Contents

EXHIBITION TEAM Teacher’s Guide 1 Roslyn Sugarman, Curator About the Exhibition 2 Shannon Biederman, Curator Konrad Kwiet, Emeritus Professor of Jewish History and Key Questions and Understandings 4 Holocaust Studies and Resident Historian at the Sydney Pre-visit Materials Jewish Museum Leaving Behind 6 Debórah Dwork, Rose Professor of Holocaust History and Director of the Strassler Center for Holocaust and Longing to Hear 12 Genocide Studies, Clark University Joy of News 18 Marie Bonardelli, Education Ofcer 25 Words Only 24 Sign of Life 30 CONTRIBUTORS Return to Sender 36 Jennifer Duvall Annie Friedlander Last Letters 42 A Very Small Hope 48 Regret to Inform You 54 Post-visit Materials 57 Every efort has been made to contact or trace all copyright holders. The publishers will be grateful to be notifed of any additions, errors or Bibliography 58 omissions that should be incorporated in the next edition. Guidelines to Teaching about the Holocaust 59 These materials were prepared by Marie Bonardelli on behalf of the Education Department of the Sydney Jewish Museum for use in Syllabus objectives, outcomes and content 61 the program, Signs of Life. They may not be reproduced for other purposes without the express permission of the Sydney Jewish Museum.

Copyright, Sydney Jewish Museum 2014. All rights reserved.

Design by X Squared Design.

image Child in Rivesaltes posts a letter Courtesy USHMM

Exhibition sponsored by the JCA Szlamek and Ester Lipman Memorial Endowment Fund Teacher’s guide About the Exhibition

This teaching resource facilitates student • Practical guidelines about how to teach the with entire series of correspondence, thus engagement with historical context, Holocaust in a way that is ethical and providing greater insight into a wide variety photographs, documents, and testimonies meaningful of communications during the Holocaust and featured in the Signs of Life exhibition. This • Pre-visit and post-visit lesson plans that include shifting the emphasis of the exhibition. comprehensive Holocaust education program background notes, letters from the Museum’s aims to expand students’ understanding collection, full translations of select letters, and Displaying these documents is a form of about the Holocaust and its ever-present related artefacts and Survivor testimony commemoration. We remember the names reverberations and far-reaching consequences • Museum visit program and lives of those who have died by reading on both the Jewish community and wider • A bibliography and related resources them on display and refecting on their lives. It world. • Relevant syllabus outcomes and content reminds us of the far-reaching consequences • Clear expected student outcomes of antisemitism, discrimination, and genocide. This resource includes teaching materials to help support teachers in this challenging and Through the Signs of Life program, students will In the post censorship agency, Warsaw ghetto, 1941. Courtesy bpk, Berlin The exhibition sections were structured imperative endeavour to not only teach the explore: around the purpose and content of the letters, history of the Holocaust with integrity, but also • The purpose of letters which fell into thematic categories, such to ensure that the voices in these letters of • The importance of context in understanding the The Sydney Jewish Museum holds as: difculties families faced when forcibly those who did not survive will endure. letters approximately 1000 letters and postcards from separated, the anxiety of waiting for mail, • How the “voice” of the letter writer is able to the Holocaust in its collection. The concept The activities are recommended for years 10 the joy of hearing from loved ones, and the communicate the human experience of living in of the Signs of Life exhibition has been in through 12. All lessons are readily adaptable for desperation to maintain contact. The section the shadow of annihilation discussion amongst the curators for nearly History and English classrooms. titles emerged from the letters themselves. • How our perceptions of and relationships eight years. Signs of Life has evolved from Text panels provide visitors with relevant There have been signifcant changes to the HSC with others and the world are shaped by written being a historical exhibition that would focus historical context and an overview of the English Prescriptions for the 2015 HSC Year. language on the postal system in occupied Europe to a circumstances in which these letters were The Signs of Life exhibition, both its structure • The Australian connection to the Holocaust more intimate and personal narrative. Signs written, censorship and the role of the Red and content, could be used as a challenging • The scope of devastation that the Holocaust of Life brings this private correspondence Cross. and stimulating related text for the Area of inficted on the global community to the public in a way that not only provides Study: Discovery. Further, the exhibition as a • The exhibition and Museum as a way for the historical context of the Holocaust but, The majority of the letters in the exhibition whole could become fertile ground for use as Survivors, the Jewish community, and the wider perhaps more signifcantly, reveals the are in languages other than English – Czech, a related text in the Advanced Course Module Australian community to make meaning out personal dimension of the Jewish experience French, German, Hungarian and Polish. The A Comparative Study of Texts and Contexts, of the Holocaust, and commemorate the during the Holocaust. These letters are a curators have relied on the translation skills Standard English Course Module A Experience millions who were murdered poignant aspect of the Museum’s collection as of Holocaust Survivor volunteers to translate Through Language, Distinctive Voices and • Their own personal responses to these texts and they allow victims’ voices to be heard through them. Innocuous content could also reveal Distinctively Visual and also the Standard English how the experience of discovery transformed their last written words to loved ones. hidden meanings, which often is lost to Course, Module C, Texts and Society, Exploring their attitude, values and beliefs a contemporary reader. We relied on the Interactions and Exploring Transitions. Please • How to avoid such inhumanity and refect on When curating an exhibition decisions must interpretation of the translator in determining refer to the Syllabus outcomes and contents the human cost of war in the world today and be made regarding the particular emphasis possible meanings. Letter-writers sometimes section for further information. for the future of the narrative: which artefacts, photographs resorted to code to deceive the censors. and personal stories to include and what In the resource, teachers are provided with: This guide complements the two hour interactive Writers used Yiddish words, references to exclude. On display in Signs of Life is a • The Museum’s vision and mission statement Museum program that includes a personal to family history, Biblical and Talmudic small fraction of the letters in the collection. • The rationale behind the structure and testimony of a Holocaust Survivor and tour of the quotations, and other clues as a way of passing The Museum’s collection of letters has content of the Signs of Life exhibition Museum and Signs of Life exhibition. news without inviting undue attention. expanded as the community came forward

1 2 Key Questions and Understandings – The Museum as a Text

A postcard bearing the ill-fated news “Your The Sydney Jewish Museum is a museum 2 / Refect on the role of letter writing. What father suddenly went on vacation” can be read and memorial that was founded and funded are some of the purposes of the letters as a euphemism for deportation. This sort by Holocaust Survivors in an efort to teach being written? of ploy was typical of the cryptic messages about the Holocaust, the history of the Jews in 3 / In what ways are the purposes of the sent with the aim of bypassing the censorship Australia, and illustrate the richness of Judaism. letters diferent, and in what way the imposed on all mail in German occupied Survivors have played an integral role since the same? Europe. Many of these represent the last Museum’s inception. The Museum’s collection 4 / How do these letters express a range of written words and “signs of life” of their loved includes 8,000 pieces related to Judaica (ritual human emotions: hope, uncertainty, fear, ones. objects), Australian Jewish history, Australian etc. Jewish military history, and the Holocaust. The 5 / Do these letters help senders and/or When curating exhibitions, we seek to Museum provides the framework to address recipients to maintain a sense of self? fnd an Australian link to the Holocaust. In Jewish identity, victimhood and resilience 6 / How has the design structure of the Signs of Life we fnd letters to and from through its displays. exhibition deepened your understanding family in Sydney to parents and siblings of the individual letters? Consider the way Since 1992, Holocaust Survivors have served trapped in German-occupied Europe. These the panels, photos, and individual letters as advisors who oversee the Museum’s communications enable us to research are juxtaposed to create a holistic efect. policymaking; been responsible for the frst and understand what Australians – so 7 / The letters propose both a silent and objects collected (under the auspices of the geographically remote from Europe - knew overt commentary on a variety of political Australian Association of Holocaust Survivors about the dire circumstances of their loved and human rights issues. List some of and Descendants); and are living witnesses ones. Australia’s pre-war immigration policy these issues that are being raised as a who speak to visitors and tell their own was characterised by deep-seated hostility result of wartime conditions, and explain personal testimonies of survival. Survivor to foreigners and in many cases these letters how they are manifested in the letters. speakers are able to address the years leading reveal their desperate and mostly futile 8 / The Holocaust was an attempt to up to, during, and after the Holocaust in an attempts to help trapped family members extinguish the Jewish way of life and a efort to share the nuances of the Jewish escape. Despite guaranteed fnancial support community with rich values, practices, and experience. In this way, the Museum provides rescue was often not possible. In most cases, history. In what ways do these letters a place to allow Survivors to grapple with their the Australian government denied visas and serve as “signs of life”? trauma, and students with an experience to pleas for help. 9 / How do the letters express the individual consider the ever-present reverberations of “voices” of their writers? Consider the way genocide. language can embody beliefs, values and Temporary exhibitions, like Signs of Life, serve emotions. the function of exploring thematic topics and 10 / Discuss the ways these letters highlight: showcasing the Museum’s diverse collection. a. The importance of family Key questions for students to consider in this b. Identity exhibition include: c. The survival of generations who come after 1 / Consider the importance of letters during d. Expressing emotion the Holocaust. They ofer contact with e. The importance of imagination others, a sense of normalcy, and possible 11 / Which panel resonated most with you? material aid. What are some of the other Why? ways in which correspondence is important during the Holocaust?

3 4 Leaving Behind “Do write to Mother a lot and try to console her. It’s no small deal for a mother to see both children leaving her behind.”

Gerhard Steuerwald, North Sydney, to his brother Jürgen, Kent, England. 4 April 1939.

