions, Attività culturali e del Turismo, il Sistema Museale Nazionale ne départements and cities, to find new governance of the local museums costituisce una delle intuizioni più avanzate e oggetto di attenzione in a core–periphery process. in molta parte del mondo. A report about the museums of the XXIth century, carried out by the Ministry of Culture and written after an extensive survey of Credo che la messa a sistema degli oltre 5.000 musei italiani provincial museums in 2016-2017, documented the diversity and costituisca un forte consolidamento del Patrimonio culturale, anche originality of initiatives all over the country, trying to illustrate dal punto di vista di un migliore posizionamento turistico che l’Italia the best practices in the mediation of heritage, according to the può raggiungere nella competizione internazionale. L’Italia non ha ideal of a museum imagined as a public forum. Its introduction mai fatto la scelta del grande museo nazionale, non abbiamo né il lays stress on “the national vocation” of the French museums, and Louvre, né il Prado, ma sul piano della competizione internazionale on the “continuum between local, national and global” – without e per la suggestione delle persone (turisti e non), abbiamo da offrire mentioning Europe. This report is highly significant of the invisibility la prospettiva di migliaia di musei messi a sistema. Questo porterà of Europe in the official discourse of the Ministry of Culture about l’Italia non solo ad avere un ruolo molto più interessante nella museums and their future. competitività turistica internazionale, ma anche in quel processo verso la non sottovalutazione del Patrimonio tra la cittadinanza In fact, a big part of the last generation of museums, from 1990, voluto dalla UE. testify a global turn of the local museum. Local museums are trying hard to demonstrate their universalistic ambitions but without a not Il sistema museale nazionale è un modello ideale di gestione so clear view of the communities that are supposed to participate, sostenibile, per usare le parole della decisione europea riprese in and of their goals. The case of museums of history is very clear, as miei recenti scritti, ma solo se potrà collocarsi rapidamente sotto well as the one of contemporary art museums. In fact, the local un comune cielo digitale, sopra un comune fiume digitale, poiché museum is not really a subject of public debate in the public sphere, il fluire dei dati oggiè acqua e aria di qualunque sistema. L’idea di except for the heated discussions about the creation of Louvre Lens mettere in rete migliaia e migliaia di musei è sicuramente vincente and Pompidou Metz, and about the property of the depots of Louvre e, come ho già avuto occasione di scrivere, perfettamente in linea in the provincial museums, after the Law of 2002. In other words, con la decisione UE 2017/864 del 17 maggio 2017 che ha indicato France has not really change in the last decades the thinking about i motivi per indire l’Anno Europeo del Patrimonio nel 2018. La national and local museums, and the understanding of hierarchies decisione prevede espressamente che la ‘gestione sostenibile’ and functions. Besides, it remains difficult to imagine the future of del museo rappresenti una scelta strategica per il XXI secolo, che local museums in a European perspective. il contributo del patrimonio culturale in termini di creazione di

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valore, di competenze, di occupazione e di qualità della vita sia oggi Per la realizzazione del Sistema museale nazionale la Direzione sottovalutato e che il rafforzamento e la gestione del patrimonio generale Musei collabora con l’Agenzia per l’Italia Digitale (AgID) culturale richiedono un’efficacegovernance partecipativa (vale a dire con cui è stato firmato un accordo ad agosto 2018. La cooperazione multilivello e fra diversi portatori di interessi) e una cooperazione è un passo naturale e di rilevanza per l’AgID che nell’ambito della intersettoriale rafforzata. È evidente la stretta coincidenza con le “Strategia per la Crescita Digitale 2014-2020” e del progetto finalità del Sistema nazionale dei Musei indicate già nella riforma appartenente “Italia Login – la casa del cittadino” ha il compito del Mibac con il Dpcm 29 agosto 2014, n. 171 e poi nel decreto di contribuire allo sviluppo di ecosistemi digitali che garantiscono ministeriale 113/20182: un sistema da realizzarsi lontano da l’interoperabilità tra enti pubblici e tra gli enti pubblici stessi e i impostazioni gerarchiche, fondato molto più sul collegamento che cittadini. In questa collaborazione è compito di AgID progettare sull’appartenenza, per far finalmente lavorare insieme e meglio lo e realizzare il sistema di accreditamento nonché la piattaforma Stato centrale, le Regioni, i Comuni e gli altri Enti Locali, le Università informatica a supporto del Sistema museale nazionale, che e tutto il sistema della formazione. consentirà di mettere in rete il Sistema ad ogni livello (Direzione generale musei, musei statali, regionali, privati ed ecclesiastici), Affinchè lagovernance sia partecipativa è necessaria una diffusa rendendo i sistemi interoperabili. formazione degli operatori e saranno altresì necessari, fin dalla I musei in rete offriranno anche forti occasioni sul versante sua prima impostazione, indicazioni di branding immediatamente dell’occupazione delle generazioni più giovani, quelle più colpite leggibili in senso positivo dall’opinione pubblica, dai possibili dall’economia iperliberista e che, comunque, ostinatamente partner e dagli altri stakeholders. Sarà inoltre necessario un luogo (guardando i dati di iscrizione ad alcune facoltà di storia dell’arte, di fisico in cui potersi rappresentare (aula ottagona delle terme di archeologia) hanno scelto di studiare il patrimonio artistico. Saranno Diocleziano, nota come Planetario) e favorire nella capitale incontri inoltre evidenti i vantaggi delle tante fasce sociali tradizionalmente reali, bilanci sociali, scambi di esperienze. escluse dai consumi culturali, sul versante della partecipazione alla conoscenza del patrimonio. Nel cambio di prospettiva determinato dall’epoca post-internet La Direzione generale Musei ha previsto un sistema di collegamento andrà governato e agevolato il collegamento o il dialogo tra i siti dei musei e di accreditamento di coloro che raggiungeranno i livelli web, i contesti social dei musei aderenti, le altre piattaforme sociali minimi di qualità, funzionante senza scambi cartacei, fondato sui di sharing esperienziale e la sperimentazione comune delle nuove modelli di autovalutazione in piattaforma informatica, utilizzabile tecnologie di cura del pubblico e di sorveglianza. Queste ultime anche per la valutazione e la verifica successiva, secondo modelli potranno finalmente favorire anche la riqualificazione di parte sperimentati con successo da grandi operatori economici, come del personale di guardiania verso il sistema della vigilanza attiva, ad esempio Tripadvisor. Il decreto che definisce le prime linee di catalogo parlante o come meglio dir si voglia, per una conseguente organizzazione e funzionamento del sistema stabilisce che la maggiore valorizzazione della storia dell’arte e delle recenti sue commissione prevista nel DM 113/2018, sia organizzata e funzioni declinazioni rivolte ad una maggiore cura ed un maggior dialogo a ‘burocrazia zero’. Il suo funzionamento è fondato sulla costante delle varie tipologie di visitatori dentro e fuori il museo. comunicazione digitale tra i componenti, con uso sempre ammesso e favorito della videoconferenza e dell’assenso esprimibile di norma I musei messi in rete tra loro troveranno più facilmente le strade più attraverso la piattaforma informatica. Il processo di accreditamento efficaci per avvicinare realmente le persone ai musei e garantire, per produce un voto, leggibile da chiunque, da 0 a 10. citare la norma di riforma del Mibac, effettive esperienze di conoscenza3. Ai fini dell’attribuzione del punteggio per i livelli di qualità dei Tale garanzia è una indicazione precisa e fondamentale, forse la più musei, il saper effettuare una efficace rendicontazione sociale avrà importante da tenere presente quando si lavora in o per un museo. un valore molto alto. A questo fine alcuni musei in Italia hanno

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cominciato ad utilizzare analisi qualitative avanzate: ad esempio a grande sfida di lunga prospettiva, quella di perfezionare il racconto Firenze, tecniche cosiddette di rilevamento del S-ROI (ritorno sociale museale. A tale scopo, e anche per gli obblighi di accessibilità, sarà, sugli investimenti) un sistema ancora pionieristico di valutazione lo ripeto, indispensabile un radicale ripensamento degli allestimenti. degli impatti, con la capacità di dare una evidenza quantitativa a La nostra grande scuola di storia dell’arte, gli studi più avanzati di fattori intangibili come gli impatti sociali e culturali4. archeologia, architettura e design hanno tutte le risorse scientifiche Nuove direttive sulla governance interna consentiranno ai Poli per riuscire anche in questa sfida. Il futuro dei musei poggia su un museali, perno del sistema museale nazionale, di concentrarsi sul momento di straordinario favore: sarà importante investire energie ruolo territoriale, sulla governance generale e sugli altri compiti e risorse per saperne approfittare7. di alta valenza attribuiti dalla riforma anche con riferimento alla relazione con gli Enti territoriali, le Università, i Musei autonomi e con le Soprintendenze. Per migliorare l’efficacia dell’azione dei Poli servirà, appena possibile, una decisa azione di comunicazione sociale integrata, necessaria per valorizzare i musei più piccoli e fuori dei circuiti del turismo di massa. Oggi gli studi economici più avanzati e le evidenti mutazioni dell’elettorato rendono evidente quanto sia ormai profonda la frattura tra le città e i distretti ad alto sviluppo culturale ed economico e la popolazione rurale o dei piccoli paesi periferici5. Un nuovo vigore dei musei che fanno capo ai Poli museali e ai piccoli comuni potrebbe essere di grande aiuto per i necessariamente lunghi, ma indispensabili, processi di ricomposizione di questa frattura.

Con i musei passati rapidamente da uno stato di indifferenza di gran parte della popolazione (gli studiosi parlavano nel 2004 di musei invisibili) ad essere presi d’assalto da turisti e nuovi pubblici6, da moltissimi concittadini come mai è avvenuto nella storia italiana, restava ancora forte il freno delle dotazioni organiche gravemente carenti ora attenuato dalle nuove assunzioni effettuate nel 2018 e previste per il 2019. La strategia per il futuro dei musei in rete parte dai progressi nella sicurezza, nell’aggiornamento delle gare per biglietterie e servizi accessori, nelle iniziative per ampliare l’accessibilità e nel ripensamento degli allestimenti, che così come sono ora rischiano di lasciare indifferenti intere generazioni. Fondamentali saranno le linee guida da emanare sulla innovazione, soprattutto in rapporto al grande ruolo che può avere un buon utilizzo degli ambienti digitali, linee guida che con il supporto degli istituti di ricerca e delle università riescano a selezionale le pratiche realmente efficaci e isolare le sperimentazioni che sono dimostrate prive di prospettive. Il sistema museale nazionale, il suo branding, gli incentivi che saprà far scaturire sosterranno quindi l’importantissima

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Endnotes

1 Il presente testo riprende, aggiornandolo quanto relazionato all’incontro ICOM di Bologna

2 Lo si legge in GU Serie Generale n.78 del 04-04-2018 e qui http://www. beniculturali.it/mibac/multimedia/MiBAC/documents/feed/pdf/D.M.%20 SEZIONE II 21%20FEBBRAIO%202018%20REP.%20113-imported-76350.pdf ) I MUSEI LOCALI 3 La si ritrova tra i compiti della Direzione generale Musei, all’articolo 20, comma secondo, lettera u) che dovrà consolidare specifiche linee IN ITALIA E IN EUROPA guida al riguardo e la si ritrova inoltre tra i compiti del direttore di museo statale l’articolo 35, comma quarto, lettera e) del decreto del Presidente del Consiglio dei ministri 29 agosto 2014, n. 171, il regolamento di organizzazione del ministero dei beni e delle attività culturali. Il testo della norma impone al direttore di museo di assicurare elevati standard qualitativi (…) nell’innovazione didattica e tecnologica, favorendo la partecipazione attiva degli utenti e garantendo effettive esperienze di conoscenza.

4 Sul tema si veda lo studio di Viganò F. e Lombardo G., L’impatto sociale generato dai musei. L’applicazione della metodologia SROI in Luigini A. e Panciroli C. (a cura di), Ambienti digitali per l’educazione all’arte e al patrimonio, Milano, Franco Angeli Editore, 2018, p. 332 ss..

5 Cfr. le ricerche inglesi citate recentemente anche in: http://espresso. repubblica.it/inchieste/2018/05/15/news/l-economia-della-conoscenza-sta- uccidendo-la-nostra-provincia-1.321535

6 Nei tre anni 2015-2018 l’incremento dei visitatori è stato di quali il 24 % (il doppio dell’incremento del turismo) e l’incremento di incassi di oltre il 40%

7 Altre riflessioni sulla tematica in: http://www.ilgiornaledellefondazioni.com/content/anno-europeo-del- patrimonio-culturale-e-musei http://www.ilgiornaledellefondazioni.com/content/il-nuovo-ruolo-sociale- dei-musei-il-sistema-nazionale-dei-musei http://www.ilgiornaledellefondazioni.com/content/mibac-direzione- lampis-un-anno-vissuto-intensamente http://musei.beniculturali.it/notizie/contributi-e-riflessioni/discorso-del- direttore-generale-musei-al-convegno-museology-and-values

90 91 ITALIAN CIVIC MUSEUMS QUANTITATIVE TRENDS AND EVOLUTION OF MISSION AND ROLES Fabrizio Maria Arosio, Giuliana Ericani

How many museums are there in Italy? What heritage do they keep and protect? What functions and activities do they perform, what do they represent, what roles do they serve in the community, what resources do they have for their running costs, how attractive are they and what are their needs and priorities? In order to answer these questions, the Italian National Statistical Institute (ISTAT) has carried out several editions of a census statistical survey throughout the country. To carry out this activity, ISTAT promoted a close inter-institutional collaboration with the Central and Local administrations with direct responsibility in the protection and valorisation of the artistic and cultural heritage in Italy: the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism (MiBACT), the Regions, and the autonomous Provinces. On the basis of the data collected, it was possible to trace a detailed mapping of all the museums and similar institutes in Italy, namely, the set of permanent exhibiting structures that acquire, preserve, order and display to the public assets and/or collections of cultural interest, such as areas and archaeological parks, monuments and monumental complexes. The traced illustration highlights a particularly interesting and little known organizational situation.

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History of statistical surveys on museums in Italy No, we are not the Louvre! 2016 2011 2006 Same 4,976 museums and similar institutions open the public during 2015 1992 First ove- 1979 Non state overall 1929 State and non rall survey Mu- museums survey 1927 Museums, state museums of seums and simi- updating censused Museums, picture in Italy italian state lar institu- quantita- 84% mueums, galerys or collections museums picture gallerys, Also surveyed: museums and librarys, archi- tions. tive data and similar gallerys, collections and also art gal- non ves, schools, Survey about institutions of academies and following of similar 10% monuments and monumental complexes lerys and state museums antiquities other scientific european institu- in Italy institutions, and collections standards tions and art institutions with similar 6% archaeological area and parks reliant belonging living collections issued by public, EGMUS and institu- from the to the (zoo, bothanical private, competent gardens, acqua- ICOM.archae- tions State riums,…) nature ological areas, state and ministry and other preservation archaeological non state and the public areas, planeta- parks, mo- Superin- riums numents and Institutions No monuments monumental tendence and archaeolo- gical or historical complexes sites Based on Istat surveys Source: Istat, “survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016

In addition to the already known 400 state institutions, which depend The Italian pattern therefore appears to be peculiar and differs from directly on the Ministry and garner almost exclusive attention from that of other major countries, which have “centralized” museum and the news and political debates, the ISTAT survey has expanded the concentrate their main cultural and artistic resources in mega-structures, data regarding other museums. Thanks to this data, we can count in often of historical tradition and ‘imperial’ evocation, which aim to Italy almost 5 thousand museums and similar institutions, including represent the privileged and certified containers of the national heritage. galleries, archaeological sites and parks, monuments and other On the contrary, perhaps as a consequence of the historical origin that permanent exhibition facilities open to the public in 2015. determined the birth of museums in Italy,3 the cultural heritage of Information collected through the statistical survey indicates museums is strongly polycentric and connected to local communities. the presence of 4,976 museums, with permanent exhibitions and To get an idea of the quantitative dimension of the presence of organized services for the public, of which 84% are museums, museums, it is important to note that there are twice as many museums galleries and collections. as there are hospitals, more than cinemas (1,234) and slightly less than The density of cultural heritage is a first peculiar characteristic, the number of the rail stations in the entire railway network (2,286). which places Italy among the first countries in Europe and in the In this regard, the collected data shows that more than one Italian world by number of museums.1 municipality out of three (more than 2,700 in total) has at least one 2 Despite the fact that there is not a leading institution or star museum and, on average, there are almost 2 institutions per 100 km. attraction, such as notable metropolitan museums like the British In relation to the population, there exists 1 exhibition structure for Museum in London, the Louvre in Paris, the Metropolitan Museum every 13 thousand inhabitants. It is a ‘galaxy’ spread from north to in New York, the Hermitage in St Petersburg or El Prado of Madrid south throughout the national territory. - and excluding Vatican Museums that could boast similar qualities Only a third of the institutes surveyed by the census are located in a but technically belong to a foreign state2 - it is true that Italy has “city of historical and artistic interest” or in a big city; most are located such a dense and widespread endowment of museums and similar in small cities and sometimes even little towns, more than one third institutions that no one can compare at international level. are located in urban centers with less than 5 thousand inhabitants.

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A widespread heritage The development and diffusion of Civic museums has proliferated, largely founded after the unification of Italy with mainly didactic Museums and similar institutions by demographic and pedagogic inspiration, to preserve the artistic resources of • In Italy, almost 1 dimension of the municipality the Kingdom and the local artistic and historical testimonies, municipality on 3 has at prioritizing the purpose of forming a civil conscience and a cultural least one museum type More than 4 exhibition site; 250,000 Up to 2.000 identity in the new citizens. 10% in habitants • Related to the population, 18% offer is about 1 over 13k The statistical figures that document their evolution in recent From 50.000 inhabitants; to 25,000 decades show that their number has grown continuously, • Almost 2 every 100 km2. 16% quadrupling in just thirty-six years, in which it has gone from 532 • 2 times the municipalitys units in 1979 to 1,900 in 2015 (in percentage terms, from 38% to with an hospital From 2,001 46% of total museums). • More than the municipalitys to 10,000 with cinemas (1.234) From10,001 inhabitants • Little less than to 50,000 30% municipaliys with 26% railway stations (2.286) Source: Istat, “Survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016 Italian Civic museums demography Regarding management, more than half of the museum heritage (61.9%) is owned by public bodies, while less than one museum in Italian museums open to the public by owner - Years 1979 - 2015 three (38.1%) has a private legal status. Year Civic museums Total museums % In particular, 1,900 museums, equal to over three quarters (73.8%) of public assets and almost half (45.7%) of the total, belong to 1979 531 1,404 37.9 local authorities, municipal administrations, mountain and island 1992 1,041 2,586 40.3 communities or unions of municipalities, confirming the primary 2006 1,593 3,409 46.7 role that local institutions play in promoting the cultural resources 2011 1,703 3,847 44.3 in the territory. 2015 1,900 4,158 45.7 Not only State museums Increase in civic museums number - Years 1979 - 2015

• With specific reference to museums“ ”: Civic museums, during 36 years: • in 2015, nearly one in three (61.9%) is owned by public institutions. • have four-fold • The italian Ministry of Cultural Goods and Activities and Tourism owns increase just 4.8% of italian museums (199 State museums of 4,158); • from 38% of • Even 1,900 museums, the 45.7% of total museums, belong to all museums at municipalities the biginning to • Civic museums are almost three quarters (73.8%) of public museums. 46%

Source: Istat, “Survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016 Source: Istat, “survey on museums and similar institutions”, Several years

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From a geographical point of view, the increase concerned mainly The retrospective information collected through the statistical the southern regions and the islands (+347 Civic museums, equal survey of 1979 makes it possible to reconstruct the evolution of to +526% from 1979 to 2015), which compared to other areas Civic museums, or more precisely of the physical buildings that of the peninsula were originally in a less advanced situation and host them, even in previous historical periods. In fact, the collected have bridged a historical delay in the territory with these recent data recount 661 Civic museums whose construction dates back to developments. the 18th century, almost half of the total. A further 28% of the structures were built in a period between 1700 and 1800 and only At the date of the last census, almost half of the Civic museums are one in four is in a ‘modern’ building of the 20th century. in Northern Italy (47.3%), where 588 Civic museums are located, while another third are in the central regions (31%). The historical origin of Civic museums is a factor that has determined and conditioned the structural characteristics and the data collected document it. Only one in 10 of the buildings was intentioned as a museum, with the explicit purpose of hosting a collection, while the Territorial distribution vast majority of the structures were built for different uses. 90% Civic museums by region (NUTS2) and NUTS1 - Year 1979 and 2015 of Civic museums are housed in historic buildings (28%), including • Almost half of Regions and areas 1979 2015 Diff. 2015-1979 2015 (%) religious buildings such as monasteries, convents and cloisters civic museums is Piemonte 53 161 108 8.5 (20%), castles and villas (11.4%) or are private homes that gave in the North of Valle d’Aosta - Vallée d’Aoste 1 16 15 0.8 italy (47%) birth to historical figures (3.2%). Lombardia 80 166 86 8.7 • Increase is Trentino-Alto Adige 13 38 25 2.0 stronger in Bolzano/Bozen 8 19 11 1.0 An historical heritage the South and Trento 5 19 14 1.0 Islands (+347 Veneto 43 126 83 6.6 Museums in 1979 by age of the construction from 1979 to Friuli-Venezia Giulia 18 85 67 4.5 Age of building construction Civic Museums Total Museums • About the 2015) Liguria 22 102 80 5.4 N. % N. % half of Civic Emilia-Romagna 80 204 124 10.7 Before XVIII century 258 48.5 661 47.1 museums are Toscana 61 188 127 9.9 1700 80 15.0 179 12.7 in a buiding Umbria 25 80 55 4.2 earlier than 1800 83 15.6 215 15.3 Marche 36 184 148 9.7 XVIII century Lazio 34 137 103 7.2 1900 111 20.9 349 24.9 Total 532 100.0 1,404 100.0 Abruzzo 7 54 47 2.8 Molise 2 14 12 0.7 Museums in 1979 by original purpose of the construction Campania 3 39 36 2.1 Puglia 20 56 36 2.9 Original purpose Civic Museums Total Museums • Only 6.4% of Basilicata 0 7 7 0.4 N. % N. % Civic museums Calabria 8 78 70 4.1 Palace 195 36.7 381 27.1 was born such Sicilia 20 70 50 3.7 Monastery, convent, cloister 80 15.0 278 19.8 as a museum Sardegna 6 95 89 5.0 Castel 44 8.3 89 6.3 Villa 34 6.4 72 5.1 North 310 898 588 47.3 Museum 34 6.4 142 10.1 Center 156 589 433 31.0 South 40 248 208 13.1 Birthplace 26 4.9 45 3.2 Islands 26 165 139 8.7 Other 119 22.4 397 28.3 Total 532 1,9 1,368 100.0 Total 532 100.0 1,404 100.0

Source: Istat, “Survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016 Source: Istat, “Survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016

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With reference to the type of museum institutes, a further peculiarity Civic museums collections of the Italian pattern arises: the extreme richness and variety of the Civic museums by type (%) goods and collections of the Civic museums. Type of collections 1979 1992 2015 From the beginning, the main collections in Civic museums are of Art and archaeology 58,1 53,6 46,2 Ethnography and anthropology 5,3 8 18,7 art and archeology: there were 309 in 1997, growing to 877 in 2015. History 8,3 8,9 11,8 These are therefore a relevant but not preponderant component Specialized and linked to territory 12,8 14,9 10,2 of Civic museums, if you think they represent slightly less than half Science and natural history 7,3 9,1 7,7 (46%), while the State museums of art and archeology represent Science and technology 1,3 1,6 2,3 Other 7 3,8 3,2 almost the total (92%). Total 100 100 100 Other Specialized 3,2% Collections and territorial Number of civic museums by goods and collection type 10,2% Ethnographical and anthropological Ethnography 900 end Civic museums An extraodinarly Civic museums increase from 5% anthropology by type rich and varied to 19% of total Art and 800 18,7% archaeology Year 2015 offer. (VS 0,5% State-owned) 1979 1992 2015 46,2% Beyond civic 700 Art and archeology Science and museums of art technology and archaeology 600 Civic museums are less than half 2,3% Science and (from 309 to (46% Vs il 92% of State-owned) 500 natural 877), there history 7,7% are plenty of History ethnographic and 400 11,8% anthropological Source: Istat, “Survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016 300 museums and they are Beyond the nature of the collections, even the institutional functions of 200 increasing (ten Civic museums are extremely heterogeneous. If the International Council times then 100 of Museums defines that the museum is an institution that «researchs, before: from 28 acquires, stores, communicates and, above all, exhibits for study, to 365). 0 Arts and History Science and Science and Ethnography Specialized other education and pleasure», the national legislation formally specifies its archaeology natural technology andv and territorial history anthropology museums functions by establishing that the museum is defined as a «permanent Source: Istat, “Survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016 orgnisation that acquires, preserves, orders and exhibits cultural heritage for the purpose of education and study» (Code of Cultural Heritage and Landscape Law D.lgs 22nd January 2004, n. 42, Article 101). In fact, alongside these there are a large number of ethnographic and anthropological museums which have also increased significantly, Civic museums, in particular, seem to correspond to this mandate. In duplicating in the same period (from 28 to 365). Proportionally, they 2015, based on the data collected, it appears that almost half of them have assumed increasing weight and their share has increased from contribute, in addition to conservation and exhibition, to educational 5.3% to 18.7% of the total. activities (48%), conferences and seminars (47%), qualifying and founding aspects of their activity. An additional component of the heritage is made up of history museums (11.8%) and specialized and territorial museums, which hold The temporary exhibitions organized by the Civic museums are also 48% mostly collections concerning of local identity and tradition (10.2%). of the total number of museum “events”.

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Local strategies (a) «Organized Activities Museum System” Museums by implementated local intervention. Year 2015 (%) means a set of Museum is defined as: «Permanent structure that acquires, preserves, sorts museums and/or ACTIONS OR MEASURES UNDERTAKEN Civic State Total similar institutions and exposes cultural goods with education and study purpose» (Code of museums museums museums even of different type, Cultural Goods and Landscape, art. 101). During 2015 the museums implemented legal condition and/ 59.4 49.0 55.1 or noun that, on a comunication campaigns and/or negotiating document «It researches, acquires, preserves, puts over and, most of all, exposes with the promotions specifdedicated to local public, basis, are connected purpose of study, education and delight» (International Council of Museums). resident on same territory aiming at a function and/or managemental During 2015 the museum joined an 53.7 59.6 46.0 coordination, and – organized system including other based on a common museums, or similar institutions, in order project referred to the • In 2015 civic ACTIVITY N. museums % carrying out % on Total local territory or to an museums carrying out activities museums to share personnel, technology and/or aggregating subject give their activities economic resources (a) – share personnel, Civics State Total Civics State Total Civics State Total technology and/or contribution, Through the last 5 years the museum 60.1 38.6 55.6 economic resources or beside the Guided tours 1.548 151 3.335 81,5 76,3 80,2 46,4 4,5 100 joined local networks/sistems of museums use shared services in functions of Tutorial 1.168 149 2.436 61,5 75,3 58,6 47,9 6,1 100 order to achieve scale preserve and expositions Source: Istat, “survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016 or purpose savings. expose, to Meetings and 1.031 136 2.196 54,3 68,7 52,8 46,9 6,2 100 tutorials pupil education In quantitative terms, the weight of the Civic museums appears to Performances, 1.045 142 2.053 81,5 76,3 80,2 46,4 4,5 100 (48%), shows be absolutely relevant and growing – even if measured in terms of meeting and Temporay 933 126 1.947 49,1 63,6 46,8 48,1 6,5 100 user levels. The 17.6 million visitors of Civic museums registered in tutorial (47%), expositions qualified and N. of temporary 512 113 995 2015 (12.5 million in 1997) represent as many as 29.6% of the total fundamental expositions in audience of all the museums in Italy. More than half of the people aspects of their 1979 who visited the Civic museums could benefit from free access (55.2%). activity. N. of temporary 3.280 355 6.822 expositions in • Temporary 2015 Non-payment is a further characteristic feature of Civic museums and expositions Civics State Total the percentage share of paid visitors is in fact noticeably lower than organized by Medium N. of expositions by museum 3,2 2,6 3,1 the average: 44.8% against 60.9% calculated overall with reference civic museums N. of visitors of temporay expositions 6.500.428 9.268.137 26.214.086 are 48% of to all Italian museums. total “events” Medium N. of visitors by exposition 1.982 26.107 3.843 in museum. Visitors Admission 1979 1992 2015 Visitors of civic museums by N. % N. % N. % admission - Year 1979- Museums are active in the creation and diffusion of knowledge, Free 6.683.997 53.3 4.030.561 33.8 9.730.858 55.2 2015 in close relationship with the other local scientific, educational Pay 5.854.169 46.7 7.906.303 66.2 7.910.094 44.8 and entrepreneurial institutions, and with the communities of the Total Civic 12.538.166 100.0 11.936.864 100.0 17.640.952 100.0 reference territory. museums Visitators in total 37.780.874 46.756.743 59.598.003 In 2015, 59.4% carried out communication and/or promotion museums campaigns specifically aimed at the local public, residents in of whom pay the territory; 53.7% took part in an organized system5 with visitors (%) 60.1 61.5 60.9 other museums, or similar institutes, for the sharing of human, Visitors of civic museums on total 33.2 25.5 29.6 technological and/or financial resources; and 60.1% in the last 5 museums (%) years have joined museums networks in the area.

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In line with the overall trend in demand, which has seen a progressive the reference catchment area, the role and function of the Civic expansion of museum audiences in recent decades, the public of museums, especially with respect to the State owned museum. Civic museums has achieved a significant increase, albeit at a lower For over half of the Civic museums (54.3%, compared with 26.6% of the rate than the average: from 1979 to 2015 visitors of Civic museums state), foreigners are in fact a minority component of the public, since increased by 41%, compared to 58% in total. they constitute at most 10% of visitors.

It is evident that the scale of the flow of users of Civic museums For one third of the Civic museums (33%), at least one visitor in 3 is over are small and medium-sized, however, since the average annual 65, while the same share is 22% for the State museums and 32% in total. number of visitors is on average almost half of the total number Instead, 2.4 million students visited Civic museums organized in group recorded for all Italian museums. (13% of visitors VS 17% for state and 16% in total).

Visits trend Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of catchment area Trend in number of visitors. Years 1979-2015 (Index Number N.I.1979=100) In 2015, 42% of Civic museums have less than 1.000 visitors. • Visitors of Years Civic N.I. State N.I. Total N.I. Only 28 Civic museums have more than 100.000 visitors (1.5%, civic museums museums museums museums increased by compared to 15% of State museums) 1979 12.538.166 100 17.009.151 100 37.780.874 100 41% compared to 58% total 1992 11.936.864 95 16.448.642 97 46.756.743 124 Almost all visitors of Civic museums (92.3%) makes the public of increment. the first 20 italian museums. 2015 17.640.952 141 15.665.676 92 59.598.003 158 In more than half of Civic museums (54.3% VS 26.6% of State and Medium number of visitors by museum. Years 1979-2015 • The average 50.6% of Total) foreigners are a minority: not more than 10% of value of Years Civic museums State museums Total museums visitors. the flux of visitors in Civic 1979 23,568 47,779 26,91 museums is 2,4 milions are students who visited Civic museums joining organized almost half 1992 11,467 49,694 18,081 groups (13% of total visitors VS 17% State and 16% in Total). of the value of the total 2015 9,285 78,722 14,333 At least 1 visitor on 3 has more than 65 years in one third of Civic museums. museums (33% VS 22% in State museums and 32% in Total). Source: Istat, “survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016

On the basis of this information, we begin to outline a picture of the The statistical data collected in 2015, which make it possible to trace the Civic museums which is further confirmed by observing the financial typical profile of the Civic museums, highlights the scale dimension as volume of the revenues generated in relation to their activity, and which decidedly contained compared to other museums. This characteristic is in turn explains the conditions in which these institutions operate. effectively represented by the fact that: Based on the 2015 data, it appears that: - 42% of Civic museums have less than 1,000 visitors; - only 28 Civic museums have more than 100,000 visitors (1.5%, - almost half of the Civic museums do not make any income with compared to 15% of state ones); ticket sales (49.6% Vs 30.2% of the state and 51.9% for the total - almost the entire amount of visitors of Civic museums (92.3%) museums). amounts to the total number of visitors registered by only 20 major - for one third of the Civic museums, the annual income from Italian museums. the tickets is not more than 10,000 euros (33.6% Vs 15.6% State Also qualitatively, peculiar aspects emerge that significantly differentiate museums and 26.8% in total).

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- only 3% come to collect 100 thousand euros or more (Vs 22.1% for Staff State museums and 5.5% in total). Staff of Civic museums - for 46% of Civic museums, operating expenses (for personnel, Absolute number and average number consumer goods, utilities, etc.) account for no less than 80% of the Years 1979-2015 total costs incurred by the museum (50.8% for State museums and Years Total staff Medium number of units The average 40.5% for the total museums). by museums value of staff These data show that Civic museums express predominantly social, working in Civic Civic State Total Civic State Total museums is 1 to civic and educational aims and activity, and a lower propensity museums museums museums museums museums museums 10, compared to towards an business activity. State museums. 1979 3,304 5,063 11,087 6.2 14.2 7.9 Admission, income and expenses

Admission mode 1979 1992 2015 1992 4,59 7,508 16,964 4.4 22.7 6.6 N. % N. % N. % Free 425 79.9 692 66.5 942 49.6 2015 4,394 4,907 16,049 2.3 24.7 3.9 Pay 107 20.1 349 33.5 958 50.4 Total 532 100.0 1,041 100.0 1,9 100.0

Source: Istat, “survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016 Source: Istat, “survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016 • Almost half of Civic museums get nothing from admission (49.6% Vs 30.2% in State and 51.9% in Total museums). A further interesting aspect that can be deduced from the information • In one third of Civic museums the yearly income comes from tickets collected by ISTAT through its latest census survey and which contributes and isn’t over 10,000€ (33.6% Vs 15.6% State and 26.8% Total to setting the profile of Civic museums, refers to the priorities indicated museums). by museum managers to qualify the intervention measures they consider more urgent and/or strategic. • Only 3% earns 100,000€ or more (Vs 22.1% State and 5.5% Total). • for 46% of Civic museums operating expenditure - personnel, In this regard, questioned on how they would invest a hypothetical usable, supplies, etc. – are not less than 80% on total expenditure increase in the budget available to them, over one respondent in four (50.8% State and 40.5% Total museums). (27.3%) said that would allocate any additional resources to information Similarly, the “micro” dimension of Civic museums also arises with and communication campaigns in order to increase the visitor audience. reference to organizational aspects and is reflected in the limited This response highlights the felt need of Civic museums to gain visibility availability of resources. that their local dimension often does not offer. Overall, the number of employees of all the Civic museums amounts Similarly, the answer given by 13.1% of respondents, indicated that their to no more than 4,400 staff, an amount just under the staff of the investment would be allocated to renovate the stands and organize 119 State museums (4,907). events with the aim of expanding what they offer, seems to be the same. The average number of staff assigned to Civic museums is one to A further requirement that emerges as fundamental concerns the 10 compared to that of State owned museums: the number of ordinary maintenance of the structures, and in particular investments employees is, on average, 2.3 for each Civic museum and 24.7 for to renovate the fittings (14.3%) and renovations of the building and/ each State owned museum. or adaptation of the facilities (10.3%). It should be noted that this has decreased compared to 1979, when It is relevant that, with respect to these priorities, the attention paid there were an average of 6.2 employees in each Civic museum. to personnel, although certainly a critical issue, takes second place.

