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The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire Trevor Bryce, Heather D. Baker, Daniel T. Potts, Jonathan N. Tubb, Jennifer M. Webb, Paul Zimansky

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Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203875506-3 Trevor Bryce, Heather D. Baker, Daniel T. Potts, Jonathan N. Tubb, Jennifer M. Webb, Paul Zimansky Published online on: 14 Jul 2009 How to cite :- Trevor Bryce, Heather D. Baker, Daniel T. Potts, Jonathan N. Tubb, Jennifer M. Webb, Paul Zimansky. 14 Jul 2009, C from: The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia, The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire Routledge Accessed on: 02 Oct 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203875506-3

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 gymnasium, baths,andatheatre. material remainsoftheanc.citydatetoRomanperiod,andincludeastadium, These tombsareprobablytobedatedthesecondhalfofC4.Themostsubstantial Some ofthehuman human missing), andafreestandinghouse-typetombembellishedwithreliefcarvingsof to thepillar-tombserectedatXanthus(butwithitssurmountinggravechambernow the siteofCadyanda.Thosespeci Tlos, Pinara,andCadyanda(* records grantsmadebytheC4CariandynastPixodarustofourLycian cities fragmentary bilingualinscription(inLycian andGreekversions)foundatXanthus inscriptions inthenativeLycian languagedateitsoriginsbacktoatleastC5.A village on asteepmountainside19kmnortheastofFethiyeandc.400mabovethemod. iue24 Figure Bean (1978:42 Cadyanda fi Ü gures (warriorsandothermenwomenseatedorreclining)animals. Tomb withrelief,Cadyanda. z ü –

5, ml ( map 15 PECS ü . TheLycians themselvescalledthecityKhadawanti.Tombs and 429 fi ) gures havetheirnamescarvednexttotheminLycian andGreek. – M1 BCE 30), W ö rrle ( TAM BNP – M1 CEcityinLycia, southwesternAnatolia,located 2:870). I:45).Manytombshavebeenfoundonandnear fi cally Lycian typeincludeapillar-tombsimilar 142 C – Xanthus, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 written records.Thederivation ofthename beginning ofM2,theywere the Canaanites usedthecuneiformscriptatthattime.But severalcenturieslater, atthe attestation oftheCanaanitelanguage,amember Semiticlanguagegroup.The of theterm Bronze AgearchiveatEbla,whichdatestoC24,depends onthedisputedreading appears intheC18archivesofMari.Apossibleearlier referencefoundintheEarly military fortunesoftheSyro-Palestinianregionasawhole. through Canaanitehistory,coincidingtosomeextentwith thechangingpoliticaland There weremarked careful nottoassigntoopreciseade Bronze andIronAgesuptotheearlyHellenisticperiod. We should,however, be and culturalcontinuity,beginningintheNeolithicperiodextendingthrough coastal Syria,southerninlandandTransjordan therewasahighdegreeofethnic throughout theregionencompassingterritoriescoveredtodaybyIsrael,Lebanon, ber ofitsowndistinctiveculturaltraits.Butarchaeologicalevidencemakesclearthat kingdoms, eachofwhichdevelopeditsownpoliticalandsocialstructures,anum- origin wasobscuredbytheirdivisionsintoanumberoftribalgroups,city-states,and selves assuch,norwouldtheyhavebeensoidenti the peopleswemightnowdesignateasCanaaniteswouldnothaveidenti more limitedapplicationintheperiodswhichthesetextswerecomposed.Manyof M1 writtensources(thelatterincludingtheBible)thattermwasusedwithmuch tures oftheLevant,uptolastdecadesC4.ButitisclearfromBronzeAgeand Roos (1969:72 of awallmediaevaldate. of nogreatimportanceduringtheRomanandByzantineperiods.Thereareremains forti C2 CEitbecameamemberoftheLycian League. control ofthePtolemies,butin164RomanSenatehandeditovertoRhodes.In (Herodotus 1.172).Duringthe (see glossary).CalyndaapparentlysharedaborderwiththeCariancityCaunus the GreekrepulseofPersia,CalyndabecameamemberAthenianConfederacy