Street scene of Magdeburg , Germany after Kristallnacht on November 10, 1938. SJM Collection

6 In 1933, the Nazis seized power in Germany covered with shards of glass. Nazis broke into Letter 1 / The Gruschka family in the wake of the Great Depression and Jewish homes, terrorising families. Jews were the collapse of the Weimar Republic, and murdered and almost 30,000 Jewish men were Dear Johnny, a dictatorial regime was established. Many incarcerated in concentration camps in order Germans supported Adolf Hitler because they to increase the pressure on Jews to emigrate. (In English) It is a good idea to write me English letters. saw in him a charismatic Führer (‘Leader’), who Thus you will get practice in expressing your thoughts could solve the severe problems afecting Following Kristallnacht, Nazi policy became in English and become courageous in using the English the country. These problems included the even more relentless. Jewish businesses, language. Don’t worry about making mistakes. All consequences of the military defeat in the First assets and valuables were confscated. Jews children, who learn to grow, must fall in their first attempts and no child can be saved from that. The first World War, the harsh terms imposed by the were herded together in specially segregated John Gruschka with his parents, Helena and Theodor. thing is to learn to avoid further mistakes by knowing Peace Treaty of Versailles, political instability, ‘Jew houses’ and deployed in forced labour. the mistakes made before. I shall therefore correct social unrest, economic malaise and large- They undertook feverish eforts to escape Nazi For safety, on his 15th birthday, John was sent to live the mistakes I find in your letters. (You have to use the scale unemployment. terror. These eforts were often given voice with distant relatives in England. It was difcult for dictionary if you meet an unknown word.) in the form of desperate letters to loved ones. the family to be separated. His sister Ruth went to Palestine and his father Theodor followed shortly after. In Hitler's vision, Germany, and with time the Thus, family relationships by mail began. You write: Correct is: His mother Helena stayed in Czechoslovakia to care for world, was to be remade along the lines of They have to children two her sick mother. Their intercontinental correspondence Nazi ideals – strong, ‘Aryan’ and ‘racially pure’. As Nazi Germany seized territory – Austria in Ten and twelve years of age was an attempt to stay connected. John has dozens of It was a world in which there was no place for March 1938, the Sudetenland in October 1938, letters, many of which are from his mother, that refect Intresting interesting any group or individual defned as a political, and the Czech lands in March 1939 – planned the deterioration of her life under German occupation. I hope, that I hope that social or racial enemy. The Jew was regarded emigration overtook panicked departure, In September 1942 Helena was deported to Terezín. In I understanded I understood not only as the ‘cancer’ of the German and Jewish communal organisations poured February 1943 she was murdered in Auschwitz, aged 53. Volksgemeinschaft (‘national community’) but their energy into organising the departure also the source of all evil – as the Weltfeind (the of children and young adults. In many cases ‘world enemy’). The Jew had to be removed these families were separated and never to be and fnally eliminated. reunited.

Systematically, the Jews were excluded from German society. In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were proclaimed to “protect German blood and honour” by banning marriages between Jews and Germans, and by depriving Jews of their civil rights and citizenship. Thousands of Jews fed Nazi Germany.

The Nazis continued to intensify their campaigns against the Jews. On the night of 9 November 1938, a massive pogrom was organised against Jews in Germany and Austria, which became known as Kristallnacht – the ‘night of broken glass’. More than 1,000 synagogues were razed and 7,500 Jewish- owned shops vandalised, leaving streets Theodor’s letter to his son, March 8, 1939.

7 8 Letter 2 / Gerhard Steuerwald

(In German) I’m still uncertain when I am leaving. I would English”, which had been taught to you at Wolfstrasse. How do you like Cricket? like to board a ship that’s sailing on the 29th or 30th I am hoping that you will meet nice people among your of March. Unfortunately big problems have cropped classmates. That’s it for today! I will write again soon! You’ve got my up in connection with getting my ticket, they need address. Grandmother wrote to me that you so nicely said approval from the National Bank and as of today I don’t Solicitor Schoenfeld and solicitor Wolfes wrote know if this has been sorted out. Kamill Kohn Family is farewell to everyone and gave them goodbye presents. What kind of presents did you make? Have you been yesterday. Aunt Gerta from Dortmund also wrote and leaving today. I am very concerned that Mr. Meek was finally I also received a letter from an unknown woman embarrassed about my approach concerning Bruno. with Jochen? You must have been happy to receive so much money for your microscope. What have you done from Berlin. Many people turn to me asking me for I know that nothing can be done but I gave in to my support for their emigration matters or with different constant wish to at least ask. I am afraid that many with the chemistry stuff and all the other things? Have you sold everything? enquiries in the same matter. There is so much to do. people who know your address will turn to Mr. Meek I am hoping that you are trying hard at school! with all sorts of requests. Please tell Mr. Meek that I Gerhard Steuerwald, Sydney, to his brother Jürgen, Kent, England, November 18, 1938. You can be happy to have left Germany in time! Mid don’t pass on the address and am rejecting all requests November a terrible Jew-baiting started, one that has Write to me soon to use me as an intermediary and am asking him to November 18, 1938 never ever been before. By order of that Devil Goebbels understand that I am in no way involved with people Jewish shops were attacked and everything was Greetings, your Gerhard bothering him. My dear Jürgen, completely destroyed. After January 1, 1939 Jews are no longer allowed to own a shop (business) or occupy This letter shall welcome you to the new country to Regards and kisses, Your father a profession in Germany. Uncle Richard will have to sell which destiny has sent you. I shall write to you more his factory by then. Jews are no longer allowed to go to often in the future. I am hoping that you too are going an exhibition, a museum, theatre, cinema or gathering. to send me a letter once in a while in which you tell You see how difficult it is for our mother and the others! me in detail about English school life. Do you actually You must not repeat anything about what I just said 1/ What inferences can we make about the socio- receive some pocket money to pay for stamps? about the Jew-baiting in your letters to our mother. If economic and political situation in Germany? How is this communicated (or not) in the letters? How do you like England? Have you had an interesting you happen to say something against Germany in your trip? I’ve made the same trip from Hannover via letters that are addressed to Germany they will either 2/ Consider diferent ways that Jewish people may have Amsterdam, Hoek van Holland, Harwich and Colchester not be delivered or mother and Uncle will be arrested. responded to the escalation and implementation of to London twice and one time the other way around. You have to be very careful! But I am sure you are Nazi policies. It is quite a shame (as Herward Feuerhake would say) smart enough to know that yourself. Now that you have 3/ Research and consider the political, social, economic, managed to get out of “prison Germany”, Uncle Ernst that you were not able to get a malt beer at the railway and personal factors inhibiting departure and discuss station in Amsterdam. You should have drunken another will be the next one to leave. Does your passport have the choices available to people at the time and beer! The customs control and crossing frontiers must a limited duration? When did it expire? possible consequences of each choice. have been really interesting for you. Isn’t Holland, with On our shoulders lies the family’s future. We both have 4/ Why do you think John as a ffteen-year old kept all its pretty houses, a lovely country? How did you like to try really really hard in order to make something of of his parents’ letters? Why do you think as an adult the trip on the boat and the car drive from Harwich us. You must try very hard and behave well. Otherwise he donated them to the Sydney Jewish Museum? to London? What do you think about London? Isn’t it a people will say that boys from Germany are not well- huge city with enormous traffic? Are you managing the 5/ In what way does each letter reveal something about behaved. English language? I suppose you have a dictionary over the sender and recipient of their situation at the time? there. For a while it seemed like there was going to be war in 6/ What do you think Gerhard means when he states “On October. Fortunately this could have been prevented! our shoulders lies the family’s future”? Otherwise it must be far too difficult to make yourself Enclosed you will find German money and an Australian understood and to understand the others. Have you 7/ How can the section title “Leaving Behind” be jubilee tag, which marks the moment in which the spoken English with Mr. and Mrs. Marx? Most certainly attributed to this letter? English took over control of Australia (Captain Cook). I you must have noticed that the English over there also enclose French money from the war. is completely different from the so called “school

9 10 Longing to Hear “We just want to get in touch with you. We are worrying infinitely about you all. With impatience we are waiting for a message from you. With a lot of love we are kissing you.”

Imro Pollak, Finaut, Switzerland to Hilda Weisz, Szolnok Hungary. 11 June 1944.

Jewish men and women in the Radziejow Ghetto, Poland, 1941. SJM Collection

12 In September 1939, Nazi Germany instigated Letter 1 / The Sapir family World War II. With the invasion and subsequent conquest of Poland, the Nazis gained a foothold into Eastern Europe. The realisation of Nazi dominance in Europe sealed the fate of European Jewry, as Poland was a centre of Jewish life in Europe. Approximately nine million Jews lived in Europe by 1939, with over three million living in Poland.