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In fact, only a minority of respondents (7.3% compared to 23.1% of those responsible for State museums) indicated that the allocation of resources would be oriented towards new staff recruitment, in order to guarantee continuity and the quality of essential services, and a totally marginal one (less than 1%) has focused its attention on training for the qualification of the personnel. The data presented offers a sufficiently eloquent picture of the consistency of civic and community museums in Italy, more than Felt priorities a report that illustrates the long journey that marked this secular % Museums by measure to wich t to allocate possible additional financial institution in the panorama of Italian museology. It is worth resources - Year 2015 remembering, if only for our foreign guests, that some Italian Civic • If they could Civic State Total museums in northern Italy were founded a few decades after the increase 10% of FELT PRIORITY Museums Museums Mueums opening of the great Pinacotecas, in the first half of the nineteenth the budget, more Information and communication campaigns 27.3 19.1 26.1 century according to the Enlightenment criteria that was the basis than 1 museum in order to increase the visitors number of museology between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, on 4 (27% of Renewing the expositions 14.3 14.6 15.2 according to similar expository criteria and with collections coming respondents) will Organizing shows and events to increase the 13.1 14.1 11.9 from the eighteenth-century nationalizations in the states of the offer allocate the money Serenissima, Napoleonic and pre-unification states in the other Renovation and/or e/o adaption of facilities 10.3 12.1 9.9 to information regions. New recruitment to ensure ordinary regular 7.0 23.1 6.8 and advertising services Their modern and contemporary history proceeded in the regions campaigns, in Urgent manteinance and/or restoration of 6.5 7.0 8.7 with ordinary statutes parallel to the museums owned by the State order to increase goods and collections up to the Law 1080/1960, which recognized its specificity, proceeding the visitors Acquiring goods and/or collections to renew 4.7 1.0 4.9 with a classification by subject and consistency of the collections. number. and upgrade the offer The recognition of the existence of diocesan and scientific museums • Renew exposition Study and research 4.3 0.5 4.2 was accompanied by the differentiation between multiple, large, and organize New premises to expose goods and/or 1.7 1.0 2.1 medium and minor museums, differentiation still present in some events and collections museum regulations. happenings to Vocational training to qualify staff 0.9 1.0 0.8 increase the Other 0.9 0.0 1.0 This differentiation would have changed conceptually starting from offer are other 1972, the year in which competences were transferred from the No answer 9.1 6.5 8.2 State to the Regions. This included the museums and the libraries strategical Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 and urgent of the Local Authorities which started a path that, step by step, has investments. Source: Istat, “survey on museums and similar institutions”, 2016 modified the relationship of the museums with their administrators and, especially since the 1990s, with their audiences. On the base of the quantitative data and the figures proposed, The slow establishment of local autonomies, in fact, walked parallel therefore one can only point out and confirm the important role to proposing new museological trends that recognized museums as and - at the same time - the extreme fragility of Civic museums, creating an identity role, not limited to the characteristics of the whose specificities distinguish them substantially from the State collections but extended to the relationship that the local museums institutions both in terms of size and role, but which certainly have always had within their own territories. represent a fundamental cultural presence on the territory. F.M.A. This identity aspect of the Civic museum helped the local realities to

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escape from an aristocratic conception of culture, and above all to management and operational lines of the scientific council and of make political administrators participate in the role that the local the director derived. After a first broad adherence to this new form community entrusted to the storage of homeland memories. of management, functioning despite the absence of implementing regulations, this stay in the museum area remains in a few areas, This acquired awareness led in the 1980s to investments in the including those in Bologna. In fact, the Councils of Administration, development of museums, with the first extensions of the spaces, which should express civil society and therefore be exemplified particularly the growth of services of what was then called on British and American museum boards, were reduced – as often “didactics”, educative paths, and of exhibitions, a development happens in Italian culture, precisely because they are controlled according to the lines that characterize today the profile of 73.8% by the Municipal Councils – in partisan partitions, leading to the of Italian museums. presence in the management body of people with little interest in The changes in Title V of the Italian Constitution at the beginning the management itself. of the 21st century have only attested and regulated the growth Management autonomy has instead been increasingly identified of the role of valorisation in the activities of Civic museums in that in the last decade in the participating Foundations, in which the 360-degree conceptual reversal that the museum collections had owner, the municipality, represents mostly the majority of the Board already undergone on that date. The definition of the Museum that of Directors. The Civic museums of Turin, Brescia, Venice, the Mart ICOM had adopted starting in 1974 began to be implemented, if in Rovereto, the MUSE of Trento, the Carrara Academy in Bergamo, not normally, in practice, and that Russoli, then a member of the and the Ceramics Museum of Faenza are ruled by Foundations. Executive Council, proposed on several occasions: the museum is not at the service of its collections, but of its public. The collections, as a The very latest ICOM Italia 2017 Antonio Pasqualino Puppet Museum supporting structure and justifying the museum itself, had become of Palermo is different because it derives entirely from a private the link between museum professionals and museum publics. legacy, but is always ruled by a Foundation. But another structural change intervened in those years: the The data presented and commented by Fabrizio Arosio confirm constitutional changes, the appearance of the private sector in the three aspects of the activity that constitutes the main core of the management of public affairs led, at the turn of the century and mission of the Italian Civic museums at this time in their existence, with an accentuation in the early years of the new century, to a education, exhibitions and enhancing projects that aim to increase substantial rethinking of the institutional structure of the museum, knowledge. based on greater operative agility and a declared managerial ISTAT data relating to free access to museums cannot be easily autonomy. interpreted due to the presence of the Italian territory structures Most Civic museums, even of large dimensions, maintained their that do not include incoming ticketing and the non-existence of administrative structure based as an office for the owner, the data in their consistency. Nevertheless it must be considered that, Municipality. This is the case of the Civic museums in Milan, Parma, where there is ticketing, mostly in the majority of large and medium Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Trieste, Rome, the Filangeri of Naples, Civic museums, the entry of visitors under 11 (or sometimes under Palermo, and of Bari, and others, differentianting in materials, 18) is free to encourage educational activity. Therefore, the increase archeology, art, science and technique. in data relating to free services can be read, pending more specific checks, as an increase in the number of recipients of educational At the beginning of this change, the structure of the institutions, activities. It is expected, and this hope is turned over to the Italian linked to the democratic and political control bodies, relate to the ICOM Commission that deals with this sector and that will present City Council, except in the definition of the Board of Directors, for itself in Florence in the coming days, that a larger completeness the first time an open management body, from which control of the of data offers a clearer picture on the presences, as well as on

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the characteristics of the educational paths put in place in Civic by companies for economic purposes, and with the widespread museums. There remains the hope that this sector, so important in use of loan fees (and therefore in total contrast with the ethical the management of museums, will act as a forerunner for an annual norms of ICOM) museum professionals express and expressed their report of the activities with detailed data, which is unfortunately disapproval often clashing with political administrators, whether still rare in the documentation of the functioning of museums. they are the direct expression of the owner body, or present within Moreover, the history of educational projects in Italian museums the Boards of Directors. is almost as long as the presence of the Italian ICOM committee. In The principles of professional autonomy that underlie the the 1950s, the first national experiences of the Uffizi, of Brera and managerial innovations of recent years still clash with a vision of of the National Gallery of Modern Art in Rome, facilitated by the the museum subservient to the interests of daily politics, losing the presence of Giulio Carlo Argan, a young official of the Directorate breadth that sees the museum as the place of re-elaboration of General of the Ministry, then of Public Education, ICOM delegate, thought and growth in a role that it is fundamentally social. extended to some forerunners non-state museums, such as Poldi Pezzoli and Bassano Civic Museum. The Museums Weeks, under Recent choices spread by the bizarre use of social media in museums the aegis of ICOM, became an occasion in the early 1950s, for visits (one of which, as the most recent, was zumba on the ground floor to museums still structured as routes to the entire collection. This of the Egyptian Museum in Turin) go in this same direction, but developed, following the example of Brera, to structure this more do not represent a novelty in the national museum panorama. as narrative routes studied in educational projects. It is worth re-reading the remarks and the admonition of Franco Russoli, expressed forty years ago. In defining one of the three areas The increase in exhibits in museums, on the other hand, attested in which an expository discourse is to be organized, he stressed that by the data presented, represents a positive aspect in itself; in fact, the museum should be a mass communication tool and indicated it would respond to one of the founding principles of museums, which actions: «What to do so that it is not a weapon of coercive the aim of research, and has changed the approach to museum persuasion, of alienations, of elusive sectoral teaching, without, communication. For example, exhibits in scientific museums have however, renouncing its institutional duties of scientific specificity, adopted a contemporary vision of themes, rather than by taxonomic that is not becoming a pseudo-sociology pavilion». analytics, while art museums have developed a historical rather than stylistic analysis of the collections also related to contemporary This is not an easy task in which the communication projects of themes. museums have a fundamental role, projects that as we have seen represent one of the main lines of action of our local cultural This of course exists in the virtuous examples. However, a distorted institutions today. Also what is needed is a feeling that we proceed political vision that is not at all involved in the professional needs by trial and error without a solid research base, a research base that and mission of individual museums has led administrators to see in requires a scientific and real analysis of the public, a precise and exhibitions, in any show, a moment of visibility, not the occasion honest definition of the aim of the research (to increase the number of research and enhancement of the heritage, to the mission of of visitors or open the museum to citizenship in all its social and the museum and its heritage. Andrea Emiliani’s words, written age components?), an analysis that is also honest about the budgets at the beginning of this distorted valorisation system, in the mid- committed to the projects compared to the results expected. 1980s, and which you can read in the booklet that everyone has in hand and now republished in the entrance of this volume, show This has considered the complexity with which we entrust the future how the power of the market and the choices of politics have of Civic museums, hoping that they will be adopted or at least continued to impose oneself on museum policies in a way that is accepted by the political decision-makers of our professional actions. sometimes perhaps too traditional and not sufficiently innovative. G.E. In fact, against these blockbusters exhibitions, now also carried out

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Endnotes

1 See also “Culture statistics”, 2016 edition; https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ web/products-statistical-books/

2 See also “Theme Index”, Temei Entertainment e Aecom, https://www.aecom.com/theme-index/ LOCAL AUTHORITY MUSEUMS IN ENGLAND 3 Paradoxically, in one simple twist of fate, it’s precisely from the visionary Iain Watson aspiration and from the originally unrealized attempt of a unique and absolute museum that the all-Italian experience of a galaxy of museums belonging to local communities and distributed throughout the country is born. In this regard, an illuminating statement and an extraordinary contribution is offered by the temporary exhibition “The Universal Museum. From Napoleon’s dream to Canova “, set up by Carolina Brook, Valter Curzi This paper is a reflection on local authority museums in England. and Claudio Parisi Presicce from December 2016 to March 2017 in Rome, It is based on my experience as a Board Member of the Museums in the Scuderie del Quirinale rooms. This collected from the major Italian Association (MA) and as Director of one of England’s largest regional and international collections and exhibited a part of over 500 masterpieces taken from churches, monasteries and private collections, mostly from the museums services – Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums. The views are Papal States between 1796 and 1814, during the French military campaigns, my own and do not necessarily reflect the view of either organisation. to realize the great Napoleonic dream of a Universal Museum, selected, taken from the Italian territories and sent to Paris to be exhibited in the The phrase “a sector in crisis” has been heard a lot in English rising Louvre Museum and then returned to our country 20 years later, museums. Many museums have faced reductions of over 50% in their for Canova’s initiative and the intervention of the civil administrations of local government funding and a number of museums have closed. the Peninsula. Precisely these - having to host the recovered masterpieces By September 2017, 64 museums had closed across the UK since 2010 and no longer placed in the original offices, following the suppression 1 and more were at risk . Museums people in the UK have been divided of religious orders - had in fact promoted the opening of the first public museums in Italy, some of which are still today among the most significant as to the extent to ‘carry on’ and continue to deliver the services that in the country: this is the case, for example, of the Pinacoteca in Brera, they believe in and that they know make a difference, but do that Gallerie dell’Accademia in Venice, or Pinacoteca in Bologna. with fewer and fewer resources, or to make a significant protest and campaign on the basis of just how severe the cuts have been. 4 See also: Fiorio M. T., Il museo nella storia. Dallo «studiolo» alla raccolta pubblica, Mondadori, Milano, 2011; Some of the challenges faced by museums are unique to the sector Di Monte M. G., Calvano T., Mangia P., Museo tra passato e presente, Booklet, – many English local authority museums have historic buildings not Milano, 2008; Haskell F., La nascita della mostre, Skira, Milano, 2008; Mazzi necessarily fit for purpose (e.g. physical access necessarily reflect M.C., In viaggio con le muse. Spazi e modelli del museo, Edifir, Firenze, 2005; their current audiences and are expensive to store and display. In Schubert K., Il museo. Storia di un’idea. Dalla Rivoluzione francese a oggi, Il some cases they also have bureaucratic structures which may not Saggiatore, Milano, 2004; Mottola Molfino A., Il libro dei musei, Umberto Alemanni & C., Torino, 1992. facilitate the flexibility to survive in the modern world. Many of the changes reflect wider societal and global issues: for example the 5 “Organized museum system” means a set of similar museums and/or Brexit vote and what it says about a rising intolerance in society. institutes of different nature, legal status and/or denomination which, on Local museums in England face economic pressures, austerity, local the basis of a constitutive deed or a negotiating document, are linked to each other for the purpose of coordination functional and/or management, government in crisis, increasing inequalities, social and political and - on the basis of a common project referring to the territory or to an upheavals, and demographic changes. They also must face the aggregating theme - share human, technological and/or financial resources global challenges: global warming, the migration crisis, the growing or use common services, in order to achieve economies of scale or scope. gap between rich and poor.

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The MA is the main membership body in the UK for museums and the The aims of the MA are: museum workforce. It supports and represents over 8000 members. It advocates on behalf of the sector, to ensure that the value of all • Develop and grow a vibrant and dynamic network of museums is widely appreciated, and it helps to ensure that museums members are able to live up to public expectations and maintain public trust. • Campaign and advocate for museums to change lives It also runs the largest museums conference in Europe, the MA Conference and publishes the Museums Journal – the main • Inspire and develop the workforce to deliver our vision for publication for the museums sector, and also has a thriving website; the sector and it runs a range of professional development courses for those working in museums. It is the only professional body for all museums Whilst the MA works across the four nations of the UK, England, in the four nations of the UK. The Museums Association champions Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, I am concentrating in this the values of museums to society and supports and develops the paper on museums in England, as culture is devolved to the four people who work in them. It is the oldest museums association in nations and therefore policy and the specific issues differ in each world – formed in 1889. nation. The MISSION of the MA is: «Inspiring museums to change lives» and There are estimated to be 2,720 museum sites in England with a its vision is «inclusive, participatory and socially engaged museums museum workforce of 38,1652. Government data reveals around at the heart of their communities.» There is, therefore a clear half of the population of England have visited a museum in the last emphasis on people and on socially engaged practice as the key year3. The direct economic impact output is estimated to be £1.45bn. purpose of museums.

Whilst visitor numbers remain strong and, particularly supported by lottery funding, there are new museum capital developments across the UK. There is a growing concern that our museums sector is suffering real damage from public sector cuts – particularly museum services either directly run by or financially supported by local authorities. It should also be noted that lottery receipts for our National Lottery, which has a specific heritage funding strand, have dropped significantly, and as a result there is greatly increased competition for museums bidding for lottery funding. Museums also find it harder to realise match funding needed to apply for lottery grants.

Museums in England are non-statutory services and are, with other non-statutory services, at greatest risk. Many publicly-funded museums are facing a funding crisis. Local authorities in England have overall cut spending on museums and galleries by 31% in real-terms between 2010 and 2016 with some services cut much more severely. Museums of all types are succeeding in efforts to increase their earned income and fundraising, but require time

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and investment to maintain this momentum and these sources of Speaking personally I cannot say that no museum should ever income cannot for most museums make up for the loss in public close – clearly a museum must have a purpose and must be able to revenue. contribute. Where that is not the case its governing body need to look very carefully at what they are doing. Many local authority There are real concerns that we are heading towards a financial crisis museums which do have clear purpose are, however, facing grave with the sector becoming split between some types of museums threat including short and long-term challenges. These include: which can more readily monetise assets and others with historic reduced opening hours, loss of professional expertise; decreasing buildings and large diverse collections which are a significant diversity of the museum workforce and museum audiences; loss of responsibility, and assets which it is hard to monetise. There is a schools engagement and other social outreach work and lack of concern around funders believing museums can do more than ever, funds for upkeep of museum buildings and displays. even though they receive cuts. Local authority museums are working hard to address these challenges and a survey by the Local Government Association Museum sector direct economic impact headlines in 2016 revealed that increasingly local authority museums are focusing on income generation, partnership working with other cultural facilities and sharing collections with other museum4.

The decision by the UK to leave the EU will have a significant impact on many museums, with uncertainty over existing and future £2.64bn £1.45b 38,165 2,635 2,720 projects and programmes, loss of access to European funding, and Income Output Employees Organizations Sites potential implications for the large number of EU citizens working within the UK museum sector. Government have proposed a UK Shared Prosperity Fund but this is not quantified.

Brexit will not mean the end of English museums’ international co- Source: TBR 2013 (Ref. W1/S1) operation and exchange but we may well have to work differently. Museums have strongly expressed their desire to ensure that the relationships built up over many years with European partners at The impact of cuts both the institutional and individual level continue over the long- term5. The MA has also produced a briefing on Brexit6.

There is a strong opportunity here for museums to contribute, in • 64 museums closed in UK since 2010 – and more at risk response to reports of racist rhetoric and abuse following the result • Reduced opening hours of the EU Referendum; museums can continue to provide a safe, • Loss of expertise inclusive and egalitarian space for all members of the communities • Less social outreach work and fewer school visits they serve and can play an active part in promoting a tolerant and • Museum collections and buildings at risk diverse society. In my own museum I came into work on the Monday after the vote and called a small team together to organise an event directly aimed to counter race hate. We worked with Seven Stories, the National Centre for the Children’s Book utilising their archive which includes fantastic children’s literature featuring mixed race

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families alongside a programme of activity in our migration gallery. It also identified priorities for museums in England:

The MA’s flagship campaign is Museums Change Lives. This seeks • Adapting to today’s funding environment to highlight the social impact that all museums can have – no • Growing and diversifying audiences matter where they are, whatever their size or type of collections they have. This is about showing how museums are breaking with • Dynamic collection curation and management preconceptions, exceeding expectations and making an important contribution to society beyond but also through the acquisition, • Contributing to placemaking and local priorities research and conservation of collections. The three themes of • Delivering cultural education Museums Change Lives are: enhancing health and wellbeing; creating better places to live and work; inspiring engagement, • Developing leaders with appropriate skills debate and reflection. Museums Change Lives is promoted through a video which was shown at the Bologna ICOM meeting7. • Diversifying the workforce

With society facing issues such as poverty, inequality, intolerance • Digital capacity and innovation and discrimination, museums can help us understand, debate, and • Working internationally challenge these concerns. They can also enhance everyone’s life chances by breaking down barriers to access and inclusion. Museums Government and Arts Council England, together with national are doing this through active public participation, engaging with museums are currently working on these priorities and consultation diverse communities, and sharing collections and knowledge in is beginning on how to address some of these issues. ways that are transforming lives. When this paper was given in Bologna the MA was working on The Museums Association (MA) is campaigning for museums to its museums taskforce, also addressing some of these issues. Since develop their role as socially purposeful organisations and there is then the Taskforce has reported9. The Taskforce addressed three key growing evidence that they are working with their communities and themes: relevance, collections and funding. Key recommendations delivering positive social impact. This type of work helps museums include the need for government to urgently take a strategic be more sustainable and the public benefits generates underline approach to museums and their funding, stakeholders to gather the importance of continuing public investment in them. robust and consistent evidence and data drawn from a diverse range Following a government White Paper in 2016, Neil Mendoza was of museums, and that museums should foster a brave approach to commissioned to carry out a review of the English museums sector. collections management and rationalisation, taking a collective This made recommendations in six areas: responsibility to resolve the gap between theory and practice. Many more detailed recommendations are contained within the • A joined-up approach from government and its Arm’s Length Bodies report which provides recommendations for both government/ • A clearer museums role for DCMS stakeholders and museums.

• National responsibilities for national museums Also at the time of presenting this paper the English Civic Museums • A stronger development function for ACE with museums Network were working on a commissioned thinkpiece, authored by Professor Peter Latchford, on the Future of Civic Museums. This • A more effective use of National Lottery funding for museums was commissioned to examine the particular qualities, value and • The closer involvement of Historic England8. importance of civic museums, identify the current challenges they

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face and explore what they should do to thrive and become more Tyne & Wear relevant and resilient in the future. Latchford argues that to survive, Archives & Museums civic museums must see themselves as part of the wider ecology that surrounds them10.

This report, The Future of Civic Museums, highlights some of the particular challenges facing England’s civic museums and recommends ways, through innovation and creativity to address them. Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums (TWAM) has been part of the steering group for this report which provides a challenge and a way forward to the country’s civic museums.

It says that civic museums have found it hard to respond resiliently to financial challenges constrained by governance which has rarely given the freedom to develop the more agile, entrepreneurial models that will be necessary for survival. While civic institutions need to free up museums and offer more options, museums themselves must change, including looking again at existing models of staffing as well as widening skillsets.

The report also challenges existing collection policies. Civic museums typically have eclectic collections. Caring for these – and often for the historic buildings in which they are displayed – can be all consuming. This model may have worked in the 19th century, but today museums exist in a society which is flooded with information and new experiences. Collections must therefore act as a building block towards telling relevant stories and creating a sense of place, rather than being an end in themselves.

Civic museums are well placed to deliver the ‘new enlightenment’, offering the health, wellbeing and happiness benefits that flow from a connected community with a shared sense of place. However, both museums themselves and local authorities need a radical rethink to renew these civic spaces.

So, what of my own organisation, Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums (www.twmusuems.org.uk)? We are a large regional museum and archive service based in North East England. We manage 9 museums and art galleries on behalf of four local authorities and Newcastle University.

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Our museums receive 1.3m visits per year, with a high number of As part of the development of plans for 2018-22 we have created a repeat visits and most people coming from our region. We have vison of ‘TWAM 3.0’ – how we will develop over the next four years a high number of visitors from lower socio economic groups. As a and how this will ensure that the experience we provide is: civic museum and archive service we recognise that in delivering • more interactive and self-directed. excellent museum and archive services and providing sector leadership we also need to respond to the big societal challenges • more focused on community and users and their needs (global warming, migration, growing gap between rich and poor) whilst also focusing on issues in our local communities (changing • more public, welcoming, and flexible. demographics, child poverty, educational attainment, adult health Building on our strengths of partnership working, diversity, Children issues, impact of reductions in public funding). and Young People’s learning programmes, community engagement, and outstanding collections we have developed a vision for ‘TWAM Our Mission: To help people determine their place in the world and 3.0’. It explicitly recognises that the heart of the next phase of our define their identities, so enhancing their self-respect and their evolution will be through a programme of inspiring and creative respect for others work, drawing strength and inspiration from the diversity of our venues, collection and audiences, to allow us to be the catalyst for creativity, risk and experimentation. Our creative vision: Working together to make sense of the world through compelling stories of heritage, art, culture and science. As a platform we will use our venues, our collections, the skills of our staff and volunteers, and the support of our customers, funders and donors.

Our collaborators will be diverse artists, researchers, cultural partners at home and abroad, experts and audiences.

TWAM’s mission firmly sets us in a social context, putting people at the heart of our work.

5 things support TWAM 3.0:

• TWAM’s cultural and creative vision

• Strength through diversity of venues, collections, staff, audiences and producers.

• ’Valuing Voices’ – a working culture of audience consultation, experimentation and agency to shape responses to local issues, seed audience contribution and develop understanding of the needs of our many users.

• Working as a catalyst through partnerships to share learning, and encourage innovation.

• A resilient and enterprising business model with a new governance structure providing challenge and support.

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Reductions in public sector funding have significantly challenged us, Discovery Museum we have reduced staff numbers and made a range of other savings Turbinia across the organisation. We have also sought to grow income, firstly In 1894 Charles Parsons built the through a successful refresh of our commercial activity spearheaded world’s first steam by a Museums Rapid Enterprise Assessment, led by consultants Black turbine powered Radley. We have reviewed our governance and established a new ship, Turbinia, which changed strategic board, bringing commercial and business expertise to sit the face of alongside our democratically elected councillors. In May 2018 we maritime history launched a trading company to take forward our commercial activity and in 1897 was the fastest ship in with a board supported by business people. We are in the process of the world. At 32 implementing a review of our fundraising activity supported by the metres long, she Heritage Lottery Fund and with a new strategy and case for support now dominates written for us by consultants David Dixon Associates. the central hall at Discovery Museum. We believe that we have made significant moves to establish our economic sustainability in a hostile economic climate. We recognise however that there are further budget reductions to come and we will work with bodies such as the MA, English Civic Museums Network, key funding stakeholders (including Arts Council England) and others to ensure that we can continue to be relevant to our local communities, visitors to our region and our online users and that we can continue to give agency to users and allow people to make a difference in their lives. Laing Art Gallery Laus Veneris Stephenson Railway Museum (1873=1875) by Sir Edward Burne Jones Billy ’Billy’ - built in This outstanding Newcastle around painting in the 1826 by Robert Laing Art Gallery’s Stephenson & Pre-Raphaelite Company was collection painting built three years shows the before the more legendary court famous Rocket of Venusberg and it is one of the (city of love). The oldest locomotives artist, Edward in the world. Burne-Jones was the leader of the second phase of the Pre-Raphaelite movement.

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Great North Museum: Hancock Christ Washing the Disciples’ Feet by Jacopo Tintoretto Building inscription from Hadrian’s Wall, Milecastle 38 An outstanding work is the major painting by the Venetian artist Jacopo Robusti Tintoretto (1518-1594).

This inscription On display in the because proves main gallery, Christ that the Roman Washing the Wall was built Disciples’ Feet was on the orders of originally painted Hadrian, whilst the for the church of name Nepos dates San Marcuolo in the stone and Venice, eventually therefore the wall given to St to AD122-4. Nicholas’ Cathedral in Newcastle and purchased by Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums in 1986.

“This work of the Emperor Caesar Trajan Hadrian Augustus (was built by) the Second Legion Augusta under Aulus Platorius Nepos, proprietorial legate”

Hatton Gallery Segedunum Roman Fort Kurt Schwitters’ Merz Barn Wall Roman stone toilet seat Kurt Schwitters’ Segedunum is Merz Barn Wall is significant in itself, one of the UK’s as excavations international art unearthed treasures and is on definitive proof permanent display that members of at the Hatton Rome’s cavalry Gallery. Created in lived in adjacent the Lake District rooms to their in 1947-48, it was mounts. This is the last great work thought to be the of this influential only stone known 20th century toilet seat from artist, and is the Roman Britain. only surviving example of his ‘Merzbauten’ series.

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Endnotes 1 Cfr. https://www.museumsassociation.org/news/20092017-ma-publishes- information-for-museums-facing-closure.

2 Cfr. https://www.artscouncil.org.uk/sites/default/files/download-file/ Economic_Impact_of_Museums_in_England_report.pdf . THE EVOLUTION OF GREEK REGIONAL AND LOCAL MUSEUMS 3 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ MAPPING THE LANDSCAPE FROM THE CREATION OF THE MODERN uploads/attachment_data/file/664921/Mid-year_17-18_TP_release.pdf. GREEK STATE TO THE PRESENT Maria-Xeni Garezou 4 In: https://www.local.gov.uk/museum-survey-heads-cultural-services

5 https://www.nationalmuseums.org.uk/media/documents/responses_ Some Definitions position_statements/cms_select_committee_brexit_response.pdf . The purpose of this paper is to discuss the features of a topography 6 https://www.museumsassociation.org/download?id=1174544 of the Greek museums and show how the museum landscape was created and has evolved from the19th century to this day. We shall 7 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pfHIE3fm_SI . put the emphasis on regional and local museums, which make up 8 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ more than 95% of the country’s almost 800 museums1. These form uploads/attachment_data/file/673935/The_Mendoza_Review_an_ a dense network of cultural organisations of different type, size, independent_review_of_museums_in_England.pdf ownership, and administrative structure, for a number of which it 9 https://www.museumsassociation.org/download?id=1246941. is perhaps not appropriate to use the term 'museum'. Indeed, the Greek Law defines the museum as the« service or the organisation 10 https://www.nationalmuseums.org.uk/news/new-enlightenment- of non-profit character with or without legal personality which strengthening-civic-museums/. acquires, accepts, safeguards, conserves, records, documents, researches, interprets and primarily exhibits and promotes to the public collections of archaeological, artistic, ethnological or other material evidence of people and their environment, for purposes of study, education, and enjoyment. As museums, may also be considered services or organisations with similar objectives and functions, such as open air museums»2. In order to obtain the title of “museum” an organisation must be accredited, unless it is a state museum. Museums may fall under five categories with respect to the scope of their collections: national museums, museums of global reach, regional museums, local museums, and museums with international collections (meaning, museums presenting artefacts that are not related to Greek culture)3. The legislative text does not discuss further the set of characteristics shared within the museums of each category. Under the term regional museum fall museums of different types, created in different historical periods, by different bodies and with different purpose. From the 19th century onwards, Greek regional

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museums have differed from their European counterparts, since Furthermore, an art museum based in the rural town of Metsovo may they rarely house under the same roof all the evidence related to acquire national importance, as is the case of the Averoff Museum the history, and the social and cultural development of a wider area of Neohellenic Art, with a permanent exhibition of representative from prehistoric times to the present day. Archaeological museums works of the major Greek artists of the 19th and 20th centuries25. are the most important type of regional and local museums, due Finally, although of local range, many folklore museums exhibit to the symbolic capital of Antiquities4; the prominent role of objects that are not associated with the local history and identity, Greek Archaeology as a national and international enterprise; the but tend to reproduce a homogenised and a-historic discourse on tradition these museums carry; their number, and the fact that traditional societies and the rural past26. they constitute an autonomous network of museums owned and governed by the state5. Regional archaeological museums have What really distinguishes museums is their relationship with local generally been established in the Prefectural seats (e.g. Thebes6, communities. As a rule, issues of local identity and community Ioannina7), while local archaeological museums have usually been involvement are more pronounced in historical and folklore museums associated with a place that had been important during Antiquity than in archaeological ones, one reason being that archaeological (e.g. Tegea8). The most characteristic example of local archaeological museums are due to state initiative, whereas the rest are usually museums is 'site museums' that is museums housing the findings of a the result of grassroots action. Indeed, the attitude Greeks have significant archaeological site (e.g. Eleutherna9). Depending on the towards the ancient past has always been ambivalent. In the 19th chronological range of their collections, archaeological museums can and early 20th centuries the bond with the archaeological remains be dedicated exclusively to Prehistory and Greco-Roman Antiquity representing the material evidence of a national rebirth was strong. (e.g. Herakleion Archaeological Museum10); to the Byzantine and Despite the looting and illicit trade of antiquities, local scholars post-Byzantine period (e.g. Byzantine Museums of Kastoria11, and and school pupils collected antiquities and handed them over to Argolis12), and finally; to the evolution from Prehistory till the 18th the government’s representative with the ultimate goal of creating century (e.g. Diachronic Museum of Larissa13). a local collection or a small archaeological museum27. Moreover, wealthy donors provided for the foundation of regional and local Besides archaeological museums, other types of regional and local museums28. With the passage of time and the strengthening of museums include historical (e.g. Capodistrias Museum at Corfu14); state institutions, this relationship has lessened, as responsibility has ethnological/folklore (e.g. Ethnological Museum of Thrace15), often been transferred into the hands of the archaeological bureaucracy. a combination of all the above-mentioned (e.g. Folk and History Despite the systematic efforts of the Service in recent years for Museum of Xanthi16 or the Historical, Ethnological and Natural greater public access to cultural heritage, the extremely strict History Museum of Kozani17); ecclesiastical (e.g. St. Catherine’s provisions of the law on the protection and management of cultural Museum in Heraklion18, Ecclesiastical Museum of Alexandroupolis19); heritage, which are perceived as an obstacle to land development, art (e.g. Municipal Gallery of Larissa- G. I. Katsigras Museum20); have also played a role in this distancing. While Greeks are still natural history (e.g. The Natural History Museum of the Lesvos extremely proud of an idealised past, they do not engage with it Petrified Forest21), and thematic museums (e.g. Municipal Museum and are ready to ignore it in their everyday life. of the Kalavrytan Holocaust22, Museum of Typography at Chania23, Roma Basketry Museum24). The creation of regional and local museums in Greece has been inextricably linked to the project of nation building, as this developed Locality does not necessarily determine the museum’s impact. In the from the early 19th century onwards29. It is thus part of a process case of archaeological museums, a collection’s status housed in a of territorial expansion, national unification and homogenisation. local museum may indeed be global, as it is the case of site museums The national narrative on the uninterrupted continuity of Hellenism associated with World Heritage Sites, such as Delphi or Olympia. from Antiquity (including Aegean Prehistory) through Byzantium to

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Modern Greece as this was formulated in the 1850s by the national the first services of the new kingdom, does not have the necessary historian Konstantinos Paparrigopoulos is the thread that connects resources to carry out such projects. Until the eve of the Balkan Wars, national to regional and local museums across the country, as well which preceded the First World War, a series of museums on Greco- as archaeological to folklore and historical museums. Furthermore, Roman antiquity have been established in places with a prominent in every period of Modern Greek history, we see developing new ancient past35. They served as repositories of national heirlooms; types of museums, which express the dominant ideological trends. protected the country’s ancient heritage; supported the case of Museums of classical art are the first to be established in the 19th Greece as an equal partner of the modern states of Western Europe century in the context of the Neo-hellenic revival and the re- in the context of “philhellenism”; provided the aesthetic standards; appropriation of the classical tradition, whilst the 20th century facilitated archaeological and historical research; and last but not sees the subsequent birth of museums dedicated to Byzantium least promoted tourism36. From the outset, political and cultural and Modern Greek culture, thus putting an increasing emphasis on legitimation, and local development passes through antiquities. questions of continuity and authenticity30. In the aftermath of WWII, The models for Greek archaeological museums can be found in the aesthetic is the predominant approach for both archaeological the taxonomic (chronological with typological subdivisions) and and Byzantine art museums, as well as art galleries. The transition linear display of their European counterparts37. At the same time, from dictatorship to democracy, calls for a more critical approach, the museum space maintained its sacred character, a 19th c. legacy namely in history, industrial, and contemporary art museums. rooted in the idealised understanding of Antiquity38.