Persians offtheGreekislandofSalamisinSaronicGulf(480).Inlateryears,after board, participatedonthePersiansideinseabattlebetweenGreeksand who reportsthatashipfromCalynda,withtheCalyndiankingDamasithymuson ern Anatolia,4kmeastofDalaman.Itis Canaan(ites) Calynda Calah Cadytis Ç ad The The earliestremainsofthehilltopsiteatKozp fi ı cations, datingbacktotheearlyHellenisticperiod.Calyndaappearshavebeen r H fi rst clearlyattestedwrittenreferencetoCanaan,or rather toCanaanites, ö see ( y – Kozp see 4), Bean( ü ga-na-na Nimrud k Gaza ı nar see A termapplicableinitsbroadestsensetotheanc.peoplesandcul- PECS fl . ) as uctuations intheculturalandethnicboundariesofthis territory Zippalanda . ( map 5 434). ‘ Canaanite ) M1 BCE fi fi . CANAAN(ITES) rst halfoftheHellenisticperiod,itwasunder rst peopletodeviseanalphabetic systemfortheir ’ . Inanycase,theEblaarchivecontains fi nition totheterritorywehavecalledCanaanite. 143 – fi M1 CEcityinCariaorLycia insouthwest- rst attestedinC5byHerodotus(8.87 ‘ Canaan fi ed byothers.Theircommonethnic ’ remainsuncertain.Itmayin fact ı nar arethoseoftheanc.city fi ed them- – fi 8), rst ’ s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 fully Age IV(c.2400 the abandonmentofanumbersettlements,inperioddesignatedasEarlyBronze saw acorrespondingdeclineinthematerialcivilizationofCanaaniteregionand ating fortunesofthekingdomNile.ThecollapseEgyptianOldKingdom history, Canaan depended muchontheregion and city-statesoftheMiddleLateBronzeAges,whoseprosperitynodoubt centres hademerged throughoutCanaaniteterritory,theforerunnersofkingdoms with theseworlds.AlreadyintheEarlyBronzeAgeanumberof Asian, Egyptian,andMediterraneanworldsgaveitexcellentaccesstotradecontacts possibility isthatitderivesfromtheSemiticword have hadanon-Semitic,Hurrianorigin independent ofoneother, competedwithoneother, andnodoubtfrequentlysquabbled centres controlledaperipheralareaoccupiedbysmalltownsandvillages,remained as wellwithotherpartsofSyria.TheCanaanitecity-states,eachwhoseurban important linkswerealsoestablishedwithAnatolia,Cyprus,andtheAegeanworld, Egypt wasnodoubtamajorfactorinCanaan been calledthegoldenageofCanaaniteculture.There-establishmentlinkswith craftsmanship intheMiddleBronzeIIB unearthed inTell el-Ajjul( Ashkelon, Dan,Dor, Gezer, Hazor, Lachish,Megiddo,andShechem.Thegoldhoards tion. Themajorcentreswereprotectedbymassiveforti activity aswellforthedevelopmentofartsandcraftstoahighlevelsophistica- the Canaaniteterritoriesas wellasinotherSyro-Palestinianterritories Canaanite stateswerenow reduced toEgyptianvassalstatus,thoughsovereignty in Canaanite andSyrianforcesatthebattleofMegiddo (* was thedecisivevictorywhichTuthmosis III(1479 brought toanendtheCanaaniteMiddleBronzeAge. The climaxofthesecampaigns beginning withthemilitaryenterprisesofTuthmosis I(1504 clearly notbasedonethnicconsiderations. enemy. Butsuchmilitarycoalitionsinvolvednon-Canaanite statesaswell,andwere form coalitionsfromtimetotime,for or byothers,ofacommonidentitywhichlinkedall Canaanites together. Theydid re But ingeneral,theveryrarityofBronzeAgetextreferences toCanaanisinitselfa also severalreferencestoCanaaninthemidC14Amarnaletters(inform (1427 to claimitsthrone.InanotherC15text,fromEgypt,thepharaohAmenhotepII of Canaan(*Greenstein,1995:2426,* Idrimi, aC15kingofAlalah,whoreportsthathespentparthisexileintheland One ofthemostnotablethesereferencesiscontainedinfamousinscription and foughtwithoneother. fl The MiddleBronzeAgeinCanaan(c.2000 Canaan The EgyptiancampaignsconductedthroughSyria References toCanaaninMiddleandLateBronzeAgetextsarefewfarbetween. ection ofthefactthattherewasnoperception,eitherby theCanaanitesthemselves fl – edged city-statesandkingdoms,whichbecameimportantcentresforcommercial 1400) includesinabootylistCanaanitesfordeportationtoEgypt.Thereare ’ s strategiclocationatanimportantmeetingplacebetweenthewestern ’ s fortunes,bothpoliticalandeconomic,werecloselytiedtothe – 2000). ‘ City II ’ s commerciallinkswithEgypt.Indeedthroughoutits CANAAN(ITES) ’ ) providesomeofthe – – CS