German occupation brought forced relocation, incarceration in ghettos, transit and concentration camps, and fight from Jakob, Peter, and Tola Sapir, 1939. Anna Sapir, Warsaw Ghetto, to her Uncle Jakob and Aunt Tola, Kobe, Japan, invaded territory in search of safety. Postal 30 April 1941. *Anna’s fate is unknown. communication became more difcult just when everyone grew most anxious for news. Jakob and Tola Sapir, and their four-year-old son Peter, Wednesday, 30 April 1941. The dearest ones! left Poland in 1939 and travelled to Vilnius. After being Those who managed to immigrate before the issued an exit visa, the family travelled to Vladivostok We have received your 3 postcards from Kobe in war waited anxiously to hear from their loved and then on to Kobe, Japan, before fnally arriving in time plus your farewell letter and telegram about your ones left behind; parents were separated from Shanghai in 1941. departure. Thank you for your punctuality and that you their children, husbands from wives, brothers remember us, my unforgettable. I am very glad that Shanghai provided a haven for more than eighteen you live together with well-known people – Zimmerman from sisters. Letters and postcards were sent thousand Jewish refugees from Central Europe who family. At least you may be not so homesick so far without any assurance that they would reach were feeing Nazi persecution in the late 1930s. It away from home. Yashenca. How can you assume their intended recipients. was one of the few places in the world to accept the refugees without visas. The Sapirs were fortunate that we did not write to you? We have sent you several postcards, I cannot understand why they haven’t Receiving a letter from a loved one was to fnd refuge in one of the unlikeliest places: under reached you. You have received a postcard from Josef, important not only because it meant that the Japanese occupation. The Sapirs received documents that outlined not only their arrival date in the Shanghai why he did not send regards from us? I always send writer still lived, but also because it helped ghetto, but also their indefnite duration of stay. his regards in my letters, because I want Auntie not give insight into the unfolding events in to worry about him. Don’t be amazed with lack of Europe. They were later forced to move to the Hongkew ghetto, telegram, first of all it is not available for us, second where living conditions were difcult. Their living one – it is too expensive, unaffordable for us. quarters were cramped, lacked hot water, and had no refrigeration. Hygiene in Hongkew was dismal. Social To Sasha we still could write but unfortunately our organisations struggled to provide sufcient fnancial resources are getting depleted, and nothing comes aid and food for the growing number of Jews who up. Your last postcard from 19 of March we have required assistance. received 25 April. We were happy beyond belief that you are satisfied with your change and your place of The family left China in 1947, when they were able to verify to Australian Immigration ofcials that they had living again, that Auntie and Peter recovered really well. relations already residing in Australia and were able to Auntie, darling, please look after Yasha, help him to migrate and rebuild their lives in Sydney. recover – he is a very sick man. Cherish my Yashenca … an apple of your eye. I am so sad about everything Postcards from their family arrived from the Lodz and but I have no alternative. Sasha and Boles have no Warsaw ghettos until communication abruptly ceased communication with you whatsoever. Please write to in 1942. them. Boles does not like your decision about going

13 14 Letter 2 / Grete Pollak to Shanghai. How are you going to live there? Also the back to us - saying that she doesn't want to hear about situation there is unknown. I think much better would you anymore. What does this mean? I tried to explain be to go to South America, but he doesn’t know how by saying that due to your injured hand you don't write difficult it is to obtain visas, and how you would like much to us either. So please, try to atone for this! to get there. Sasha notifies us that he had written Refect on Anna Sapir’s letter. reference letters to Kobe. It is very bad that Kuba did In the beginning, you wrote that much to her and now not send you an invitation after Storch had done so 1/ What is the efect of the abrupt sentences in the letter? you neglect her. Why? How are things going? Yesterday much for him. We kept writing to you in America on evening, Edith said good-bye to us. She leaves next Rosenfeld’s address. Also I am very glad that Peter 2/ What is the tone of the letter? Urgent? Accusatory? Grete Pollak with her parents Erna and Isador. Tuesday and wants to stay in London for 2 days. She Desperate? Sad? attends a kindergarten. will probably call Nelly. Extend no invitations, as you

don’t have enough money. Also regards from father, 3/ How was this letter signifcant in the lives of both I beg you, please keep writing to us. Sasha and Boles sender and receiver? Grete and Willy. are very sad about your illness. 4/ List some of the challenges the postal service faced Kisses, Anna for correspondence to be sent across war-torn Europe. Discuss the impact these challenges would have on senders and recipients. In what ways would these hindrances afect their decision-making? During the backdrop of the Holocaust how would these be decisive to one’s survival? 1/ What is Grete’s mother’s perspective? Provide 5/ How do the grammatical errors in the translations of evidence from the letter to support your thoughts. these letters afect your understanding of them? What Isador and Erna Pollak (both murdered 1943), Vienna, to their daughter 2/ Why is it important for the writer to include the do we gain by leaving them with the translator’s Grete, London, England, May 1939. errors? following sentence in the letter “Extend no invitations, as you don’t have enough money.”? Consider Grete’s My heartiest beloved child, mother perspective.

We just escorted Fritzi. She left during magnificent 3/ Why do you think that Grete’s parents were not able to weather. Hopefully, she has a safe flight. The trip was accompany her to her destination? very interesting. Father and I accompanied her, but only 4/ What is the importance of the writer including the with our souls and our hearts we flew with her. I hope “Post Script” (PS) in the letter? How might the receiver you are well and cheery. Fritzi carries our... [illegible] interpret this postscript? with her and will soon notify us. Please write more detailed, we are interested how you spent your days. 5/ How would a contemporary audience interpret this Jakob Sapir ‘s Foreigners' Residence Certifcate, issued in 1941. Yesterday evening, Uncle Josef called. His attendance postscript? depends on the negotiations with R., as Ella wants to change some details. I hope everything will be fine in the end. Tomorrow, I will write more detailed about it.

Heartfelt kisses, mother

PS: Terry is very angry with you, as she hasn't received a message for 3 weeks. She is even angry with us, and yesterday, when I wanted to show her one of your letters, she took it with sharp fingers and then threw it

15 16 Joy of News “At last after a long wait I have received news from you. I can’t describe my feelings when I read your card, especially when I see your handwriting.”

Mariaa Steiman, Warsaw ghetto, to Yanka Sapir, Kobe, Japan. Undated.

Lodz ghetto postman. Courtesy Yad Vashem

18 Every situation posed its own difculties. In three inmates in the ghetto wrote one letter every card. Ten lines of text were permitted the ghettos of eastern Europe, Jews were over the course of 8 months. So what seems on the ofcial stationery that was provided to held under duress, sealed of from the rest like a lot of communication was, in fact, very inmates. of the population by wooden fences, barbed limited. As the persecution intensifed there wire and, sometimes, brick walls. Ghettos was a more desperate need for fnancial Military, police, and state authorities censored were administered by Nazi-imposed Judenrat support and contact with family members mail, removing text that conveyed information (Jewish Council). Members of these councils abroad. Thus mail increased over 1941 and they did not want transmitted. Numerous were forced to convey the orders of the Nazis. 1942 in the Lublin ghetto. While we cannot specifc regulations applied, including Ghetto inmates were exposed to terror and know how much was written, based on the permitted languages and word count. Many slave labour; appalling housing and hygienic number of letters that have survived, we know letter writers resorted to code; many more conditions; starvation and disease. The that there was a great deal of activity. simply fell silent. Paper and envelopes grew Judenrat played an integral role in attempting scarcer. Access to the post ofce decreased to maintain order and normalcy for inmates. Recognizing the importance of letters, the and ever-poorer Jews could not aford They tried to ameliorate the harsh nature Germans unrolled the “Letter Program of postage. Mail connections grew tenuous and of these orders whenever possible. One the Reich Security Main Ofce”. Their aim all ordinary mail service stopped in late 1942. responsibility the Councils held was the was to use the inmates’ mail to disguise the management of the postal system. They were murderous campaign of the ‘Final Solution’. Still, families persevered. The energy under strict regulations and instructions about From time to time, the SS in Auschwitz forced loved ones expended attempting to hold mail receipt, distribution, and dispatch. In inmates to write cards “home” to soothe the on, their commitment to keeping contact many ghettos there was intermittent access to anxiety of those left behind and counter notwithstanding all the obstacles they faced, post. rumours of mass murder. According to SS is one expression of Jews’ agency. If the Captain Dieter Wisleceney’s testimony in the Germans saw Jews as less than human, Jews In the largest ghetto, Warsaw, that housed Nuremberg Trials in 1946, this was one of Adolf resisted their ideology and eforts. The love over 400,000 Jews there were only three post Eichmann’s inventions: and loyalty expressed in their letters denied ofces and eight mailboxes to service the the Germans’ attempts to dehumanize them. entire ghetto. The Judenrat were responsible “He had thought out a special system of for the cost of the running of the postal postcards and letters, whereby he believed he service, which meant that for each letter or could mislead the public. The Jews brought parcel there was an additional administrative to Auschwitz or to other extermination camps fee associated with it’s sending. This placed were forced, prior to being murdered, to write a further strain on an already impoverished postcards. These postcards – there were TOP The letter from Maurice and Miriam Tintpulwer, Bendsburg, Poland people. always several for each person – were then to Alfred Schwarzbaum, Switzerland, 24 March 1943 shows the chemical mailed at long intervals, in order to make it smear marks used to detect secret messages. BOTTOM A postcard sent by Nelly Holzer, Hungary, to her sister, Irene In Lodz, among other ghettos, we see the appear as though these persons were still Roth, Palestine, 13 May 1941. Stamps were often removed by censors to check for hidden messages underneath. creation of special stamps and its own alive.” stationery. Concentration camp inmates in the 1930s The Lublin ghetto had a postal department and early 1940s were permitted to send from the inception of the Judenrat in January highly regulated postcards. The address side 1940. From January to August 1940 more displayed a printed extract from the camp than 130,000 items of mail were received in rules governing correspondence. The prisoner the ghetto. Most of this was incoming mail, number and birth date, and stamps by the but 15,000 items were outgoing. One in every barrack leader and camp censor appeared on

19 20 Case Study / Terezín Letter 1 / Helene Levy

Terezín, or Theresienstadt, was a Nazi ghetto- concentration camp in Czechoslovakia that existed for three and a half years between November 1941 and May 1945. In this “settlement”, the Nazi deception was acute. Terezín served the purpose of not only being a 1/ How does the exhibition title "Joy of News" afect your transit centre. It became infamous because it was the understanding of this postcard? site utilised by the Nazis to deceive the International Red Cross about the extermination of Jews. The ghetto 2/ Comment on how the receiver’s knowledge of the was enhanced with social events; gardens planted and composer being limited regarding content, time and barracks renovated. This placated the Red Cross, and space, afects their reading and interpretation of the once the inspection was complete, deportations and letter. slave labour resumed. Approximately 118,000 people perished as a result of the conditions in the ghetto- Helene Levy, Terezín ghetto-concentration camp, to her daughter Selma, 3/ Discuss how efectively the concept of Signs of Life is Germany, 1943. camp, or having been deported to the East. represented in this letter.