Medieval exhibits are absent from these museums, still under the A Topography in the Making: From the Creation of the Greek State care of the Church, while a central Byzantine and Christian Museum to WW II is scheduled in Athens39. Pre-industrial Greek folk culture meets In the period ensuing the Greek Revolution of 1821, when the first the same challenges. Although the thriving study of folklore is also governor Kapodistrias was called to rule the newborn state, already intrinsically linked to the question of continuity from ancient to there is the plan for the creation of a central state museum of modern Greece, yet the objects are not valued enough to find their antiquities on the Island of Aegina31. The project was abandoned as place in a museum40. It is only in 1918 that a selection of objects soon as the capital was transferred to Athens, and interim solutions of artistic significance from across the country is showcased in the were sought for the storage of antiquities until the construction Museum of Greek Handicrafts41. Meanwhile, the Historical and of the National Museum. At the same time, a Decree of the King Ethnological Society of Greece, created in 1882, and the National Otto, which was never implemented due to limited resources, Historical Museum, established in the same year, focus on collecting provided for the creation of regional and local museums32. In and presenting to the public the heirlooms of the Greek Struggle 1874, the project of a National Archaeological Museum is already for Independence, and on a wider scale all testimonies related to underway, while the first two Greek museums have opened to the study of Neo-hellenism from the 15th century onwards42. visitors: the Acropolis Museum, a site museum on the rock, near the ruined Parthenon, and the Archaeological Museum of Sparta, the With the Treaties of 1922, Greece has expanded its borders in its first regional museum33. Museum making is part of the making of a present form, with the exception of the Dodecanese, which were national topography. Initially, the Athens Archaeological Society34, united with Greece in 1947. The modernisation of the state initiated a learned society of scholars of ancient Greece and politicians with by the leading politician Eleutherios Venizel os; the enormous a marked interest for the national cause, carries out excavations impact of the Asia Minor Catastrophe, and the political unrest and establishes site museums in the footsteps of Thucydides culminating in General Metaxas’ Dictatorship characterise the and Pausanias across the country. It works in pair with the State Interwar Period, the importance of which is paramount for the Archaeological Service, which although founded in 1834 amongst reading of modern Greek cultural history. By 1940, the dynamics

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developed had led to the creation of 44 archaeological museums materialised are the Corfu Municipal Gallery (1931) in the premises and collections in provincial urban centres and rural areas. of the Sino-Japanese Museum52, and the Tinian Artists Museum on Although plans for the establishment of proper regional museums, the island of Tinos (1930). which would incorporate archaeological museums, reappear in 1931. The so-called “City Museums” were legal persons under Meanwhile, in 1928 the first maritime museum of the country is public law and governed by board composed of governmental initiated in the maritime town of Galaxidi. Later, in 1932, a small and local authorities, and civil society representatives. The leading archaeological collection is added to it, thus inaugurating a type idea behind this concept was to stimulate local societies around a of local museums, very limited in number, where antiquities coexist cultural centre in which the museum (exhibiting archaeological, with traditional arts. It is no coincidence that in 1939 at the initiative artistic, ethnological, and folklore treasures), the library, as well as of the Director of the Byzantine and Christian Museum George a hall of events would co-exist43. The project, which was well ahead Sotiriou, the Hatzigianni-Mexi Museum is created in Spetses, as the of its time, was immediately aborted for ideological, but also for first example of a historical mansion turned into a state museum in financial and administrative reasons. Greece (also hosting a small archaeological collection). World War II and the ensuing Nazi Occupation puts a violent stop to museum In the 1930s the concept of Greekness, gains ground especially making: cultural treasures are buried in safe places whilst museum amongst the elites, who attempt a new self-definition44. Greekness, buildings serve other purposes. which is understood as «the spiritualisation of tradition and the aestheticisation of Hellenism… has nothing to do with ethnocentric After the War (1945-1974) : A Recomposition of the Landscape navel-gazing or xenophobia but highlighted Greek culture as a sort World War II ends in 1944, followed by a ravaging Civil War. In the of archetype which assumed a variety of guises through the years»45. midst of Cold War in 1948, the European Recovery Program, known Thus, the so-called generation of the Thirties, «tries to define its as the Marshall Plan, is being enacted with a total budget of 500 identity as part of the West in an extrovert manner, explore its million drachmas53 for the protection of cultural heritage and in modernity and highlight it in contrast to the ancient legacy»46. In particular the re-display of antiquities hidden during the war, the this context, a marked interest for the Neohellenic culture leads to repair and refurbishment of existing museums and the creation of the formation of private collections of folk art (e.g. the collection of new ones. The rationale behind the cultural heritage sub-program Angeliki Hatzimichali). At the same time, the idea of return to the is related to tourism: Antiquities and museums are treated as roots is encouraged by the dictatorial regime in place47. While state resources for tourism development and economic recovery. This initiatives regarding the creation of folklore museums in Cephallonia goes in pair with the re-foundation of the Greek National Tourism and Crete seem to fail, the first local museum of folk embroidery is Organisation54. A report dated April 30,1946 on the occasion of established in 1937 in Avlonas, Attica, by the Zygomalas family48. Its post-war reconstruction strategy makes explicit reference to «a creation may also be associated to the development of traditional general demand of the international scientific community for the crafts during the same period49. This is due not only to aesthetic or re-opening of the museums, as it is well known that the Antiquities ideological reasons, but is also related to the intention to promote of Greece are also the country’s most important tourist factor» local crafts and women‘s employment in times of economic and expects «a great economic benefit from attracting visitors». hardship50. In the same year, the Ethnological Museum of Chios is Another ministerial document underlines «Greek Antiquities are inaugurated in the premises of the Chios Gymnasium by the Argenti not inferior to any other economic sector as regards to tourism»55. Society, an act that ascertains the inherent link of learned societies As a result, between 1949 and 1951 a total of 20 regional and local to museum making51. Unfortunately, the first attempts of local archaeological museums were included on the Program56. Post-war societies to establish municipal art museums, such as in Chios (1939) is a period of re-organisation for the archaeological museums57. or Mesolhongi (1932), are stopped by the War. The only museums German museums provide the museological and museographic

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standards for the National Archaeological Museum, which in its turn This was motivated, amongst other reasons, by nostalgia for the is the indisputable model for most of the regional archaeological rural past, for a world that was long gone, as large segments of museums. Christos Karouzos, the director of the National Museum the population migrated from the countryside to the capital. and a leading figure of Greek archaeology, together with his wife Simultaneously, emphasis was laid on the need to safeguard Semni Karouzou Papaspyridi, Keeper of the Vase Collection in the tradition as the authentic national identity, a concept that was same museum, set the norms for museum making58. The dominant fully exploited once more during the Dictatorship that followed in political atmosphere goes in pair with an interpretive strategy 196768. Meanwhile, during the artistic spring of the 1960s the first relying on formalism. The display conveys an idealised and unifying regional municipal galleries open to the public in Rhodes (1961), narration of events and a ahistorical view of classical art and culture. Kalamata (1962), and Thessaloniki (1966). Still, regional and local archaeological museums and collections form the largest group. A In 1952, the Byzantine Archaeological Museum in Mystra, amongst guide on Greek museums published in 1970, counts only 79 museums the ruins of the capital of Byzantine Peloponnese, is inaugurated, dedicated to modern Greek cultural heritage out of a total of 340 and a new Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Museum reopens in Greek museums and collections, both public and private69. Zakinthos after the devastating earthquake (1960)59. It is not a coincidence that both the cultural milieu of Mystra and the art of In 1971, the Ministry of Culture and Science is born under the the Ionian Islands equally connect Hellenism in the broad sense to Colonels’ junta with the purpose to serve as a propaganda the Renaissance and its aftermath in the Occident. Thus, the creation mechanism. It is formed by the transfer of the Archaeological Service of the first two state regional museums dedicated to Byzantine from another Ministry and the creation of a General Directorate and Post-Byzantine art equally implies post-war Greek aspirations for Cultural Development. Ever since, cultural policies have been to join once again in equal terms the advanced Western world. At characterised by the permanent gap between the heritage policies the same period, an institutional framework for the protection of on one hand contemporary culture on the other. As a result, the the Byzantine, Post-Byzantine and Modern monuments, icons and organisational structure of the Ministry still does not provide for a works of art was established for the first time60. single museums unit, resulting in the absence of a comprehensive policy on museums. The Historical Museum of Crete in Herakleion is founded in 1953 by the Society of Cretan Historical Studies with the aim to record, Exploring New Opportunities (1975-2000) : Expanding the Horizons preserve and promote all forms of Cretan history61. It is perhaps the In 1975, the surprise challenging the existing conception of museums unique example of a proper Regional Museum, although it is due to comes this time from a regional museum, the Archaeological a private initiative and has never been funded by the State or local Museum of Volos70. A marxist prehistorian, George Chourmouziadis, Authorities. Through the years, it has developed into a research re-invents the archaeological museum in his groundbreaking centre and a cultural pole for the city of Heraklion and the Island 'contextual' display of the material culture of Prehistoric Thessaly of Crete. Moreover, it is one of the very few museums that today is based on current archaeological theory. He adopts the methods of implementing a systematic policy for social inclusion. Anglo-Saxon New Archaeology, initiates the discussion on human In 1957, the Folklife and Ethnological Museum of Macedonia is societies in the territory, and attempts to reconstruct the original inaugurated in Thessaloniki, the second biggest city of Greece, setting of the archaeological finds71. Yet, his achievement in creating under a private initiative62. During the same period we observe a a model educational museum had limited impact in museum growing tendency for the formation and establishment of folklore practice. Equally the 1970s are a milestone for regional modern and ethnological collections and museums, such as the ones in and contemporary art museums, which are the product of private Kalamata63, Dimitsana, Larissa64, Serres65 and Ioannina66, mainly by initiative. In 1979, the Macedonian Centre of Contemporary Art72 is learned societies and associations, but also by local authorities67. created in Thessaloniki following a major donation of contemporary

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works from the world-class collector Alexandros Iolas. Today, the takes an important place in the discussions regarding both folklore Museum forms the Thessaloniki Metropolitan Organisation of and archaeological museums. The latter although still following Fine Arts Museums (MoMus), together with the State Museum of the post-war paradigm, are slowly moving towards new directions. Contemporary Art and the Museum of Photography73. In the same Temporary exhibitions of Greek antiquities in Western Europe and year the Goulandris Museum of Contemporary Art74 in Andros is the USA involve the directors of the provincial museums with the inaugurated. Ever since, both museums have been playing a decisive international museum scene whereas the social preoccupations put role in the formation of a public for the visual arts in Greece. At the emphasis on the educational role of the museum and further the same time, a new generation of museum professionals makes lead to the necessity to make these museums accessible to the its appearance. The lessons of Georges Henri Rivière reach Greece, public. and the Peloponnesian Folklore Foundation, a privately supported A growing number of private art collections and museums are being foundation, based in Nafplion, is founding the homonymous established outside Athens, as Greeks start to develop a taste for museum75. The Museum won the 1981 Museum of the Year main modern and contemporary art. In 1982, the Koumantareios Gallery Award (EMYA), and from then on, it sets the standards for regional of Sparta is opening its doors as an Annex of the National Gallery. folklore museums. Together with the Annexes of Corfu (1993), Nafplion (2004), and In this same year, a socialist government is elected, and the country, the Aigina Kapralos Museum (2006) they form a network of art 77 which has also just joined the European Community, is undergoing museums, operating at arms lenght . Private initiative plays a key a deep socioeconomic and cultural transformation. A number of role in the creation of art museums, even when these museums are relatively recent events, which had been ignored until then, have later donated to local government. These may be municipal galleries suddenly taken centre stage acquiring the status of symbols of hosting the collection of a person originating from the region (e.g. a reborn nation: the resistance during and after WW II, the civil the Christos and Sophia Moschandreou Aitoloakarnanian Gallery of 78 war, the student revolt of the Polytechnic School - all of which Modern Art at Messolonghi , and the Museum-Gallery of Stratis 79 are considered as genuine expressions of the people’s conscience Eleutheriadis-Terriade on Lesvos ), or monographic museums and power. The first collections of documents and objects related created with the purpose to exhibit works donated by contemporary to contemporary history are being created, most of them due to artists (eg. the Yannis Gaitis-Gabriela Simosi Museum, and the Costas 80 grassroots initiatives, some of which will evolve into new museums Tsoclis Museum on the islands of Ios and Tinos respectively) . Today at the beginning of the twenty-first century (e.g. The Democracy more than 50 municipal galleries are operating, some of which keep 81 Museum on the Island of Ai-Stratis, which however is an initiative historical collections (e.g. the Municipal Gallery of Ioannina , and 82 of the Ministry of Culture)76. Meanwhile, the sociopolitical climate the Municipality of Rhodes Modern Art Museum ), while others is ripe for a new return to the roots, which now serves the ideals of showcase the work of artists originating from the region (e.g. the 83 84 social change. In this context, a plethora of local folklore “museums” Municipal Galleries of Karditsa , and Lamia ). are created due to private and municipal initiative, their operation During this time, the value of industrial heritage and the possible re- being supported by state subsidies. On the museological and use of those buildings and their content for museum purposes also museographical level, most of these museums are rudimentary. enter the public dialogue. Within this context, the first museums on technical heritage and the hybrid forms of Greek industrial The1980s turn out to be a decisive decade for Greek museums. production are being created, such as the Industrial Museum of The Hellenic National Committee of ICOM is founded in 1983 Ermoupolis on Syros Island85. and subsequently organises the first international conferences on Museums and Museology, in close collaboration with the Ministry The thematic museum network of the Bank of Piraeus Cultural of Culture. From the start, the issue of regional and local museums Foundation, which has continued to develop to this day, represents

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a unique example86. It consists of nine museums across the country, During the same period, the Ministry promoted changes to its each of which is devoted to a specific theme: the Silk Museum at organisational chart so as to better serve the needs of museums, Soufli; the Roof-tile and Brickworks Museum N. & S. Tsalapatas but without altering the basics of its management system. From the at Volos; the Silversmithing Museum at Ioannina; the Museum of 19th century onwards, regional and local archaeological museums Industrial Olive-Oil Production of Lesvos; the Chios Mastic Museum; have been part of the regional Archaeological Services. In addition the Museum of Marble Crafts at Tinos; the Museum of Greek Olive to that, the model of cultural policy has focussed on ancient and Greek Olive Oil at Sparta; the Open-Air Water Power Museum monuments. Greece has yet no specific institutional framework at Dimitsana; the Environment Museum of Stymphalia. Thus, the for the establishment and operation of museums, the latter being museums bring to the fore particular aspects of the socio-economic largely considered as a component of cultural heritage protection history of Greece, along with the particular features of the local and management. This limits the possibility of planning and communities. The network acts locally, but is managed centrally implementing museum specific policies89. through its Athens offices. Although the crisis which spawned in 2009 completely altered the Finally, the adoption of the Charter of the Church of Greece in political, economic and social environment, the situation presents 1977, provided the framework for the creation of ecclesiastical a striking continuity as far as museums and museum policy are museums87. Since the founding of the Greek State, the icons and concerned. This is because the main characteristics of Greek ecclesiastical vessels have remained the property of the ecclesiastical regional and local museums observed in the previous periods establishments and have been exempted from the state ownership remained unaltered: the strong affiliation to the national narrative; of Antiquities stipulated by the Archaeological Law. For a long time, the preponderance of archaeological museums; the modes of the Church trusted their custody in state museums. After 1977 the display; the uneven quality of museums, including state museums; Church established its own museums across the country, which today the absence of accreditation; the lack of resources, both human are almost 180. The operation of these museums is supervised by and financial, and; the need for the elaboration of comprehensive the Ministry of Culture. museum policies.

On the other hand, due to the implementation of three successive Moving Towards a New Age (2000-2019) : Advances and Setbacks Heritage and Museums Programs the museum landscape is being continuously upgraded90. In 2004 Greece was preparing to At the beginning of the millennium, following a first law regulating welcome the Olympic Games in a climate of euphoria. The Ministry mainly contemporary art museums88, the Ministry introduced a set of Culture developed infrastructure, expanded museum buildings, of provisions for museums under the new Archaeological Law (Law revamped many state regional and local archaeological museums 3028/2002 «On the Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage and improved their services. These projects, which also included in General»). Article 45 in particular, sets the principles and basic the upgrading of a number of municipal and private museums of standards governing the establishment and operation of museums all types, were part of a wider structural reform co-funded by the (both state and accredited museums), which safeguard and EU within the framework of Regional Development, Cohesion, exhibit cultural heritage objects. The new law also provides for the Employment, and Environmental policies. protection of the intangible heritage (article 5), and stipulates the creation of a National Inventory of Monuments (article 4), which 2009 is the year the crisis broke out. It also coincided with the registers all objects deposited in state museums, icons and religious culmination of a long period of expansion. The brand new objects dated until the19th century that belong to the Church as buildings and exhibitions became part of a new reality, as the well as collections of the accredited museums. chronic underfunding of the Ministry, and cultural organisations in

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general, became more intense. The successive austerity programs led to a drastic cut in the budget intended for the operating costs Endnotes of both state and municipal museums. Private museums of all types 1 This article owes much to the extensive discussions with Teti Hadjinikolaou, have also been experiencing a massive drop in state funding as President of ICOM Greece, who helped me develop my thoughts on Greek museums. I would also like to thank Eugenia Gerousi, Director of well as private sponsorship, donations, and patronage91. The years the Administration of the National Archive of Monuments, and Athena between 2009 and 2014 coincided with the implementation of a Hatzidimitriou, Head of Department for the Administration of the Historical fourth EU funded Program. A fifth Program (2014-2020) is currently Archive of the Archaeological and Restoration Services for giving me access under way. The impact of these Programs has been considerable, to the Archive, and granting permission to publish its material. encompassing the creation of new museum spaces, the upgrading There is no official list and estimations are approximate, since museums have not been accredited yet. We acknowledge 230 archaeological museums, and of museum exhibitions, and last but not least, income generation approximatively 180 church museums, 120 folklore/ethnological museums, on a local, regional and national level. 60 art galleries, 50 historical museums, 58 university museums, 70 military museums, 10 natural history museums, and over 30 thematic museums.

However, the number and size of regional and local archaeological 2 Law 3028/2002, On the Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in General, Article 45. See, https://www.culture.gr/DocLib/g_41.pdf. museums, and above all, the role they were intended to play in the development of the cultural scene of a given region, did not form 3 Ministerial Decision 26. 10.2011, ΥΠΠΟΤ/ΓΔΑΠΚ/ΔΙΝΕΠΟΚ/Δ/93783/1682. See https://www.culture.gr/el/service/SitePages/view.aspx?iID=2807. All part of a coherent strategy resulting from a serious debate within internet references cited in this article were accessed on September 9, 2018. the Ministry, while a systematic discussion with local authorities on 4 Hamilakis, Y. - Yalouri, E., Antiquities as Symbolic Capital in Modern Greek museum policy issues was never initiated (including the reasons Society, in «Antiquity», 1996, 70, pp.117-129; see also Voudouri, D., The behind establishing or closing down municipal museums in constant Legal Protection of Antiquities in Greece and National Identity, in Voutsaki, S. need of state funding). The implications of this lack of dialogue - Cartledge, P. (eds.) , Ancient Monuments and Modern Identities. A Critical History of Archaeology in 19th and 20th Century Greece, London, Routledge, between major stakeholders become evident in cases such as 2017, pp. 77-94. the financial and social sustainability of these museums, most of 5 For a presentation of state archaeological museums until 2008, see which attract a small number of visitors. The proceeds, even when Ministry of Culture, Αρχαιολογικά Μουσεία και Συλλογές στην Ελλάδα, 2008 increased by tourism, are not enough to meet the operational needs [WWW document]. URL https://www.culture.gr/el/service/SitePages/view. of such a vast network, unless a total rethinking of the philosophy aspx?iID=2118#prettyPhoto. Lists, although not entirely updated are also available at odysseus.culture.gr. pertaining to the management system of state regional and local museums takes place92. 6 https://www.mthv.gr/en/. 7 https://www.mthv.gr/en/. 8 http://www.tegeamuseum.gr. What is the future of Greek regional and local museums in a globalised world? In the context of high complexity, characterised 9 http://en.mae.com.gr/on-eleutherna.html. by the epistemological shift of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, 10 http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/1/eh151.jsp?obj_id=3327. the uncertain economic environment, and the rapid social change, 11 http://www.bmk.gr/en/. museums are called to maintain their core objectives, and at the 12 https://www.byma.gr/?lang=en. same time respond to the expectations of the local communities 13 http://dml.culture.gr/index.php/en/. and the global visitors (physical and virtual). The ways in which both state actors and individual museums will adapt their strategy 14 https://capodistriasmuseum.com/en/. to meet the challenges of technology, demographics, mobility, and 15 http://emthrace.org/en/. tourism, will ultimately shape the new museum landscape of the 16 http://www.fex.org.gr/en/laografiko-istoriko-moyseio-ksanthis. 21st century. 17 http://www.mouseio-kozanis.gr/index.php?lang=en.

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18 http://iakm.gr/agia/Page?name=index&lang=en. 37 For the relation of archaeological discourse to museum display, see Mouliou, M., Από την Ιστορια της Αρχαιολογικής Επιστήμης στην Αναγνωση 19 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8AN9Xpnqzjc. Μουσειακών Εκθεσεων του Παρελθόντος, in Αρχαιολογια και Τεχνες, 1999, 73, pp. 20 http://www.katsigrasmuseum.gr/index.php/profile_en.html. 53-59. 21 http://www.lesvosmuseum.gr/site/home/ws.csp?loc=en_US. 38 Gazi,“Artfully Classified“ cit., 2008 ; Gazi, A., Displaying Archaeology, in Voutsaki – Cartledge (eds.) Ancient Monuments cit, 2017, pp. 95-115. 22 http://www.dmko.gr/en/. 39 Gratziou, O. - Lazaridou, A. (eds.), Από τη Χριστιανική Συλλογή στο Βυζαντινό 23 http://www.typography-museum.gr/home-en/. Μουσείο (1884-1930), Κατάλογος Έκθεσης, Αθήνα, Βυζαντινό και Χριστιανικό 24 http://www.romagr.gr Μουσείο, 29 Μαρτίου 2002-7 Ιανουαρίου 2003, Αθήνα, in Ταμείο Αρχαιολογικών Πόρων και Απαλλοτριώσεων, 2006, with extensive essays on the cultural 25 http://www.averoffmuseum.gr/site/content.php?setlocale=2&sel=2. context. See also, http://www.byzantinemuseum.gr/en/. 26 Hadjinikolaou, T., , 2003, 12-13, pp. 11- 26 (p.16). Εισαγωγή, Εθνογραφικα 40 Kyriakidou-Nestoros, A., Η Θεωρια της Ελληνικής Λαογραφιας. Κριτική 27 Kokkou, A., Η Μεριμνα για τις Αρχαιότητες στην Ελλαδα και τα Πρώτα Μουσεια, Αναλυση, Αθήνα, in Εταιρεια Σπουδών Νεοελληνικού Πολιτισμού και Γενικής Β΄έκδοση, Αθήνα, in Εκδόσεις Καπόν, 2009, pp. 104-105, 124-127, 134. Παιδειας, Σχολή Μωραΐτη, 1978, pp. 89-110. 28 Ibidem. 41 http://www.melt.gr/en/. 29 Skopetea, E., Το «Πρότυπο Βασιλειο» και η Μεγαλη Ιδεα. Όψεις του Εθνικού 42 Demirtzaki, Aik., Το Εθνικό Ιστορικό Μουσείο της Ιστορικής και Εθνολογικής Προβλήματος στην Ελλαδα (1830-1880), in Aθήνα: Εκδόσεις Πολύτυπο, 1988; Εταιρείας της Ελλάδος in Ίδρυση, συλλεκτική πολιτική και άλλες δράσεις (1882-1926), Kotsakis, K., The Powerful Past: Theoretical Trends in Greek Archaeology, in Διδακτορική Διατριβή 2013, ΕΚΠΑ [WWW document] URL https://phdtheses. Hodder, I. (ed.) Archaeological Theory in Europe, The Last Three Decades, London, ekt.gr/eadd/handle/10442/35109. See also, http://www.nhmuseum.gr/en. Routledge, 1991, pp.65-90 (65-70) ; Hamilakis, Y., The Nation and its Ruins: 43 Voudouri, D., Κράτος και Μουσεία. Το Θεσμικό πλαίσιο των αρχαιολογικών Antiquity, Archaeology, and National Imagination in Greece, New York, Oxford μουσείων, Αθήνα-Θεσσαλονίκη: Εκδόσεις Σάκκουλα, 2003, pp. 350-353; Sakka, N., University Press, 2007; Gazi, A., National museums in Greece: History, Ideology, Αρχαιολογική πολιτική της κυβέρνησης Βενιζέλου, 1928-1932, in Σχέδια, προτάσεις Narratives, in Aronsson, P. - Elgenius, G. (eds.), Building National Museums in και θεσμικές ρυθμίσεις, in Sakellaropoulos, T. - Vatsaki, A. (eds.), Ελευθέριος Europe 1750-2010. Conference proceedings from EuNaMus, European National Βενιζέλος και πολιτιστική πολιτική, Πρακτικά Συμποσίου, Αθήνα-Χανιά, in Μουσείο Museums: Identity Politics, the Uses of the Past and the European Citizen, Bologna Μπενάκη-Εθνικό Ίδρυμα Ερευνών και Μελετών “Ελευθέριος Κ. Βενιζέλος”, 2012, 28-30 April 2011, EuNaMus Report No 1, Linköping University Electronic pp. 92-110 (95-100). Press [WWW document], URL http://www.ep.liu.se/ecp_home/index. en.aspx?issue=064, 365-369, για τις cit., 2009, pp. 305, 308. 44 Tziovas, D., Ο Μύθος της Γενιάς του Τριάντα, Νεοτερικότητα, Ελληνικότητα και Πολιτισμική Ιδεολογία, Αθήνα, Πόλις. - Centre for Byzantine Research 2011; 30 Tziovas, D., Ο Μύθος της Γενιάς του Τριάντα, Νεοτερικότητα, Ελληνικότητα και Chondrogiannis, St., Byzantium in the World. Artistic, Cultural and Ideological Πολιτισμική Ιδεολογία, Αθήνα, in «Πόλις», 2011, pp. 294-295. Legacy from the 19th to the 21st Century, Thessaloniki, Aristotle University of 31 Kokkou, Η Μεριμνα για cit., 2009, pp. 61-68. Thessaloniki, 2017, pp.138-139. 32 Royal Decree, 10/22 May 1834, which provides for the creation of 45 Tziovas, D., Reconfiguring the Past: Antiquity and Greekness, in «Damaskos museums and libraries in the capitals of the prefectures, and for municipal & Plantzos», 2008, pp. 287-298. museums.

33 Kokkou, Η Μεριμνα για cit., 2009, pp. 305-306. 46 Tziovas, D., Dimitris Tziovas on the Greek crisis & the Reinvention of Modern 34 Petrakos, V., Η εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογική Εταιρεία. Ιστορία των 150 χρόνων της, Greek Studies, interview by Nicolas Nenedakis, in Greek News Agenda 1837-1987, Αθήνα, in Βιβλιοθήκη της εν Αθήναις Αρχαιολογικής Εταιρείας αρ. 104, Rethinking Greece, 2016, URL http://www.greeknewsagenda.gr/index.php/ 1987, pp.17-84; Kokkou, Η Μεριμνα για cit., 2009, pp. 99-138, 306-308. interviews/rethinking-greece/5917-rethinking-greece-dimitris-tziovas. 35 Chourmouziadi, A., Το Ελληνικό Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο. Ο εκθέτης- το έκθεμα- 47 Hadjinikolaou, T., Εισαγωγή, Εθνογραφικα, 2003, 12-13, pp. 11- 26; Avdikos, ο επισκέπτης, Θεσσαλονίκη, in Εκδόσεις Βάνιας, 2006, 30-51, 377-378, maps I-II; E., Εισαγωγή στις σπουδές του λαϊκού πολιτισμού, Εκδόσεις Κριτική, Αθήνα, 2009, Gazi, A., “Artfully Classified’’ and “Apropriately Placed”: Notes on the Display 208 -227. of Antiquities in Early Twentieth- Century Greece, in «Damaskos & Plantzos», 48 Tziovas, Ο Μύθος cit., 2011, especially pp. 286- 320; Bounia, A., 2008, pp. 67-82; Kokkou, Η Μεριμνα για cit., pp. 304-308. Philanthropy, art and the museum: Loukia Zygomala and the promotion of Greek 36 Chourmouziadi, A., Το Ελληνικό Αρχαιολογικό cit., 2006, p. 57. folk embroidery, in «Journal of the History of Collections», 2011, 24:1, pp. 105-116; Bounia, A., Η Άννα Αποστολάκι και η ίδρυση λαογραφικών μουσείων στην

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ελληνική περιφέρεια, in Oikonomou, A. - Florou, A. (eds.), Αντίδωρο στην Άννα University of Thessaloniki- Centre for Byzantine Research, 2017, pp. 171- Αποστολάκι, Πρακτικά Επιστημονικής Ημερίδας, Αθήνα 24 Νοεμβρίου 2015, Αθήνα, 172. Λύκειον των Ελληνίδων, 2017, pp.164-170; Oikonomou, A., Η θεωρητική και θεσμική συγκρότηση της ελληνικής λαογραφίας κατά το α΄ μισό του 20ού αιώνα. Το 60 Law no 1469/1950, Official Gazette 169/A/7.8.1950. See,https://www. πλαίσιο δράσης της Άννας Αποστολάκι, in Oikonomou – Florou, Αντίδωρο στην culture.gr/el/ministry/SitePages/archeol_law.aspx?iID=197. Άννα cit., 2017, pp. 111-132. 61 https://www.historical-museum.gr/eng/. 49 Matthiopoulos, E., Αστισμός και παράδοση: ένας γάμος από έρωτα ή από 62 http://www.lemmth.gr/welcome; Melidou-Kefala, Gl., Από το ‘Τμήμα συμφέρον, in Sakellaropoulos, T. - Vatsaki, A. (eds.), Ελευθέριος Βενιζέλος και Λαογραφιας’ της Μακεδονικής Φιλεκπαιδευτικής Αδελφότητας στο ‘Λαογραφικό και πολιτιστική πολιτική, Πρακτικά Συμποσίου, Αθήνα-Χανιά: Μουσείο Μπενάκη-Εθνικό Εθνολογικό Μουσειο Μακεδονιας-Κεντρο Ερευνών’, in «Ministry of Culture & Ίδρυμα Ερευνών και Μελετών , in «Ελευθέριος Κ. Βενιζέλος», 2012, pp. 110-147. Museum of Greek Folk Art», 1997, pp. 29-35. 50 Hatzimichali, A., Λαϊκή Τέχνη, in Μεγάλη Ελληνική Εγκυκλοπαίδεια, Αθήνα, 63 http://www.kalamata.gr/episkeptes/aksiotheata/mouseia/278- Εκδόσεις Πυρσός, 1934, pp. 825-845.1934, 830-836. laografiko-mouseio.html. 51 http://www.koraeslibrary.gr/en/mouseio-argenti. 64 Gourioti, L., Λάρισα. Η πόλη και το Λαογραφικό της Μουσείο, in «Ministry of 52 Chourmouziadi A., St., Byzantium in the World. Artistic, Cultural and Culture & Museum of Greek Folk Art», 1997, pp. 43-46. Ideological Legacy from the 19th to the 21st Century, Thessaloniki, Aristotle 65 http://www.sarakatsani-folk-museum.gr/index.php. University of Thessaloniki- Centre for Byzantine Research, 2017, pp. 242- 244. See also, http://artcorfu.gr/αρχική/ιστορικό-ταυτότητα-δσ/. 66 http://www.ehm.gr/museum_history.php. 53 Department for the Administration of the Historical Archive of the 67 Oikonomou, A., Υλικός πολιτισμός, Θεωρία, Μεθοδολογία, Αξιοποίηση, Αθήνα, Archaeological and Restoration Services, file 585B, extract from the minutes Εκδόσεις Παπαζήση, 2014, pp.179-202. of the Archaeological Council 88/1949. 68 Hadjinikolaou, T., Εισαγωγή, Εθνογραφικα, 2003, pp. 12-13, (11- 26); 54 Athanassiou, E. - Alifragkis, S., Educating Greece in Modernity: Post-war Avdikos, E., Εισαγωγή στις σπουδές του λαϊκού πολιτισμού, Εκδόσεις Κριτική, Tourism and Western Politics, in Athanassiou, E. - Alifragkis, S. - Mousa, Αθήνα, 2009, p. 267. M., Μεταπολεμικός Μοντερνισμός: Αρχιτεκτονική, Πολιτική και Τουρισμός στην 69 Karakatsani, A. - Papadopoulos, St., Μουσεία και Συλλογές της Ελλάδος, Ελλαδα 1950-1965 [ΠΕΒΕ 2010, τελική εκθεση 65/18740, επιστημονικός υπεύθυνος: Αθήνα, Εθνική Τράπεζα της Ελλάδος, 1970; Kokkinis, Sp., Τα μουσεία της Ελλάδος, Π. Τουρνικιώτης, καθηγητής ΕΜΠ], Σχολή Αρχιτεκτόνων 2012, ΕΜΠ, in Greek Αθήνα, Βιβλιοπωλείο της Εστίας 1979. [WWW document]. URL https://www.archetype.gr/uploads/pdf/hvxInpFxxu. pdf?_=1524774260; Vlachos, A., Τουρισμός και δημόσιες πολιτικές στη σύγχρονη 70 Chourmouziadi, A., Το Ελληνικό Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο. Ο εκθέτης- το έκθεμα- Ελλάδα (1914-1950), Η ανάδυση ενός νεοτερικού φαινομένου, Αθήνα, Εκδόσεις ο επισκέπτης, Θεσσαλονίκη: Εκδόσεις Βάνιας, 2006, pp. 77-82. See also, https:// Κέρκυρα, 2016, pp. 392-413. www.archaiologia.gr/blog/2014/09/22/αρχαιολογικό-μουσείο-βόλου-η-οδύσσει/. 55 Minister of Religious Affairs and National Education A. Papadimos, 71 Kotsakis, K. , The Powerful Past: Theoretical Trends in Greek Archaeology, in document ref. No 14693/556/389, dated April 4, 1948. Hodder, I. (ed.) Archaeological Theory in Europe, The Last Three Decades, London, Routledge, 1991, pp. 65-90 (76-79) ; Mouliou, Museum Representations cit., 56 Thessaloniki, Herakleion, Delphi, Thebes, Thermos, Volos, Olympia, 2008, pp. 83-109 (p. 92). Epidauros, Nafplion, Tegea, Patras, Eleusis, Amphiareion, Thera, Corfu, Samos, Delos, Lesvos, Thasos, and Rhodes. 72 http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/1/eh151.jsp?obj_id=3470. 57 Chourmouziadi, A., Το Ελληνικό Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο. Ο εκθέτης- το 73 https://www.mmca.gr/?page_id=38. έκθεμα- ο επισκέπτης, Θεσσαλονίκη: Εκδόσεις Βάνιας, 2006, pp. 61-80; Kokkou, Η 74 https://www.moca-andros.gr/en/. Μεριμνα, cit., 2009, p. 308. 75 http://www.pli.gr/en. 58 Kokkinidou, D. - Nikolaidou, M., On the Stage and Behind the Scenes: Greek Archaeology in Times of Dictatorship, in Galaty, M. - Watkinson, Ch. (eds.) 76 http://www.mouseiodimokratias.gr/english/index.asp. See also, Archaeology Under Dictatorship, New York, Springer, 2004, pp. 155-190 (168- Hadjinikolaou, T., Ιστορικα Τεκμήρια και Προσωπικα Βιώματα. Η Πρόκληση 172, 184); Mouliou, M., Museum Representations of the Classical Past in Post- των Μουσειων Σύγχρονης Ιστοριας, «Τετραδια Μουσειολογιας», 2010, 7, pp. 43- War Greece: A Critical Analysis, in Damaskos, D. - Plantzos, D. (eds.), A Singular 48; Droubouki, A. M., Μνημονικοί τόποι και Δημόσια Ιστορία του Β΄Παγκοσμίου Antiquity. Archaeology and Hellenic Identity in Twentieth Century Greece, Athens, Πολέμου στην Ελλάδα, Διδακτορική Διατριβή, 2014, pp.379-388, ΕΚΠΑ [WWW Benaki Museum, 2008, pp. 83-109. document]. URL https://repository.edulll.gr/edulll/retrieve/11930/3610_Δρουμπούκη_ διατριβή.pdf. 59 Chondrogiannis, St. (2017) Byzantium in the World. Artistic, Cultural and Ideological Legacy from the 19th to the 21st Century, Thessaloniki: Aristotle 77 http://www.nationalgallery.gr/en/.