144 ad hoc C period(c.1750 kinahhu I:479)beforereturningtohiskingdom ’ militarypurposesagainstacommon – s MiddleBronzeAgeresurgence, but 1550) witnessedthedevelopmentof , meaning k-n- – ‘ 1425) wonoveracoalitionof meaningto – fi ANET Palestine totheEuphrates, fi cations, likethoseofAkko, – nest examplesofCanaanite ‘ 1550), theperiodthathas blue cloth 234 – ‘ 1492), effectively be subdued fl – ourishing urban 8). Manyofthe ’ . Analternative fl Kinahhi uctuated fl ’ . uctu- ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 Bean ( Redford (1992),Hackett( Bronze Agephases. brought prosperityanddistinctiontomanyCanaanitetownsintheirMiddleLate descendants, foracontinuationofthemercantileandartistictraditionswhichhad history. We shouldalsolooktothePhoenicians,Canaanites Philistines were,accordingtobiblicaltradition,defeatedbyKingDavid. Israelites, con the seriesofbittercon the process,theyabsorbedCanaaniteterritoryonplains.Thescenewasnowsetfor sought toextendtheirterritorywestwards,ontotheplainsandtowardscoast.In aggressive aspect,seekingtoexpandintotheinterior. AtthesametimeIsraelites hundred years.Butthen,accordingto begin with,thesegroupsmayhavecoexistedrelativelypeacefully,forasmuchone along Palestine Israel stele-inscription ofthepharaohMerneptah(1213 on thescene,aftermakinga tradition theIsraelites,verylikelyaCanaanitesub-group,nowappearmoredistinctly Philistine presencewasbecoming ing asitdidthetransitionbetweenBronzeandIronAges.Bythistime,a Syro-Palestinian territory.Thiswasapivotaltimeinthehistoryofregion the inhabitantstakingtohills,whenEgyptwithdrewcompletelyfrom and prosperforatime,butthesecentrestoodisappearedaroundmidC12,manyof Canaanite settlementswereabandoned.Othermajorcentrescontinuedtosurvive the endofC13,asEgyptwasreducingitspresenceinSyria major changesinthenatureandpatternsofsettlementCanaaniteregion.By the shoresofLevant,toCyprusandAegeanworldinparticular. increased theopportunitiesforexpansionofCanaanitecommercialcontactsbeyond directed tothepharaohAkhenatenbyhisvassalrulersinAmarnacorrespondence) stability whichEgyptianrulebroughttotheregion(despitestreamofcomplaints tinuing closeculturalandcommercialcontactswithEgypt.Moreover, therelative continued tothrive,forthemostpart,underEgyptiansovereignty,duetheircon- by theHittitekingSuppiluliumaIc.1340)andHatti.Thepharaoh between Egyptandtheothersuperpowersofday matic evidenceappearstocastdoubtonthisidenti of M1.CandybaisgenerallyequatedwiththeLycian towncalledKh type re Lycian language(* tradition, itwasfoundedbythelegendaryheroCandybus. Two inscriptions inthe perhaps tobeidenti Capisa Candyba It istotheIsraelitesthatweshouldnowturnforremainingepisodesofCanaanite The upheavalswhichaccompaniedtheendofBronzeAgepavedwayfor PECS ). fl OT ect theindigenouscivilizationofregion,which 435). ( M1 cityattestedinPlinythe Elder(6.92)wholocatesitinCentralAsia traditionclearlydistinguishesthreemajorgroupsatthistime Gendive fl icts whichcontinuedfromlateM2intothe ’ s southerncoast,Canaanitesontheplains,andIsraelitesinhills.To OEANE TAM fi ) ed withLateBronzeAgeHinduwa.AccordingtoGreek literary ( map 15 fl I:81,82)andseveralhouse-tombssarcophagiof Lycian 1:408 icts, recordedinthe fi rst briefandmuchdebatedappearanceinthewell-known – ) M1 mountaintopcityinLycia, southwesternAnatolia, 14), Tubb (1998). fi rmly establishedinthecoastalplains,and CAPISA OT 145 sources,thePhilistinestookonamore OT – fi , betweenthePhilistinesand 1203) (* cation (see – Mitanni(uptoitsdestruction fi – rst decadesofM1whenthe