Access to post was a privilege that had to be earned and 4/ How has the sender demonstrated their interpretation of the situation they are in? What evidence has retained. Henry Schwab has done extensive research been provided in the letter to indicate this type of into this relatively unexamined topic and concluded interpretation? that: From: Helene Levy To: Selma Vollmann 5/ How has the writer’s perspective helped you “Texts with political contents, or ofensive to the Dated: 16 July 1943 to process and understand the individual human Reich and its representatives, or containing untrue or experience during the Holocaust? misleading information about life in the ghetto were My dearest children banned. In practical terms, this meant uniform contents 6/ According to ofcial documentation Helene died in from which it followed that the sender was well. I am very much with you in my thoughts. How happy Terezín three weeks after this letter was posted. We Censors of the Jewish self-administration as well as TOP Women prisoners lie on thin mattresses on the foor of a barracks in we are with your postcards and how joyful we were have no photographs or testimony to accompany the women's camp in the Terezín ghetto. Czechoslovakia, between 1941 this letter. The written words are the only words those of the German commander’s ofce were checking and 1945. Courtesy YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New York when we received your packages, my dear good that we have from Helene. Discuss the signifcance of the contents carefully. If the German censor detected BOTTOM Parcel admission stamp from Terezín (or Theresienstadt) Selma. Out of this as always speaks your touching ghetto. This particular type of postage stamp was created by the conserving artefacts like Helene’s postcard. What are an objectable text; the sender as well as the Jewish Germans (but designed by the Czechs) in July 1943. It is estimated that sympathy to show me love, and always succeeding the potential ramifcations of losing documents like censors were punished. This way, the commander 75,000 copies of the stamp were used. SJM Collection doing the right thing. this one? What do we gain by conserving it and/or made sure that the censorship in the frst stage was displaying it? Does a postcard like this one belong in conducted very carefully.” My joy is therefore indescribable whenever we hear a Museum? from you. I am doing reasonably well and with God's help I am in good care. I as well, am longing for the sun. Just remain well, very good children. We all send our regards.

With love, embrace and kiss you Your... [Illegible]

21 22 25 Words Only “We are healthy. Received cable. Without mail. Hope that it'll be all right over the years. Think very often of you. Kisses, Lilly, Imre”

Imre Szekeres, Shanghai ghetto, to her sister-in-law F. Sapir, Budapest, Hungary. 15 August 1942.

Supply of mail delivery to the Lodz ghetto, Poland 1941. Courtesy Yad Vashem

24 As the war continued, Jews grew desperate Letter 1 / Leo Steiner for news from their loved ones. When all ordinary mail service ceased in late 1942, Leo Steiner found refuge in Australia in 1938 and served Red Cross letters of 25 words or less written in the Australian Army during World War II. The Red Cross on “Form 61” became the standard means of letters from part of a large collection of 81 items in the communication. These letters allowed civilians Museum’s archive. There are many Red Cross messages separated by war to exchange information of and letters between Leo and his parents, Adolf and “a strictly personal nature” to family members. Hermine in Vienna, as well as his brother Paul, and many other friends. Leo applied to the Australian government Under the Geneva Convention, inmates on numerous occasions to try to bring his family to safety of internment and prisoner of war camps in Australia. Permits were denied. held the right of communication. The Red None of Leo’s family survived. His father died in Cross became the intermediary of these Vienna after being tortured in September 1940. The communications. Under the original scheme, correspondence between mother and sons continued messages had to be written in French, German until Hermine’s deportation to Minsk in June 1942, and or English, in block capitals and should not Paul’s murder in Sabac concentration camp. Many of the exceed twenty words (later increased to documents in the collection show his attempts to fnd twenty-fve), excluding the name, address out what happened to them. and relationship. For each message a pre- payment had to be made to send the letter, and an international postal coupon was to be attached to the form to cover the cost of the reply, which was to be written on the back. All messages were sent to the Red Cross’ headquarters in Geneva, from where 1/ What is the efect of the 25-word restriction on the Paul Steiner sent this letter from Sabac concentration camp, Yugoslavia to his brother Leo, Lewisham, New South Wales, September 1941. they were forwarded on to their respective sender and recipient? destinations. Since they were also censored, 2/ How efective is Paul in getting his message across to the whole process of writing and replying Leo? Dear Leo could take several weeks, at least. 3/ Describe the tone of this letter. We are all well, Mother also. Have mail constantly. During World War II, 23.5 million such We have a little girl, Ruth. Are you married? Regards 4/ How has Paul interpreted his situation? What clues are messages passed from one side to the to Betty. Remain properly well. A thousand kisses other via Geneva, the headquarters of the given in the letter to indicate this type of interpretation? mamma. Light a candle for Father. International Red Cross. The belligerent nations limited communication to one form 5/ Which aspects are signs of continuity over time and per family per month. which, signs of change?

Some 3.8 million Jews had been murdered 6/ What are the implications of a letter like this one that unintentionally becomes some of the last words of by the end of 1942. Those still alive and in a one brother to another. position to receive mail treasured these signs of life. 7/ Do you believe that Australia has a moral responsibility for the deaths of Leo’s family? Why, or A few Red Cross letters found their way to why not? family in Sydney.

25 26 Letter 2 / Lothar Prager Letter 3 / Claude Newcombe

1/ After having considered the "25 Words Only" sources, what new understandings do you have about the signifcance of communication?

2/ How does the context of these communications afect perceptions of ourselves and others, relationships and society?

3/ In what ways are these documents confronting and provocative? Do they challenge us to consider the power of what is unsaid or omitted?

4/ Why do you think Claude did not use his full 25 words in his letter to his father? In what ways may this afect the recipient’s understanding of the letter?

5/ How do you make meaning of this family’s plight through the context, purpose and audience of this correspondence?

Erich sent this letter to let Lothar know that his parents, Wilhelm and Erich Kohn, Amsterdam, sent this message to Lothar Prager, his brother-in- Claude Newcombe sent this letter from Australia to his father Emil Wanda, had been deported. By the time this letter was written, Wilhelm law, Uruguay, 16 December 1942. Neukamp, in Berlin, 4 April 1940. Claude’s mother and sister Ulli perished had already been murdered in Terezín, while Wanda was murdered fve in 1942. months later. Erich was also deported to Terezín where he was murdered.

Erich sent this letter to let know Lothar know that his "We are well. Hope same with you. Parents have moved Please some news parents, Wilhelm and Wanda, had been deported. By house. We have no information. We hope they are okay. the time this letter was written, Wilhelm had already Pass on the information to Bronnet, Nussbaums. Vera [Reply on reverse] Father passed away on 20 February perished in Terezín, while Wanda perished 5 months and Lasse and Gert too." 1940 at the Jewish Hospital in Berlin. The rest of the later. Erich, the writer, was subsequently also deported family are all right. Mother and Ulli to Terezín where he was murdered.

27 28 Sign of Life “From daddy and the boys we still don’t have any news. May God help me in finally getting some sign of life from them. Only my prayers don’t allow me to doubt that they will return safely home. I often dream about them. I often in my dreams see daddy dressed nicely and looking happy.”

Felicia Einhorn, Krakow, Poland to her sister Linka Greidinger, Northern Italy. 8 January 1942.

Moshe Musel reads a letter from his wife Pola, in the Kovno ghetto, Lithuania. 1 December 1943. Courtesy Yad Vashem

30 Letter 1 / Salomon Itzkowic Letter 2 / Moci Kohn

Antwerp, 19th November 1940 Dear Moci,

Dear good Daddy, I hope that my letter won't be inconvenient to you, but I have a request of you, and I would like to presume After two months at last we had mail from you through that it will be possible for you to fulfil it. I would Mrs. Bukofzer. You can imagine the joy we felt. As be interested to know whether Mrs.Hella Gelb with you wrote us about the documents, so Mummy went her children Kathy and Robert, as well as Miss Lily immediately to procure you an attestation of domicile, Susskind, all of them brought to you from Prossnitz since they did not want to give us anything else, but on 27/6/42, are still with you. If they are not, I ask this is as good as an (words obscured by tear in page) you to let me know, if possible, where they were sent. card. Then Mummy procured you a copy of your Klinger also asks you for news of his parents. Andor,

birth certificate. These were sent off for us by Mrs. Moci and Greta Kohn, 1941. Simmerling and I, myself, as well as all our friends here Wiesenfeld through someone three months ago. We are well, which we hope also of you. always send the letters though Mrs. Wiesenfeld. Hers arrive, but ours do not, because she always gets mail Thanking you in advance from her husband. I am with greetings

A fortnight ago Gustav Zoldner came and told us D. Komlos that, thank God, you look well and that you are, thank God, in good health. We are very glad to hear this. What we wrote to you, that you are together with your brother, that was a misunderstanding on my part. Mummy spoke herself to Mr. Zoldner, and he explained everything properly to her then. Why did you not return with him? We are glad to hear that your brother is helping you and that you have heard from him (literally 'that you have had a sign of life from him'). Is he together with Spiegel and Steinfeld? Because Mrs. Markowitz has heard nothing from them. We are all in good health and good spirits. Dezider Komlos, Sered concentration camp to Moci Kohn, Terezín ghetto- concentration camp, 2 January 1943. Dear daddy, please see to it that you return as soon as Moci worked in the post ofce at Terezin ghetto-concentration camp and possible. was later deported to Auschwitz.