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78 http://www.xms.gr/en/xms/. 79 http://www.museumteriade.gr/en/index.asp. 80 http://www.tsoclismuseum.gr/museum/en/. 81 http://84.205.237.184/pinakothiki/. 82 https://www.mgamuseum.gr/en/history.php. LOCAL MUSEUMS IN ISRAEL 83 https://dimoskarditsas.gov.gr/dimotiki-pinakothiki-karditsas-2. AN ANCHOR TO THE COMMUNITY FOR BUILDING IDENTITY AND 84 http://www.pinakothiki.lamia-city.gr. PRESERVING CULTURAL HERITAGE Dorit Wolenitz 85 http://www.ketepo.gr/en/news. 86 Piraeus Bank Group Cultural Foundation (2014). Also, http://www.piop. gr/en/diktuo-mouseiwn.aspx. One of our leaders in the past, Yigal Allon, said: «A Nation who does 87 http://users.uoa.gr/~nektar/orthodoxy/history/katastatikos_xarths_ not respect its past, its present is dull - and its future uncertain». ekklhsia_ths_ellados.htm. Before I go on elaborating about this quote, I would like to give 88 Law 2557/1997, On Institutional Measures and Actions of Cultural Development. you an introduction about museums in Israel and the Ministry of See http://www.tap.gr/tapadb/files/nomothesia/nomoi/n.2557_1997.pdf. Culture. In 1983, the Parliament of Israel – The Knesset - passed the 89 Garezou, M.-X. - Keramidas, St. Greek Museums at a Crossroads: Continuity Museums’ Law. The law and its regulations define the standards for and Change, in «Museum International» 69, 2017, no 275-276, pp. 12-25 (14- 17). Gazi, A., Greek museums in Times of Crisis, in Tziovas, D. (ed.), Greece in museum to become accredited. The law defines the duties of the Crisis: The Cultural Poetics of Austerity, London, I.B. Tauris, 2017, pp. 158-179; museums, but does not define the financial support for museums. Chondrogiannis, St., Byzantium in the World. Artistic, Cultural and Ideological On the other hand, the law leaves freedom of action in matters of Legacy from the 19th to the 21st Century, Thessaloniki, Aristotle University of museum management. The law defines that a museum has to: Thessaloniki- Centre for Byzantine Research, 2017, pp.167-170. 90 Garezou- Keramidas, Greek Museums cit., 2017, pp. 12-25. • Employ professional workers; 91 Hadjinikolaou, T., Greek Museums Facing the Financial Crisis, in Public Policies • Preserve the collections and ensure that they are properly held Toward Museums in Time of Crisis, ICOM Portugal and ICOM Europe Joint and presented to the public; Conference, Lisbon 5-6 April 2013 (WWW document). URL https://issuu. com/mapadasideiaspt/docs/icom_view_final; Garezou – Keramidas, St. • Keep a record, photograph and description of the collections; Greek Museums cit., 2017, p.18 ; Gazi, A., Greek museums cit. • Provide the public with information about exhibits in the Museum; 92 Garezou - Keramidas, St., Greek Museums cit., 2017, p.19. • Publish catalogs and other publications; • Conduct educational and cultural activities at the Museum as well as the conditions for such activity; • Comply with provisions regarding security and safety; • Submit an annual report on the museum’s activities; • Conduct professional training of employees and ethics rules; The law also indicates restrictions on the museum’s management regarding: • The sale of items, exporting of items, exchange of exhibits, destruction or the removal;

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• Commercial activity and advertising within the walls of the 0.4% of the State budget. The museums cut in the culture budget Museum, directly or indirectly; is about 53 million NIS (13 million Euro). The state has holdings in the museums through the antiquity law • Payment of entrance fees, discounts and exemptions. and the natural national collection. The antiquity law states that all The law also determines that a Museums’ Council of 21 members the antiquities discovered randomly or in archaeological excavations is to be elected. The role of the Council is to advise the Minister of belong by law to the National Treasury of Israel - over one million Culture on: antiques all belong to periods before1,700 ac. • The regulations of the law The Israel Antiquities Authority is in charge of the country’s antiquity and antiquities sites, their excavation, preservation, conservation, • The accreditation process of museums study and publications. • -To examine the quality and ethics of museums conducts The Israel Antiquities Authority records, photographs, and documents the antiquities. They give professional help to museums, • -and on the funding distribution policy based on measurable and lend objects to museums and to open gardens and institutions in criteria that aim to reach justified and transparent distribution. Israel and around the world, with the intent of bringing archeology There are 56 accredited museums in Israel by the museum’s law. to the public. They are funded partly by the government. The museums are And now back to the quote: «A Nation who does not divided into 4 groups: respect its past, its present is dull - and its future uncertain». Group A – National museum (1 museum, the Israel Museum) In the early stages of Israel as a state, about 1950, when immigrants Group B – Regional (9 museums) arrived from around the world, the country’s leadership adopted the concept of a ‘melting pot’ - creating a new Israeli – the “Sabra”. Group C – Local (medium size, 11 museums) The first prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, explained the ‘melting Group D – Local (small size, 35 museums) pot’ concept to teach new immigrants the heritage and culture of the young state of Israel. However, throughout the years, as a Each of the groups has different scale of standards. result of historical, demographic, political and social changes, and None of these museums is owned by the state, most of them are sociological research which indicated personal identity problems NGO, and mostly owned by municipalities. especially in the young generation and disconnections between There are also about 70 museums that are not accredited and about generations, a new multi-cultural approach rose, to adopt flexible 100 heritage sites. The museums are spread all over Israel, an area and diverse concepts of “who is an Israeli”. of 22,000 km2. In 2015 there were 4.25 million visits to accredited museums in Israel. The population of Israel is 8.5 million people. The state of Israel supports and assists various groups to keep their unique culture and assign them the means and conditions to do so. There are some museums which operate by separate laws: Yad Ethnic groups such as Bedouins, Druzes, Circassians and others, as Vashem, in Jerusalem, a museum about Second World War, Jews well as members of other religions such as Muslims and Christians, and the Holocaust; the museum of the Jewish people, The Diaspora have their own museums or heritage centers. They collect objects, Institute, Tel-Aviv; the Independence House museum, Tel-Aviv, photos, documents, music, etc., but most importantly, they collect where the state of Israel was declared; The Knesset (the parliament evidence and knowledge from the elders. of Israel) Museum, Jerusalem; and museums operated by the Ministry of Defense, spread all over the country. Most of these museums started as the result of a local initiative of one person or a group of people that began gathering items and As we all know, money makes the world go round, and the current information from members of the community. They also located culture budget in Israel is about 570 million NIS (138.5 million Euro),

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suitable building, sometimes the old house of their family and were the memorial museum of Hungarian speaking Jewry in Tzefat, the able to raise the funds. These places have an important social role Babylonian Jewry Heritage center in Or- Yehuda, the Cochin Jewish for the elders to teach the young, traditional music, dance, stories, Heritage Center in Moshav Nevatim and the Museum of Italian crafts and food. Some examples of the Jewish ethnic museums are: Jewish Art in Jerusalem. Some examples of museums of other ethnic

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groups and religions are: the Museum of Bedouin Culture in Lahav diversity is something that almost every country is dealing with one forest, the Museum of Circassia Heritage in Kfar Kama, the Museum way or another. Looking at the future to come, in every process of for Islamic Art in Jerusalem and the Franciscan museum in Jerusalem. globalization, we should pay attention to the starting point and to the process itself. This can be done by creating new identities – not by The role of museums as mediators of cultural, social and religious

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forgetting and leaving the previous ones, but rather by growing from of belonging of the local community, reinforce a local sense of and within, towards a new one. Not all the museums that I showed pride of place; to become an education and culture center for and are accredited. Some of them are very small and find it difficult to community-building activities; and to serve as a vector for building meet the law requirements. Also in many small towns, kibuzim and the town’s image. moshavim, which are agricultural villages, the need to commemorate The government of Israel has decided on a six- years project with the first settlers (from the end of the 19th century) became expected a budget of 600 million NIS (145 million Euro), to promote and and needed and they have established their own heritage centers. preserve the National Heritage. The project aims to strengthen the The government and the Ministry of Culture support museums National Heritage to different target audiences in the community. through some other governmental bodies and organizations. The The project deals with tangible and intangible heritage. One of the Council for Conservation of Heritage Sites in Israel was established programs included in the project is The Museum Portal which uploads in 1984. The trigger was the destruction of historic buildings and to the web the main collections of museums in Israel.1 sites that were up to that time without any protection, since the Antiquities Law applies only to buildings and sites built before It is obvious that museums, in order to survive and justify their 1700. The council goals are: existence, must become relevant and meaningful to their community. One more way to do so is to become a cultural center -preventing the destruction of buildings and sites of some historical for the community. Museums started to offer their visitors a variety value and preserving them of cultural events such as concerts, plays, lectures, movies etc. The -arising public and professional awareness of conservation values need of museums to be relevant has increased the importance to be a space which provides a platform for engaging issues of identity, -and education. community, learning, change and pluralism, through exhibitions The Council holds and operates 9 sites and oversees over 150 and educational activities. Heritage sites and museums located mostly in historical buildings. Their power is in the way they involve the community. Everyone over 18 years old can become a member and take part in heritage preservation activities, and in a variety of unique educational programs. Recently the Council for Conservation of Heritage Sites in Israel has begun a project Initiated by the Minister of Culture and Sport Miri Regev, and supported by the Israeli government, to advance a multi-year project of building municipal museums or heritage sites, which will be dedicated to the residents of the peripheral development towns, established in the 1950s and 1960s, and their vital contribution to the State of Israel, a story that so far has been absent from the state ethos. The council will work together with the local authority and the local community members. Four towns have been chosen for the first stage. Their unique local characteristics will be emphasized in each museum. The starting point for the displays will be the early years. Then, the development of the towns over the years through to the present day will be described. Some of the goals are: to deepen and enhance the identity and sense

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Endnotes

1 www.museumsinisrael.gov.il/en.

SEZIONE III DAI MUSEI LOCALI AI MUSEI DI COMUNITÀ

160 161 DEMOCRACY, COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT AND LOCAL MUSEUMS IN PORTUGAL Luís Raposo

Up to the late twentieth century, Portugal was one of the remaining fascist-oriented dictatorships in Europe. The images of Portugal and the Portuguese were, for most Europeans, linked to the emigration of power unqualified workers, giving rise to the building of so-called “bidonvilles” in several countries, and around Paris particularly (in fig. 1 one of these “bidonvilles”, near Paris, in the 1960’s).

Fig. 1 “Bidonvilles”, near Paris, in the 1960’s

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Finally, a military coup d’état, immediately converted into a susceptible throughout centuries, and especially after the Second democratic revolution, occurred in April 25, 1974. Public wall-posters World War, to intense movements of migration from rural areas to of the epoch stressed the fundamental union between military and the surroundings of towns. Most of the population there was and is people in order to promote the development of the country (see still today composed of ancient rural workers and their immediate fig. 2) and this initial impetus towards the recovering of civic dignity descendants generally coming from the Alentejo, a region where was very much imbibed with cultural heritage values, either material an agrarian regime based in huge land parcels (latifundia), owned by as immaterial, and not as concerned with natural or environmental one single person or family, frequently absent in town, conducted to concerns. The figures presented in fig. 3 express this reality: from an extreme proletarianization of peasantry, forced into hard, often 1975 to 1984, Cultural Heritage Associations (ADP: Associações cruel, systems of exploitation and repression. Transformed into de Defesa do Património) were created in a greater number than industrial workers (from cork to steel factories, among others) these others where natural heritage was prevalent (ADPN: Associações former rural wage earners also embraced the traditional activities de Defesa do Património Natural) (source: Sofia da Costa Macedo related to the Tagus, from fisheries to transport of merchandise Marginho, ISBN 978-989-8876-62-1). between the banks and supply of the great city. The final result was the establishment of a highly politicized community, where Museums played an important role in this movement, in the form numerous strikes took place during the Dictatorship, and it was not of local, community or ecomuseums, in this case partially due to the only by chance that one of the earliest features of a community presence of Hugues de Varine in Portugal, where he was appointed museum, or ecomuseum, came from such a place, where in addition as president of the Institut Franco-Portuguais, an official entity some of the mentioned industries showed at the epoch signs of dependent of the French Ministry for Foreign Affairs. great decay and effective closure. One of the paradigmatic examples of this is the Ecomuseum of In its own chart of intentions, the Ecomuseum of Seixal states to have Seixal, located South of Lisbon, close to the Tagus estuary – an area the mission of investigating, preserving, documenting, interpreting,

Cultural Heritage Associations (ADP) Fig. 3 Fig. 2 and Natural and Cultural Heritage Associations (ADPN)

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valuing and disseminating testimonies of man and the environment, No other factor other than democracy can explain such a pattern: reported to the territory and population of the municipality, in order even though in the immediate aftermath of the 1974 Revolution, to contribute to the construction and transmission of memories nothing seems to occur, the fact is that the underground forces and sustainable local development. Functionally, it is based on of social involvement were acting, new projects of museums were the integrated management of services, by which a permanent being prepared, thus forming the boom visible later on. This lag team of around thirty people are distributed, covering research, between the first democratic years and the emergence of new documentation, conservation, exhibition, diffusion and education, museums can also be explained because most of them were, and still centered on a vast museum collection and a very diversified heritage. are, promoted by municipal authorities and for these authorities Territorially, it integrates eight sites, with five museological centers the first priority under a democratic government was to provide or nuclei (Cork Factory, Naval Traditional Shipbuilding, Roman basic living conditions for the population, at the level of electricity Ceramic Woven, Tidal Mill, Powder Factory) and three extensions access, water supply and sewage networks. (Traditional Typography, Traditional Ships to promenade in the river, The ‘big issue’, however, once the basic conditions of life were and the Ancient Farmhouse residential area). The nuclei are sites established - including that of cultural well-being, which experienced or spaces of municipal ownership, musealized or with museological the cultivation of memory and the creation of spaces dedicated to use. The extensions are sites or patrimonies integrated in spaces it – museums, we call them – is that for all these recourses to have of mixed ownership (municipal and other, public or private), with sense it is necessary for there to be people. And even if huge societal partial museological utilization. developments occurred since 1974, the new democratic regime was Being maybe the most emblematic and one of the earlier ones, the not really able to create and distribute economic affluence so as to Ecomuseum of Seixal is far from alone in the movement towards the avoid emigration both internally as externally. The hard question creation of museums, particularly local and or community museums, here is, thus, the one of knowing who needs museums instead of as a consequence of the political democratization of the country. employment generators, in (virtually) abandoned lands. In fig. 4 we present the number of museums in Portugal since the Of course, emigration is not independent of political options, events 1960’s up to the present (as of 2016) and it is clear the “explosion” and regimes. In fig. 5 we document the evolution of Portuguese occurred from the mid to end 1980’s onwards. emigration through a wide series of years, in fact in about a century

Fig. 4 Portuguese emigration (1855 to 2011) Fig. 5

Post-2nd War CEE/EU Financial crisis 1st Republic Ditactorship integration Financial and bankruptcy and World War and Isolationism global crisis

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and half, from 1850 to 2011. The connection established with documentation centre, etc). Special attention is given to the Taberna this data and the political regimes or historically negative events (the historical assembly place, where traditionally mostly men met clearly shows that convulsions, maxime wars, economic collapses and to drink and sing the “cante alentejano”). In smaller villages and social repression are in direct correlation with an intensification of places other community assembling spaces are locations of the emigration. This happens to be the case during the huge economic museum (such as the Aivados community village). Communities crisis in late 19th century, when the country was forced to declare are intensively involved in this museum, a place where elders meet bankruptcy, the Great War, the politics of isolation promoted by children and local festivities are organized. the Dictatorship after the Second World War, the initial European The Ecomuseum of Barroso encompasses an entire mountain in the Economic Community integration, and the more recent Global north, close to the Spanish Galician border. The remoteness of the Financial Crisis. place and its geographical individuality gave origin, since antiquity, So, and again, the question is what can museums do in such to specific cultural traits of the so-called “Barroso culture”. The circumstances of intense depopulation of theit territories? Should mountain itself, is considered to be sacred, “the place where gods museums be the most adequate frame, or even a possible partner, reached Earth”. The museum is thus composed of both open air to fight against the abandonment of territories by opposing landscapes, including trails to walk or ancient pre-Roman and Roman community developmental strategies? What exactly are museums rock sanctuaries, and in-house places, which exhibit ethnographic and how can one differentiate them (if that is even needed) from collections, produce artisanal products or offer places for people to other developmental community devices such as cooperatives, meet. Folk festivals and mystical happenings also constitute a sort cultural centers, socio-economic associations, etc.? Why continue to of ‘trade-mark’ identity, attracting thousands of people from the focus on museums when perhaps other more encompassing frames nearby regions and remote places. would maybe easily achieve the same community goals? In sum, and In the case of Village of Picote, more with than a “museum”, we repeating what has been said earlier: who needs museums – instead are experiencing a project of community development promoted of employment generators - in (virtually) abandoned lands? by neighbors, organized in an NGO: the Frauga - Association for The answer can perhaps be searched at two complementary levels: the Integrated Development of Picote. This Association belongs to a the empirical one, by observing the reality as it has evolved and more encompassing one (in both a geographic as well as disciplinary stands today; and the reflexive one, by anticipating possible avenues sense): the TERRA MATER. Located in an extremely remote region, to build the future. close to Spain and frontier made by the river Douro, this museological At the empirical level, a few selected examples of local or community concept is composed of public and private spaces, requalified with museums, or museums-like initiatives in different parts of Portugal, the financial support of the electricity company exploiting a nearby could be presented in order to evaluate the attachment of people dam as a social mitigating policy. Several museological poles have to them and their effective impact on local lives. Among these, here been created, but the main focus remains on the development of are three examples. the village and the surrounding region, including scientific research, assistance to economic practices, touristic routes, et cetera. The Rural Museum of Castro Verde, located in the interior of Alentejo, in the south of Portugal, beyond the main roads, exists at the border Many other examples could be given (and we did that in a recent of a small mountain (“serra”) and the geographic frontier to Algarve. paper: Extended Museums in Abandoned Lands: The Case of the ‘European The museum is composed of exhibitions (mostly ethnographic), Far-West’, ISBN: 97883-242-3413-4), but these are enough to document and a space devoted to orality and musical traditions, where the real impact of museums in communities undergoing intense special attention is given to the particular local “viola campaniça” emigration pressure. And so, maybe we can derive from these some (country side viola) and several logistic spaces (projection room, reflections that allow us to foresee the future.

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Cultural heritage values are the solid ground through which a sort of “museological resistance”, connected with identity self- community can be built or rebuilt. Museums, in particular, are consciousness, in wide areas close to the Spanish border. especially prepared to act accordingly. In figg. 6 A, B we present In community oriented projects, the role of museums in promoting the number of Portuguese museums by municipality and per ten cultural empowerment is crucial for the complete social quality of thousand inhabitants. Even if in the first case there is a larger life and, hopefully at the end, for people’s fixation in the territory. concentration of museum on the coast, where population, urban So, similarly to the answer given by UNESCO to the hard question environments and economic wealthy are all together concentrated, of “why do we care about monuments when lives are being lost, it is extremely suggestive that the remote areas of the interior are families are becoming refugees, children are being maimed”, we still fairly occupied with museums, up to a point where there exists will have to remember that “someday people will return to their

Fig. 6A Fig. 6B

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homes, somehow shattered lives should be rebuilt” and cultural and developmental projects, making their expertise and facilities heritage values will act as the cement allowing communities to be available for this purpose. A new framework is needed and, in recreated. Museums, merged perhaps with other cultural devices, can some places, already occurs in some countries where traditionally in such circumstances act not only as remembering places, but also as separated institutions are merged, giving place to new concepts meeting points to discuss the present and foreseeing the future. such as GLAM (Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Museums). Merging is always a difficult question, in museums as in any other GLAM, or its earlier version LAM (without Galleries), originated institution or disciplinary field. But it is unavoidable to consider it. A about three decades ago and, as it is briefly expressed in Wikipedia, few years ago, the Museums Association (UK) asked a few museum corresponded initially to a quest for interconnection in software directors to give their testimony on merging (see https://www. resources: «The term LAM emerged as these institutions saw their museumsassociation.org/museums-journal/comment/01112013-what-are- missions overlapping, creating the need for a wider industry sector the-pros-and-cons-of-merging-local-authority-museums). Simon Cane, grouping. This became apparent as they placed their collections Director of the Birmingham Museums Trust, said: «From a funding online—artworks, books, documents, and artifacts all effectively perspective it makes sense for local authorities to fund services to becoming ‘information resources’». A sort of theoretical foundation a single trust rather than a separate organization. The relationship was also searched: «Proponents of greater collaboration argue is more straightforward and benefits the authority.» Steve Miller, that the present convergence is actually a return to traditional Director of the Norfolk Museums & Archaeology Service, confirmed: unity. These institutions share epistemological links dating from «The pros are obviously around economies of scale and the ability the ‘Museum’ of Alexandria and continuing through the cabinets of to provide shared conservation, specialist knowledge, education curiosities gathered in early modern Europe. Over time as collections and marketing, and deliver these to our visitors.» Keith Merrin, expanded, they became more specialized and their housing was Director of the Woodhorn Museum and Northumberland Archives, separated according to the form of information and kinds of users. added: «It is easier working with a single council with a single set of Furthermore, during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries distinct officers to understand our priorities. The tricky thing was merging professional societies and educational programs developed for each the cultures. But the positives outweigh the negatives. It is a chance kind of institution». But the real motivation was technical. for the smaller museums to become part of something bigger. The need for cooperation within these and similar institutions, as Bringing in funding to the trust we have been able to direct more well as the development of new technologies, led to new acronyms: funding at those museums.» And Iain Watson, Director of the Tyne LODLAM (Linked Open Data in Libraries, Archives and Museums), & Wear Archives & Museums, finished: «At a local level working LAMMS (Libraries, Archives, Museums, Monuments and Sites), GLM together gives significantly greater economies of scale and allows (Gardens, Libraries and Museums), GLAM WIKI (encouraging the a broader range of specialism and expertise to be held within the disposal of contents in Wikipedia), and others. Simultaneously, partnership. The greater critical mass also allows the organization to deeper degrees of cooperation were proclaimed, including aspects have more influence at a regional and national level which supports, like curatorial practices and programming activities. Three years ago, for example, working with business supporters or bringing in major Jill Deupi and Charles Eckman (see: Prospects and Strategies for Deep exhibitions.» Collaboration in the Galleries, Libraries, Archives, and Museums Sector. The economic gains derived from merging processes are not, in any http://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/con_events_aamls2016/1) stated: case, the most important dimension in the perspective of community «GLAM organizations should embrace administrative malleability building. They can be so in merely managing terms, not in political and look for new, more effective and collaborative personnel models. developmental ones. But it evident that museums are need to These models might include (but need not be limited to): Exploring evolve and maybe be redefined in regions affected by emigration. opportunities for shared or joint appointments; Consolidating Museums should be part of, and lead, community empowering resources, including integrated data management/filing systems,

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joint emergency preparedness and disaster recovery policies, and coordinated acquisitions and stewardship policies, resources, and mechanisms; Increased collaboration in the realm of academics, including joint faculty support grants, team-teaching opportunities, shared literacy training programs, collection adjacencies, collaborative research, and joint exhibitions.» REGIONAL MUSEUMS IN THE CHALLENGING PRESENT Irena Žmuc Well, maybe time is coming to consider further developments, in what we have been referred as GLAM +: Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Museums + Health Center, Fiscal Services, Newspapers and Web Access Point, Coffee Shop, etc. (see fig. 7). Especially in a world where traditional state-oriented ideologies seem to be old fashioned, and public services are retreating from With this paper I would like to stress some milestones of International society, beginning with rural depopulated areas, museums can Committee for Regional Museums (ICR) and some present activities, appear as aggregating poles. They are places not only for encounter which represent work of ICR. or nostalgic remembering (comforting arenas just to resignedly say “those were the days, my friend”), but instead they are “islands of Eight years after ICOM was established in 1946 the Committee for well-being”, where ample social services are rendered and where Local Museums was founded; in 1962, at the General Conference civic resistance and active empowering is promoted, in the name of in Den Haag, it adopted the name by which we know it now, The the demand of better conditions of life. International Committee for Regional Museums (ICRM). We have Fig. 7 co-operated with many museums all over the world, with different ICOM International and National Committees and Alliances in exchanging ideas, experiences and different practices. The themes we discussed began with internal topics.

Fig. 1 Geir Helgen: Collection

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ICR gradually became more engaged with wider societal issues: The answer from ICOM was to publish in 1999 CAHIERS D’ÉTUDE, working with communities, tourism, dealing with natural disasters, ICOM Study series, no. 6, which was dedicated to regional museums. changes of the political situations, migrations etc. Jacques Perot, President of ICOM at the time, wrote in his voreword:

Brian S Turner from Northern Ireland can tell about his oldest «At a time when communities are becoming concerned about personal ICOM experience. His first ICOM General Conference was their identity, and when social and political upheavals are causing in 1980 in Mexico City, he didn’t know what he was doing, and disruption throughout the world, ICR is a major focus for discussion. ICOM was not so well organised at the time, so he knew nothing about international committees or about ICR. Than he went to an As regional museums are firmly established in the heart of their ICR meeting in the Netherlands in 1982, he even people said they communities they can play a vital role in developing and safeguarding were going to attend. the particular history, culture and environment of their own people. This is undoubtedly one of the reasons why there are more regional However, nearly ten years later the organizational skills improved. museums than any other kind in the world».

In 1991 the inaugural speech to the audience at the ICR annual However, working with different local and regional museums we meeting in Downpatrick was bought the plane ticket, but the realized, that colleagues from different part of the world need meeting was cancelled because very few very up to date: some basic manual on museum work.

«Are those who work in museums really fit only to count our stone ICR Study Series Guidelines to improve museum quality and standards axes, to monitor our light levels, to battle with woodworm, to fiddle was published 2002 in English. The Guidelines are the result of a with our objects while society burns? On the contrary, if we can long term ICR project 1999-2002, after workshops in Nairobi (2000), communicate the individuality of our places, the artistic, and the Barcelona (2001) and finalized in Croatia. Editors: Hans Manneby, technological achievements of the past and present, the fact that Hartmut Prasch and Rainer Hofmann. history has a store of wisdom as well as an accumulation of folly; if we can show that care for our environment is essential for our Fig. 3 survival and wellbeing, then we can start to increase the potential Cahiers d’étude of regional museums». Fig. 4 ICR became engaged with broder problems, some themes of the ICR Guidelines to Annual Meetings became relevant: 1991 in Downpatrick, Ireland improve museum The community in the museum; 1993 in Cozumel, Mexico Museums quality and and tourism: the influence of tourism on cultural identity challenges and standards possibilities.

The theme of the three state annual meeting in Austria, Sloevenia in Italy was – Museums in divided Societies, in India in 1996 Museums and realities; in Latvia in 1997 we were asking Museums, Yes or No? Even Kenneth Hudson discussed that museums had to argue that were doing something useful. Later we discussed important and current internal topic Museum Accreditation (Athens 1999).

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At the time one of the fundamental questions for the future of ICR GRANTS museums was, where can we find our position within the booming ICR has established a travel grant to encourage ICOM colleagues to development of new event and experience-orientated leisure time participate in ICR conferences and activities. The name of the grant is after offers, such as brand lands, visitors centres, entertainment centres ICR‘s former chair Hans MAnnby who died in 2007. The ICR Hans Manneby and mass media? travel grant is open to any members of ICOM, museum professionals of any age or nationality, with special preference given to African people and The visitors ‘and users‘ demand on museums has changed from topics – honouring the intentions, interests and spirit of Hans Manneby. the simple presentation of objects to atmosphere and multimedia supported brilliant offers of stage management. WHO WE ARE TODAY? VISION: A democratic society with museums as a forum for human This was ICR bestseller later on translated in German, Spanish, understanding, through responsible use of natural and cultural Korean, Chinese and Slovak language. heritage, past, present and future, tangible and intangible.

At our annual meeting in Mantua in 2009 we opened our first MISSION: ICR is an international committee of ICOM, encouraging the traveling exhibition: “Museums – The world inside : Geir Helgen, development of regional museums for the benefit of their communities, museums and humor with a catalogue“. It traveled from Italie to through providing a forum for communication, co-operation and Slovenia, Austria, Germany, Greece, Norway, last year was in Croatia. information exchange among curators, museums, and other organisations. As Claude Lévi-Strauss says: «food tells all about the society», gastronomy Geir Helgen, ICR member, is an archeologist and caricaturist, he has was chosen as the theme of ICR‘s conferences in 2011 and 2012. The a keen eye for spotting highlights of the problems. ICR coolinary cookbook was a nice experiment and well accepted: we revealed traditional recipes, which tell much of cultural background His impatience with bureaucracy and all kinds of new ideas that can and society back to prehistoric times. Beside formal proceedings we make the life of a museum professional miserable and difficult is prepared a booklet “Eat Local – Think Global“, with 26 recipes with clearly seen in his drawings. historical background which survived till today. One copy of the book is now also in ALIMENTARIUM, Food museum in Switzerland.

Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Geir Helgen at the opening in Salzburg

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In 2015 we were in Israel, the topic is comparable to the political situation In 2017 Finland celebrated 100 years anniversary as an independent of the place: Regional Museums and the Forging of Identities in a state, and ICR gathered in Helsinki and Tampere at its Annual Multicultural Society. «The theme of the conference encompasses the Meeting to celebrate and discuss the theme "TOGETHER! Regional development of the melting-pot theory, through multicultural society, Museums engaging with the new realities.“ to ethnic interaction. The question that immediately comes to mind is, We started with an intriguing theme, discussing important issues is fusion of ethnic groups and cultures possible? Some argue that it is relevant to regional museums in many countries around the world possible and some multiculturalists tend to view the melting-pot theory after different changes in political, economic, organizational … as oppressive.» (Dorit Wolenitz, Chair ICOM Israel in welcome speech.) systems. In January 2017 we realized ICR Special Project in Kathmandu, Nepal. Museums serve as stewards of the cultural heritage of diverse With ICOM Nepal and UNESCO Kathmandu Office we organized a communities. We were looking for answers on the integrity of conference, financially covered by ICOM and ICR and partners ICOM museums which retain different ‘former identities‘, now superceded China, ICOM Japan and The Chinese Association of Museums of Taiwan. by a ‘new reality‘. The topic was Regional Museums‘ role in assisting to rebuild their local MIGRATION AND REGIONAL MUSEUMS communities after an earthquake (fig. 7). With this conference we widened the ICOM community in areas that are seldom supported by ICR contributes as a partner, together with CAMOC (IC for the ICOM programmes. The goal of the project was to contribute effectively collection and activities of museums of cities) and Commonwealth to the preservation and reformation of Nepalese museums after the Association of Museums (CAM), to the ICOM Special Project, disastrous earthquakes of 2015. It was the first symposium ever organized Migration : Cities (Im)migration and arrival, in which CAMOC is the in Nepal on museums and museology and it was highly appreciated by leading partner. local heritage professionals and academics. Regarding the museum ICR launched together with ICOM South East Europe, a sub-project: situation in Nepal one of the recommendations of the conference Balkan migration corridor. This year we prepared a web platform for was that Nepal museums urgently need sustainable legislation on regional museums in the Balkan regions for museum professionals museums, their museum law dates back to 1956. Now we are working to find relevant experiences, to share knowledge and to discuss on possibilities how to prepare this discussion in the region. ethical and meaningful ways to engage with new dynamics and the Fig. 7 diverse realities of migrations. I believe that local and regional museums could and should be the first to detect economic, ecological or social changes in their region. They spring from their own surroundings, and are concerned with community, with identity, and with the developing life of their own places.

PREPARED FOR THE FUTURE On our webpage we publishe e-library, we scanned all our proceedings since 1994 in order to share our knowledge, ideas and support communication among museum professionals. In 2018 ICR Annual Conference will take place in Auckland, New Zealand, there we will continue the Finland‘s topic with a different perspective: Training of museum personnel in the new realities.

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Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Geir Helgen Geir Helgen

We are to organize the conference with International Committe for prejudices, fear and anger? Our keynote Jette Sandhal in Helsinki was the Training of Personnel (ICTOP). We will colaborate with ICOM asking herself if «regional museums can develop a critical perspective New Zealand, ICOM Australia and others. on specificities and changes of space, land, landscape and society».

In 2019 ICOM General Conference will take place in Kyoto, Japan, in We have to be able to transfer dilemas from the past to the present the organizing board is our secretary Kenji Saotome. The proposed ones. For example regarding migration in Museum and Galleries of theme is "Museums as cultural hubs: The future of tradition”; it is a Ljubljana, Slovenia we are answering with a short movie – “Traces promising topic with many possible perspectives. of migrations since prehistory till today : case study Ljubljana”.

TO CONCLUDE Another important topic is ecology, we have to start cooperation Our challenges are set, but we are open for others. We stressed with ecologists and people who are taking care about in our mission that we want to be an open forum for different environment and communities. questions. Developing specific topic, for example migrations, our new conlocutors should become demographers. Listening to Last but not least integration of new museums and young museum François Heran, French sociologist and demographer, we respond professional is crucial. ICR is giving grants to young people to to an alarming demographic situation in Europe. come and contribute to our meetings or publish their ideas.

Can local, regional museums or museums in general fight against Warmly welcome to ICR activities!: http://network.icom.museum/icr .

182 183 LE RAGIONI DEI MUSEI DI COMUNITÀ Claudio Rosati

Nella relazione tento di ripercorrere le ragioni e i modi di intendere il museo che precedono di gran lunga la definizione di musei di comunità. Si riferiscono a un movimento composito che va connesso al quadro più ampio del museo attuale.

Ricorro a un’immagine per sintetizzare una condizione del museo contemporaneo. E’ quella della Madonna della Misericordia. Sotto il grande mantello della Madonna protettrice sta l’eterogeneità dei fedeli e potremmo dire dei peccatori. Sotto il mantello del museo - la «scatola mitologica», come lo ha definito Maria Clara Ruggeri Tricoli – stanno, ormai, le esperienze più disparate; riunite sotto il solito nome, ma ognuna distante se non estranea all’altra. Il Louvre di Abu Dhabi, per Jean-Loup Amselle primo esempio di franchising museale, ha la stessa qualificazione del Museo dell’Emigrazione voluto dal Collettivo Askavusa a Lampedusa che ha raccolto e reinterpretato le cose dei migranti restituite dal mare, rimaste in un’imbarcazione o finite in una discarica1. L’arca universale del museo raccoglie così il Ritratto di Dama di Leonardo e l’Autoritratto di Vincent Van Gogh - due delle trecento opere prestate, per ora, dal museo francese - e scarpe da tennis, borracce, cartoni di latte, medicine, bibbie e corani inzuppati d’acqua, raccolti dai volontari di Askavusa.

Il contesto del museo è oggi mosso e contrastato ma è espressione anche della democratizzazione degli ultimi decenni del Novecento che hanno peraltro visto un’espansione dell’istituzione alla quale pochi avrebbero pensato quando nel secondo dopoguerra la parola veniva associata a un passato da cancellare e da superare, caso mai, con altri luoghi della cultura come la biblioteca o il teatro. Il concetto di museo, «un “mito razionale” dei più persistenti e poderosi», è stato fatto proprio da classi che la vicenda sociale aveva tenuto a lungo ai margini dell’istituzione2.