Palestine, anumberofthe ANET fl ourished inthe Kh ’ mostvisibleIronAge ã 376 kbi ’ s Canaanitevassals ã kbi; butnumis- ). – 8) (seeunder – Philistines fi – rst half mark- OT Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 the LateBronzeandIronAges. red geometricmotifs.Butthemostimportantperiodsincity beginning ofM3,inwhichwerefoundlarge quantitiesofvasesoftendecoratedwith signi an end.EvidenceofsettlementonthesitegoesbacktoM5(Halafperiod).Theearliest opments intheregionbroughtlastexcavationperiodabruptlyandprematurelyto C. L.Woolley successively(1911 British MuseumbyP. Henderson(1878 by theAssyriologistGeorge Smithin1876,Carchemishwasexcavatedforthe city locatedontheupperEuphratesr. nearTurkey another ofhissons,Telipinu, as viceroyinAleppo,buttheCarchemishappears period isclearlyattestedin the archivesofUgaritandEmar. Suppiluliumaestablished until theendofLateBronzeAge.Theviceroy (the east andwestoftheEuphrates,underruleamember oftheHittiteroyalfamily then becameaviceregalseatoftheHittiteempire,with itsterritoryexpandedboth siege in1327.ItwasthelastremainingMitannianstronghold tofalltheHittites.It subject toMitanniuntiltheHittitekingSuppiluliuma Icaptureditafterasix-day Carchemish wasincorporatedintotheHurriankingdom ofMitanni,andremained of Yamhad. Followingthe overlord ofCarchemish. was occupiedbyZimri-Lim(1774 was amancalledAplahanda.CloselinkswithMaricontinuedwhentheMariotethrone Assyrian kingShamshi-AdadI(1796 patched toMariwhenthelatterwasruledbyYasmah-Addu, viceroyandsonofthe trading relationswithMari.Wood, wine,andcerealswereamongthegoodsitdis- trade routes.InearlyC18itwasruledbyalocaldynastywhichenjoyedpeaceful because ofitsexcellentstrategiclocationontheEuphratesatjunctionmajor this time,aslater, itwasanimportantpoliticalandcommercialcentre,nodoubt king ofEblaattheendM3.ItsubsequentlyappearsinC18Mariarchives.At Bivar (1988:200). archaeological siteatBegram,neartheHinduKush. also referredtobyPliny.Anidenti sequently partitionedoff,becomingthecapitalofanewprovinceParopanisadae(q.v.), suggested thatthecitymayoriginallyhavebelongedtoArachosia,butwassub- distinguishes CapisafromArachosia.To accommodatetheinconsistency,ithasbeen attested intextsofDarius 539. CapisaiscommonlyequatedwiththeArachosiancityKapishakanish(q.v.), during hiscampaignintheeast,probablysometimeaftercaptureofBabylon Capisene. AccordingtoPliny,CapisawasdestroyedbythePersiankingCyrusII north ofthecountryArachosia(whichlayinAfghanistan)withinaregioncalled Carchemish Carbasyanda by Caunus In writtenrecords,Carchemishis Subsequently, CarchemishbecameasubjectstateofAleppo, capitalofthekingdom fi fi cant materialremainsarethoseofanumberstonecisttombs,datingtothe rst viceroywasSuppiluliuma ( Karkamish CARBASYANDA BYCAUNUS fi ’ reign(e.g.* nal conquestofthiskingdombytheHittitesinearlyC16, , Jerablus see – K 14), andagainbyWoolley (1920).Politicaldevel- fi – cation hasbeensuggestedbetweenCapisaandthe ’ ı s sonSharri-Kushuh/Piyassili),andremainedso 1762), whomayhavebeen,atleastnominally, z fi – ı ) ( rst mentionedamongthecitiessubjectto ltepe 1775). Atthattime,therulerofCarchemish – 146 maps 6 DB 81), byD.G.Hogarth,C.Thompson,and . 45),despitethefactthatPlinyclearly , ’ 7 s prominenceinSyrianaffairsthis ’ s borderwithSyria.Firstidenti , 10 , 13 BronzeandIronAge ) ’ s historyfallwithin fi ed Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 styled himself of SuppiluliumaII,wassucceeded byhissonKu(n)zi-Teshub. Thefactthatthelatter great-great-grandson ofSuppiluliumaIandtheviceroy at Carchemishduringthereign Lidar H of thecentraldynastyatHattusa.Fromroyalsealimpressions discoveredin1985at royal dynastycontinuedforatleastseveralmoregenerations afterthedisappearance refers totheHittiteempireinSyria.)IndeedatCarchemish abranchoftheHittite