This is a letter to Salomon Itzkowic, who was interned in France, from his wife and children in Belgium. His wife and children did not survive. A thousand greetings and kisses for you from Berthold, Arthur and Achim

31 32 Letter 3 / The Sonnenschein family

Dear Mrs Erna,

Unfortunately I must advise you of very sad news. 1/ Discuss the ways in which these communications Today your parents and my best friends have been sent refect the diversity of the Jewish experience during away. To my great pain I could not even keep with me the Holocaust. Consider the similarities and the small Lela. Lela is beautiful, clever, very good and diferences, and how they challenge the notion of a homogenous European Jewish experience during the from her mother well and strictly brought up. We would Holocaust? have kept her by us with pleasure. 2/ In what ways are continuity and change apparent in Your dear parents were very intelligent people and society and on individuals during this era? highly regarded. I was advised and received permission to help them. I packed all for them. Unfortunately I have 3/ What is the importance of individual narratives amid the larger collective historical narrative? experience in such moves. The little man [the Mayor] advised me crying and admitted being powerless. Not 4/ How do acts of communication shape, challenge only good comes from above! or transform attitudes and beliefs, identities and behaviours? Thank God that you are well with your dear ones. Please write to me and I will with pleasure answer 5/ The language in Bella’s letter to the Sonnenscheins immediately and write as I hear something from you, raises many questions about the semantics of language. Consider the way the past tense is used; dear ones. euphemisms (i.e. “Little Man”, or “sent away”); and the unclear or incomplete descriptions. How do they I cannot send you any words of comfort, as I also need address the challenge describing the events of the

The Sonnenscheins in Venice, Italy 1942. Note the German Wehrmacht comforting. Holocaust? What does this suggest about the power soldier in the background. of words and, in some cases, their omission? Best regards to your dear ones.

With hearty kisses, Yours Bella

This is a letter from a family friend of Albert and Erna Sonnenschein, and their children Kurt and Egon. The family escaped from Yugoslavia to Switzerland to evade the Nazis.

33 34 Return to Sender “The news today I can give you is unfortunately very bad. I sent a letter to Mamma and it came back unopened with the comment, ‘Addressee on a journey or has travelled to Poland’ and that is all I could find out about her at this point.”

Louis Kalmus, Paris, to his half-sister Ada Schnek, Marseille, France. 21 January 1942.

"The Jews are our misfortune" signage in Vrutsky, Slovakia. SJM Collection

36 In the initial years of persecution, the Nazis Letter 1 / Henry James attempted to make Germany and Austria Judenfrei (free of Jews) by forcing Jews to emigrate. After the outbreak of the war they envisaged a ‘territorial solution’, manifested in plans and projects for Jewish ‘resettlement’. Jews sent to concentration camps were allowed mail; inmates’ cards displayed the rules to be followed. But life in concentration camps was always precarious. Every card might be the last.

In 1941, against the background of the war of destruction launched against the Soviet Union, decisions were made to bring about a “Final Solution” through organised mass murder. Emigration and expulsion were replaced by extermination. The six vernichtungslager (extermination camps) where mass murder was carried out were Chelmno, Belzec, Sobibór, Treblinka, Majdanek, and Auschwitz- Birkenau.

Henry Jacobius, in uniform, in the 8th Australian Employment Company. In the spring of 1942, liquidation of ghettos 1942-1946. and the massive deportations to unknown places began. Rumours about the destinations Henry was interned as an Australian “enemy alien”, upon of the deportees – specially built death camps arrival in Australia. He writes to his parents Alexander – soon fltered through to the ghettos. No and Pauline Jacobius of Halbe, Germany from Hay one knew what mail would get through. internment camp, New South Wales. Henry maintained And no one knew what lay ahead. Yet Jews contact with his parents in Germany until early 1942 continued to write, each letter a testament when his letters came back "Return to sender", like this to love and longing. Jews on deportation one. He later learned that his parents were murdered in trains, fearing that whatever their destination, Treblinka. correspondence would be impossible, threw last messages through the barred windows hoping someone would fnd and mail them.

Jews in safe lands wrote to relatives at their last known address. Often, their letters were returned: “addressee departed” or “return to sender”.

37 38 Letter 2 / Gisela Weisner Letter 3 / Ada Schnek

1/ Does knowing that the intended recipients never read these letters change your understanding of them?

2/ In what ways are the voices of the senders ‘rediscovered’ by being put on display in the Signs of Life exhibition?

3/ Could these letters be displayed under another, and This postcard was sent to Gisela Wiesner in Ljubljana by her father, Joseph, on 10 February, 1942. The family of eight was dispersed across Europe. Louis Kalmus sent this letter from Paris to his half-sister in Marseilles, 21 perhaps more suitable, heading? What would it be? Gisela’s mother, father, and three of her siblings were murdered during the January 1942. Their mother Mina was murdered in 1941 and Louis in 1942. Explain your reasons. Holocaust. Gisela and two of her siblings survived.

4/ Explain how these letters reveal how the Holocaust was unfolding and afected the ability of the writers to know and describe what was happening around Brussels, 10 February 1942 To: Mme Ada Schnek, Hotel Bompard, 4 Traverse them? Beaulieu, Marseille

My dear child Gisela! From: Mr Louis Kalmus, 1 bis Rue Vaneau, Paris 7e 5/ How do these letters deepen our understanding of the individual human impact of Nazi policies towards Received with thanks your letter from 26th and read Dear Ada the Jews? with joy that you are, thank God, in good health and I am sending you 500 Francs. I haven’t heard from that you have received my parcel. Dear Gisela a card them and have no clue how they are. The news today I from mother has been sent back, one that I wrote, can give you is unfortunately very bad. I sent a letter to I have the feeling that she is no longer in Leipzig, I Mamma and it came back unopened with the comment, am very concerned but unfortunately there is nothing “addressee on a journey or has travelled to Poland” I can do from here. These are blows from fate. Me [actual date of deportation 3.12.41] and that is all I and Mendel are thank God in good health. Hoping to could find out about her at this point. It seems that she receive best news of you. You cannot imagine my... and many others were evacuated to Poland and Russia [illegible] now where I have from Mutti but mankind is by force and as far as I can see there is very little hope stronger than steel and harder than iron. Otherwise we will hear from them again. The strange thing is she nothing important except for sending my regards to hasn’t notified me prior to her departure, although this you my dear child and kisses. Wish you all the best and has happened before a few times. She should have Mendel sends his regards. From me, your father said a few words. I am confused and it’s terrible to think I couldn’t do anything for her. We are OK. I am always an optimist, which helps a bit. Louis

39 40 Last Letters “My Beloved Dear Son! By the time you receive this letter, we won’t be among the living. Destiny caught up with us, just like with others living in the surrounding countries.”

Arthur and Magda Kaldor, Hungary, write their last words to their son Ervin, New Zealand. 25 March 1944.

A woman in the Lodz ghetto writing a letter before boarding a deportation train to Chelmno. Courtesy Yad Vashem

Jews from the Lodz ghetto board deportation trains for the Chelmno death camp, 1942. Courtesy USHMM

