mathematics HEALTH ENGINEERING DESIGN MEDIA management GEOGRAPHY EDUCA E MUSIC C PHYSICS law O ART L agriculture O BIOTECHNOLOGY G Y LANGU CHEMISTRY TION history AGE M E C H A N I C S psychology India Earliest Times to the 8th Century A.D. Subject: EARLIEST TIMES TO THE 8TH CENTURY A.D. Credits: 4 SYLLABUS Environment and Early Patterns of Adaptation India: Physical Features, Regions in Indian History : Formation and Characteristics, Hunter-Gatherers : Archaeological Perspective, Origins of Agriculture and Domestication of Animals Harappan Civilization and Evolution of early Indian Society Antecedents, Chronology and Geographical Spread, Material Characteristics, Nature of Contacts, Society and Religion, Diffusion and Decline, Chalcolithic and Early Iron Age, The Early Vedic Society, Changes in The Later Vedic Phase India: 6th to 4th Century B.C.E. Janapadas and the Mahajanapadas, Rise of Urban Centres, Society and Economy, Buddhism, Jainism and Other Religious Ideas Polity, Society and Economy: 320 B.C.E. to 200 B.C. E. Economy of the Mauryan Empire, Administrative Organization and Relationship with Other Powers, Magadh Territorial Expansion, Asoka's Policy of Dhamma, Disintegration of the Empire India: Century 200 B.C.E. to 300 C.E. Northern-Western and Northern India, Expansion in Network of Trade and Urbanization, Development in Religion, Art and Architecture State and Society in South India: 200 B.C.E. to 300 C.E. Early State Formation in Deccan, Early State Formation in South India , Agrarian Settlements and Agrarian Society in Peninsular India, Expansion of Trade and Urban Centre, Growth of Tamil Language and Literature India: Polity: B.C.E. 300 to 800 C.E. Rise and Growth of Guptas, Economy, Society and Polity: Guptas, Post-Gupta Kingdoms in North India Kingdoms in the Deccan and the South Transition to early Medieval India Changes in Economy, Changes in Society, Structure of Polity, Developments in Religion Suggested Readings: 1. Satish Chandra, History Of Medieval India 2. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India : From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education 3. Kesavan Veluthat, The 'Early Medieval' in South India, Oxford University Press 4. Charlotte Vaudeville, Myths, Saints And Legends In Medieval India, Oxford University Press CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENT AND EARLY PATTERNS OF ADAPTATION STRUCTURE Learning Objectives India: Physical Features Regions in Indian History: Formation and Characteristics Hunter-Gatherers: Archaeological Perspective Origins of Agriculture and Domestication of Animals Review Questions LEARNING OBJECTIVE After reading this chapter you should be able to explain: What are the physical features of India? Why it is compulsory to identify about regions if one has to know dissimilar stages of Indian history? In what method the nature of a area could vary from that of the other, Explain the origin of agriculture. Describe the domestication of animals. INDIA: PHYSICAL FEATURES India is an enormous country with speckled landforms. Our country has nearly all main physical features of the earth, for example, Deserts, Islands, Mountains, Plains, and Plateaus. India is a huge landmass shaped during dissimilar geological periods which has prejudiced her release. As well geological configurations, a number of procedures such as weathering, erosion and deposition have shaped and customized the release its present shape. The movement of the plates results in the structure up of pressures within the plates and the continental rocks above, leading to failure, faulting and volcanic motion. Generally, these plate movements are classified into three types. As a few plates move towards each other and form convergent border. A number of plates go away from each other and shape different boundary. In the happening of two plates coming jointly they may either crash or fall down, or one can slip under the other. They can also go horizontally past each other and shape change boundary. The actions of these plates have tainted the place and dimension of the continents more than millions of years. Such movements have also prejudiced the development of the present landform features release of India. The oldest landmass was a part of the Gondwana land. The Gondwanaland included: India, Australia, South Africa and South America as one single land mass. The convectional presents rip the shell keen on a numeral of portions, therefore, most important to the wandering of the Indo-Australian plate after organism alienated from the Gondwana land, towards North. The northward float resulted in the crash of the plate with the a great deal larger Eurasian Plate. Because of this crash, the sedimentary rocks which were accrued in the geo-syncline known as the Tethys were creased to form the mountain system of western Asia and Himalaya. The Himalayan strengthens out of the Tethys Sea and subsidence of the northern side of the peninsular plateau resulted in the configuration of a huge basin. In outstanding path of time this despair, slowly got packed with authentication of sediments by the rivers curving from the mountains in the North and the peninsular plateau in the South. A smooth land of wide alluvial puts led to the configuration of the northern plains of India. The land of India shows immense physical variation. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau comprises one of the ancient landmasses on the earth‘s exterior. It was invented to be one of the most constant land chunks. The Himalayas and the northern Plains are the most new landforms. Himalayan mountains shape an unbalanced region. The entire mountain system of Himalaya characterizes an extremely youthful topography with high peaks, deep valleys and fast flowing rivers. The northern plains are shaped of alluvial deposits. The peninsular plateau is collected of igneous and metamorphic rocks with quietly increasing hills and broad valleys. The Himalayan Mountains The Himalayas, geologically youthful and structurally fold up mountains draw out over the northern boundaries of India. These mountain varieties run in a West-East way from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas represent the loftiest and one of the most rocky mountain barriers of the earth. They shape an arch, which wraps a detachment of about 2,400 Km. Their width varies from 400 Km in Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh. The altitudinal differences are better in the eastern partially than those in the western partially. The Himalaya consists of three similar ranges in its longitudinal degree. A number of valleys recline flanked by these ranges. The northern most range is known as the Huge or Inside Himalayas or the ‗Himadri‘. It is the most incessant range consisting of the loftiest hit the highest point with a standard height of 6,000 meters. It holds all the famous Himalayan peaks. The creases of immense Himalayas are uneven in nature. The hub of this division of Himalayas is collected of stonework. It is perennially snow jump, and a number of glaciers go down from this range. The range lying to the South of the Himadri shapes the most rocky mountain system and is known as Himachal or smaller Himalaya. The ranges are mostly collected of extremely dense and distorted rocks. The height varies between 3,700 and 4,500 meters and the standard width is of 50 Km as the Pir Panjal range shapes the greatest and the most vital range. The external most range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks. They expand over a breadth of 10- 50 Km and have a height unreliable between 900 and 1,100 meters. These ranges are collected of unconsolidated sediments brought downward by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges situated farther North. These valleys are enclosed with broad annoy and alluvium. The longitudinal valley deceitful flanked by smaller Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are a few of the well-known Duns. As well the longitudinal divisions, the Himalayas have been alienated on the basis of areas from West-to-East. These partitions have been separated by river valleys. For instance, the fraction of Himalayas deceitful flanked by Indus and Satluj has been traditionally known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from West-to-East in that order. The fraction of the Himalayas lying between Satluj and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon Himalayas. The Kali and Tista rivers separate the Nepal Himalayas and the fraction deceitful flanked by Tista and Dihang rivers is known as Assam Himalayas. The Brahmaputra symbols the eastern most borders of the Himalayas. Beyond the Dihang defile, the Himalayas bend piercingly to the South and increased the length of the eastern border of India. They are known as the Purvanchal or the eastern mounts and mountains. These mounts running from side- to-side the Northeastern states are more often than not collected of burly sandstones which are sedimentary rocks. Covered with thick forests, they mostly sprint as similar ranges and valleys. The Purvanchal includes: The Patkai hills, The Naga hills, Manipur hills, and The Mizo hills. The Northern Plain The northern plain has been shaped by the interaction of the three main river systems, namely: The Indus, The Ganga and The Brahmaputra along with their branches. This plain is formed of alluvial soil. The statement of alluvium in a huge basin deceitful at the foothills of the Himalaya more than millions of years, shaped this productive plain. It spreads more than a region of 7 lakh sq km. The plain being about 2,400 Km extended and 240 to 320 Km wide is a thickly occupied physiographic separation. By means of a rich soil wrap shared with sufficient water supply and constructive climate it is agriculturally an extremely creative part of India. The rivers in their inferior course split into many conduits because of the statement of deposit.