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Di questa democratizzazione sono un segnale le esperienze dal recupero di strutture abbandonate (in Italia sono sessanta milioni variegate di musei nati da e per un luogo. Il locale non come gli edifici vuoti) - che è una specie di cartina di tornasole di nuove forme chiusura al mondo, ma come misura e interpretazione di questo. Il pubbliche di patrimonializzazione del demanio - alla valorizzazione ritorno ai mondi locali è, insieme a «una diversificazione culturale turistica. Paradossalmente si può dire che l’ecomuseo soffra della senza precedenti», uno dei tratti che segna la contemporaneità stessa polisemia del museo. Ma non mancano situazioni, a volte negli e che non poteva non riguardare anche i musei3. Un locale che interstizi del sistema, in cui l’ecomuseo è lo strumento di una comunità può essere illuminato dalla visione di Homi Bhabha di spazi «inter- che si è costituita inizialmente per opporsi alla cementificazione del medi» che «costituiscono il terreno per l’elaborazione di strategie quartiere e che ha fatto poi dell’ecomuseo un mezzo di salvaguardia del sé – come singoli o gruppo – che danno il via a nuovi segni di e di integrazione del patrimonio culturale nella vita cittadina o che identità e luoghi innovativi in cui sviluppare la collaborazione e la è un presidio di difesa territoriale in paesi a rischio di abbandono7. contestazione nell’atto stesso in cui si definisce l’idea di società»4. La stessa «rete del ritorno», formata da paesi a rischio di abbandono, si caratterizza anche per la presenza di musei “scalzi”, nati e spesso Costruiscono un luogo, irriducibile ad altri, gli abitanti afroboliviani gestiti da gruppi di cittadini. In genere la comunità che si raccoglie di Chicipa quando decidono di conservare l’hacienda, dove si intorno a un museo è la stessa che prima anima un luogo, ne coglie la pressavano le foglie di coca per farci un museo. Avrebbero potuto fragilità di fronte alle sfide della modernità e lo difende. In questi casi distruggerla – dicono - ma avrebbe significato dimenticare la loro il museo non è più al centro dell’azione, ma diventa uno strumento, storia. «Questa macchina – aggiungono - è un simbolo delle nostre è usato come supporto. Emblematico è il caso di Monticchiello, nel sofferenze». A Città del Capo il District Six Museum rappresenta il senese, dove il museo è il medium del racconto di un’esperienza luogo che documenta l’allontanamento forzato dei neri dal centro quarantennale di drammaturgia popolare alle prese con una della città. E’ un caso che Gustavo Buntinx e Ivan Karp inseriscono riflessione puntuale sull’eredità contadina e la contemporaneità. in quelle che chiamano museologie tattiche per definire pratiche Nel 2004 la cooperativa del teatro compra un granaio del 1700, al «attraverso le quali l’idea di museo è utilizzata, invocata e anche centro del paese, per allestirvi il museo. Un’operazione felice che 5 contestata nell’ambito dei processi di formazione di comunità» . viene comunque letta criticamente. «L’ acquisto del granaio – dicono i promotori – aveva in sé il significato di un riscatto storico: un luogo In Italia il museo di comunità ha declinazioni diverse rispetto ai due che per secoli aveva visto consumarsi la fatica dei mezzadri, veniva esempi che vengono da paesi postcoloniali. Si tratta, in genere, di infatti restituito alla collettività. La destinazione a museo conteneva posizioni più sfumate che segnalano piuttosto sensibilità o tendenze invece una contraddizione: il luogo del riscatto diventava ora il luogo rispetto a un museo strutturato e definito come tale. Il museo di della museificazione di quel mondo che, grazie al teatro, ne aveva comunità viene spesso assimilato all’ecomuseo che si configura consentita la conquista»8. Spesso una comunità di interesse si forma storicamente come una forma complessa in cui istanze istituzionali, intorno a musei spontanei dell’ambito demoetnoantropologico. Sorti, 6 talvolta anche diverse, interagiscono con iniziative associative . Gli in genere, per iniziativa di un singolo, in una specie di evergetismo ecomusei manifestano una tendenza spiccata, e poco consueta, a povero, i musei di cose si rivelano, quando non vivono nell’isolamento, fare rete, a ricercare un’unità nella diversità . Si può dire che la loro buoni conduttori di partecipazione, socialità, narrazioni. aspirazione sia quella di una globalizzazione del locale contro la delocalizzazione attuata dal globale. E’ certo che i musei vissuti e gestiti da una comunità di persone risultano più resistenti alla crisi avvenuta dopo il boom degli anni ‘70 Nonostante la compattezza concettuale con cui si manifesta e acutizzatasi nei primi anni del 2000 dei musei etnoantropologici; sulla carta e la forza dirompente che ha avuto nella critica e la crisi del «tradimento dei sindaci» - secondo la definizione di nell’innovazione museografica, l’ecomuseo raccoglie esperienze Pietro Clemente – quando i Comuni non danno più il sostegno che assai differenziate che si sviluppano da esigenze diverse: avevano assicurato nel periodo dell’espansione della spesa per la

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cultura. Secondo l’Istat rappresentano ancora per numero la prima condizione che accompagna le esperienze di comunità: il patrimonio tipologia di museo in Italia. Da un’indagine in corso emerge che si manifesta nella sua dimensione dinamica e di processo, portando spesso i musei etnoantropologici che vivono per l’iniziativa di alla ribalta sociale soggetti e argomenti sconosciuti o marginali. Lo un’associazione funzionano meglio di quelli pubblici9. spazzacamino sospeso in un limbo oleografico dopo essere stato personaggio liminale, si costituisce come soggetto storico. Ma al di là della forma, quello che ci interessa in questo caso sono i processi che si mettono in atto. Difficilmente troviamo un museo Il museo di comunità è esistito, insomma, anche quando non ne che si definisce di comunità. Più precisamente dovremmo dire avevamo la consapevolezza museologica a dimostrazione della che le comunità stesse sono processuali, non date una volta per profondità delle sue ragioni. Nelle Valli Valdesi è negli anni ‘80 dell’800 tutte. Soprattutto sono incomparabili. Che cosa hanno in comune che la minoranza riformata inizia una strategia museale, come forma il Museo Audiovisivo della Resistenza e Casa di Zela? Attorno al di difesa di una identità, che prosegue ancora con forme partecipate primo - “museo di narrazione”, si definisce - frutto di un progetto a «presidi di memoria», come vengono definiti10. Da quarantacinque raffinato di Studio Azzurro, «una bottega d’arte contemporanea» anni, a Pescarolo ed Uniti, in provincia di Cremona, intorno a una «che non ha regole stabilite», come l’ha definita Paolo Rosa, raccolta iniziale si è costituita un’associazione che gestisce il Museo uno dei fondatori, è attivo un gruppo di giovani che amplia la del Lino, «unico museo in Europa a esporre – afferma l’associazione missione esterna del museo all’attualità della sua tematica. Di - l’intera sequenza del ciclo del baco da seta e del lino». recente insieme a una distilleria, autogestita dai lavoratori, ha prodotto l’Amaro del Partigiano. Si tratta di «un progetto sociale Un caso storico ci avvicina al processo che fa dell’iniziativa del di auto produzione e di lavoro etico». I volontari di Casa di Zela singolo il catalizzatore di un progetto comunitario. Antonino fanno, invece, leva su un’antica casa colonica, bene culturale come Uccello, emigrato negli Usa, ritornato in Sicilia con il desiderio di testimonianza di edificio rurale tradizionale, e su un’importante un recupero della sua cultura, artefice di una straordinaria Casa raccolta etnografica allestita in un museo spontaneo. L’obiettivo è Museo, a Palazzolo Acreide, ricordava come la gente, che in altri quello di salvare e valorizzare un’area umida incastonata in uno dei casi aveva dimostrato indifferenza, se non ostilità, partecipasse alla triangoli più industrializzati d’Italia, formato da Firenze, Pistoia e sua impresa: Prato. Gli amici di Casa di Zela promuovono il valore della diversità ambientale di un’area umida dopo che per decenni si è esaltato il «(…) era la stessa gente che a volte ci segnalava pezzi che avrebbero valore della bonifica. Non è facile. In questo caso la comunità di potuto occorrerci. Di tanto in tanto sopraggiungeva qualcuno che pratica si scontra con un senso comune che non dà valore, quando spontaneamente si prestava a fare qualcosa, o discuteva degli ambienti non respinge, tutto quello che attiene alla durezza della vita nella che conosceva»11. «Vedevo – prosegue – la febbre che si attaccava ai miei campagna. Tutto questo ci ricorda, contro ogni essenzializzazione, amici, e notavo un entusiasmo che a volte perfino mi commuoveva»12. come la comunità di pratica si trovi al centro di visioni conflittuali quando il contrasto non è al suo stesso interno. E’ da una comunità di intellettuali, animati da Antonio Pasqualino, che ha origine il Museo internazionale delle marionette che Non sappiamo come si autorappresenti il Museo dello Spazzacamino, quest’anno è stato riconosciuto da Icom Italia «museo dell’anno». a Santa Maria Maggiore, in Val Vigezzo, dal ‘500 una valle del La vicenda del museo che ha nella sua missione il «superamento mestiere. Sappiamo che da trentacinque anni forma una comunità del veleno del particolarismo locale, quel senso di insularità di internazionale di spazzacamini che interpreti della storia di cui Sciascia parlava come un male oscuro», smentisce, come ha sfruttamento minorile, documentata dal museo, riflettono sui diritti annotato Pietro Clemente, gli antropologi che vogliono che non dell’infanzia e la loro difesa nella società contemporanea. E’, quindi, si possa «salvare per forza o per amore qualcosa che sta morendo un luogo attraversato da persone e storie. E’, peraltro, l’esempio di una (e che farlo produce falsificazione)»13. Oggi intorno al museo è

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una comunità di pupari che lo rendono un luogo attraversato da che questa ha con la persona penetra anche in altre museologie, esperienze internazionali, scuole, cittadini, turisti e appassionati. ad esempio, con l’ermeneutica dell’opera allargata a voci non disciplinari e con forme che incrinano la sacralità del museo quella Il museo può essere anche lo strumento di riscatto dalla condizione di data dalla separazione fisica tra il sacro del suo interno e il profano marginalità di un paese nell’agrigentino, a Siculiana, dove un gruppo del suo esterno15. La Pinacoteca nazionale della Basilicata, per di giovani ha realizzato il Museo del Territorio e della Memoria iniziativa di Marta Ragozzino, da tre anni trasferisce, per un giorno, con il contributo della popolazione, senza alcun fondo pubblico, opere conservate a Palazzo Franchi negli spazi di vita quotidiana, inserendolo in un progetto più ampio di rigenerazione urbana e anche case, della città, nella costruzione, anche se temporanea, di di turismo. Oltre per il numero i musei demoetnoantropologici si nuovi luoghi. caratterizzano per la dimensione di volontariato che hanno e che viene talvolta inclusa in quella più vasta del terzo settore che è una Zygut Baumman ha ricordato come Raymond Williams osservasse caratteristica importante del nostro paese. Meriterebbe, a questo «causticamente che la cosa più straordinaria della comunità è che “è proposito, mettere in evidenza la dimensione del dono e della sempre esistita”16». Questo se non risolve spiega al meno perché si possa reciprocità che l’impegno di molti promuove sostenendo così azioni parlare, nel nostro caso delle ragioni che sono alla base di pratiche di di contagio positivo verso il patrimonio14. comunità e non solo di musei, che in modo più o meno strutturato, si «dedicano principalmente – come dice Hugues de Varine – a una gestione Le esperienze che si rifanno a quello che chiamiamo museo di partecipativa del patrimonio e della comunità e del territorio»17. comunità non nascono in modo a sé stante. Si inseriscono nel quadro che, tra la fine del Novecento e gli inizi del nuovo secolo, ha portato «Qualcuno si chiede – scrive Gian Paolo Gri – se siano veramente alla ribalta nell’ambito del patrimonio culturale la soggettività di dei musei, in molti casi io trovo legittimo il dubbio, ma è certo che singoli e gruppi rispetto all’esclusività che avevano in questo campo musei a pieno titolo dovrebbero essere e tali dovrebbero essere i saperi disciplinari. Si tratta di un movimento eterogeneo che se aiutati a diventare»18. non ha visto lo scardinamento di ruoli ha sicuramente assistito al loro mescolarsi, al dissodare un terreno che è diventato fertile o Si tratta di imprese che hanno deistituzionalizzato la pratica compatibile con nuove formulazioni istituzionali. Si pensi ai più museale, favorendone la sua diffusione e che manifestano nella lontani movimenti di partecipazione nella scuola - noti in Italia pratica come il patrimonio sia «una tradizione cosciente di se come i “decreti delegati” -, che hanno dato vita, peraltro, a uno stessa»19; Sono macchine, come è stato detto, che convertono «il dei primi, forse, e più longevi musei di comunità come quello di subalterno in egemonico», che producono patrimonio20. Casa d’Erci. Si pensi ai temi e alle categorie sociali fatti emergere da coloro che si sono dedicati alla storia orale, alle biblioteche viventi L’Italia è un paese con molte contraddizioni: di fronte alla che mettono al centro le storie dei singoli e il superamento degli straordinaria diffusione del patrimonio culturale sono sette stereotipi, al movimento citizen science di alcuni musei scientifici. cittadini su dieci, sopra i diciotto anni, che non sono mai entrati in Senza dimenticare i documenti istituzionali, riflesso in qualche un museo. E’ un paese leader per l’aspettativa di vita e registra la modo di questi cambiamenti, come quello della Convenzione riduzione di un quinto degli iscritti all’Università, mentre negli altri Europea del Paesaggio del 2000 che dà centralità alla percezione paesi europei il numero cresce. In questo momento il 33,8% delle delle popolazioni per concludere, infine, con la nota Convenzione famiglie rinuncia anche alle spese per la cultura e il tempo libero e di Faro sull’eredità culturale. nel segmento più debole arriva al 50,5%.

Il museo che chiamiamo di comunità respira di questa temperie, Anche per questi motivi i musei che ho cercato di rappresentare costituiscono non è in un’isola. Lo spostamento del focus dall’opera alla relazione forme di autoconoscenza e di investimento sociale da sostenere.

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17 Cfr. de Varine H., Musei locali del futuro, cit. Endnotes 18 Gri G., Il limbo e i musei, in «AM», n.18, 2007-2008, p.62. 1 Faccio riferimento alla lezione «Il museo come nuova forma di narrazione» 19 Si veda Padiglione V., Poetiche del museo etnografico. Spezie morali e kit tenuta il 28 maggio 2017, a Pistoia, nell’ambito del festival “Dialoghi di sopravvivenza, Bologna, Editrice La Mandragora, 2008. La definizione di sull’uomo”. patrimonio come «una tradizione cosciente di se stessa» è di James Clifford, Expositions, patrimoine et rèappropiations mémorielles en Alaska, in Debray O., 2 Schubert K., Museo, storia di un’idea, Milano, il Saggiatore, 2004, p.18. Turgeon L., Objets et mémoires, Paris, Edition de la MSH et Québec, 2007, 3 Graezer Bideau F., Cultura in Saillant F., Kilani M., Graezer Bideau F. (a cura di), p.94. Per un’antrologia non egemonica, Milano, elèuthera, 2012. p.68. 20 Dei F., Economie del dono e patrimonio culturale, in «AM», n.31, 2012, 4 Bhabha H., I luoghi della cultura, Roma, Meltemi, 2001 (1994), p.12. pp.53-55. 5 Buntinx G., Karp I., Tactical Museologies, in Karp I., Kratz C.A., Szaja L., Ybarra-Fausto T.,(ed.). Museum Frictions. PublicCultures/Global Transformation, Duran, Duke University Press, 2006, pp.207-219. Devo la segnalazione a Padiglione V., L’immaginario del futuro. Utopie, distopie, eterotopie nello spazio museale, in «AM», n.32/33, 2012, pp. 46-55. 6 L’idea è confermata da un colloquio con Andrea Rossi, coordinatore dell’Ecomuseo del Casentino e attivo nel movimento degli ecomusei in Italia. Della stessa opinione è Hugues de Varine. Si veda il testo della conferenza Musei locali del futuro, tenuta a Pontebernardo il 22 maggio 2011 e pubblicata su www.simbdea.it, consultato il 2 ottobre 2017. 7 E’ il caso dell’Ecomuseo del Casilino. Si veda Broccolini A., Padiglione V., Ecomuseale, in «AM», n.37/39, pp.67-72. Un caso di presidio territoriale è quello del Museo della Gente dell’Appennino Pistoiese – inserito nell’Ecomuseo della Montagna Pistoiese – dove, a partire dai primi anni ‘70 del ‘900, intorno a una raccolta etnografica si è sviluppato un nuovo racconto di un paese che stava perdendo progressivamente luoghi pubblici come la scuola e la sala da ballo. 8 In www.tepotratos.it, consultato il 30 ottobre 2017. 9 Dato presentato da Emanuela Rossi, coordinatrice dell’indagine sui musei demoetnoantropologici promossa dalla Società Italiana per la Museografia e i Beni Demoetnoantropologici, all’assemblea di Simbdea, su Musei, comunità, pratiche, svoltasi al Museo Internazionale delle Marionette “Antonio Pasqualino”, a Palermo, il 20 ottobre 2017. 10 Cfr. Jalla D., Introduzione. Il patrimonio culturale nelle valli valdesi, in Jalla D.(a cura di), Héritage(s).Formazione e trasmissione del patrimonio culturale valdese, Torino, Claudiana, 2009, pp.9-19. Si veda anche Colombatto C., Valli Valdesi, in «AM», n.37/39, 2016, pp.184-188. 11 Nigro S.S., Bibliografia degli scritti di Antonino Uccello, in Uccello A., La casa di Icaro. Memorie della Casa museo di Palazzolo Acreide, a cura di Nigro S.S., Catania, Pellicano Libri, 1980, pp.96-97. 12 Ibidem, p.131. 13 Clemente P., Communitas, in «AM», n.37/39, 2016, p. 14. 14 Si veda l’intervista a Stefano Zamagni, www.comunitasolidaleparma. org/volontariatointervista-a-stefano-zamagni.html , 5 ottobre 2017 15 Si veda, a proposito, dell’interpretazione e della narrazione nei musei Bodo S., Mascheroni S., Panigada M.G. (a cura di), Un patrimonio di storie. La narrazione nei musei, una risorsa per la cittadinanza culturale, Milano, Mimesis, 2016. 16 Bauman Z., Voglia di comunità, Bari-Roma, Editori Laterza, 2003, p.5

192 193 ESPORSI I MUSEI DI COMUNITÀ FRA PROCESSI PARTECIPATIVI E POLITICHE DEL PATRIMONIO Mario Turci

«I musei dovrebbero essere sempre inquieti, precari e fuori moda, quindi permanentemente contemporanei.» (Legando e parafrasando Charles Simic e Giorgio Agamben)

Ho pensato di comporre questa mia riflessione, strutturandola in tre idee-forza (Utilità sociale, Totalità etica, Dono partecipativo e valore di legame) in una premessa sostanziale (Patrimonio attivo) in argomentazioni sul museo (Musei di prossimità, Musei inquieti o pacificati, Musei d’avamposto) in tre dediche, in un tentativo di tessitura di senso sul museo di comunità quale luogo di speranza.

In ogni operazione di tessitura, l’ordito costituisce la base necessaria, il motivo sostanziale. Senza ordito tessere la trama è impossibile. Data la stabilità dell’ordito, la trama assume il valore d’operazione di composizione e di dialogo. L’ordito offre alla trama la possibilità di esprimersi, crescere, provarsi.

Vorrei quindi argomentare i temi del mio intervento partendo da una ‘struttura’ di tessuto in cui l’ordito è composto da Patrimonio, Museo, Comunità e il lavoro di trama è costituito da Valore di legame, Etica del patrimonio e Prossimità. Se trama e ordito realizzano il piano del lavoro (della riflessione, nel nostro caso) nel corpo del telaio, sul quale tali ordito e trama trovano la possibilità di esprimere le proprie potenzialità, dimora quella dimensione del “costruire” in cui tempo e narrazione plasmano il museo, quale creazione plastica e di senso.

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Prima dedica Se l’esporre e l’esporsi, può significare l’uscire dalle stanze della A Marate, il Museo della Tessitura e del Rame di Isili (Sardegna quiete intellettuale e rischiare la “messa in discussione” delle proprie – Cagliari) che è il risultato di un ripensamento sulle pratiche prerogative, l’esporsi del museo, oggi più che mai, deve scegliere d’ideazione e realizzazione di un museo. A partire dalla sua gli oneri della trasparenza della propria missione patrimoniale, natura etnografica il museo di Isili ha voluto essere fedele alla partecipativa o autoreferenziale che sia. E’ chiamato a dichiarare prospettiva antropologica di costruzione del museo, attraverso una pubblicamente la propria idea e concetto di patrimonio, le co-progettazione partecipata in cui le protagoniste sono state le responsabilità di cui si sente, o meno, investito, del proprio modo di tessitrici e la loro visione del mondo. sentirsi partecipe al contemporaneo.

Utilità sociale

A che servono i musei se non a permettere negoziazioni interpretative dell’eredità, quindi a produrre patrimonio. Ma tali negoziazioni diventano ‘produttive’ (utili alla collettività) quando attivano il patrimonio in forme sociali di costruzione partecipata, quando promuovono pratiche del “raccogliere”, che attengono alla patrimonializzazione come atto sociale di riconoscimento dell’eredità quale risorsa, quando realizzano processi del ‘costruire’ che attengono alla produzione partecipata di narrative patrimoniali.

Totalità etica

Senza una totalità etica del patrimonio, ogni narrazione patrimoniale rischia di diventare sofistica, statica, autoreferenziale. Totalità che si esprime nel realizzarsi di un etica della responsabilità, che trova sostegno nella consapevolezza della necessità di promuovere pratiche di patrimonializzazione partecipata, quali forme di restituzione e democrazia (restituire il patrimonio alla collettività, riconoscendo onestamente e concretamente in questa, la legittima proprietaria dei beni); nell’ attivazione patrimoniale, quale processo di valorizzazione del bene comune (cittadinanza attiva); nella ricongiunzione fra patrimonio e vita quotidiana, fra bene riconosciuto ed esistenza.

Dono partecipativo e valore di legame

Possiamo immaginare le strategie museali del ‘dono partecipativo’ come occasione per una critica al museo, quale luogo storico di definizione delle distinzioni: noi/voi, dentro/fuori, istituzione/ collettività, offerta/consumo. Intendo quale ‘dono partecipativo’ del museo, innanzitutto la sua rinuncia a porsi al centro della relazione, rinuncia che si realizza attraverso uno spostamento di

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baricentro che permetta la promozione e “ospitalità” di relazioni di scambio interpretativo. Promozione che non parta dal potere d’offerta del museo (è sempre un potere discrezionale), ma piuttosto dal riconoscimento, da parte del museo, del proprio limite e provvisorietà. Il museo del ‘dono partecipativo’ è quello che dichiara innanzitutto l’esposizione del museo ai rischi di una solitudine avara di relazione.

Il valore di legame è il ‘bene comune’ che sostanzia la trasformazione del dono in valore patrimoniale. Il valore di legame è quel lato, socialmente produttivo, della valorizzazione del bene culturale comune, che spesso costituisce la risposta più adeguata alla domanda: perchè fare un museo? ,«…esiste un valore, quello legato alla capacità che i beni e servizi, se donati, hanno di creare e riprodurre relazioni sociali: un valore che potrebbe essere chiamato valore di legame, in quanto, con tale approccio, il legame diventa più importante del bene stesso»1.

Seconda dedica Al Museo Uomo Ambiente di Bazzano (Emilia Romagna, Parma) dove la realizzazione del museo è pratica costante di comunità. Il museo Uomo/ Ambiente è la realizzazione museale della visione che la comunità ha di se stessa, della sua memoria e del contemporaneo esistenziale. Un museo in continua trasformazione dove gli oggetti sono l’estensione dei cittadini, vecchi e nuovi, delle famiglie, della scuola e dei gruppi sociali.

Patrimonio attivo

Credo sia importante non dar per scontate le risposte a quesiti (che potrebbero apparire scolastici, se non rimandassero oggi ai temi salienti del rapporto fra le politiche del patrimonio e democrazia/ cittadinanza) quali: cos’è, dove sta, il patrimonio? Una risposta (seppur con tutti i vizi della sintesi) potrebbe assumere le seguenti forme: (cos’è) il patrimonio è l’ereditato che può concorrere alla qualità della vita (dormiente e passivo se solo conservato e mostrato, attivo a produttivo se scambiato e negoziato in forme partecipative, quindi donato); (dove sta) sta dove la relazione realizza prodotti negoziali, dove il dialogo da frutti condivisi, ma sostanzialmente nei luoghi della realizzazione di spazi terzi. Definendo come spazi terzi, quelli della costruzione negoziale di prodotti creativi, spazi che scaturiscono dalle pratiche del condividere.

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Il ‘patrimonio attivo’, quello che produce socialità, spesso non riesce Il Museo di prossimità è sempre contemporaneo perché sposta il a stare nelle stanze del museo. Le trova sovente strette ed anguste, proprio baricentro dal principio d’offerta (che produce definizioni perché non sono state “apparecchiate” per permettere dialoghi e spesso legate ad autorità interpretative) al principio di relazione quindi co-azioni di produzione di patrimonio. Il patrimonio (attivo e (interessato a porre quesiti, suscitare interrogativi, stimolare socialmente utile) che non sa stare totalmente nel museo, così come reazioni, non interessato al mero consumo di dati e informazioni, tradizionalmente concepito, ci pone di fronte, sostanzialmente, ma orientato alla produzione di atti del contemporaneo sociale ed a due pratiche museali: quella della descrizione del patrimonio esistenziale) « Io difenderò qui l’idea che il museo non rappresenti (mostrare, dimostrare - spazio della prova, della definizione, della tanto un archivio del contemporaneo e che debba dunque farsene comunicazione del dato di certezza) e quella della produzione di portavoce, ma piuttosto e paradossalmente, che sia il museo a fare, patrimonio (smontare, negoziare, costruire - spazi del dono, della a creare il contemporaneo»2. prossimità). Musei inquieti o pacificati Musei di prossimità Le politiche del ‘dono partecipativo’ orientano sostanzialmente a scenari che ci pongono di fronte a due forme della prospettiva Il museo di comunità si presenta, oggi più che mai, prezioso nella sua museale: la prima è quella dei musei contenitori di oggetti ,opere potenzialità di avamposto di prossimità fra patrimonio e collettività. e documenti del patrimonio che investono le loro migliori energie Se i beni culturali sono patrimonio collettivo, e quindi collettivo ne è nell’offerta espositiva, sono questi i musei pacificati, logici al loro il diritto alla fruizione, il patrimonio, nell’ evidenza sociale della sua tempo e al gusto dei pubblici. In questi il patrimonio è socialmente sostanza politica e culturale, sarà innanzitutto, per la comunità, ‘così passivo e riservato (rischia un’obsolescenza politica, perchè il suo come è percepito’. Capace di esercitare un ‘potere di legame’ che modo di partecipare alla società, si realizza nella mera offerta di scaturisce dal confronto comune sulle forme della sua percezione. occasioni del sapere – sono spesso musei che hanno necessità di In tal senso la comunità appartiene al patrimonio, è anch’essa parte velocizzare il consumo della propria offerta). L’altra forma è quella sostanziale di un processo di appartenenza, che fa della comunità dei musei partecipativi, sempre inquieti (quindi mai soddisfatti), stessa una forma di patrimonio. musei capaci di attivare relazioni, di promuovere cittadinanze. In questi il patrimonio è “scambiato”, decostruito, attivo, gettato Il Museo di comunità diviene museo di prossimità quando le nel contemporaneo, non si temono i tempi lenti delle relazioni sue pratiche di patrimonializzazione si basano sulla percezione di sostanza. Qui documentalità e narratività sono assi portanti condivisa del patrimonio. Il museo di prossimità è il museo capace del ‘lavoro’ comune, del necessario ‘scambio’. Qui il documento di attivare una “coscienza d’appartenenza”, che nasca da una (nell’accezione più ampia) e la sua narratività diventano ‘traccia di negoziazione fra i significati d’eredità e quelli di socialità, fra quelli comunità’, espressione della prossimità patrimoniale, espressione di di risorsa patrimoniale disponibile alle qualità della vita e quelli legame e legami. relativi alle pratiche di cittadinanza attiva (interessante è notare come tali argomenti ed attenzioni, siano espressi nelle Indicazioni Musei d’avamposto nazionali per il curricolo della scuola dell’infanzia e del “primo ciclo d’istruzione – 2012”. E in modo particolare nei tre capitoli di Il museo di comunità, per sua natura e storia, è d’avamposto. Il premessa: Centralità della persona, Per una nuova cittadinanza, Per un museo d’avamposto si regge e si nutre del patrimonio di relazioni nuovo umanesimo). Il Museo di prossimità è un museo in cui la relazione che ha saputo tessere, investendo in tempo e durata. Qui la si presenta come risorsa e la relazione si nutre di tempo dedicato, pratica del dono partecipativo trova il suo cantiere, la sua officina. di pazienza, di fiducia, di presenza, d’ascolto, di partecipazione, di Difendere il museo d’avamposto dalle spending review e dalle co-progettazione, di disponibilità, sostanzialmente: di dono. moratorie utilitaristiche, significa darsi, nella bufera attuale, un

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possibile approdo di speranza. Il Museo d’avamposto è luogo della Cura della relazione e delle cittadinanze di patrimonio.

Nel museo d’avamposto la ‘cura’ dei valori di legame, scaturisce dalla sua disponibilità alla rinuncia all’autorità di posizione. Il sentire e sentirsi comunità è, per tali musei, la vera occasione per la costruzione patrimoniale di spazi terzi e gli spazi terzi sono quelli della gratuità e reciprocità del dono partecipativo. Il museo d’avamposto inaugura quindi il museo quale spazio terzo, risultato della critica ai poteri delle autorità interpretative e quindi luogo accogliente per ogni punto di vista interessato alla costruzione comune e condivisa.

Terza dedica

Al Museo Ettore Guatelli di Ozzano Taro (Emilia Romagna, Parma in comune di Collecchio) dove nel 2014 è stata realizzata una grande installazione partecipata “Lampedusa 366”, realizzata per riflettere sulle vittime del naufragio a Lampedusa dell’ ottobre 2013. Un’ installazione composta da 366 paia di scarpe “donate”. Scarpe di un dramma accaduto sul cammino di coloro che hanno creduto possibile la costruzione di un futuro per la loro vita.

I musei d’avamposto sono quelli che sanno declinare Poetica, Politica e Pratica, rispettivamente in Negoziazione narrativa, Interpretazione partecipativa, Cittadinanza attiva. In questi musei il patrimonio e le pratiche condivise di patrimonializzazione, diventano spazi di costruzione di prossimità fra eredità e persona, e fra persona e collettività. Il museo diventa quindi presidio d’umanità e luogo del riconoscimento della pari dignità di ogni visione del mondo3.

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Endnotes

1 Aime M., Introduzione a Mauss M., Saggio sul dono. Forma e motivo dello scambio nelle società arcaiche, Einaudi, Torino, 2012 p. XIII. 2 Amselle J.L., Il museo in scena. L’alterità culturale e la sua rappresentazione negli spazi espositivi, Meltemi, Milano 2017, p.39 3 Per i testi di riferimento si vedano: Agamben G., Che cos’è il contemporaneo?, Nottetempo, Roma, 2008; Aria M.,Dei F., Culture del SEZIONE IV dono, Roma, Meltemi, 2008; Bishop C., Museologia radicale. Ovvero, L’EUROPA E I MUSEI LOCALI cos’è “contemporaneo nei musei d’arte contemporanea?, Monza, Johan & Levi, 2017; Brezzi F., Russo M.T. (a cura di), Oltre la società degli E DI COMUNITÀ individui. Teoria ed etica del dono, Torino, Bollati Boringhieri, 2011; Caillè A., Il terzo paradigma: antropologia filosofica del dono, Torino, LA COMUNITÀ EUROPEA Bollati Boringhieri, 1998; Dei F., Aria M., Mancini G.L., Il dono del sangue. Per un’antropologia dell’altruismo, Pisa, Pacini Editore, 2009; PER I MUSEI de Varine H., Le radici del futuro. Il patrimonio culturale al servizio dello sviluppo locale, Bologna, Clueb, 2005; de Varine H., Musei locali del futuro. Riflessioni, intervento presentato a Pontebernardo (Cuneo) 22 maggio 2011 – dattiloscritto; Drugman F., , Lo specchio dei desideri. Antologia del museo, Bologna, Clueb, 2010; Mauss M., Saggio sul dono. Forma e motivo dello scambio nelle società arcaiche, Torino, Einaudi, 2012; Nussbaum M.C., Creare capacità. Liberarsi dalla dittatura del Pil, Bologna, il Mulino, 2012; Salsano A., Il dono nel mondo dell’utile, Torino, Bollati Boringhieri, 2008; Sennett R., Insieme, Milano, Feltrinelli, 2012; Simic C., Il cacciatore di immagini. L’arte di Joseph Cornell, Milano, Adelphi, 2005; Simone N., The participatory museum (testo è disponibile on-line al sito www. participatorymuseum.org/chapter1); Convenzione di Faro. Convenzione quadro del Consiglio d’Europa sul valore del patrimonio culturale per la Società (2005); Karp,I.,Kreamer C.M., Lavine S.D., (a cura di), Musei e identità. Politica culturale delle collettività, Bologna, Clueb, 1995.

204 205 INTRODUCTION

With this session, we will have the opportunity to investigate the European, local and community dimension of museums. And let me say that this is particularly interesting, as we are on the eve of the European Year of Cultural Heritage 2018, whose objective is to encourage the sharing and appreciation of Europe’s cultural heritage as a shared resource, to raise awareness of common history and values, and to reinforce a sense of belonging to a common European space. As a matter of fact, the term ‘Community’ is rooted in the history of the European project: «World peace cannot be safeguarded without the making of creative efforts proportionate to the dangers which threaten it”, wrote Schumann in his Declaration of 9 May 1950»1. These «creative efforts consisted essentially in putting the Franco-German production of coal and steel “under a common high authority, within the framework of an organisation open to the participation of the other countries of Europe». A form of shared management of vital materials for the industry of the time. The coal was the primary source of energy for manufacturing, and steel a fundamental resource for production. That fusion of interest, he wrote, «may be the leaven from which may grow a wider and deeper community between countries long opposed to one another by sanguinary divisions». Culture was not seen at that time as a common resource, to be shared and managed in common. Many other fields came in, step by step, from the safety at work (developed after the tragedy of the mine in Marcinelle) to the environment. More than 40 years later, in 1992, with the Maastricht Treaty, culture was finally added to the list of ‘common resources’, together with the concept of European citizenship. And the European community turned the page and become a ‘European Union’.

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A few years later, with the Lisbon Treaty, new references to cultural the importance to pass cultural heritage to the next generations, heritage were added, assigning a role to the Union in ensuring that today the emphasis is rather on recognising the value of cultural «Europe’s cultural heritage is safeguarded and enhanced». Member heritage as a key resource, whose wise management can bring huge states keep naturally their primary competence, while the role of the benefits for the future of people and communities, the society, the European Union is to encourage their cooperation and to support economy, the environment and the quality of life. A resource that and supplement their action in the conservation and safeguarding should not just be considered in material terms. Europe’s cultural of cultural heritage of European significance. This has renewed heritage embeds ideals, principles, and values which are of utmost the attention on cultural heritage, also thanks to the Lithuanian, importance for our society since they constitute a shared source Greek and Italian presidencies of the Council of the EU, and on of remembrance, understanding, identity, dialogue, cohesion and May 2014 for the first time the Council highlights the importance creativity for Europe. In times of rising populism, protectionism and of cultural heritage for the future of Europe and culture, beyond nationalism the European Year of Cultural Heritage therefore offers the cultural sphere, stressing the cross-cutting dimension of cultural an opportunity to reflect on the values upon which the entire Union heritage in European policies, from environment to education, from rests: «respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the tourism to cohesion policy2. Responding to the call, the European rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of Commission followed with a Communication which looks into these persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the dimensions and invites all levels, national, regional, European and Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, all stakeholders, to work together and progress towards a more tolerance, justice, solidarity, and equality between women and integrated and participatory approach to cultural heritage in men prevail»3. Putting these ‘common values’ at the heart of our Europe. reflection is probably the new and fundamental ‘creative act’ to build a better future for our continent. From that point, the flow of policy documents at the EU level has never stopped, resulting in a totally renewed framework for I will give now the floor to Sophia Tsilidou, who has been very active cultural heritage in Europe and finally in the decision to designate during the Greek presidency she works at the Hellenic Ministry of the 2018 European year, of cultural heritage, the only thematic Culture & Sports; she will tell us how NEMO helps in building bridges year of the Yunker Commission. A year that is not launching a between the local and the global dimension of museums. Nemo has new concept, an idea, ‘from the top’, but rather follows a strong been an important platform for 25 years. It is a network supported mobilisation of all stakeholders, becoming an occasion to test by the Creative Europe Programme of the European Union, doing the new holistic, participatory and integrated approaches that important advocacy work for culture and cultural heritage in Europe have been agreed at a policy level. In order to put in place this and also supporting the sector to improve its capacity to face the approach, the Commission is engaging many services in different challenges of today. Directorates, national authorities, representatives of civil society and international organisations, and all the European institutions, Now Margherita Sani will also bridge the presentation with the along with a common agenda, in order to reach the common goals previous active both in the IBC - Istituto per I Beni Artistici, Culturali of the Year. A platform of 38 Stakeholders, that naturally includes e Naturali della Regione Emilia-Romagna, and manages several ICOM and NEMO, Unesco and the Council of Europe, has been set European initiatives and projects, but is also very active in the NEMO up to manage the European year, in dialogue with the platform of network. Margherita, the floor is yours. national coordinators that will organise the activities in member states. Thanks, Margherita for your presentation. In 3 days time, there will While in 1975, the first European year of architectural heritage, be a very important discussion in Goteborg on the social pillar of the message was «a future for our past», and the focus went on Europe, with interesting perspectives that are going to open soon.