42 Letter 1 / Cornelia Swaab Letter 2 / Arthur and Magda Kaldor

Darling Simon and Gretha and our sweetheart Corrie, documents can be found with Lajos Hainess, the We are sitting in the train to depart to another land. manager of the local tannery, who will inform you about We are very brave. Our thoughts are only of home and everything. Please reward handsomely the first two for most of all Pa. When he is ready and comes out of their kindness, regarding the factory (tannery) manager, hospital, he has to go first to your brother, and he has who was our very good, benevolent friend, show him to be strong and look after himself and we wish him our gratitude in a gentlemanly way. The instructions well and good recovery. Mother is keeping strong and regarding the insurances are (placed) together with the we are staying together and in our minds we are still policies. Keep the Hungarian stamp collection for your all with you. I end with greetings thousand kisses for future child, if there is going to be any, but only give Herman and Corrie and everyone. We have received it to him if he shows interest and inclination, because no baggage and if it has not been sent off then leave the collection is of great value today, and its value will it. Now bye till we meet again. Say to Pa to keep a just increase. Convert into money the other two stamp positive outlook. Bye bye bye. collections. Offer them for sale to the most eminent Duke Nándor Montenuovo, with whom I have been corresponding actively. Half of the house on Kisfaludy Street belongs to me. The mortgage on the land has been fully paid out; the bank has to erase it. If Victor will have survivors, first offer them the half, and if they are unable to purchase it, then realize it together. Uncle Victor owes me 8,000, namely eight thousand gold Pengo, that the heirs have to pay us back from the price of the house. The other possessions that we still Arthur and Magda Kaldor, Hungary, write their last words to their son Ervin, Christchurch, New Zealand, 25 March 1944. Both perished in the Holocaust. have, where they will end up, only the good Omnipotent will know. If you will need advice from lawyers or will need lawyers, then turn to the offices of Dr. Sándor Csupor and Dr. Lajos Gábriell. These would be my instructions, regarding material things, in a nutshell. My Beloved Dear Son! Regarding you personally, our wishes are, that you get married, the sooner the better, and return to your new By the time you receive this letter, we won’t be among country, where you will be able to tell about this ugly the living. Destiny caught up with us, just like with world, that is here now and will stay here for a long others living in the surrounding countries. In order to time. I want to avoid sentimentality; that is the reason save some of our belongings for you, we distributed that my letter is so dry, because we need every nerve Cornelia Swaab and daughters Lena and Lies, write their last words to son/ brother Simon, 10 November 1942. The letter was thrown from a train, them among people that showed good intentions and to keep strong. picked up and posted by an unknown person not far from Westerbork sentiments toward us. We handed over our jewellery where the women were deported. Addressed to Mr S Swaab, it reached its destination in Amsterdam. Simon’s mother, Cornelia, and fve sisters were in a sealed package to our ex Mariska, Mrs. Daniel To you, my dear son, I thank you, that you were such all murdered in Auschwitz. Ujváry, Tósokberény /next to Ajka/ and clothing in a good child, and I only ask you, that after our passing another package. Mariska is even posting this letter you say every now and then a prayer over our ashes, instead of us to you, and until your return, she will or, because this won’t be possible, for our memories. safe keep for you the valuables that we entrusted her May God bless you and give you all the best, luck, an with. We gave my stamp collection and silverware, in understanding, good wife and family. Thinking of you, a yellow suitcase, also for safe keeping, to the wife until our last breath, hugs and kisses from your loving of József Dombováry, the prison guard. You will find Father. these as well. The suitcase’s key and our life insurance

43 44 Letter 3 / Miklos and Alice Fenyves

My Dear Children,

We are going. May you be as courageous as we are calm, for I do believe strongly that we meet up again. We carry with us our only precious possession, your 1/ What is the purpose of this letter – to comfort, leave a lovely photograph, and the memory of the splendid record, ‘last will and testament’ etc. days and years spent with you resides in our soul. My dears, I thank you for having made those few 2/ In what ways do these letters demonstrate what it years so beautiful for us. If only Rudi had come as essentially means to be human? well at Christmas time, that I could have hugged him. 3/ Identify the limitations imposed on the writers and Sylvikem, my beloved little granddaughter, pray for explain how this would afect the content of the letter. us. Our will to live gives us strength and we know that we are going to see each other and that we shall be 4/ Identify examples of fgurative language used in the happy. My children, I hug and kiss you. I wish you all the letters. What is its purpose? best and ask you not to be sad for us. Goodbye. I love 5/ Why do you think these letters are so rich in imagery? you all very much and our greatest sorrow is that we shall be missing your letters, although we have gotten 6/ In what ways do euphemisms, colloquialisms, and used to this already, since for the past eight weeks we references to spirituality reveal the strength of family had not sighted even as much as a solitary syllable. ties? My dear Klari, my dear Rudi, my dear Sylvia, May God bless you. We kiss you. Apu s Anya (Dad and Mum). 7/ Compare and contrast the language that is used by diferent writers who are facing a common fate. What does this tell us about the difering strategies people used to cope with their predicament? These writers?

Miklos and Alice Fenyves sent these last words to their daughter Klari, her 8/ Why might the Kaldors write a letter that uses husband and daughter. Smuggled out of Kosice, Hungary it was posted by an unknown person prior to their deportation to Auschwitz in 1944, where practical details – names and places, for example? they were murdered shortly upon arrival. 9/ In what ways do these letters provide insight and encourage its recipient to consider the future and have hope for a better future?

45 46 A Very Small Hope “Please, please do write to me all the news you have, mainly about my beloved daddy. Though I am prepared for the worst, a very small hope is always present.”

Hana Lipova, in hospital in Bergen- Belsen, writes to her cousins, Czechoslovakia. 7 July 1945.

Three young girls sitting on the ground heating food on a fre fuelled by boots at the liberation of Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, April 1945. SJM Collection

Prisoners in Theresienstadt's liberation on May 8, 1945. SJM Collection

48 Family members had endeavoured to maintain Letter 1 / Helena Goldstein contact throughout Hitler’s reign. At war’s end in 1945, reeling from the experience of Dear Matys, Fela and her husband Ignatz returned from Russia at and news about the Holocaust, millions of long last and at long last we are together again. I’m people searched for loved ones. Two-thirds I received two letters from you and your lovely wife sure it is not necessary to describe how happy it makes of Europe’s Jews, some six million people, and responded through the courtesy of your aunty me to have my dearest sister, the only person closest had been murdered. The one-third who had Mrs. Bernardiner. I’m not sure whether she has already to me, back with me. survived wondered: who else is among the arrived in Palestine and handed over my letters as, so far, I have not received a reply. I don’t know therefore, The only thing which worries us now is the thought living? whether I should repeat everything I wrote about in my of leaving as soon as possible. If you could arrange previous letters. Considering that all the matters are something with Barias, it would be of great significance. most depressing and writing about them comes to me Remember, our entire hope is with you and Uncle Isaac. with the utmost of difficulty. Another request. Somewhere in Palestine there should I wrote to you about the circumstances in which your be my old friend from Lublin Esther Zandsztajn. If you whole family perished. I repeat again, if it can be of any could come across any traces of her and notify her that Helena Goldstein, 1943 comfort for you, they perished together and none of I am alive? them went to their deaths alone while those still alive In the meantime dear Matys, kisses and regards from had to suffer with grief until they themselves met with myself, Fela, Ignatz and my husband Olek the same fate. Your Hela That’s what happened to my family when each of them perished alone, at few weekly intervals. And so If you need any information about us, Uncle Izaac will I was the only one to survive, to suffer from longing help you. never appeased and hurt never relieved and feeling in envious of those that are gone in comparison to those that remained behind. The family of Uncle David also perished together. Mina was by then your brother Shlomek’s wife. Only Auntie Bella was murdered later.

I won’t write more on this subject, but in case you haven’t received my previous letter and would like to learn the particulars of the life and death of your closest and dearest ones while in the ghetto, let me know and I shall endeavour to reproduce it in its entirety one more time.

My dear cousin, I am so happy for you that you married such a nice woman, which I deduce from her letter and Letter written by Helena Goldstein to her cousin Matys Gwircman, 5 June, also having met some of her family. I dare to presume 1946. that your parents as well as your siblings would be just so happy. I would like to get a photo of the 2 of you. I myself will send you one of me and my husband just as soon as I have one.

There was a great event in my life; my dearest sister

49 50 Letter 2 / Olga Horak

My dear Aunt Irene, Uncle Charles and children,

You surely will be surprised to get news from me after such a long time. You can imagine how painful it is for

me to write this letter. It is a hard decision to let you 1/ In the post-war era, survivors, for the frst-time since know about all. Unfortunately from the entire family only the Nazi’s rise to power, are unrestricted in what they Tommy and I have returned so far. There is absolutely no can say. How does this afect what is said? news about anyone else. I was together with my dearest 2/ What qualities can you fnd in the voice of the letter- mother until the very last moment. Unfortunately, she had writers? typhus when we were liberated by the British. You can’t imagine how happy we were to prepare ourselves to return 3/ How has language been used to efectively home but she did not make it and died. Shortly after I was communicate meaning?

also stricken with typhus and was in a camp sick bay for 4/ Reread Olga’s letter. What are the immediate priorities Olga Horak, 1950. four months. I myself am surprised how I endured all this. of survival after the war for Olga? In what way is her I have lost 25 kg. I was declared able for transport and youth both a beneft and a hindrance to her survival? repatriated four days ago. The family does not look after 5/ At the end of the war, survivors now have to grapple me. Two weeks ago Uncle William passed away. Stern with the question of why they survived and others and the Nachmias family have not returned either. My didn’t. How do you think they make sense of their cousin Jancsi (Eugene) Nachmias was thrown out from the wartime experiences? third floor window by the Nazis. I’m very affected by the loss of my dearest mama, papa and Judith. I do not want 6/ How do you come to terms with telling people what happened to you and your loved ones? to give you more heartache because I know how worried you were. I’m living now with Aunt Freda, the Bardos 7/ Survivors had to rebuild their lives. Identify the family and I feel good with them. Indeed such people are choices and actions they faced. hard to be found. My nearest relatives didn’t do anything 8/ ‘Chaja’ “was not a good name” according to Helena for me. As soon as I feel a bit stronger I will travel to Goldstein, who changed her name from ‘Chaja’ to Sala together with Erica Friedlieb. She got married a year ‘Helena’. Why does Helena think this? What does it ago. Her closest family has also not returned home. My refect about the political and social conditions at the dearest Aunt Irene, it would be good if you could come end of war? here as soon as the possibility arises. There are so many 9/ Also, Helena said, “no one had any papers and could things in need of attention, and I am so very alone. I’m invent a new identity because no one could prove trying to collect a few things that were left in safekeeping. that it wasn’t so.” How does this statement tell us I went to collect a few things yesterday, which were in about Helena’s attempt to deal with the past and think good order. A lot is denied but I don’t really care. When about the future? life is gone it can’t be replaced. I could write novels, but now it is meaningless. I hope we could soon meet and then I will tell you in person. How are you, the children and your friends? A lot you have been spared. I think about Olga Horak, the sole survivor of her family, wrote this letter from Bratislava to her Aunt Irene and Uncle Charles in Palestine, 14 September 1945. your clever decision that you left in time. I hope to get from you informative and long letters soon. I send you kisses.

Fondly yours Olly

51 52 Regret to Inform You “I am very disturbed for not receiving any replies to my letters. I have no patience to wait so long. Why aren’t you answering my letters? Have mercy on me my Dear and write to me about your health and where do you live, and with whom. Who in our family was left alive?”

Lucyna Kantanska, Moscow, Soviet Union to Wandy Winiadskiej in Warsaw, Poland. 4 June 1945.

Postwar, survivors seeing if they have received news, Shanghai, China, 1946 By Arthur Rothstein (for UNRRA), Courtesy American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 54 Some 250,000 Jews lived in Displaced Letter 1 / Zygmund Schweizer Persons (DP) camps run by the western Allies in Germany, Austria, and Italy. With Zygmund Schweizer is a German Jew from Berlin who no mail service, survivors passed thousands was imprisoned in 1933 for being politically active of letters clandestinely each week through as a Socialist. Upon his release, he fed with a Polish passport to Italy. When Italy joined the Axis, he escaped American Jewish army chaplains until military to North Africa and worked in a nightclub. With the 1/ Consider the content of this letter. What is the authorities allowed the American Jewish Joint German invasion into North Africa in 1941, Zygmund signifcance of the content being conveyed in two Distribution Committee to take over mail was once again forced to fee, where he ended up sentences? services in 1946. working for a British Army mess kitchen in Gibraltar. In 1942 he went to England, but did not fnd respite there. 2/ What are the efects of formal language being used on Placing personal ads in newspapers and He was interned as an ‘enemy alien’ on the Isle of Mann the recipient? writing to the Red Cross and other tracing from March 1942 to August 1944. He was released in 1944 and settled in London. Zygmund enquired about services, Jews searched for each other 3/ What assumptions does this letter make? the plight of his family. His search began in 1942 and desperately. The frst letters in the rare ended in 1970 when he fnally gave up. He never found 4/ What evidence is there that the Allied governments instances of unifcation tell searing tales of out what happened to his family. were aware of the plight of European Jews? sufering and of joy that a loved one still lived. 5/ In what ways does this letter speak to the nature of war?

6/ Why do you suppose Zygmund stopped searching for his loved ones in 1970?

7/ What obstacles did survivors still have to overcome after liberation?

55 56 Post-Visit Materials Bibliography

Refection and Enduring Understandings Consider what you have learned and what Bachrach, Zwi (Ed). Last Letters from the Shoah. from Signs of Life you would like to know more about. Include Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2013. these points in your response. 1/ Read the Sydney Jewish Museum’s mission Brinson, Charmian & Kaczinski, William. Fleeing and vision statements. How does the Signs 4/ Evaluate historian Debórah Dwork’s from the Führer: A Postal History of Refugees of Life exhibition respond to, enhance, and statement on the Nazi letter-writing from Nazism, Stroud, The History Press, 2011. support the Museum’s mission and vision program: “Signs of life became markers of statements? death”. Dwork, Debórah. Signs of Life, pamphlet and exhibition text, Sydney Jewish Museum, Sydney Jewish Museum Mission Sydney, NSW, 2014. To commemorate the lives of the six million Jews murdered by the Nazis and Gelski, Sophie. Teaching the Holocaust, their collaborators, honour the Survivors educational resource, Sydney Jewish Museum, and pay tribute to the Righteous Among Sydney, NSW, 2013. the Nations. Schwab, Henry. The Echoes That Remain: Ensure through education, academic A Postal History of the Holocaust. Cardinal research, and display artefacts and Spellman Philatelic Museum, 1992. memorabilia that the Holocaust and its uniqueness in history is never forgotten Silberklang, David. (30 April, 2014). What Did and it is recognised as a crime against They Know? Guide Education Lecture Series. humanity with contemporary and Lecture conducted at the Sydney Jewish universal signifcance. Museum.

Explore and illustrate the depth of the Simon, Sam. Handbook of the Mail in the Jewish religion, tradition and culture, Concentration Camps 1933-1945 and Related Australian Jewish history and the Material: A Postal History. Privately Printed, contribution of Jews to Australian society. 1973.

Sydney Jewish Museum Vision To inspire mutual respect and cross- cultural understanding without our society with particular emphasis on the lessons of the Holocaust, in order that such a tragedy should never happen again to any people.

2/ Has your understanding of letter-writing changed? If so, how?

3/ What letter/s resonate/s with you the most and consider why this is so. Respond by specifcally addressing context and voice.

57 58 Guidelines to teaching about the Holocaust

Adapted from Teaching about the Holocaust: A Strive for balance in establishing whose Contextualize the history Resource for Educators, United States Memorial perspective informs your study of the Events of the Holocaust, and particularly how Museum, Washington, D.C., 2001. http://www.ushmm.org/education/foreducators/ Holocaust individuals and organizations behaved at that As with any topic, students should make time, should be placed in historical context careful distinctions about sources of so that students can begin to comprehend Defne the term Holocaust information. Investigating the origin and the circumstances that encouraged or The Holocaust was the systematic, authorship of all material will also complicate discouraged particular actions or events. bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and the human experience during the Holocaust, Make use of possible primary source material murder of approximately six million Jews by as well as ensure its authenticity. By studying wherever and whenever possible. the Nazi regime and its collaborators. During the participants of the Holocaust as belonging the era of the Holocaust, German authorities to one of four categories: victims, perpetrators, Translate statistics into people also targeted other groups because of their rescuers, or bystanders will allow students to Emphasizing the diversity of experience and perceived “racial inferiority”: Roma (Gypsies), examine the actions, motives, and decisions portraying people in the fullness of their lives the disabled, and some of the Slavic peoples of each group. In this way, all individuals are and not just as victims help students make (Poles, Russians, and others). Other groups viewed as human beings who are capable of meaning out of the statistics. It is imperative were persecuted on political, ideological, moral judgment and independent decision- to not lose the human in history, so as to allow and behavioral grounds, among them making. students to grapple with this historical event Communists, Socialists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, as having ever-present reverberations. and homosexuals. Avoid comparisons of pain A study of the Holocaust should always Make responsible methodological choices Do not teach or imply that the Holocaust highlight the diferent policies carried out One of the primary concerns of educators was inevitable. by the Nazi regime toward various groups of teaching the history of the Holocaust is Just because a historical event took place, people; however, these distinctions should presenting atrocity images in a sensitive and does not mean that it had to happen. The not be presented as a basis for comparison of appropriate manner. Try to select pictures Holocaust took place because individuals, the level of sufering between those groups and texts that do not exploit the students’ groups, and nations made decisions to act or during the Holocaust. One cannot presume emotional vulnerability or that might be not to act. that the horror of an individual, family, or construed as disrespectful to the victims community destroyed by the Nazis was any themselves. Avoid simple answers to complex questions greater than that experienced by victims of The Holocaust, as one of the most researched other genocides. aspects of human history, continues to raise difcult questions about human behavior and Do not romanticize history the context within which individual decisions It is imperative to teach about what it was are made. Seek to convey the nuances of this like to live during the Holocaust and about history. Allow students to think about the people who risked their lives to rescue victims many factors and events that contributed to of Nazi oppression; however, ultimately the the Holocaust. Holocaust is about the act of destruction and murder. It is important to not overemphasize Strive for precision of language heroic actions in a unit on the Holocaust as Because of the complexity of the history, there it can result in an inaccurate and unbalanced is a temptation to generalise. Avoid this by account of the history. helping your students clarify the information presented and encouraging them to distinguish between the nuances of this event.