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I give now the floor to Maria Vlachou. Thanks for this provoking and interesting intervention, and agree we need this type of Endnotes discussion during the European Year, which should not just be used 1 Declaration of 9th may 1950 delivered by Robert Schuman, Fondation Robert Schumann, European Issue no.204, 10th may 2011. to ‘celebrate’ cultural heritage, but rather to open a window and boxes that we have left unexplored in Europe for a long time. 2 Cultural heritage as a strategic resource for a sustainable Europe https://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ Finally, we have the intervention of Taja Vovk van Gaal of the House educ/142705.pdf of European History, a museum that I invite you all to see. It was a pleasure to discover that we were working in parallel but fully 3 Article 2 of theTreaty on European Union (TEU) aligned while preparing the European year. We have the same approach, to focus on memory and not on identity. Museums are repositories of the memory of a society, and to disclose them is fundamental. Finally, Susanne Popp and Jutta Schumann will discuss the principle of multi-perspectivity, and how to combine local, national, and European dimensions in history museums. Thanking again you for your interest in the session and the organisers for having created such an interesting occasion do share views, I wish you a good continuation of the works.

Erminia Sciacchitano Policy officer at the European Commission, Directorate-General for Education and Culture

210 211 DE NOUVEAUX MUSEES POUR L’EUROPE DE DEMAIN? CONSERVATION DES COLLECTIONS OU GESTION DU PATRIMOINE VIVANT? CONSERVATEUR DU BIEN COMMUN OU FACILITATEUR COMMUNAUTAIRE? Hugues de Varine

Ce texte développe les idées que j’avais prévu de présenter lors du Séminaire de l’ICOM Europe qui s’est tenu à Bologne sur le Rôle des musées locaux et régionaux régionaux dans la construction d’une Europe des Peuples, les 13 et 14 novembre 2017, auquel j’ai été empêché de participer pour raison de santé. Je remercie Giuliana Ericani et les éditeurs des Actes de cette rencontre d’avoir bien voulu m’inviter à être présent dans ceux-ci.

Il me semble que les musées, et les professionnels qui en ont la charge, doivent vivre en harmonie avec la société qu’ils doivent servir. Si les très grands musées, généralistes ou spécialisés, habituellement situés dans les plus grandes métropoles et détenteurs de trésors, sont responsables devant leurs pays respectifs et surtout devant l’humanité toute entière, les musées régionaux et locaux, eux, ont une responsabilité directe pour leurs territoires respectifs et pour la gestion du patrimoine de ces territoires. L’Europe des Peuples est aussi une Europe des territoires, qui doit à la fois construire son unité tout en respectant la diversité de ses populations, de ses cultures et de ses paysages.

A partir d’une expérience de terrain acquise en Europe et dans d’autres continents, je vais essayer de réfléchir de manière empirique – et peut-être utopique – aux formes nouvelles que ces musées de territoires, c’est à dire locaux et régionaux, sont en train d’adopter et pourraient adopter dans les années qui viennent, pour un meilleur service rendu aux communautés, aux visiteurs occasionnels et au patrimoine même, dans cette vision à la fois dynamique et prudente que l’on souhaite «soutenable».

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Croissance ou développement ? et auquel il avait donné le nom de "Agenda 213", décliné ensuite en "agendas 21 locaux", dont je note que certains d’entre eux, et ici Il faut d’abord se mettre d’accord sur les termes. Nos sociétés même en Italie, ont été associés à des écomusées dans une meilleure européennes, comme celles du reste du monde, courent après un gestion coopérative des patrimoines locaux. développement continu et optimal qui est le plus souvent considéré comme dépendant d’une croissance essentiellement d’ordre Du global au local économique, dont il est rendu compte par des données statistiques et des analyses qui privilégient l’évolution des moyens humains et Notre intervention individuelle dans les affaires de nos pays ou du matériels de la satisfaction des besoins par des productions et une monde est limitée par le faible poids de notre vote, ou même des consommation qui se nourrissent mutuellement. manifestations publiques auxquelles nous participons. Par contre, nous pouvons et nous devons être acteurs de notre environnement, La critique de ce mode de développement a été faite depuis de notre présent et de notre avenir, à l’intérieur de notre territoire: longtemps, et notamment depuis le célèbre rapport du Club de donner notre avis, prendre des initiatives, agir au quotidien par nos Rome de 1972 sur les limites de la croissance1, mais elle n’a rien moyens intellectuels, physiques, matériels, par notre comportement changé dans les pratiques nationales et individuelles, et la situation de consommateur, par l’éducation que nous donnons à nos enfants, actuelle a tellement empiré que l’avenir même de la planète et de par la place que nous occupons et le rôle que nous jouons dans l’espèce humaine serait menacé à terme d’un ou deux siècles. le capital social de notre communauté. Et notre intervention sera d’autant plus efficace qu’elle sera faite dans un cadre collectif. Or l’Europe, ce continent prospère et cultivé, est non seulement responsable d’une très grande partie de cette croissance et de la C’est par notre investissement pour chacun de nos territoires que volonté collective de la poursuivre, ou même de l’accélérer autant nous participerons à la construction collective de nos régions, de nos que possible, mais encore de la concentration sur ses territoires nations et de l’Europe. Car nous sommes capables de maîtriser notre d’institutions, de savoirs et de trésors qui ont souvent été pris dans cadre de vie, d’assurer la cohérence et la qualité de ses relations d’autres régions et dans d’autres peuples2. Nous ne pouvons que avec les autres territoires, les plus voisins comme les plus éloignés et très marginalement refaire ou réparer ce que le passé nous a légué, d’intégrer les apports venus d’ailleurs, afin de renforcer dans notre mais nous pouvons inventer un avenir différent qui reposera sur vie et notre activité quotidiennes une autonomie locale ouverte sur quelques principes généraux que nous devrions mettre en œuvre le monde. par tous les moyens individuels, collectifs et institutionnels dont nous disposons et que je résumerai ainsi: privilégier la qualité Mais cela suppose une prise de conscience collective, une confiance de la vie et de l’environnement sur la croissance quantitative, dans notre capacité de construire ensemble notre présent et notre pratiquer la coopération et la solidarité au sein de nos territoires avenir, une volonté d’agir sur ce présent et sur cet avenir, avec nos et de nos communautés de voisinage, mobiliser les ressources moyens, certes limités mais riches du cumul de nos savoirs, de nos humaines et matérielles ainsi que les techniques et les savoir-faire expériences et de nos atouts mis en commun. disponibles localement, maîtriser et assimiler les apports extérieurs indispensables, pratiquer la solidarité, l’entraide et la coopération Or ces moyens sont en grande partie hérités et constituent un entre territoires, peuples et cultures. patrimoine, ou plutôt un ensemble de patrimoines, individuels, familiaux et collectifs qui, associés au territoire et reconnus comme L’objectif principal peut être alors ainsi résumé: assurer un le capital de la communauté toute entière, sont le terreau, le socle développement social, culturel, environnemental et économique sur lequel l’avenir pourra être construit. Ils ne peuvent être gérés équilibré de chacun de nos territoires. C’est celui que le "Sommet de que par la communauté elle-même avec tous ses membres, en la Terre" à Rio de Janeiro en 1992 assignait aux États et aux Peuples pleine conscience de l’esprit du lieu, genius loci, sense of place4.

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De qui est le patrimoine ? de sa toiture. Cette église n’a aucun caractère historique ou architectural, elle n’est pratiquement plus utilisée pour le culte, mais Là encore in convient de faire une distinction. elle est considérée unanimement par la population comme faisant Les milieux professionnels de la culture, les ministères nationaux et partie du paysage, donc de ce que nous appelons le patrimoine. les grandes institutions, intergouvernementales comme l’UNESCO Même un patrimoine strictement privé, comme une habitation, ou non gouvernementales comme l’ICOM ou l’ICOMOS, répètent à dès lors qu’il fait partie de l’histoire du lieu et de la mémoire des l’envi, dans leurs discours, leurs rapports, leurs règlements et leurs habitants, prend une signification qui dépasse son usage individuel; conventions, que les biens culturels sont notre patrimoine commun, tout ce qui serait considéré comme un abus, même légitime, commis celui de chaque pays, celui de l’Europe, celui de l’Humanité. Et dans par le propriétaire pourra être vécu comme une atteinte à un bien une vision globale, philosophique, politique, c’est vrai, jusqu’à un visuellement et/ou affectivement collectif. certain point. Dans domaine différent, mais également patrimonial, les droits d’auteur, clairement immatériels, sont-ils seulement garantis par la Mais, si c’est efficace pour la promotion des États, pour celle du loi, nationale ou internationale, ou bien doivent-ils être respectés tourisme et pour une consommation culturelle généralisée, cette même s’ils appartiennent de fait collectivement à une communauté affirmation globalisante dissimule nécessairement des choix, une ou à un groupe de citoyens ? Les musiques traditionnelles africaines sélection d’œuvres majeures qu’il faut protéger à tout prix, parce ou les recettes gastronomiques de nos villages européens peuvent- qu’elles constituent un trésor, et ces choix sont faits par des experts elles être confisquées pour des raisons artistiques ou commerciales nationaux et internationaux, en fonction de critères de valeur par des chercheurs ou des cuisiniers, pour en faire des produits de scientifique, mais aussi économique, esthétique, de rareté, mais consommation et des revenus, ou bien devraient-elles être reconnues aussi, et cela nous intéresse ici, d’importance politico-touristique, comme faisant partie des ressources culturelles et économiques de sans vraie prise en considération de l’intérêt du territoire immédiat. leurs communautés d’origine et évidemment bénéficiant à leurs Ce patrimoine peut être appelé «hors-sol», car il échappe à la auteurs quand ceux-ci sont identifiés ? responsabilité des habitants et sa gestion est régulée par des experts et des règlements nationaux, en liaison avec des intérêts Les mesures imposées par les autorités publiques pour protéger, économiques puissants. conserver ou restaurer tel ou tel élément de patrimoine, monument, site ou objet de musée peuvent entrer en conflit avec La réalité telle qu’elle est vécue sur le terrain est moins l’usage légitime de cet élément dans l’intérêt du propriétaire, de politiquement convaincante, mais finalement beaucoup plus la communauté ou du territoire. Doit-on, soit éviter de donner un proche de la communauté des citoyens et surtout plus enracinée : statut patrimonial ou de faire entrer dans une collection publique ce que nous pouvons appeler le patrimoine de notre territoire ou un objet qui conserve un usage technique, commercial, religieux, de notre région est d’abord et avant tout la propriété, et donc la ou simplement d’habitation, soit obtenir une dérogation aux responsabilité, sociale, culturelle et morale des communautés qui principes généraux habituellement observés? La prise en charge par l’ont hérité, qui en ont la charge au quotidien, qui le vivent, qui le Museum of Anthropology de l’University of Western Columbia, l’utilisent, qui le conservent, bien ou mal, et qui le transmettront de Vancouver, de trésors appartenant à des communautés autochtones génération en génération5. du territoire est compatible contractuellement avec leur usage Ce patrimoine est-il privé ou public? Même s’il relève d’une cultuel périodique par leurs héritiers; peut-on imaginer, en nos temps protection ou d’une tutelle publique, il fait bien partie du cadre de de transition énergétique, des monuments historiques habités ou vie des habitants: l’église de mon village de Bourgogne appartient à utilisés par des administrations qui seraient recouverts totalement la commune, de par une loi française de 1905, mais les habitants ont ou partiellement de toitures photovoltaïques? Je crois qu’il existe voulu être consultés sur la décision à prendre pour la restauration en Europe des exemples d’objets ethnographiques prêtés par des

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petits musées locaux à des associations pour des fêtes folkloriques les nuisances dues à des flux touristiques trop importants ou à des traditionnelles ; le musée-banque culturelle de Fombori au Mali contraintes de conservation perturbent la vie quotidienne. conserve des objets de grande valeur historique et culturelle pour le compte d’habitants ou de communautés: dans ce cas l’inaliénabilité Il me semble plus pertinent pour notre sujet de parler du patrimoine d’un bien est un objectif pour la communauté propriétaire et non que j’appelle «vivant», qui représente aux yeux des habitants, des pour le musée. autorités locales et de certaines associations motivées, un ensemble de valeurs, de biens communs, de savoirs, de lieux de culte ou de Autre question, la plus actuelle et la plus brûlante de toutes, mémoire, d’objets liés au passé et à l’histoire mais aussi à la vie en matière de propriété: où doivent être conservés et rendus quotidienne et aux activités professionnelles ou familiales, en y accessibles des objets mobiliers ou des documents de grande valeur incluant naturellement le paysage et tout l’environnement. Il est non seulement scientifique ou esthétique, mais surtout historique tellement vivant que le plus souvent les habitants ne le qualifient et culturelle? Sur le lieu auquel ils sont associés historiquement, pas de patrimoine et ne sont conscients de ce qu’il représente pour fonctionnellement ou culturellement? Ou bien là où le droit de eux que lorsqu’ils sont menacés d’en perdre ou d’en voir transformer conquête ou d’acquisition, ou encore où les nécessités de l’étude ou ou aliéner des éléments qui prennent ainsi subitement une valeur de la conservation scientifique semblerait le justifier? Des marbres exceptionnelle à leurs yeux. du Parthénon aux trésors royaux du Bénin, des têtes tatouées maories aux momies péruviennes, les exemples ne manquent pas de Mais il existe une autre manière de révéler ce patrimoine, au conflits résolus ou en cours qui illustrent le respect ou le mépris des sens photographique: c’est l’éducation patrimoniale, qui passe droits des communautés qui revendiquent le retour de leurs biens notamment par l’inventaire participatif, c’est à dire par un processus culturels perdus ou aliénés, y compris dans leur signification réelle. d’identification collective par les habitants eux-mêmes de ce qu’ils souhaitent considérer comme leur patrimoine. L’inventaire peut Certes, il n’est pas possible de répondre à toutes ces questions, prendre plusieurs formes et utiliser plusieurs méthodes, globale et mais il est utile de les poser, pour que les décisions prises à un très territorialisée comme la «mappa di comunità» des écomusées moment donné soient clairement débattues avec toutes les parties italiens, thématique consécutive à des expositions comme pratiquent concernées. certains écomusées français, itinérante à travers des promenades de découverte comme l’ont réalisé des municipalités brésiliennes De quel patrimoine parlons-nous ? (Viamão) ou françaises (Bouguenais), contractuelle comme la création de la collection écomuséale de l’Écomusée du fier monde Puisque nous parlons ici des musées locaux et régionaux en Europe à Montréal, etc. et de leur rôle de gardiens et de gestionnaires du patrimoine de leurs territoires, je crois préférable d’exclure tout de suite le Ce patrimoine, parce qu’il est vivant et qu’il est étroitement lié «grand patrimoine» dont je parlais dans le paragraphe précédent, à un territoire, à des habitants, à une culture et à des pratiques certes important pour les territoires par ce qu’il entraîne comme locales, ne peut entrer dans des catégories pré-établies. Il est à la travaux et emplois de maintenance et de gardiennage et aussi fois naturel et culturel, local et universel, matériel et immatériel ; comme flux touristiques, mais pour lequel la décision et la gestion il est connu et décrit dans le langage de la culture locale et il doit n’appartiennent ni aux autorités locales ni à la population du rester vivant, c’est à dire qu’il ne doit pas être muséalisé, sacralisé, territoire. Cette dernière est libérée de toute responsabilité directe, stérilisé. Il fait partie du cadre de vie, des activités quotidiennes, il ce qui entraîne parfois une absence d’intérêt pour des collections est hérité du passé mais il appartient aussi au présent et on veut de musée ou des sites majeurs qui ne sont pas identifiés comme qu’il existe encore et qu’il serve encore demain et aussi longtemps profondément ancrés dans la mémoire et la vie quotidienne des qu’il aura une signification pour la communauté. Il nous importe habitants. Il peut même se présenter des formes de rejet, lorsque de le préserver, ce qui ne signifie pas automatiquement conserver

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au sens muséal: si nous voulons ou si nous devons le modifier ou Comment choisir ? le transformer, ce sera parce qu’il doit rester utile, ou agréable, ou beau. Puisque nous sommes dans une démarche à la fois territoriale et participative, nous devons d’abord respecter le principe de subsidiarité, Il faut s’attendre à ce que certains objets soient altérés par l’usage ou selon lequel la décision initiale appartient au niveau le plus élémentaire détruits par inadvertance, qu’un paysage soit durablement modifié et le plus adéquat de connaissance et de responsabilité: il s’agit pour tenir compte d’une nouvelle activité ou de l’abandon d’une donc ici de la communauté des habitants, en collaboration avec la ancienne, qu’une catastrophe naturelle ou provoquée bouleverse collectivité des institutions locales représentatives. La méthode de la temporairement ou définitivement un état de choses qui était Mappa di Comunità et les autres méthodes mentionnées ci-dessus, considéré comme hérité de nos ancêtres. On peut le déplorer, mais répondent bien à ce principe. Ce ne sera qu’ensuite, sur la base des cela prouve seulement que le monde change: le musée au sens choix exprimés au premier degré, que des experts ou des institutions traditionnel trouve alors toute son utilité en conservant en son sein de niveau supérieur, par exemple celui de la région, ou de l’université un trésor commun qui assurera la permanence de certains objets et et même de l’État, pourront intervenir pour approfondir les jugements de certains savoirs qu’il aura fallu choisir, acquérir et figer dans un et compléter la connaissance des dossiers. certain état, pour les générations futures. Cela signifie que l’on doit admettre un second principe, celui de la De plus, le patrimoine d’une communauté et d’un territoire ne se subjectivité des choix, mais, s’agissant d’une procédure participative, limite pas à ce qui s’y trouve à un moment donné, que ce soit dans ce sera une subjectivité collective, si possible affirmée par consensus, les collections du musée, ou au dehors, dispersé sur le territoire. dans un dialogue ou une négociation entre des acteurs locaux Le risque est en effet de ne considérer que le legs du passé local, agissant à partir de leurs propres préférences, de leurs savoirs et de alors que la communauté vit au moment présent et reçoit des leurs projets. Il en sera de même pour les décisions à prendre sur quantités d’influences et d’apports extérieurs qui modifient ou l’avenir d’un objet en danger de disparaître, d’un édifice à restaurer, enrichissent le patrimoine. Une communauté ne peut rester close transformer ou détruire, d’un aménagement susceptible de porter et, même si son patrimoine muséalisé est surtout issu du passé local, atteinte au paysage. son patrimoine vivant est composite et ne cesse d’évoluer, ne serait- ce que en fonction de la démographie, des relations de voisinage et Cette subjectivité doit être «modérée» autant que possible par des flux d’hôtes et de visiteurs. un tiers extérieur, indépendant et compétent, que l’on pourrait Dans l’Europe d’aujourd’hui, qui a rendu possible la liberté de appeler «facilitateur». Le facilitateur préparera les acteurs locaux à circulation des personnes et des biens, les biens culturels et leurs la démarche d’inventaire et à leurs responsabilités, les guidera dans héritiers sont eux-mêmes de plus en plus mobiles. De plus, l’entrée le processus de reconnaissance et de gestion du patrimoine, leur continue, au-delà des flux touristiques, de migrants et de réfugiés proposera des mesures scientifiques et techniques de traitement de politiques, économiques ou climatiques, apporteurs de cultures celui-ci – par exemple une restauration, une mise en valeur ou une et de patrimoines immatériels, de mémoires et de pratiques, signalisation – et des solutions pour son entretien, sa préservation constituera un enrichissement des patrimoines vivants au sein de ou la transformation de tel ou tel de ses composantes. Le musée nos territoires et de plus en plus des métissages comme en ont peut, s’il en fait l’une de ses missions et s’il s’en donne les moyens, connu les patrimoines des pays de tradition migratoires d’Amérique devenir ce facilitateur, en tant qu’institution et surtout par l’action du Nord et du Sud. de ses professionnels. Mais c’est un vrai métier, comme l’ont compris des musées communautaires mexicains et des écomusées italiens6, C’est incontestablement un facteur qui s’imposera progressivement qui nécessite une motivation, une formation et une grande volonté aux gestionnaires locaux du patrimoine. de servir la communauté et son patrimoine.

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Le but est évidemment d’atteindre, non pas une prétendue le besoin d’un facilitateur-arbitre, qui peut être le rôle du musée, objectivité, que je crois impossible en termes de patrimoine, mais à la condition que celui-ci assume clairement une mission de au moins une subjectivité «informée», consciente, résultat d’une dimension territoriale qui dépasse le seul périmètre de sa collection. confrontation avec cette autre subjectivité qui est celle des experts. A condition aussi que ce musée bénéficie, comme tout arbitre, de l’accord de l’ensemble des parties. On retrouve là la notion de Enfin, il ne faut pas oublier que les choix subjectifs peuvent varier, au «paysage culturel» qui a été discuté à la Conférence de l’ICOM de gré des modes, des influences extérieures et surtout des générations, Milan en 2016, et l’esprit de la Charte de Sienne de 20147. celles-ci étant conditionnées par l’évolution des cultures, des modes de vie et des habitudes de consommation. Il faut donc envisager Cela suppose que les cadres dirigeants du musée acquièrent, au- l’inventaire et la gestion des patrimoines comme un processus delà des disciplines scientifiques correspondant à leurs collections dynamique, continu et sans cesse confronté au risque de l’erreur et et des techniques de gestion de ces collections et de l’institution, à des conflits entre générations et entre sachants (les habitants qui une connaissance suffisante des situations qui peuvent se présenter ont la connaissance personnelle, l’usage et l’expérience de chaque pour l’entretien et la gestion du patrimoine local: administration élément de patrimoine) et savants (les scientifiques et experts qui publique, développement local, urbanisme, environnement, ont une connaissance théorique et pratique des mêmes éléments, économie, réglementation (nationale ou européenne par exemple), mais vus de l’extérieur). tourisme, etc. En effet, le patrimoine étant associé à tous les moments et à tous les évènements de la vie collective du territoire, Qui détient la responsabilité finale sur le patrimoine du territoire? le musée-facilitateur devra être à même de comprendre les enjeux et les intérêts de toutes les parties prenantes. Le professionnel Il y a deux manières de répondre à cette question. La première de musée devient alors un acteur de son territoire, bien au- est essentiellement juridique: le patrimoine reconnu par une delà de ses seules compétentes et qualifications scientifiques et législation ou un règlement public est de la responsabilité de son muséographiques. Il représente les intérêts du patrimoine commun, administration de tutelle: autorité locale ou régionale, ministère ou comme intermédiaire (négociateur ou facilitateur) entre celui-ci et ses représentants locaux. Les collections du musée sont du ressort de ses principales partie-prenantes. la direction de l’établissement qui doit respecter la loi des musées. Les éléments de patrimoine de statut privé relèvent de leurs propriétaires. On peut ajouter qu’il existe une responsabilité civique Le débat sur l’accessibilité sur le patrimoine en général, dès lors qu’il est reconnu comme tel: elle est surtout négative – ne pas le polluer, ne pas porter atteinte Tout ce qui a été dit plus haut sur le patrimoine au sens large, et surtout à son intégrité physique, ne pas le laisser perdre ou oublier (cas du sur le patrimoine vivant qui existe sur les territoires, suppose une patrimoine immatériel). bonne accessibilité de chacun de ses éléments : accessibilité visuelle ou physique, et surtout reconnaissance de son appartenance au bien Mais on doit aussi envisager une autre réponse à la question : la commun de la communauté et de la nécessité de le transmettre, donc responsabilité ne doit-elle pas être partagée entre tous les acteurs de le rendre également accessible aux générations suivantes. Nous du territoire qui ont un intérêt (légal, culturel, social, économique) avons vu en particulier qu’il fallait résoudre un premier problème à ce que «leur» patrimoine soit reconnu, préservé, entretenu, voire d’accessibilité: celle d’une population qui n’en a pas toujours la transformé, au titre des intérêts particuliers et de l’intérêt général? claire perception, à la qualité de patrimoine et à l’appropriation Ce partage devrait alors s’effectuer au quotidien, par l’information, comme patrimoine de tel ou tel élément ou savoir, du paysage, de la discussion, la concertation, la négociation, chaque fois qu’une la mémoire. Une fois cela acquis, restera à améliorer la connaissance décision locale ou imposée de l’extérieur implique ou met en cause du contenu de tout ce patrimoine, à approfondir sa signification, à un élément de patrimoine public ou privé. Et nous retrouvons là mieux en user.

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Mais actuellement la notion d’accessibilité, qui est très à la mode, syntaxe, format) aide-t’il le visiteur à bien comprendre ce qu’il voit, s’applique plutôt aux musées et aux «grands» patrimoines protégés non pas en fonction du savoir des professionnels de l’institution (monuments et sites). Il s’agit en réalité de deux objectifs distincts: ou du commissaire de l’exposition, qui utilisent leurs connaissances scientifiques et les codes correspondants, aussi bien sur les cartels - attirer un nombre toujours croissant de visiteurs, en rendant les que dans les catalogues et les discours des guides et conférenciers? institutions et les sites attractifs, par divers moyens de communication, Faudrait-il distinguer entre un traitement scientifique des objets, d’animation, de tarification, de services complémentaires, adapté à la demande d’une minorité d’érudits ou de passionnés, d’adaptation linguistique selon des modèles directement inspirés et une approche de type médiation entre ces objets et le niveau de de l’industrie touristique; connaissance de la grande majorité des visiteurs?

- permettre l’accès physique au musée et aux monuments ou sites, Cette question, posée ici pour un public qui partage la même par les personnes à mobilité réduite (handicapés physiques et culture que le territoire environnant le musée, se complique si mentaux, personnes âgées, familles avec enfants en bas âge). l’on veut aussi satisfaire un public extérieur, plus ou moins éloigné culturellement, ou même parlant une langue différente et dont les Sur ces deux aspects, il y a des recherches, des expériences, des références culturelles sont éloignées de celles qui sont utilisées dans colloques, des recommandations et des règlements spécifiques ; je la présentation des objets ou des expositions et aussi de celles des n’y reviendrai pas, mais il faut bien reconnaître que, si les monuments habitants. S’agissant de musées locaux ou régionaux, où les touristes et sites, par leur présence dans le paysage, dans les guides et dans étrangers à la région ou au pays sont souvent très majoritaires dans les programmes des offices locaux de tourisme, sont des lieux le public, c’est une double difficulté: comment concevoir plusieurs populaires de visite, les musées, surtout locaux et régionaux, restent niveaux de compréhension et comment trouver les moyens de faire très souvent des temples voués à une culture «hors-sol». Seuls les parler au musée et à son personnel des langues différentes (et pas musées réellement enracinés dans leur territoire et bien appropriés seulement l’anglais universel très réducteur)? par la population locale seront utilisés par celle-ci, ne serait-ce que grâce à des activités étroitement liées aux attentes et aux besoins Si l’on étend le questionnement au patrimoine vivant disséminé de la population (dont l’éducation populaire et scolaire). Ce qui sur le territoire, par exemple dans le cadre d’un écomusée ou ne signifie pas d’ailleurs que leurs statistiques de visiteurs soient d’un musée diffus (voir le concept italien de «museo diffuso») – significatives et croissent régulièrement. itinéraires, points de vue et paysages, sites remarquables, activités artisanales ou gastronomiques, expositions, fêtes populaires, Ce qui me paraît nécessiter un regard, non pas réellement nouveau, édifices remarquables – il faut distinguer l’accessibilité à la mais plus exigeant, est l’accès à la compréhension par les différents population locale, qui possède une connaissance empirique du publics des objets et des monuments, des expositions et des diverses patrimoine qui peut être exprimée dans un langage commun, et la manifestations, et même des publications et documents qui les présentation de ce patrimoine à des visiteurs extérieurs qui exige accompagnent. Plusieurs comités de l’ICOM se penchent sur ces une communication plus complexe, probablement appuyée sur des sujets depuis longtemps, en particulier le CECA et l’ICOFOM, mais je méthodes élaborées, telles que médias numériques, audio-guides, veux ici poser à nouveau quelques questions qui vont dans le sens démonstrations, accompagnement personnalisé, etc. du thème général de ma réflexion. Dans tous les cas, ne faut-il pas passer du guidage descriptif Si l’on considère d’abord les musées eux-mêmes et les institutions traditionnel, ou d’une prestation de type éducatif, à une démarche assimilées telles que certains monuments ou centres d’interprétation, personnalisée de type médiation qui mette en présence l’objet leurs collections et leurs autres activités, en particulier les expositions patrimonial, son sens et son contenu d’une part, le capital culturel permanentes et temporaires, le langage utilisé (vocabulaire, du visiteur et les codes qu’il est susceptible de comprendre d’autre

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part? Évidemment, cette méthode suppose que le visiteur soit baisse simultanée des financements publics et de la fréquentation. demandeur d’un tel enrichissement personnel et pas seulement Je me suis moi-même demandé publiquement plusieurs fois s’il ne d’une impression fugace ou de la satisfaction d’une simple curiosité. serait pas opportun de proposer un moratoire sur la création de Ne doit-on pas parler d’un nouveau métier, celui de médiateur du nouveaux musées et une restructuration des réseaux de musées patrimoine, commun à l’ensemble des institutions patrimoniales, locaux existants, dans une logique d’aménagement du territoire, y compris les musées et les monuments, serviteur à la fois du comme cela peut être le cas pour d’autres institutions de service patrimoine et de son visiteur? public comme les écoles et les équipements sportifs, sociaux ou sanitaires. Quel avenir pour le patrimoine… et pour les musées? En termes politiques et administratifs, il paraît souhaitable que, à Notre patrimoine, surtout le vivant qui n’est pas protégé par la loi, tous les niveaux de responsabilité publique, des politiques soient est un bien commun qui est fragile et n’est pas renouvelable, de menées pour une reconnaissance de la valeur sociale, culturelle, même que les ressources de la nature. Il est soumis aux incertitudes environnementale et même politique du patrimoine dans son du climat, des conflits de toutes sortes, de l’érosion due à l’usage, ensemble, et que ces politiques soient expliquées et acceptées par de l’indifférence et de l’ignorance. La solution pour sa soutenabilité le corps électoral, c’est à dire par les citoyens du territoire, cette n’est pas la muséalisation ou le classement d’intérêt public, car communauté dont j’ai dit plus haut que sa participation à la gestion on ne peut pas tout mettre en vitrine et, en tant qu’ensemble de du patrimoine était essentielle. biens vivants, il doit conserver sa valeur utilitaire aussi bien que sa signification culturelle ou mémorielle, il doit aussi pouvoir évoluer Mais si l’on considère le territoire comme un espace social, les et se transformer. citoyens, de même que les élus qui les représentent, ont une vision plus globale de leur présent et de leur avenir et se déterminent Quant aux musées locaux et régionaux8, si leur avenir est garanti pour leurs décisions sur des critères très précis découlant de leur par le statut de l’institution, par les législations nationales et le pratique quotidienne: or le patrimoine et la culture ne sont pas consensus international (ICOM, UNESCO), si leurs collections sont habituellement les besoins les plus évidents et les plus privilégiés, inaliénables et font l’objet de soins de plus en plus performants même si elles le sont à nos yeux. D’autres dimensions risquent de pour la conservation et la mise en valeur, leur pérennité dépend en paraître prioritaires, surtout pour les secteurs les plus défavorisés réalité des moyens humains et matériels qui leur sont donnés, en de la population: la santé, l’éducation, l’emploi viennent en général directement ou indirectement par des autorités publiques, général en premier dans les préoccupations de ceux qui pensent souvent locales, dont les décisions peuvent être soumises à des que la culture est un superflu, plus ou moins réservé aux niveaux aléas électoraux. Le plus grand danger pour eux est peut-être leur supérieurs de la société. Et le patrimoine en fait partie, peut-être multiplication, qui découle de la combinaison de deux principaux par notre propre faute. Il s’agit pour eux de donner la priorité à facteurs, surtout en Europe: la fascination pour le patrimoine dans ce qu’ils considèrent comme relevant de l’utilité sociale immédiate. la société civile, où les gens recherchent et veulent afficher de plus Alors comment faire pour que le patrimoine, les musées et d’autres en plus leurs racines et leurs identités, et l’illusion chez les élus et types de manifestations ou d’institutions culturelles, dont l’image certains acteurs économiques que la manne touristique supposée est souvent liée au tourisme ou aux loisirs de l’élite, soient admis éternelle et même toujours croissante serait attirée par le patrimoine comme porteurs d’utilité sociale au même titre que la santé ou sous toutes ses formes. l’éducation?

Ces dernières années, des professionnels de musées, au Portugal, En termes strictement culturels, il est clair, me semble-t’il, que en Italie, en France, en Suède, au Japon, se sont inquiétés de la l’avenir du patrimoine des territoires et celui des collections des fermeture ou du risque de fermeture de musées locaux devant la petits musées résident dans une collaboration de plus en plus

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étroite entre l’expérience et le savoir, entre les héritiers, les usagers, les chercheurs et les professionnels, aussi bien pour la connaissance Endnotes (l’inventaire et ses suites) que pour la protection, la mise en valeur, 1 Meadows D. H., Meadows D.L., Randers J. , Behrens II W.W.I, The l’éventuelle transformation. Limits to Growth, Universe Books, 1972

En dernier lieu, sur le plan économique, le patrimoine et les musées 2 Je me contenterai de choisir dans l’actualité politique et muséale la apportent-ils à leurs territoires et à leurs communautés respectives question de la restitution des biens culturels provenant des acquisitions des réponses aux problèmes du développement local, de la création faites à l’époque coloniale et qui se trouvent dans les musées européens.

de richesse, de l’image et de l’attractivité des territoires? L’objectif 3 https://pm22100.net/01_PDF_THEMES/wiki/Agenda_21.pdf. touristique est-il tellement prépondérant dans l’esprit des élus et Il est intéressant de noter que, pendant le Sommet de Rio en 1992, s’est des administrations et les résultats attendus, et surtout obtenus de tenue, également à Rio de Janeiro, la première rencontre internationale l’exploitation touristique sont-ils suffisants pour faire oublier que le des écomusées. patrimoine associé au musée offre bien d’autres ressources et bien 4 Davis, P., Ecomuseums: a sense of place. 2nd edition, A&C Black, 2011. d’autres moyens au service du dynamisme économique et surtout d’un développement réellement soutenable ? 5 Bien entendu, tout ceci est couvert par la convention de l’Unesco sur le patrimoine immatériel (2003) et par la Convention européenne de Faro sur la valeur du patrimoine culturel (2005), mais avec une double J’ai dans ces quelques pages, posé beaucoup de questions et je ambiguïté: d’une part le patrimoine n’est pas seulement immatériel et pas n’ai pas vraiment donné de réponses, parce que je pense que c’est seulement culturel, en outre le poids des «grands» patrimoines protégés aux acteurs locaux de donner, et surtout d’inventer des réponses dans les politiques culturelles des organisations intergouvernementales ou adaptées au contexte et au moment de la décision. Ce contexte gouvernementales est tel qu’il cache ce que les experts appellent le «petit» patrimoine. et ce moment sont spécifiques à chaque territoire et ils évoluent tellement rapidement en fonction des conditions locales et aussi 6 Le terme de facilitateur est souvent utilisé dans différents contextes et naturellement des influences extérieures que toute modélisation avec des missions variées. Mais on peut se référer à Bortolotti, F. (Ed.), ABCDEFG del facilitatore ecomuseale, Trento, Ecomuseo del Vanoi, sd. Un serait fallacieuse. autre exemple peut être trouvé sur https://museoscomunitarios.org/ noticias/284-iii-facilitadores-nvc-costa-rica. Autant des normes nationales et internationales sont nécessaires pour fixer des règles institutionnelles et garantir le respect de 7 http://www.icom-italia.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/ICOMItalia. certains principes éthiques, culturels et professionnels de base, MuseiePaesaggiculturali.CartadiSiena2.0.Cagliari2016.pdf autant la politique du patrimoine et la pratique muséale sont de 8 Filipe, G. - de Varine, H., Que futuro para os ecomuseus? Al Madan II la responsabilité d’un ensemble d’acteurs et de facteurs locaux qui #19, 2015, p.21-36, Almada et Quel avenir pour les écomusées?, 2014, 26 p. doivent rester en liaison constante avec la population et avec les téléchargeable en PDF sur www.hugues-devarine.eu. autres institutions d’intérêt général du territoire.

Au fond la seule question qui vaille serait la suivante : que doit-on faire pour qu’un musée et une politique du patrimoine apparaisse aux citoyens eux-mêmes comme utiles au même titre que les services publics ressentis comme nécessaires à la vie de chacun et de tous ? Ou bien, en d’autres termes, comment un citoyen peut-il se sentir et devenir responsable de son patrimoine ?

228 229 BUILDING BRIDGES BETWEEN THE LOCAL AND THE GLOBAL THE ROLE OF NEMO Sofia Tsilidou

Good afternoon to all! First, I wish to thank the organisers of this conference, namely ICOM Europe and the ICOM Italian Committee for the invitation to our network, NEMO/The Network of European Museum Organisations. ICOM Europe is one of NEMO’s natural and valuable partners and I hope we will continue our good cooperation and exchange in the future.

I will speak about how NEMO works to build bridges between local museums in different parts of Europe, and wider European or, in fact, global issues which affect the museum community. Building bridges, connecting museum professionals, individual museums and museum organisations within Europe but also bringing them in contact with the supranational level, is essentially what NEMO is about. But before taking a closer look to the role of NEMO, it would be worth asking ourselves about the challenges that Europe is facing today and the global trends that are already apparent in our society and will shape its face in the coming decades.

The world is changing: global trends

Some of the deep and transformational changes that we face nationally and globally are: the growth of an ageing population, migration and refugee flows, widening inequalities and social exclusion, political distrust and the increasing pressure for greater political accountability and transparency, concentration of population in urban centres and the growth of cultural tourism, the revolution in technologies and their applications which account for more connected, empowered and creative individuals, the scarcity of resources and the demand for greater environmental (but

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also economic and social) sustainability. Our world, our reality, is Who are NEMO’s members? changing! As it is noted in a recent EU report1 which identified the NEMO brings together civil society organisations, namely Museum key global trends facing Europe in the coming decades to 2030 and Associations, NGOs and national authorities representing museums suggested policy priorities to be addressed in the following years, at national scale from the Member States of the Council of Europe. «business as usual will not suffice for Europe to hold its ground in a These are our full members but we also have Associated members rapidly changing and more demanding world». In the years to come which include individual museums, interest groups, universities «resilience of every major state or organisation will be severely or research institutions, and other European organizations. ICOM tested». Where does that leave museums? National Committes are actually welcome to join as associated members. At the moment we have 90 members altogether from Challenges for Museums in the 21st c. 40 countries and the network is constantly growing. We only have European museum organisations have lately undertaken various institutional not individual members. forecasting exercises in an attempt to prepare for the impact of these challenges on museums and to renegotiate their values and NEMO as an intermediary between organisations and EU missions vis-a-vis the emerging structural shifts. They have all been NEMO works in the space between the national and supranational asking the same questions: How can European museums become level. We are in fact a European umbrella of national museum more attuned to change? How can museums, big or small, in urban umbrella organisations acting as an intermediary between museum centres or rural areas, transcend traditional boundaries and explore organisations and European institutions. We do not target or work ways to realign themselves with contemporary challenges and needs with individual museums directly, but we reach out to them through in order to remain relevant to the societies they serve? And how do our members. museums position themselves in relation to current and upcoming European policies which are informed by these wider trends? Here NEMO’s strategic goals comes the role of NEMO! NEMO’s strategic goals guiding its actions are informed by four core What is NEMO? museum values, collection – social – educational and economic value. For our “4 Values” publication we selected museum projects from 22 NEMO is an independent network of nationwide Museum European countries which highlight these 4 values and serve as best Associations and similar bodies representing the museum practice examples in terms of the added value they create for their th community in Europe. NEMO celebrated its 25 anniversary this communities and society in general. At times of museum closures and year. It was founded in 1992 after the Maastricht Treaty which limited resources, it is vital to show to policy makers and citizens that introduced culture for the first time in European politics. Museums museums are not and should not be considered as a luxury. needed a spokesperson to relate to the EU institutions, so this is Collection Value how NEMO was born. NEMO is the collective voice of museums in the EU. NEMO’s mission is to ensure that museums are an integral We believe that collections are in the core of museums. part of European life by promoting their work and value to policy We want museum collections, physical and digital, to be as widely makers and by providing museums with information, networking accessible as possible to all citizens. and opportunities for co-operation. Economic Value NEMO has an Executive Board of 7 members. Our Chair is currently the Director of the German Museums Association. Our Secretary We believe that museums are incubators of creativity and innovation General and the NEMO office are also based in Berlin. and generators of income for the regional economy and tourism

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We want museums to be recognised for the economic growth they produce gain insights into the museum landscape of the host country, and most importantly to do some serious networking with colleagues Educational Value from the rest of Europe. Our conference is always accompanied by We believe that museums are places of formal and non-formal learning more practical workshops and a General Assembly which is open only to members to exchange and discuss the past year’s results. We want policy makers to understand and promote the role of More opportunities for our members to get connected, meet and museums in formal and lifelong learning exchange are offered through the NEMO voluntary Working Groups. Social Value Working groups bring together professionals to reflect and advance the work of NEMO on specific topics. They launch surveys, conduct We believe that museums are meeting places where different points research, exchange experiences, publish reports, organise study visits of view can be shared and ultimately, serve as a pool of experts who give advice to NEMO We want museums to be recognised as organisations that can have on their areas of expertise. At the moment, there are 4 active WGs a significant social impact. within NEMO: on Advocacy, on Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), on Museums and Lifelong Learning and Museums and Creative What does NEMO do for the museum community? Industries. In order to achieve our strategic goals we organise our activities Collaboration in four areas: information sharing and connecting people and organizations, collaboration, advocacy and last but not least, Not only does NEMO facilitate networking and sharing among training and empowerment of our members. its members, but it also collaborates and partners with other museum-related networks at European or international level which Information/ Sharing/Connecting support museums and promote best practices, including ICOM, the NEMO produces and disseminates information to its members European Museum Forum and the European Museum Academy, and the museum sector at large, through various communication or beyond Europe, the Asia-Europe Museum Network (ASEMUS) channels. Its website functions as a central information point about or the Network of Ibero-american Museums (IBERMUSEOS). Other current topics of concern to the European museum community, EU partners of NEMO include EU-wide projects like Europeana or policies that affect cultural heritage and museums as well as EU WeAre Museums and several European Capitals of Culture. With our funding opportunities. A recent feature of the website is an area partners we exchange information and engage in joint projects to dedicated to EYCH2018 where all relevant information is gathered. advance common interests and objectives and to make the museum Recent news, publications, reports, studies and policy documents on sector visible in and outside of the EU. topics ranging from museum management to collections mobility, to learning, museums and the creative economy and museums as Advocacy social agents, to name but a few, are posted on the website. Our In addition to information sharing, NEMO is also active in the monthly newsletter featuring news on policy developments, events, political arena, acting as a lobbying body for museums towards news from our members with a European dimension, reaches out the Commission, the European Parliament and the Council of to everyone who wishes to get an insight into current museum the EU and its rotating Presidencies. It participates in public developments. consultations, issues statements and position papers, liaises with Our Annual Conference in the beginning of November each year expert groups, civil society platforms and other networks with provides a platform for debate on diverse topics, an opportunity to similar interests in the area of cultural heritage and culture (e.g. meet and exchange, to share and be inspired by best practices, to European Heritage Alliance, Culture Action Europe) in order to

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raise visibility of museums, make their voice heard, and give them a building and transfer of knowledge and business models from more prominent position in EU policymaking and funding decisions. one member to another. Exchanges last for up to 3 days during Lobbying, basically, means being in constant dialogue with all these which the group gains a first-hand experience of the daily work, stakeholders concerning questions that are timely and relevant to the structure, management and activities of the host association. museums in Europe in order to influence policies and make visible Visits to museums and meetings with museum staff complement the sector’s potential and needs. the learning experience.

NEMO has been monitoring EU policy developments, has been Training Courses an active consultation partner in shaping priorities and initiatives always trying to embed the role of museums in these policy Next to the learning exchanges, training courses are 1-day condensed frameworks and evidence their contribution and dynamics. It has training sessions facilitated by experts proposed by our members also addressed many of those issues in its conferences and via its and dealing with a wide range of topics, from management and communication channels. marketing to staff mentoring and development, to the structure of the EU and a guide to EU funding, to devising a digital strategy and More recently, it has opened up a very useful dialogue with its tools… and the list goes on. The goal is of course to help museum members to find out about their own efforts, priorities and practices organizations upgrade, modernize and improve their functioning in the advocacy field. Last summer we launched a survey for this so as to enable them to provide better services to their members, purpose. What we found out is that the majority of our members museums and their staff. target their lobbying activities to national and regional governments and that they very little, if at all, address EU policy matters. It is Webinars interesting to note that, when asked what kind of EU policy issues are interesting to them and worthy of pursuing by NEMO, over 90% Finally, we organise workshops livestreamed on the Internet which of the respondents picked the “contribution of museums to societal are open to everybody free of charge. Nine webinars have already goals, such as social inclusion, economic growth, education and been provided on topics such as audience development, working tourism” and over 60% among them stressed the importance of the with migrants, crowd-sourcing, museums, health and well-being EYCH2018, whose overall aim is again highlighting the public value etc. of cultural heritage for society. Feedback from NEMO training participants

Training - «My expectations were basically to get an insight into how Let us now turn to NEMO’s most recently established training bigger museum associations are run and especially how they lobby activities. NEMO, as any other network, can only be as strong and advocate for museums. Their activity towards informing and as its members are. Therefore, capacity building to help raise having influence on decision making. Those expectations were met professionalism and strengthen museum organisations across completely» Europe has become an additional area of priority and action in the - «I got familiarised with different schemes of Museum Pass which last three years or so. is extremely important for us at the moment. Not all approaches Learning Exchanges are suitable for the situation in Romania, but some ideas can be adapted» In 2015 NEMO established a mobility scheme for peer-to-peer learning through exchanges of staff among its members. The - «I saw a new way of education for Museum professionals. idea behind it is to encourage peer-learning and support skills Mentoring system that was presented to us will certainly be in

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practice in many countries because it is the only way to get quality transfer of knowledge». Endnotes

- «It was illuminating to learn about the different platforms for 1 European Strategy and Policy Analysis System, «Global trends to EU funding and how to approach them. Ι will share my new found 2030: can the EU meet the challenges ahead?» 2015. knowledge with colleagues in my institution and in our networks»

- «Meeting museum professionals from other European countries was really useful and helped me appreciate where Glasgow Museums is ahead of other museums as well as highlight areas where we need to do more work».

Finally, I thought it would be interesting to end this presentation with a glimpse into some comments that participants in our mobility scheme have made about their experience. There is no doubt that there is room for improvement and more fine-tuning of our mobility activities and we are actually working on that. But the feedback we already have suggests that such activities have already proved valuable to our members on various levels. We firmly believe that by building skills and strengtheningnational museum organisations, museums and professionals, the museum sector will be enabled to work in more efficient and effective ways for their audiences, grasp new trends better and work to make museums’ activities more relevant to society. Being responsive to contemporary societal challenges requires a conscious shift in the organisational culture and in the mindset of museum professionals which cannot happen overnight. Responding to change should, however, be seen as a pressing need and inevitable development. In the words of Elisabeth Meritt from the Center for the Future of Museums: «It would be dangerous for museums to focus on narrowly defined missions and trust that someone else will grapple with these challenges facing society. Whether a museum is in an urban core or a rural area, if its community is struggling, the museum is not going to be able to reach its full potential. A museum’s viability is tied to its community’s health».

238 239 THE MUSEUMS OF THE EMILIA-ROMAGNA REGION AND EUROPE THE ROLE OF IBC - ISTITUTO PER I BENI ARTISTICI, CULTURALI E NATURALI DELLA REGIONE EMILIA-ROMAGNA Margherita Sani

The conference The Role of Local and Regional Museums in the Building of a People’s Europe - Museums and Communities in Europe: Past, Present and Future offers the Istituto Beni Culturali of the Region Emilia Romagna (IBC) an opportunity to retrace some of the milestones that have marked its activities in the museum field at European level.

It all dates back to 1996 when, at the request of the European Museum Forum, which awards the European Museum of the Year Award, the IBC organized the International Museology Workshop, which since then took place every other year in Emilia Romagna until 2010. The format was very simple: three residential days to informally discuss a specific topic in small groups with colleagues from all over Europe and to reach shared conclusions that were subsequently presented to the Council of Europe and published on their website. The themes dealt with over the years were diverse: from accessibility to European cultural heritage, to the role of local authority museums as innovation incubators, to lifelong learning, to intercultural dialogue, to the use of technologies and others.

Many museum professionals in our region still consider these meetings as a decisive moment of debate and openness to European issues in their career. There is no doubt that since 1996 things have changed a lot and since then the opportunities for international collaboration have multiplied for museums in our area thanks to the various EU funding programs. But in the mid-1990s – and to a large extent still today – it was not easy for medium-small museums

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to become part of European projects and therefore to benefit from public, private, municipal, University or State funded - in a sort of those opportunities in terms of the knowledge, exchange and anticipation of what the National Museum System will be, at least professional growth that they generate. as regards one of its founding pillars, i.e. training and continuous professional development. In this sense I would like to say that the Istituto Beni Culturali has played an important intermediary role in offering our museum And then the materials produced such as publications, manuals, professionals the opportunity to appear on the European scene, reports that, where possible, were translated and made available supporting their participation in meetings and study visits abroad in Italian. And, finally, the so-called business models, that is the and offering them essential tools, such as, for example, better adoption in the regional context of operating methods developed linguistic skills through the organization of sectorial English courses within European projects and borrowed from them, from it, Io amo i for museologists who would put them in a position to deal with beni culturali - I Love Cultural Heritage, ensued from the participation of colleagues from other countries and to better understand the IBC to the European project Aqueduct, to the most recent Museomix, realities they were going to visit. which was first introduced in Emilia Romagna and later in Italy through the European project «Creative Museum». This was made possible by the participation of IBC in various Learning Partnerships funded by the EU since the late 1990s, where The activities of the Istituto Beni Culturali in Europe over the years the aim was precisely to promote the mobility of professionals have been very intense and all the projects, both those completed and the exchange of good practices. Subsequently, since 2005, and the ones in progress, are documented on our website. the Institute has designed and coordinated numerous projects Here, a high number and a variety of initiatives undertaken are funded by the Lifelong Learning Grundtvig Program, dedicated to showcased, sometimes large projects, sometimes small partnerships, heritage education, adult education, voluntary work in museums, whose value, in addition to the tangible outcomes produced, lies intercultural dialogue, etc. More recently the IBC coordinated the in having opened a European horizon for learning, exchange and The Learning Museum (LEM) network project, which gathered collaboration to museum professionals in the region, with positive some 60 institutions in Europe and, once European funding ended, repercussions both at institutional and cultural policy level. merged into the European network NEMO - Network of European Museum Organizations, thus continuing to offer participating institutions the possibility to take part in study visits and exchanges abroad.

European projects have objectives and implement actions that inevitably go beyond the strictly regional interest. It is what the European application forms invite us to detail under the heading European added value; it will not be possible to have a project financed by Europe pursuing a purely local purpose, and the transnational value of the activities carried out must be immediately perceptible. And yet, in participating in European projects in the museum field, the IBC has always tried to return something useful to the community of professionals in the region. This has involved the training sessions, to the learning exchanges, to the study trips mentioned above, in which professionals from all regional institutions are involved, regardless of their ownership –

242 243 I AM A NATIVE FOREIGNER Maria Vlachou

This conference invites us to reflect on the role museums may play in the building of a people’s Europe. I would like to start by referring to two recent incidents in European history.

The first is the 2015 Greek referendum. There was a photo of an embracing couple, smiling softly to each other while holding the Greek flag. I don’t know what that couple voted for, but for me that image was a glimpse of a moment of hope that people in Europe might take their lives back to their hands and make difficult decisions, despite the hardships they most certainly involve. The next day, European leaders, the Eurogroup and the Greek Prime Minister reminded everyone what the notion of democracy is within the European Union.

The 2015 Greek Referendum. Photo: Reuters/ Marko Djurica

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The second incident was that of the 2017 referendum in Catalonia. values best represent the European Union, peace and human rights The image of the Catalan independentist leaders heading to a court lead the ranking (36%), followed by democracy (31%) and individual in Madrid (and after that to jail) was, for me, that of the systemic freedom (19%). Solidarity, respect for other cultures and tolerance repression of people’s voices. By this, I don’t mean to say that I rank lower. Finally, an absolute majority (51%) believes that support sectarianism (and my knowledge of the Catalan case is very Member States are close in terms of values, although the number superficial). I only mean to say that people have voices and they of those who believe they are distant is 42%. It is also interesting have things to say. Who’s listening? to note that those who believe Member States are close in terms of values are young (56% among 15-24 year-olds), more educated A 2015 survey1 carried out for the European Commission tells us (57% studied beyond the age of 20) and they place themselves in that a stable majority of Europeans continue to see themselves as the top social scales (62% upper middle and 57% upper). So how do European citizens (60% define themselves in terms of “nationality we deal with the older, the less educated and those belonging in and European”, “European and nationality”). lower social scales? What makes Europe or rather a collective European identity? In That was in 2015. I wonder what the results would be today, as in the the 2012 policy review “The Development of European Identity / meantime the refugee crisis reached a peak, we had terrorist attacks Identities: Unfinished Business”2, the European Commission said in a number of European cities, we had the Brexit referendum, we had that «A European collective identity is achievable despite the lack a kind of arm wrestling between the EU and the Polish government of a ‘European people’. Collective identity should be understood as regarding a new law that may jeopardise judicial independence in arising through conversations and narratives about identification the country (just to mention a few recent episodes). and belonging to a political community, undertaken in a European public sphere. (…) In a European public sphere, identities may be As I was reading all this regarding European values, different images reshaped, and the degree of attachment may be strengthened or and pieces of news were coming to my head. For instance, that of weakened through democratic processes.» I highlight here the Greek pensioners struggling for free food, while their pensions, terms “public sphere” and “democratic processes”. which sometimes sustain whole families of unemployed adults and children, are being cut again and again and again. News of There is an individual and a collective component in every identity. These the “terminal decline” of the British NHS or the benefits system, as are multiple, they depend on different contexts and they coexist. They go depicted also by Ken Loach in I, Daniel Blake. In a debate I watched beyond a national identity, made of historical and cultural components. after seeing the movie, between a conservative MP and Ken Very often it is said that the base of our collective European identity Loach, the former said that a movie is a fiction, “I, Daniel Blake” are our “European values”. What are the European values? On is something like Dickens’s “Oliver Twist”. In other words, “fake the European Parliament’s website one reads that «The European news”? “Alternative facts”? Union’s fundamental values are respect for human dignity and More things came to mind: the handling of the refugee crisis human rights, freedom, democracy, equality and the rule of law. and the EU-Turkey deal, a deal with a third “safe country”; the These values unite all the member states – no country that does not removal of a Roma girl from a school bus in France with threats of recognise these values can belong to the Union.» deportation; the Catalan referendum; referendums and a number In the above mentioned 2015 survey for the European Commission of legislative elections around Europe; the wave of revelations on on European Citizenship, Europeans said to value more peace sexual harassment in the cultural sector and in every other sector; (45%), human rights (40%) and respect for human life (35%). Then a judge in Portugal using the Bible to excuse domestic violence come individual freedom (27%) and democracy (26%). Tolerance, against an “adulterous woman”; finally, the march that took place solidarity, respect for other cultures rank lower. When asked which in Warsaw this last weekend, on the occasion of Independence Day,

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with slogans such as “White Europe of brotherly states” or “Pray for Hassan Muslim Holocaust”. These are a few episodes only from the recent Hajjaj,”Miriam,” from the series history of our people’s Europe, its fundamental values and the way ‘Kesh Angels, it (Europe) and we (the people) actually implement them. 2010. Photo: Lara We, the ‘People’, are another part of the equation we are discussing Tabbara today. What are the European People made of and how do they - we - fit into definitions of “europeaness”? Is Jean-Claude Juncker European? (Luxembourg, President of the European Commission) Is writer Marion Bloem European? (Holland, of indo - Dutch-Indonesian – descent) Is Giannis Adetokunbo European? Is he Greek? (Greece, basketball player, son of Nigerian immigrants) Are the children of the Muslim minority in northern Greece European? Are they Greek? Should they be able to see themselves (their image and names) in their school books? Some of my Greek friends were concerned with the “appearance” of Muslim names in school books (they believed it to be a government concession to what they generally call “illegal immigration”, forgetting – or ignoring - the long existence of Greek Muslim citizens in the country). And what am I? I never introduced myself to anyone as European. I am Greek. Am I Portuguese too? There are so many ways of discussing the stories and social conditions (Greece/Portugal, Cultural Manager); of the people I just showed you (a very short selection) and many- many more people living in Europe today. Considering that we are Is Francisca Van Dunem, Minister of Justice, Portuguese? Or is she dealing with the re-emergence of a strong populist rhetoric, an still being asked “Yes, but where do you come from originally? acute polarisation of our societies, a renewed fear regarding “the (Portugal, Minister of Justice); different”, these people’s complex stories, their multiple identities, Should we assume Audrey Azoulay is Muslim because of her need to have a space of representation, they need to be known Morrocan origin? and discussed, they must take part in the debate. We need to be (France, ex-Minister of Culture, of Morrocan descent, Jewish); constantly reminded that there is usually a long distance between Can a white British be Muslim? affirming and practicing our values. And I will tell you why I think small, local museums are one of the best places to do exactly that. Is Conchita a trans woman? (Austria, singer, a man in a dress); A couple of personal stories first: In 2010 I attended a talk between Shirin Ebadi (Iranian, Nobel Peace Is a young gypsy person being raised in Spain to become a swindler? Prize 2003, lawyer, human rights activist, who has abandoned Iran (the definition of “gypsy” in a Spanish dictionary). for safety reasons) and Kurt Westergaard (Danish, cartoonist, the One might ask what all this has got to do with museums. author of the cartoon depicting Prophet Mohammed with a bomb

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in the place of his turban, which provoked violent demonstrations Back in 2013, the Arab American National Museum posted on and some deaths in different parts of the world). They were Facebook wishing Happy Easter Sunday to their orthodox friends. discussing freedom of speech, a value I would say is praised in It occurred to me that, by that time, I was living in Portugal for Europe. Westergaard talked about the clash of civilisations. the 18 years and no big or small, national or local museum had ever conflict between Christianity and Islam, the need to defend our acknowledged my presence there. And I might be only one, and way of living. Ebadi talked about human rights and the exceptions the Greek community rather too small, but there was a big influx to freedom of speech: when it refers to racist propaganda, hatred of Ukrainian and Romanian immigrants to the country in the late or incentive to war. Thus, in her view, a cartoon representing 90’s – early 2000’s. They were never acknowledged either. Just the Prophet Mohammed with a bomb in the place of the turban like the Muslim community or black people coming from the ex- constitutes a human rights violation; the same goes for the reaction colonies and many born already in Portugal. Many of these people of part of the Muslim world towards the cartoon. I felt closer to Ebadi are Portuguese citizens, but they are not part of the official story. than to Westergaard in that debate. I thought at the time, «Am I, a European and a Christian, in conflict with Shirin Ebadi, Iranian and Actually, a slight change was registered this year, in 2017. One of the Muslim? Isn´t she fighting for human rights and freedom of speech challenges of Lisbon – Ibero-American Capital of Culture to cultural much more than I am? Isn´t this a value we share, one that defines organisations was the discussion of colonialism, post-colonialism, and unites us?». And I am saying this also because Westergaard’s slavery and racism. But I think we are a long way still from actually newspaper, Jyllands-Posten, although it criticised other newspapers discussing these issues in Portugal, especially in museums. I believe for not reproducing the Mohammed cartoon, it was the only major there is no way of honestly discussing slavery – its inhumanity and Danish media outlet to refuse to publish a poster depicting the the pain it caused, and is still causing – by simply describing shuckles Danish Royal family in an orgy, a poster that was removed from an in our exhibitions. Or by showing for the first time in Portugal, her exhibition at the Gamle By museum in Aarhus. There is a level of native country, the work of Grada Kilomba, and then simply share hypocrisy in our defense of human rights and freedom of speech, with visitors “Table of goods, 2017: vegetal earth, cocoa powder, isn’t there? It’s easy to ridicule or attack the Muslims as a whole, but chocolate, beans and ground coffee, sugar”. We are not promoting not a European royal family. any kind of understanding, respect for others, tolerance, empathy, and we don’t defend human rights and democracy. We just keep the knowledge to ourselves, controlled.

Left: Kurt Exhibition Westergaard’s “Testimonies of cartoon of Slavery” at the Mohammed National Museum published in of Archaeology the newspaper in Lisbon. Photo: Jyllands-Posten. Maria Vlachou Right: Danish artist duo Surrend’s cartoon of the Danish family in an orgy.

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Third and last personal story: I remember how shocked I felt when lifestyle needs to be protected from foreign influence and almost I saw a photo in a museum in Halifax, UK (it was in 1994, I can’t 50% agreed with the statement “things have changed so much that remember which one) identifying as terrorists people whom we, I often feel like a stranger in my own country.” This is about culture. Greeks and Cypriots, call resistance fighters. I still remember that I I am sure it is the same feeling Brexit voters are experiencing, as froze in front of that case. It was a totally different story from the one they have been expressing their disappointment at the slow pace of I had known. I believe it was the same feeling some people had when the negotiation with the EU, especially in what concerns the control Palestinian artist Ahlam Shibli presented her exhibition Phantom of immigration. This is about culture. House at Jeu de Paume in Paris. The people she called “martyrs” are called “terrorists” by others. There were bomb threats in Paris and Native foreigners on both sides. When big issues come up, people the exhibition remained closed for some days. The artist claimed to tend to feel too small, too powerless to be able to intervene. They see be “just an artist”, Nobody is “just an artist” and no museum is “just a huge mountain in front of them and they believe there is nothing a museum”. We are all willing or unwilling political entities and we they can do about it. They find refuge in stereotypes, they perpetuate cannot be naïve about these issues. Only after this whole fuss did generalised views of groups of people, they tend to cling to those the museum propose a series of debates to discuss the Palestinian with whom they share views, because this makes them feel safer. We issue. I believe it should have done this in the first place. I am also need to address their fears and concerns. But this can’t be done in a thinking of black people visiting the Rijksmuseum and reading on large scale. We can´t expect to engage in a dialogue with a mass. the label of Cornelius van Harlaam’s Bathsheba at her toilet: (…) Which brings me to museums. Museums are part of a larger cultural Because Bathsheba’s maidservant is black, the subtly erotic painting takes and educational network and they have a role to play in the context on an exotic tinge. The Rijksmuseum has worked to remove a number I described. A political role (not in partisan terms, but in terms of of bigoted terms from its labels, being particularly sensitive to the finding a way of living together in thepolis ). I think of them as comments of visitors of different origins. places of encounter, as places able to restore some of the empathy In many cases, museums, like other organisations, are there to we have lost. In particular, local and regional museums, precisely reinforce dominant narratives and to support the canon. People because of their scale and the relationships they are able to forge are made to feel as native foreigners, a title I borrowed from an with the communities they find themselves in. exhibition currently showing at the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, Thus, I believe that these museums are able to promote a much exploring different aspects of migration in its collection. needed local consciousness of diversity. They are able to make a The Europe of values, the Europe of peace, human rights and democracy person see that the “other” is not some abstract and threatening cannot afford to continue keeping people in the margins because they entity, but a colleague or a neighbor, someone sitting next to them, don’t fit in the norm. Silencing their voices, making them feel powerless, who is willing to talk and negotiate that “living together”. European unimportant. And I mean all sorts of people. Not just the ones who feel museums are part of that European public sphere the European they don’t belong to the canon, but also those who find themselves Commission is talking about, where “conversations and narratives comfortably in it and are afraid that their world is under threat. about identification and belonging to a political community” are taking place. In order to fulfill their role, museums definitely need In the US, a post-election survey conducted by the Public Religion to stop describing objects. They need to look for the diverse (and 3 Research Institute and The Atlantic indicated that, contrary to even contradicting) stories objects are carrying. And they also need popular belief, it was cultural anxiety – changes in society and not to diversify their collections, to introduce objects that they are still economic pressure – that motivated votes for Donald Trump among missing in order to be able to discuss other stories, the ones that non-salaried workers without college degrees. The study also noted haven’t been told yet. The stories people, all people being part of that 68% of white working-class voters said that the American Europe, wish to tell.

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Endnotes

1 http://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/archives/eb/eb83/ eb83_citizen_en.pdf

2 https://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/pdf/policy_reviews/develop- USING THE PRINCIPLE OF MULTI-PERSPECTIVITY ment-of-european-identity-identities_en.pdf COMBINING LOCAL, NATIONAL, AND EUROPEAN DIMENSIONS IN HISTORY MUSEUMS 3 https://www.prri.org/research/white-working-class-attitudes-econo- my-trade-immigration-election-donald-trump/ Susanne Popp, Jutta Schumann

The project EuroVision – Museums Exhibiting Europe (2012-2016) was funded by the Culture Programme of the European Union. It was initiated and coordinated by the Chair of History Didactics of the University of Augsburg and implemented by eight project partners who had an interdisciplinary background and came from seven European countries.1 The aim of the project was to develop museums further firstly through a multi-layered re-interpretation of museum objects from a transregional/European perspective and secondly with the help of innovative approaches of conveying its contents. Thereby, the project coordinators’ expectation was that especially local, regional and national museums would be inspired to try out new ideas and concepts that would promote a modern and contemporary outlook of museums in today’s multicultural society. The core concept developed and explored by the EMEE project in order to foster a multicultural and transregional understanding of the local, regional, and national cultural heritage at a given location corresponded to a triple Change of Perspective (COP). It is based on three tenets: a) It asks to re-interpret existing museum collections in a multi- perspective, transregional and even cross-cultural way (COP 1).2 b) It takes into account that museums in multicultural societies have a social responsibility and purpose and that they are supposed to entrust their visitors with a role that involves active participation (COP 2).3 c) It strengthens the interdisciplinary and international (or interregional) cooperation of the museums in order to encourage a comparative perspective that goes beyond regional and national views (COP 3).

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For visitors, the COP functions as a ‘school of perception,’ i.e. it the backdrop of the problems and questions of today. Museums encourages them to engage with the objects. It illustrates that encourage visitors to become active citizens, to form an opinion the visitors themselves are actively involved in constructing the and to participate. Consequently, the EuroVision Lab.s were ‘meaning’ of the object. They are supposed not only to detect the accompanied by an extensive programme including cultural events, multi-layered local, regional, national, European or global meanings opportunities for participation, talks and workshops for visitors. of an object, but also to add their own ‘meaning’ depending on All of these efforts played their part in preventing visitors from their social or cultural background. perceiving the museum solely as a storage place for objects.

The theoretical foundation of the COP concept is the constructivist When looking at the results of the project in detail, the highly assumption of the museum objects’ ‘meaning’.4 It is not considered positive response to the seven experimental EuroVision Lab.s is to be immanent in objects, but to be the result of the observers’ particularly satisfying. Some 93,000 visitors saw the exhibitions that and visitors’ construction processes and attributions. In line with took place in seven partner countries and/or participated in one this, these construction processes are closely linked to the social of the accompanying workshops and events. Moreover, the EMEE and cultural contexts respectively and assumed to be constantly partners placed emphasis on different areas in the Lab. activities, changing. Consequently, museums are expected to ensure that the depending on the museum type and/or area of expertise. This was presentation of the objects and the accompanying program bear reflected in the programme of the EuroVision Lab.s, which was the marks of the 21st century in the same way as the spirit of the 19th astonishingly wide-ranging and diverse. The project’s ambition and 20th century is apparent in the museum concepts and exhibitions to represent all three levels of the Change of Perspective in the from that time. Lab.s was successfully implemented by almost all participants. Furthermore, during the partners’ Lab. activities it was possible The development and presentation of the so-called ‘EuroVision to implement yet another major goal of the EMEE project, which Lab.s’ with the tagline One Object – Many Visions – EuroVision focused on international exchange. The exhibition that showed constituted in 2015/2016 an integral part of the EMEE project, as the best submissions of the EMEE Young Scenographers Contest, these efforts aimed to test the theoretical concepts of Change of which aimed to interpret selected Exemplary COP-Units and had Perspective (COP) in a practical context. The exhibitions organized the tagline One Object – Many Visions – EuroVision, travelled about by the museums showed the re-interpretation of topics from a 7,500 km across seven European countries and was presented and transregional perspective or demonstrated with individual object discussed as part of the Lab. activities. examples what a re-interpretation according to the EMEE concept could look like. Many of these exhibitions were designed to The five EMEE Toolkits and 33 published Exemplary COP-Units encourage participation, which allowed former non-visitor groups constituted a sound basis for the successful implementation of to form new perspectives on the topics and objects. Similarly, using the EuroVision Lab.s.5 These publications served as an instrument social media contributed to establishing new communication to provide suggestions, methods, experiences and best practice channels – especially among younger audiences – and to make them examples. Crucial to the conceptualization of these tools was the a bigger part of the exhibition planning. close link between theory and practice, which many museums of Another important objective of EuroVision Lab.s was to ensure that the network considered highly innovative and considerably more visitors would not just perceive the museum as a ‘storage place’ helpful than mere compilations of examples. and place for exhibiting objects; in line with the re-interpretation Apart from the so-called EMEE Toolkits, the Exemplary COP-Units of objects from a local, regional, national or European perspective, and the setting up of a large system of EMEE network members, the EuroVision Lab.s showed that museums can be a place where the workshops, which were designed for vocational and on-the-job cultural heritage can be re-negotiated and re-interpreted against training, and the study module played a crucial part in ensuring the

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sustainability, viability, and exploitation of the project results. All in regional museums succeeded in applying this approach innovatively all, some 50 workshops took place over the course of the project. when re-interpreting their existing collections in a transregional Moreover, the study module, which was tested at three universities and European way. At the same time, it became evident while and universities of applied science, received very positive feedback working on the Exemplary COP-Units and organizing the numerous from the participating students. By and large, it can therefore be workshops for museum experts that the re-interpretation of existing expected that the workshops and the study module will contribute museum collections requires a lot of research when using these new enormously to entrenching the EMEE concept in education, training approaches. Often, the existing body of research and/or the existing and museum practice.6 object descriptions fail to provide the information required for developing said transregional/European perspectives on the cultural The main purpose of the EuroVision Lab.s was to detect and rectify artifacts in question. Instead, they must be developed from scratch any problems or difficulties occurring during the application of the in certain cases, which requires time-consuming research effort. theoretical concept and the methodological approaches to a practical context. The findings recorded during the practical application Furthermore, employing the COP 1 showed that the multi- enabled the team to draw important conclusions concerning the dimensional re-interpretation of museum objects is, at times, results of their four-year project-work and its basic concept. Thus, hampered in some countries or institutions by persistent preferences the evaluation of the network partners’ Lab. projects showed that for a certain form of interpretation. This occurs on a regional as the EMEE concept proves to be suitable and effective for practical well as on a national level. Thus, giving up treasured forms of museum development, with the concept yielding valuable results in interpretation for the sake of a more flexible and open-minded terms of quality. These initial outcomes certainly need to be tested perspective on objects that allows for highlighting several aspects further in future. However, upon concluding the project, first ideas simultaneously and asks for new angles can be seen as one of can be given with regard to its future potential. the biggest challenges for the strengthening of the transregional dimension within a multi-perspective framework. Promoting The empirical study placed particular emphasis on evaluating continuous further training for the museum staff can prove the practical potential of the concept of COP 1 – i.e. the re- extremely useful to overcome this challenge. In this regard, the interpretation of objects and topics from a transregional/European EMEE workshops can be seen as a first step in the right direction. angle that links and integrates both local, regional and national with European perspectives. For this purpose, a multi-perspective The insights gained during the experimental field research also show approach to, as well as interpretation and presentation of objects that the EMEE workshops, toolkits and Exemplary COP-Units are only is required to convey to the audience that a given museum object able to make a useful contribution to the successful application of can simultaneously be placed within a local, regional, national, the COP 1 and to the strengthening of the transregional dimension European and even global context and that these different levels of of cultural heritage, if museums become more open-minded and meaning can reinforce and complement each other in an elucidating are willing to give up their deeply ingrained regional and national way. perspectives to explore new interpretations.