59 60 Syllabus Objectives, Outcomes & Content HSC ENGLISH Stage 6 (Common Areas of Study) texts create these images, afect interpretation and shape addressed by this educational program meaning. Students examine one prescribed text, in addition to Area of Study: Discovery other related texts of their own choosing that provide examples In the Area of Study, students explore and examine relationships All syllabus outcomes and content in this section are of the distinctively visual. between language and text, and interrelationships among texts. They taken from and can be found in the NSW Board of examine closely the individual qualities of texts while considering Module C: Texts and Society Studies syllabi. To access complete syllabus documents, the texts’ relationships to the wider context of the Area of Study. They This module requires students to explore and analyse texts used in a specifc situation. It assists students’ understanding of the ways that please refer to www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au synthesise ideas to clarify meaning and develop new meanings. They take into account whether aspects such as context, purpose and texts communicate information, ideas, bodies of knowledge, attitudes register, text structures, stylistic features, grammatical features and and belief systems in ways particular to specifc areas of society. ENGLISH Stage 4 & 5 Objectives and Outcomes vocabulary are appropriate to the particular text. • Elective 1: Exploring Interactions Through responding to and composing a wide range of texts and In this elective, students explore and analyse a variety of texts that portray the ways in which individuals live, interact through the close study of texts, students will develop knowledge, HSC ENGLISH (Advanced) understanding and skills in order to: and communicate in a range of social contexts. These contexts Module A: Comparative Study of Texts and Context may include the home, cultural, friendship and sporting groups, This module requires students to compare texts in order to explore the workplace and the digital world. Through exploring their them in relation to their contexts. It develops students’ understanding prescribed text and texts of their own choosing, students of the efects of context and questions of value. consider how acts of communication can shape, challenge or Stage 4 outcomes Stage 5 outcomes transform attitudes and beliefs, identities and behaviours. In their • Elective 1: Intertextual Connections responding and composing, students develop their In this elective, students compare texts in order to develop their EN5-1A responds to and composes increasingly understanding of how the social context of individuals’ understanding of the efects of context, purpose and audience EN4-1A responds to and composes texts for sophisticated and sustained texts for understanding, interactions can afect perceptions of ourselves and others, on the shaping of meaning. Through exploring the intertextual Communicate understanding, interpretation, critical analysis, interpretation, critical analysis, imaginative expression and relationships and society. connections between a pair of texts, students examine the ways through speaking, imaginative expression and pleasure pleasure in which diferent social, cultural and historical contexts can • Elective 2: Exploring Transitions listening, reading, infuence the composer’s choice of language forms and features In this elective, students explore and analyse a variety of texts writing, viewing and EN4-2A efectively uses a widening range of processes, EN5-2A efectively uses and critically assesses a wide and the ideas, values and attitudes conveyed in each text. In their that portray the ways in which individuals experience transitions representing skills, strategies and knowledge for responding to and range of processes, skills, strategies and knowledge for responding and composing, students consider how the into new phases of life and social contexts. These transitions may composing texts in diferent media and technologies responding to and composing a wide range of texts in implicit and explicit relationship between the texts can deepen be challenging, confronting, exciting or transformative and diferent media and technologies our understanding of the values, signifcance and context of each. may result in growth, change and a range of consequences for the individual and others. Through exploring their prescribed text • Elective 2: Intertextual Perspectives and other related texts of their own choosing, students consider EN5-3B selects and uses language forms, features and In this elective, students compare the content and perspectives in how transitions can result in new knowledge and ideas, shifts in EN4-3B uses and describes language forms, features structures of texts appropriate to a range of purposes, a pair of texts in order to develop their understanding of the attitudes and beliefs, and a deepened understanding of the self Use language to shape and structures of texts appropriate to a range of audiences and contexts, describing and explaining their efects of context, purpose and audience on the shaping of and others. Students respond to and compose a range of texts and make meaning purposes, audiences and contexts efects on meaning meaning. Through exploring and comparing perspectives ofered that expand our understanding of the experience of venturing according to purpose, by a pair of texts, students examine the ways in which particular into new worlds. audience and context EN4-4B makes efective language choices to creatively EN5-4B efectively transfers knowledge, skills and social, cultural and historical contexts can infuence the shape meaning with accuracy, clarity and coherence understanding of language concepts into new and diferent composer’s choice of language forms and features and the ideas, contexts values and attitudes conveyed in each text. In their responding and composing, students consider how the treatment of similar EN5-5C thinks imaginatively, creatively, interpretively and content in a pair of texts can heighten our understanding of the EN4-5C thinks imaginatively, creatively, interpretively critically about information and increasingly complex ideas values, signifcance and context of each. and critically about information, ideas and arguments Think in ways that are and arguments to respond to and compose texts in a range to respond to and compose texts imaginative, creative, of contexts interpretive and critical HSC ENGLISH (Standard) EN4-6C identifes and explains connections between EN5-6C investigates the relationships between and among and among texts Module A: Experience through Language texts This module requires students to explore the uses of a particular aspect of language. It develops students’ awareness of language and EN4-7D demonstrates understanding of how texts can helps them understand how our perceptions of and relationships EN5-7D understands and evaluates the diverse ways texts express aspects of their broadening world and their with others and the world are shaped in written, spoken and visual Express themselves and can represent personal and public worlds relationships within it language. their relationships with • Elective 1: Distinctive Voices others and their world EN5-8D questions, challenges and evaluates cultural EN4-8D identifes, considers and appreciates cultural In their responding and composing, students consider various assumptions in texts and their efects on meaning expression in texts types and functions of voices in texts. They explore the ways language is used to create voices in texts, and how this use of language afects interpretation and shapes meaning. Students Learn and refect on EN5-9E purposefully refects on, assesses and EN4-9E uses, refects on and assesses their individual examine one prescribed text, in addition to other related texts of their learning through adapts their individual and collaborative skills and collaborative skills for learning their own choosing that provide examples of distinctive voices. their study of English with increasing independence and efectiveness • Elective 2: Distinctively Visual In their responding and composing, students explore the ways the images we see and/or visualise in texts are created. Students consider how the forms, features and language of diferent

61 62 HISTORY Stage 4 & 5 Objectives, Outcomes & Content HSC History Objectives, Outcomes & Content

Objectives Preliminary Course Outcomes HSC Course Outcomes Objectives A student develops A student develops the skills to: A student develops the skills to: Students: knowledge and • develop knowledge and understanding of the nature of history and signifcant changes and understanding about: developments from the past, the modern world and Australia • develop knowledge and understanding of ideas, movements, people and events that P1.1 describe the role of key individuals, groups H1.1 describe the role of key features, issues, individuals, shaped past civilisations, the modern world and Australia. 1/ key features, issues, and events of selected studies from the eighteenth groups and events of selected twentieth-century studies individuals and events century to the present H1.2 analyse and evaluate the role of key features, issues, Stage 4 outcomes Stage 5 outcomes from the eighteenth P1.2 investigate nd explain the key features and issues individuals, groups and events of selected twentieth- A Student: A Student: century to the present of selected studies from the eighteenth century to the century studies present HT5-1 explains and assesses the historical forces and factors that HT4-1 describes the nature of history and archaeology and explains shaped the modern world and Australia their contribution to an understanding of the past HT5-2 sequences and explains the signifcant patterns of continuity P2.1 identify forces and ideas and explain their H2.1 explain forces and ideas and assess their signifcance HT4-2 describes major periods of historical time and sequences events, 2/ change and and change in the development of the modern world and Australia signifcance in contributing to change and continuity in contributing to change and continuity during the people and societies from the past continuity over time HT5-3 explains and analyses the motives and actions of past from the eighteenth century to the present twentieth century HT4-3 describes and assesses the motives and actions of past individuals and groups in the individuals and groups in the context of past societies historical contexts that shaped the modern world and Australia HT4-4 describes and explains the causes and efects of events and P3.1 ask relevant historical questions H3.1 ask relevant historical questions HT5-4 explains and analyses the causes and efects of events and developments of past societies over time P3.2 locate, select and organise relevant information H3.2 locate, select and organise relevant information from developments in the modern world and Australia from diferent types of sources diferent types of sources P3.3 comprehend and analyse sources for their H3.3 analyse and evaluate sources for their usefulness and Objectives 3/ the process of usefulness and reliability reliability historical inquiry P3.4 identify and account for difering perspectives H3.4 explain and evaluate difering perspectives and Students: and interpretations of the past interpretations of the past • develop skills to undertake the process of historical inquiry. P3.5 plan and present the fndings of historical H3.5 plan and present the fndings of historical investigations, analysing and synthesising information investigations, analysing and synthesising information from Stage 4 outcomes Stage 5 outcomes from diferent types of sources diferent types of sources A Student: A Student:

HT5-5 identifes and evaluates the usefulness of sources in the HT4-5 identifes the meaning, purpose and context of historical P4.1 use historical terms and concepts appropriately H4.1 use historical terms and concepts appropriately historical inquiry process 4/ communicating sources P4.2 communicate a knowledge and understanding H4.2 communicate a knowledge and understanding of HT5-6 uses relevant evidence from sources to support historical an understanding of HT4-6 uses evidence from sources to support historical narratives and of historical features and issues, using appropriate and historical features and issues, using appropriate and well- narratives, explanations and analyses of the modern world and history explanations well-structured oral and written forms structured oral and written forms Australia HT4-7 identifes and describes diferent contexts, perspectives and HT5-7 explains diferent contexts, perspectives and interpretations of interpretations of the past the modern world and Australia • demonstrates an appreciation of the nature of various democratic institutions HT4-8 locates, selects and organises information from sources to 5/ informed and active HT5-8 selects and analyses a range of historical sources to locate • demonstrates an appreciation of the individual rights, freedoms and responsibilities of citizenship and democracy develop an historical inquiry citizenship information relevant to an historical inquiry • demonstrates respect for diferent viewpoints, ways of living, belief systems and languages in the modern world

Objectives Students: • articulates concern for the welfare, rights and dignity of all people • develop skills to communicate their understanding of history. 6/ a just society • displays a readiness to counter disadvantage and change racist, sexist and other discriminatory practices • demonstrates respect for human life Stage 4 outcomes Stage 5 outcomes A Student: A Student: 7/ the infuence of the • demonstrates an awareness of the ways the past can inform and infuence the present and the future past on the present and • recognises the impact of contemporary national and global developments on countries and regions, lifestyles, HT5-9 applies a range of relevant historical terms and concepts when HT4-9 uses a range of historical terms and concepts when the future issues, beliefs and institutions communicating an understanding of the past communicating an understanding of the past HT5-10 selects and uses appropriate oral, written, visual and digital HT4-10 selects and uses appropriate oral, written, visual and digital forms to communicate about the past communicate efectively about 8/ the contribution of forms to the past for diferent audiences historical studies to • demonstrates an awareness of the contributions of historical studies to lifelong learning lifelong learning Stage 4 content Stage 5 content Stage 6 Content Core Study – Depth Study 3 Australians at War • 10.2 National Studies Core Study – Depth Study 4 Rights and Freedoms (1945-present) A Australia 1945-1983 Stage 4 Mandatory site study Depth Study 5 Migration Experiences C Germany 1918-1939 Depth Study 6 School-developed topic • 10.4 International Studies in Peace and Confict Stage 5 Mandatory site study B Confict in Europe 1935-1945

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