With regard to the COP 1, it turned out over the course of the However, a project of museum development alone cannot effectuate project that the EMEE Toolkit 1, which revolves around the re- this change of attitude. Rather, it must become part of society’s interpretation of existing museum collections from a transregional/ general outlook that includes (or rejects) multi- experts and visitors, European perspective, was able to provide important input for perspective interpretations and plurality of viewpoints as part of a practical contexts. Moreover, museum experts deemed it a valuable multicultural population. tool that opened up new ways of perceiving and approaching a given object or object group. As team members noticed, city and The concept of COP 2, i.e. the Change of Perspective between

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museum aims for increased ‘activation’ and participation of the national museum collections. After all, it is virtually impossible audience and also for active involvement of so-called ‘non-visitor’ to develop comparative, transregional perspectives on object groups. The aim is here mainly to improve the accessibility to the groups from different countries without ongoing international cultural heritage of Europe preserved in regional and national exchange of curators on the cultural heritage on-site and sample museums for as many citizens as possible. With this in mind, the opportunities for both sides to become familiar with hitherto EMEE concept asks museum experts to share their prerogative of neglected object collections and the local view on it. At the same the interpretation of cultural heritage at least partially with the time, the project’s experimental focus showed that, empirically, the audience. Consequently, the goal is not for the interpretation of success of the international collaboration depends largely on the the audience to replace the curators’ expertise, but rather the aim is experts’ exchange revolving around well-defined topic areas. Only for these two perspectives to communicate and for the potentially then scientific discourse can lead to innovative re-interpretations opposed interpretations of experts and visitor groups to spark an of object groups that include a transregional and European interest in citizens to visit museums and to encourage them to perspectives alongside a local, regional and a national angle. The express their own opinion. EMEE project succeeded in overcoming this challenge by setting up an international network of museum experts, cultural workers, The empirical results gained while conducting field research scenographers, mediators in the field of history culture and media indicated, on the one hand, a number of problem areas that experts, who all share a keen interest in the Change of Perspective have long been known by scholars. To give an example, it became and its potential as an innovative approach to the strengthening of evident that these new ‘participatory’ approaches on the Change a European dimension of our cultural heritage. of Perspective between museum and audience are most successful Museums, being the guardians of the nations’ cultural heritage in if this goal is accepted and supported by the vast majority of the Europe, need to think about the cultural legacy that they preserve museum staff.7 In particular, museum development can be difficult as a socio-cultural resource to facilitate orientation in today’s world within big institutions or institutions with a more traditional outlook. and as a possibility to contribute to improve social integration Furthermore, it must be said that working with a participatory in Europe. The project results show that the EMEE project has outlook and/or exhibition concepts requires quite a lot of staff developed a concept that was evaluated highly positive by museum development and is also rather time-consuming. experts.8 It therefore can be regarded as a valuable tool for museums to encounter the challenges of the 21st century using their existing On the other hand, however, and regardless of these challenges, collections. Furthermore, the EMEE concept proved to support the EuroVision Lab.s of the participating national museums were museums in becoming a place where a wide and multicultural able to accelerate a fruitful learning process – not necessarily audience is encouraged to explore, in a joyful way, the many layers right from the start, but especially during the process and, most of meaning of the European cultural heritage on site. importantly, with regard to end results. The EMEE project proved to be a suitable catalyst for the experimental application of new approaches: Doubts of the museum staff could be dispelled as the new concept turned out to be feasible and cleared up further as a result of its popularity with the audience and public.

Finally, regarding COP 3, over the course of the project it turned out that international collaboration constitutes a vital prerequisite for the strengthening of the European and transregional dimension of the re-interpretation and presentation of local, regional and

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mono/monochrom, available online: Endnotes http://www.museums-exhibiting-europe.de/download/8298/, Accessed 11 August 2016; Schilling, S., Angelini, C., Friesinger, G. and Popp, S. (eds), 1 For further information on the partners and the project please European Perspectives on Museum Objects. Selected Examples on the Change refer to URL: https://www.museums-exhibiting-europe.de/ or to URL: of Perspective, Vienna 2016: edition mono/monochrom, available online: https://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstuehle/geschichte/didaktik/projekte/ http://www.museums-exhibiting-europe.de/download/8300/, Accessed 11 Accessed 2 July 2018. August 2016.

2 As an example please refer to Popp, S. and Schumann, J., The Change 6 The results of the EuroVision Lab.s are available on the project’s website, of Perspective. The Concept of the EMEE Project, in Nardi, E., Angelini, C. but also via the e-book, which was specifically designed for this project. and Wintzerith, S. (eds), Change of Perspective. (New) Ideas for Presenting Moreover, the YouTube videos offer an overview on selected EuroVision Museum Objects, ICOM Education vol. 25, 13-22, Roma, Edizioni Lab. activities. www.museums-exhibiting-europe.eu, Accessed 11 August Nuova Cultura, 2014, available online: https://drive.google.com/file/ 2016. d/0B8yHu7SudP4kOF9uRzBqV0hNcGc/view?pref=2&pli=1, Accessed 11 August 2016 and Popp, S. and Schumann, J., Change of Perspective. A Local 7 Sandell, R. (ed.), Museums, Society, Inequality, London 2002: Routledge; Museum Object in Trans-regional and Cross-cultural Perspectives, in Nardi, E., Gesser, S. et.al. (eds.), Das partizipative Museum. Zwischen Teilhabe und User Angelini, C. and Wintzerith, S. (eds), Change of Perspective. (New) ideas for Generated Content. Neue Anforderungen an kulturhistorische Ausstellungen, presenting museum objects, ICOM Education vol. 25, 23-46, Roma, Edizioni Bielefeld, transcript Verlag, 2012. Nuova Cultura, 2014, available online: https://drive.google.com/file/ d/0B8yHu7SudP4kOF9uRzBqV0hNcGc/view?pref=2&pli=1, Accessed 11 8 Cf. URL: https: www.museums-exhibiting-europe.de/wp-content/ August 2016. uploads/2016/08/EMEE_P5_A26_Final-Report.pdf, accessed 11 August 2016.

3 Simon, N., The Participatory Museum, Santa Cruz, 2010, http://www.participatorymuseum.org/. Accessed 24 March 2015.

4 Cf. Hahn,, H. P., Materielle Kultur. Eine Einführung, Berlin, Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 2005, pp. 138-139; Korff, G., Dimensionen der Dingbetrachtung. Zum Forschungsstand in interdisziplinärer Perspektive, in Ottomeyer H. (ed.), Das Exponat als historisches Zeugnis. Präsentationsformen politischer Ikonographie, Dresden, Sandstein Verlag, 2010, pp. 25-32.

5 Fuhrmann, A.-L., Schumann, J., Popp, S., Schilling, S. and Mayer- Simmet, O., Making Europe Visible. Re-interpretation of Museum Objects and Topics. A Manual (EMEE Toolkit series, vol. 1), Vienna 2016: edition mono/ monochrom, available online: http://www.museums-exhibiting-europe.de/download/8248/, Accessed 11 August 2016; Širok, K. (ed), Integrating a Multicultural Europe. Museums as Social Arenas (EMEE Toolkit series, vol. 2), Vienna 2016: edition mono/ monochrom, available online: http://www.museums-exhibiting-europe.de/download/8289/,Accessed 11 August 2016; Angelini, C., Bridging the Gap. Activation, Participation and Role Modification (EMEE Toolkit series, vol. 3), Vienna 2016: edition mono/ monochrom, available online: http://www.museums-exhibiting-europe.de/download/8293/, Accessed 11 August 2016; Brückner, U. R. and Greci, L., Synaesthetic Translation of Perspectives. Scenography – a Sketchbook (EMEE Toolkit series, vol. 4), Vienna 2016: edition mono/monochrom, available online: http://www.museums-exhibiting-europe.de/download/8296/, Accessed 11 August 2016; Kronberger, A., Kelley, H., Fabry, D., Friesinger, G. and Halm, K., Social Web and Interaction. Social Media Technologies for European National and Regional Museums (EMEE Toolkit series, vol. 5), Vienna 2016: edition

262 263 THINKING TRANSNATIONAL THE HOUSE OF EUROPEAN HISTORY1 Taja Vovk van Gaal

A year ago, the first museum dedicated to presenting the processes and phenomena which have shaped Europe of today with a focus primarily on the 20st century, opened its door in Brussels. The project to create a House of European History was initiated by then European Parliament President Dr Hans - Gert Pöttering, in his inaugural speech of 2007. The following year, a committee of distinguished historians and museum experts from various European countries drew up a first concept for the project, entitled the Conceptual Basis for a House of European History, which envisaged the House of European History as a modern exhibition, documentation and information centre that would reflect the latest museological thinking.

From January 2011 onwards, an Academic Project Team - responsible for the content - was recruited. This team, brought together from across Europe, had a heavy task to build up a museum from scratch from defining the vision and mission of the new museum, to developing the narrative for the permanent exhibition as well producing a temporary exhibition, to developing a collecting policy, visitors policy, learning programs etc. The experiences and lessons learnt during more than the seven years period of making this new museum are valuable from many perspectives. Making a museum within a political institution is exceptional, as is evidencing, collecting, getting on loan and transporting more than 1000 objects from more than 300 museums across Europe and beyond. To seek to prepare a museum exhibition on European history - that was also to be available in 24 languages - in the full knowledge that this concept is challenged and widely debated, were only some of the challenges we had to deal with. The House of European History is located in the Eastman building

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in the Parc Léopold in Brussels, close to the European institutions. objects from more than 200 institutions (as well as objects from the The building has its own interesting history, built in 1935 to house HEH collection). a dental clinic for disadvantaged children, financed by a donation The permanent exhibition (which is continually developing and from the US businessman George Eastman, the inventor of the changing because of the need for regular replacement of those Kodak film. The building was transformed for the purposes of a objects which have been loaned for differing lengths of time), museum, although we were able to keep all the features of its creates an environment for individual interpretations of different external art deco style, without harming then atmosphere and chapters of history while respecting different levels of knowledge. uniqueness of the Parc Léopold. By posing questions and challenging visitors to become engaged, The House of European History is aimed at Europeans from all it is a place where visitors from all over Europe and the world parts of the continent from all age groups and all walks of life. can reach their own decisions as well as participate in the debate The permanent exhibition is complex. However, no comprehensive about what we Europeans share and what divides us, what is our prior historical knowledge is needed. The exhibition focuses on the heritage in which we take pride - and how we deal with the ‘dark’ main phenomena and processes which have shaped today’s Europe. chapters of our history, a process that demands self-reflection and It offers multiple interpretations and views, in the 24 official reconciliation. languages of European Union as mentioned earlier, and visitors In the months since the museum opened, the feedback from our have the option of taking a guided tour, using a tablet that provides visitors has been very positive. Although sometimes surprised that complete information, or using a guidebook to the permanent they do not find the history of their nation states, they praise exhibition also offered in 24 languages. the richness of the stories that are intertwined throughout the With nearly 4000 m2 of permanent exhibition space, visitors can chronological approach, the balance between the rational and explore both the processes and phenomena, as well as individual the emotional, as well as the fact that the presentation does not events of European history since the 19th century, as well as some avoid contradictions or difficult issues from Europe’s past, while introductory showcases on the roots of the European continent. emphasising that there are different aspects of them. In addition, there is a temporary exhibition, with more than 1500 The richness of our educational programmes, the increasing number

The House of The House of European History European History

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of events, and the provision of dedicated family discovery spaces for exhibition. I started with the main events which marked the small younger children all contribute to inspiring many new visitors to town through history. After some research, I realized that most of come and visit the museum. relevant processes which had influenced my country over hundreds of year, had not by-passed this town, but it seemed rather that they On the other hand, we have also received some critical remarks and played often a central role. If I go further, I would dare to say that, attacks - some of them legitimate, some debatable, and some which through its history, the town has been a witness to the majority of are based on false information. When the team of international processes and phenomena which could be called typically European historians and museum professionals started working on the content (according to the criteria used by the HEH i.e. that the process has of the museum at the beginning of 2011, there were many debates originated in Europe, spread across most of the continent and it is about the role of local, city and regional museums, especially from still relevant). For example: the area was among the first settlements the perspective of the richness of their collections in relation to their in the Bronze Age in Europe, had experienced period of Roman way of presenting local, city, regional history in the wider context of empire and the spread of Christianity. The town experienced several European phenomena and events. (27 precisely) attacks from the Osman Empire forces as from 15th As mentioned, the House of European History has some specificities, Century onwards, a destiny shared by many other towns and regions among which was the intensive cooperation with many museums in in Europe. Protestantism, as well as the Counter-Reformation, took Europe which contributed objects to support the HEH’s narrative. place here as well as a visit from a major historical personality, the Among these, there are many national and specialized museums, author of the first book printed in the Slovenian language. The last as well as many local and especially city and regional museums. In witchcraft trial in Slovenia took place here, with the execution of the House of European History, these objects that come from 33 seven persons. Napoleon’s conquest of Europe did not avoid the countries and are presented mostly in ensembles, to tell their stories town and the widespread process of emigration at the end of the through a new, European perspective. If one starts to connect local 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century influenced the or regional processes and even events, one can, in many cases, town and the surrounding countryside. World War 2 had terrible realize that that they are not isolated from mainstream ones. consequences, witnessing the double occupation within 4 years of Going deeper in searching for specificities is part of the work of war, resistance, collaboration, civil war and a revolution. And more a historian. Another part, which is as interesting as the first one, examples are to be found. is the search for wider phenomena which could be reflected at This framework of processes and phenomena could apply, I am sure, a local or regional level. While working for many years in a city to many towns, cities and regions. This notion is important. It is museum, the issue of the influence of regional, European or even easy to talk about centres and peripheries and to point to those world historical events at a local level was of course always present, everlasting political, economic and cultural centres where all history however never in such depth as in the House of European History. apparently happened. If we look at Europe as a continent, we can We took the fundamental processes and phenomena which shaped see how some of these powers have shifted periodically. However, Europe throughout the centuries as the basis for building up the there are some centres which have never really lost that position. whole narrative of the exhibitions, with hundreds of objects from museums from Europe and abroad. If we talk about local and regional museums and their role in the building of a people’s Europe it is impossible to avoid completely More than 2 decades ago, I was involved in a project in a small a feeling which can be encountered often - that is a feeling of town in my country. A group of curators from different disciplines helplessness and insignificance in comparison with what is ‘Big’ and and a designer received the assignment to prepare a proposal ‘Important’. From my point of view this view could not be further for a new exhibition in their planned museum. I was responsible from the truth. The House of European History is, as its name for preparing the content concept for a modular permanent indicates, a museum of (recent) history. When we started in 2011,

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the new museum did not possess any collection, but was obliged to Barricadenbau 2 develop and build one. Indeed, the first policy that we developed was our collecting policy. This first policy was drafted before the This object from the HEH collection has been displayed in a th Academic Project team had even started working, and the improved section of presenting the 19 century processes and phenomena policy was written in 2011. Being aware of the richness of museum in a subtopic dedicated to revolutions, national self-determination collections, the majority of which is too often kept in storage, we processes and spreading of democracy. It shares a showcase with aimed to acquire as many of objects as possible for our exhibitions, many other objects from different countries to demonstrate how not only to build a museum full of objects to support and interpret the ideas which had spread across Europe found their realisation the narrative, but to give the objects another layer of information in different parts of Europe. and European significance. This is a game for children from mid-19th century titled The Barricades. In 2013 we contacted 300 museums (and visited many of them), The layers of information of this object are manifold: discovering 3000 objects which would be important to get, finally getting hundreds of them for the permanent and the first temporary 1. unfortunately we do not know the names of its owners and the exhibitions from small and big museums, to be displayed in a new family history. context of European History and thus testing their importance and storytelling strength. Our experience during the searching, collecting 2. one of very important layers of information is the fact that the and administrative process and the transport and installation objects depicts, through means of an entertainment for children, would never have been possible without the cooperation and help a process which marked Europe as a continent in the first half of of hundreds of helpful colleagues. However, through the whole the 19th century. It does not point out a specific event in a wave process we gained unique knowledge and an overview on issues of revolutions in the first half of 19th Century emanating from the which have been debated in last decades: digitalisation, accessibility French revolution. The upheavals broke out in 1830-31 for instance and mobility of collections should remain one of the priorities of in France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Netherlands and in 1848/49 spread our work. even wider across Europe. 3. the object is obviously a product of an industrial revolution Barricadenbau and it is a product for mass consumption. That the trade did not really recognised the borders of different empires even at that time is expressed by the fact that the title on the top of the box is in three languages (German, English and French) which gives it even stronger European Character although the toy comes from then German confederation.

The trade through the continent has been present for thousands of years thus the most unexpected connections could be found through rather simple looking objects.

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Endnotes 1 The presentation given on the Conference organized by ICOM Europe entitled; The Role of Local and Regional Museums in the Building of a People’s Europe, was supported by slides and was restricted by time. This article is a summary of the presentation written in June 2018, a year after the House of European History was opened. BIOGRAPHIES

2 In my speech in Bologna I use four examples of different objects from the HEH’s permanent exhibition revealing the layers of information/stories they contributed to the exhibition narrative.

272 273 Fabrizio Maria Arosio Graduated in Statistics and Demographics at University of Rome “La Sapienza”. From 1991 to 1998, social researcher at Censis Foundation in Rome, dealing with institutions, activities and polices related to educational and vocational training and Social Welfare. Guest lecturer, from 2004 to 2006, in Demography at University of Tuscia (Viterbo - Italy). Since 1998, as researcher for Italian National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT), collaborated on the organizational and functional development of the National Statistical System and directed the Operational Unit “Culture and Leisure”, taking care of surveys, statistics and research activities on the production, distribution and demand of cultural goods and services. He currently directs the Division “Environmental and Territorial Networks”, of the Directorate for Environmental and Territorial Statistics at Department for Statistical Production in Istat, dealing with the production of statistics on culture, tourism and transport services and facilities. Within institutional commitment, in particular, he assumed direct responsibilities for the design and the implementation of the projects of the census surveys on Museums and cultural institutions, carried out by Istat since 2006 in Italy, in close cooperation with Ministry of culture and Regions. He collaborated with leading international statistical institutions, including the European Group on Museums Statistics (Egmus), and the Ess-Net Culture project by Eurostat. Is responsible for the collection, processing and analysis of data for the main institutional publications and the thematic data warehouse and integrated Information Systems currently produced by Istat (I.stat, http:// imuseiitaliani.beniculturali.it). Author of books and reports on cultural statistics, in particular on the museums, archival and library heritage, publishing, cultural participation, tourism, entertainment and sport.

274 275 Pietro Clemente Commission for Urban Regeneration, in charge of socio-economic sector, Professor of Cultural Anthropology at the University of Florence, he also employment, training, social integration (1986-1989). taught at the University of Siena and Rome. Honorary chairmen of the Founder and Director of ASDIC Ltd, Consultants in local and community Società Italiana per la Museografia e per i Beni DemoEtnoAntropologici development (1989-1999), Free-lance consultant (since 1999) in local and (SIMBDEA), he teaches Anthropology of the cultural heritage at the Scuola community development with interventions in France, Portugal, Canada, di Specializzazione in Beni Demoetnoantropologici of the University of Brazil, Italy, on development policies, local democracy, community Rome. He is the editor of the magazine LARES, chair of the scientific council museology, employment, etc. of the Fondazione Museo Guatelli, on the jury of the Premio Saverio Tutino Lecturer in universities or training courses (France, United Kingdom, Brazil, dell’Archivio Diaristico Nazionale of Pieve Santo Stefano, of the Premio Canada, Spain, Portugal): local development, social economy, popular Silvia dell’Orso, and he is also part of the editorial staff of the magazine museology, heritage management, social integration Antropologia Museale. By him are Graffiti di museografia antropologica italiana, Online publications: www.hugues-devarine.eu 1996, Siena, Protagon, Il terzo principio della museografia, 1999, Roma, Blog: www.world-interactions.eu Carocci and recently Le parole degli altri. Gli antropologi e le storie della vita, Pisa, Pacini, 2013. Daniele Jalla An historian by training, he worked for the Piemonte Region of Italy from Giuliana Ericani 1980-1994 and was Director of the Museums of the City of Turin from 1994 She is an Art Historian, graduated in 1974, specialized in 1984 in the to 2012. He is also a Professor of Museology at the Scuola di specializzazione University of Padua. From 1980 to 2002 she was in the executive staff of the in Beni demoetnoantropologici at the University of Perugia and did Ministry of Culture in the Soprintendenza of Veneto. City of Bassano del lectures in several Italian universities on museum and cultural heritage Grappa manager and Director of the Musei Biblioteca Archivio of Bassano management and legislation. In his research work, including oral history and del Grappa from 2002 to 2015, she was in charge of the different services deportation, museum studies, alpine culture and history of Waldensians, of the institution, the Library, the Art and the Naturalistic Museums, the he has published more than 170 titles. As a civil servant or as consultant, historical Archives, the Print and Drawings Cabinet and the related reserves. he conceived the “Diffuse Museum of the Resistance” (2004), the “Urban She outfitted all the sections of the Bassano museums, opened in 2007 the Ecomuseum” (2004), the “Fruits Museum” (2007), “MuseoTorino” (2011) , Museum Remondini, praized as ICOM Italy Year Museum in 2010. with Alain Monferrand, the “Museum of the Alps” and the “Museum of She was chair of ICOM ICFA, the international committe of Fine Arts and Borders and Alpine Fortifications” (Fort de Bard 2006 and 2017). Collections from 2010 to 2016. At ICOM, he has held the positions of Chair of ICOM Italy (2004-2010 and She is from 2016 chair of Collegio Probi Viri of ICOM Italy and as member of 2014-2016), member of the Executive Council (2010-2013), and is currently the Board of ICOM Europe the organizer of the Conference. member of the Executive Council of ICOM Italy.

Hugues De Varine Tiziana Maffei Historian and archaeologist by training, was Deputy Director (1962-1964), Tiziana Maffei is an Italian architect. She has always combined her competencies, Director (1964-1974) of International Council of Museums (ICOM), Director experiences and interests in the museum sector with her self-employer activity in of Regional Planning and Development Board, Compiègne, France (1975- restorating, renovating, landscape planning as well as in enhancing the cultural 1977), Research officer on cultural development and evaluation of cultural heritage.She has experience as a museum curator and cultural events designer. policies (1977-1980), in charge of cultural employment programmes She has planned, coordinated and carried out networking territorial development and advisor to the management of cultural activities (1979-1982) in the projects. Professor of Communication, Management of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture, Paris, Director (1982-1984) of the French-Portuguese Exhibition Communication, Museology and Museography at the Universities of Institute, Lisbon, Portugal, Technical advisor to the Secretary of State (Social Bologna, Turin and Rome, Italy. She has expertise in museum security. Formerly Economy and Local Development) (1985-1986), member of French National member of the board, now she has been President of ICOM ITALY since 2016.

276 277 Susanne Popp and Jutta Schumann (University of Augsburg) Claudio Rosati are both experts in the research on teaching and mediating of history at Historian and museologist Claudio Rosati is a museum curator, essayist and school and in general public. Among other things, they have a research teacher of communication of cultural assets. He is a founder member of the focus on the mediation of history in museums. Together they coordinated Italian Society of Museography and Demo-ethno-anthropological Assets, the EU-funded project EMEE (2012-2016; http://www.museums-exhibiting- and participated in creating the Ecomuseum in the Pistoiese Mountain europe.de/), which focused on a concept (“Change of Perspective”) for the area, one of the first of its kind in Italy.His most recent publications construction of multilayered meanings of museum objects, which is based include Amico Museo. Per una museologia dell’accoglienza (Edifir, 2016).He on the simultaneity of local, national, European and global dimensions of is a former director of the Museums Department for the Tuscan Regional meaning in many museum objects. Administration. Other reesearch topics are: construction of history and narratives in popular history magazines in international comparison, absent cultural Margherita Sani heritage, global perspectives in national history teaching. Susanne Popp Works at the Institute of Cultural Heritage of the Region Emilia-Romagna, is president of the International Society for History Didactics (ISHD) since where she is involved extensively on international projects, in particular 2011 (ishd.co). on museum education, lifelong learning and intercultural dialogue. In the last 15 years, she has projected and managed several EU funded projects Dominique Poulot on these same subjects. She is member of the Executive Board of NEMO Professor of Cultural History of Heritage and Museums at University of (Network of European Museum Organisations), coordinator of the Working Paris 1 Sorbonne. He has edited the Letters by Quatremère de Quincy about Group LEM – The Learning Museum and sits on the jury of the Children in heritage and museums (Getty) and written extensively about Museums and Museums Award. Museology (in italian : Musei e Museologia, JacaBook, Allestimenti storici tra She is also member of the council of the Emilia Romagna Coordinating arte, collezionismo e museologia, BUP, 2017). His last book is L’art d’aimer les Committee of ICOM Italy. objets, Hermann, 2016. He was also part of Les lieux de mémoire, Gallimard, of National Museums and Nation-building in Europe 1750-2010, Routledge, Europa, Mario Scalini Notre histoire, Arènes, 2017. His current research is on museums from the mid- Graduated at the Florence University in 1978, he then earned a post- eighteenth century to the present day, examining the debates over social and graduated degree in München, Germany at the Zentralinstitut für cultural identity, national memory and history. He has been partner of some Kunstgeschichte, with Prof. Williband Sauerländer. He is specialized in European programs about Museums and Cultural heritage these last years Applied Arts, Antique History and Weapons’ and Armors’ History, and (EuNaMus, CulturalBase). He is a member of the National Scientific Commission studied the collections’ history of Italian Noble Houses, particularly Tuscany’s of Collections of France, and of research commissions or Scientific Councils of and Emilia Romagna’s ones. He was Director of Palazzo Mozzi Bardini in the Louvre, of the Musée des arts et métiers, of Musée Jacques Chirac Quai Branly, Florence and of the Medicean Villa of Cerreto Guidi, then Art and History and Musée d’histoire contemporaine BDIC at Nanterre. Superintendent in Modena and Siena. He is a member of various scientific Associations and for many years have been teaching at the Opificio delle Luís Raposo Pietre Dure in Florence. Since March 2015 he is the Director of the new President of ICOM Europe (since 2016; Chair of ICOM Portugal, 2008-2012). Emilia Romagna Museum Network (Polo Museale dell’Emilia-Romagna). Vice-President of the Portuguese Association of Archaeologists (since 2016). Head of the Research Department of the National Museum of Archaeology, Lisbon, Portugal (since 2012; Director, 1996 to 2012) Vice-President of the Portuguese Association of Archaeologists (since 2014) Chair of the General Assembly of the Cultural Heritage ONG Historic Villages of Portugal) (since 2012)

278 279 Erminia Sciacchitano and awareness raising of cultural heritage and museums at national level, is a Policy officer at the European Commission, Directorate-General for as well as in the organization of national and international temporary Education and Culture. Architect, with a PhD in Historic Buildings Survey and archaeological exhibitions. She holds a B.A. in Archaeology and History of a Master’s in European Studies and International Negotiations, since February Art from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece and a 2014 she is contributing to policy development on cultural heritage and M.A. in Gallery Studies from the University of Essex, UK. economy of culture in Europe and is now the Chief Scientific advisor of the Task force for the European Year of Cultural Heritage 2018. She is a Seconded Mario Turci National Expert from the Italian Ministry for Heritage, Culture and Tourism, Mario Turci is an Anthropologist and Architect. He is Director of the where she has developed extensive experience on European cooperation on “Customs and Traditions of the Romagna Inhabitants Museum” (located in culture, cultural heritage and architecture. In the Ministry, she held positions Santarcangelo di Romagna, Rimini, Italy), Director of the “Ettore Guatelli of Head of Units for International relations and Research, being active in Museum” (located in Ozzano Taro, Parma, Italy) and Director of Fo.Cu.S “ the intergovernmental cooperation on a broad spectrum of policies: artists Fundation for Culture Santarcangelo” (located in Santarcangelo di Romagna, mobility, contemporary creation, sustainable architecture, digitization, Rimini, Italy). Professor of “Museum Production Design and Establishment” creative economy and promotion of a wider access and participation to by the Graduated School of Cultural and Social Anthropology - University of museums and heritage sites. In this framework, she coordinated studies and Perugia, Professor of “Ethnographic Exhibition Design” by the Graduated pilot actions to improve accessibility and management of national museums School of Cultural and Social Anthropology - University of “La Sapienza” in Italy, such as the Feasibility study observatory on museums visitors, studies Rome. He is Coordinator of LAECM (Permanent Laboratory of Ethnography to improve the quality of communication in heritage sites, and is author of - University of Perugia) and Coordinator of LAPEA (Permanent Laboratory the guidelines of the Italian Ministry of culture on accessible texts in museums. of Ethnographic Exhibition Design - University of “La Sapienza” Rome). She has been project manager of EU funded research projects and member He is carrying out research activities in Anthropology, Museography and of international working groups and committees, including the Ministerial Ethnographic Exhibition Design. commission for the Italian White Paper on Creativity, EU Expert groups in the framework of the European agenda for culture (artist’s mobility; access Maria Vlachou to culture; creative partnerships), the Reflection Group “EU and Cultural Cultural Management and Communications consultant. Founding member Heritage” and the Governing Board of the Enlarged Partial Agreement on and Executive Director of the association Acesso Cultura. Author of the Cultural Routes. She chaired in 2013 the Steering Committee for Culture, bilingual blog Musing on Culture, where she writes about culture, the arts, Heritage and Landscape of the Council of Europe, to which she has been museums, cultural management and communication, access. She is the national delegate since 2008. Among her achievements, the Italian signature manager of the Facebook group Museum texts / Textos em museus, manager of the Council of Europe Framework Convention on the Value of Cultural of the Facebook page of ICOM Europe and co-manager of the blog Museums Heritage for Society (Faro 2005). and Migration. In the past, she was Communications Director of São Luiz Municipal Theatre and Head of Communication of Pavilion of Knowledge – Sofia Tsilidou Ciência Viva (Lisbon). Board member of ICOM Portugal (2005-2014) and editor Works at the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports - Directorate of of its bulletin. Alumna of the DeVos Institute of Arts Management at the Museums, where she is mainly responsible for European cooperation on Kennedy Center in Washington (2011-2013); she has a M.A. in Museum Studies museum and heritage issues. Since 2013, she is an appointed national expert (University College London, 1994) and a B.A. in History and Archaeology at the Cultural Affairs Committee of the Council of the EU and since 2011, (University of Ioannina, Greece, 1992). an elected member of the Executive Board of NEMO/Network of European Museum Organisations. Sofia has participated as a national expert in various EU working groups, networks and EU-funded projects of transnational cultural cooperation. She has also been involved in work for the promotion

280 281 Taja Vovk Van Gaal ICOM NATHIST and the Forum of culture and art institutes in Israel. Historian and sociologist, museum adviser. Graduated from the University She is a member of the legislation committee and the academic accreditation of Ljubljana. She was director of the City Museum of Ljubljana (1997- of museology studies committee of the Israel Museums Council. 2006), author and curator of many exhibitions and articles, member of boards of different professional—both national and international— Maria-Xeni Garezou organizations, inter alia President of the Museum Council at the Ministry of Maria-Xeni Garezou received her BA and Ph.D. in Archaeology from the Culture of Slovenia. She was the Head of Support of the European Cultural University of Athens. She also holds a Diplôme Universitaire 3ème cycle in Foundation (2006-2010), Judge of the European Museum of the Year Award cultural management from Université Paris-Dauphine and is a graduate of (1999-2011) and member of the Board of Trustees of the European Museum the National School of Administration. Since 1995 she has occupied various Forum as well as the Board of Europeana (2011-2015). From 2011 until June posts in the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports. Now, she is Head of 2017,Taja Vovk Van Gaal was the Academic Project Leader of the House of the Department of Public Archaeological Museums and Collections and European History. Since 1 June 2017 she acts as a Creative Director of the deals, at a central level, with issues related to the planning and operation House of European History. of archaeological museums. Her research interests include ancient Greek pottery, iconography, museum interpretation, exhibition making and Iain Watson heritage management Iain’s initial career was in research in archaeological science. He moved into the cultural sector after training as a teacher and has been Director of Tyne Nina Zdravič Polič & Wear Archives & Museums since March 2010. He is a Board member of Museum adviser and Head of Programmes and Communications at the the Museums Association (and currently leading the England sub-group Slovene Ethnographic Museum (SEM), Ljubljana, Slovenia (1997 -2015 of the MA’s Museums Taskforce), Vice Chair of the National Museum former deputy director of SEM). She has been involved in museum work in Directors’ Council, Vice-Chair of Newcastle Gateshead Cultural Venues, a different capacities for over twenty years. member of the Advisory Board of Art UK, a member of the Steering Group At the Slovene Ethnographic Museum, she is responsible for museum public for the English Civic Museums Network and a ‘Distinguished Friend’ of the programmes, marketing and exhibitions. She takes an active part in the Migration Museums Network. He is an external PhD examiner at Leicester museum management process and the planning of strategic change by focusing University. He is a member of the Steering Group for Creative Fuse, a major on present challenges and demands. She is also responsible for coordinating research project exploring the Creative, Digital and IT sector in the NE. He the process of exhibition development and for increasing access to collections teaches on postgraduate courses at Newcastle and Durham universities through planning and implementing integrated communications. She has to and has written and lectured extensively in the UK and internationally on date initiated and curated several exhibitions and art projects at SEM. museums and their future, including recent lectures in Australia, China, In the context of her work, she researches the area of communications Finland, Brazil and Turkey. He was responsible for the initiation of Destination and their alternative functions, the factors influencing people’s behaviour Tyneside at Discovery Museum, possibly the first permanent gallery in a UK towards cultural heritage. She is the author of numerous museum museum dedicated to immigration. exhibitions and articles on museum communications and museum’s role in society, and the co-author of a handbook Marketing Museums: Theory and Dorit Wolenitz Practises in Slovene Museums, and frequently lectures on the subject in She is the Director and Chief Curator of the Man and living world museum, Slovenia and abroad. She is the honorary member of ICOM Slovenia and a Natural History museum situated in Ramat-Gan, Israel. She has masters of the former president (2003 – 2011), member of ICOM Europe Board, the Zoology and a diploma in Museology studies from the Tel Aviv University. judge at the Forum of Slavic Cultures for the Živa Award for the Best Slavic Until 2016 she was the chair of The Israel association of museums and Museum, Head of the Živa Jury at the Forum of Slavic Cultures, former vice- the chair of ICOM Israel. Now she is a board member of ICOM Europe, president of ICOM SEE (2007 – 2016), and former vice-president of ICOM MPR (2004 – 2010).

282 283 Irena Žmuc PhD from the University of Arts Ljubljana, history, 17th Century. Work in Museum and Galleries of Ljubljana, curator for Early Modern Age, Museum Councillor Member of ICOM/ICR since 1991, in 1994 I organized with Hartmut Prasch ICR Annual Meeting: Museums in Divided Societies. In 1995-2005 was member of ICR board and gave papers in many annual ICR conferences Calcutta 1996, Athens 1999, Nairobi 2000, Norway, Barcelona, Kathmandu, Helsinki… Member of ICR board since 2010, editor in chef of Eat Local – Think Global (flash disk, e-book, printed version). Since ICOM General Conference in Milan ICR Chair, in January 2017 organized ICOM Special project in Kathmandu, Nepal a conference: Regional Museums role in assisting to rebuild their local communities after an earthquake. In August 2017 organized an Annual Meeting in Finland: TOGETHER! Regional Museums participating in the «New Reality»

284 ISBN: 978-88-9728-185-6

Editore Istituto per i beni artistici, culturali e naturali della Regione Emilia-Romagna