invasions. (Hawkins, graphic recordtoindicatethatthecitysufferedsigni (* Peoples Hittite controluntiltheendofBronzeAge. city oritsassociatedterritories,whichappeartohaveremainedfairly conquests (* Assyrian kingAdad-nirariI(1307 son ShahurunuwaonthethroneofCarchemish(* (* driven fromthelandbyaHittitemilitaryforceunderMursili Mursili II,promptedtheAssyrianstoinvadeandoccupyCarchemish,untiltheywere Sharri-Kushuh c.1313,whentheHittitethronewasoccupiedbyviceroy Palestinian region,virtuallywiththestatusofaregionaloverlord.Thedeath to haveplayedthemoreimportantmilitary,political,andjudicialrolesinSyro- 25 Figure ARE IV AM Carchemish 116 ’ ö invasionsinearlyC12,accordingtotheaccountof pharaohRamessesIII y Environs ofCarchemish. : ü – k (q.v.) ontheeastbankof Euphrates,weknowthatTalmi-Teshub, the §§ 19). BeforereturninghomefromSyria,MursiliinstalledSharri-Kushuh RIMA 65 fi ‘ Great King gures amongthecitiesandcountriesdevastatedby so-calledSea – 6, * 1:131).ButtheAssyriansfailedtomakeanylastingimpacton CHLI ANET I:73,suggeststhatinthiscontext ’ suggeststhatthecentral dynasty atHattusawasnow 262).Butthereisnothinginthearchaeologicalorepi- CARCHEMISH – 1275) claimedCarchemishamongsthisextensive 147 AM 124 fi cantly, ifatall,fromthese – 5). Two decadeslater, the ‘ Carchemish ’ s personalcommand fi rmly under ’ probably ’ s brother ’ s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 of Arpadin743.Pisiristhenceforth becameatributaryofTiglath-pileser (* III, followinghisvictoryover acoalitionofforcesfromUrartuandtheAramaean city and culturalcontacts,withAssyriainthisperiod. suggests thatCarchemishenjoyedpeacefulrelations,and verylikelyclosecommercial Assyrian kingsoftheperiod,perhapsAshur-danIII(772 claimed tobewellknowninternationally,andwasin contact withatleastoneofthe can bedatedtothe sculptures of and Pisiris:Astiruwas,Yariris, andthelatter with Urartu.ThreeCarchemishitekingsareattestedin theintervalbetweenSangara kingdom wasaf kingdom regainedsomemeasureofindependenceduring theperiodwhenAssyrian attested year, 738,ofthereignPisiris,Carchemish (and Bit-Agusi)in849and848(* on atleasttwofurtheroccasions,sincethelattercarriedoutattacksCarchemish sixth regnalyear(* the EuphrateswhopaidtributetoShalmaneserearlyinwesterncampaignofhis Assyrian king(* once morethesubmissionofSangaraandpaymentasubstantialtributeto ducted in857,ledtofurtherAssyrianconquestsCarchemishiteterritory,forcing submission (* coalition wasdefeated,andSangaralikeotherkingsintheregionforcedinto Carchemish inthe year. (ThecoalitionwasmadeupofthekingdomsBit-Adini,Sam Shalmaneser IIItwiceonthecampaignheconductedintoregioninhis northern Syria,andMesopotamia,whichconfrontedAshurnasirpal that in858Sangarajoinedthemilitarycoalitionofkings,fromsouthernAnatolia, directly linkedwithAssyrianchronology.Ontheotherhand,recordsindicate Katuwas. Unfortunately,asHawkins(1982:383 names ofthedynasts,insuccession,wereSuhisI,Astuwatamanzas,II,and Carchemish, attestedinagroupofsculptureswithaccompanyinginscriptions.The tribute (* overlordship oftheAssyriankingAshurnasirpalII(c.870),andpayhimanenormous C9 Sangara,akingofCarchemishattestedinAssyrianrecords,wasforcedtoacceptthe Tiglath-pileser wasinfactakingofCarchemish)(* king Tiglath-pileser I(ontheassumptionthatkingofHatticalledIni-Teshub by empire. AlreadyinlateC12,itsrulerIni-Teshub wasmadeatributaryoftheAssyrian Carchemish cameunderincreasingpressurefromtheaggressivelyexpansionistAssyrian e.g. Melid(ClassicalMelitene,mod.Malatya),wherehisgrandsonslaterruled. fragmented, perhapseveninhisownlifetime,intoanumberofsmallprincipalities of theEuphratesfromMalatyathroughCarchemishtoEmar. Andhiskingdomsoon eastern territoriesoftheformerLateBronzeAgeHittitekingdom,alongwestbank However, thekingdomoverwhichheheldswayextendedthroughonlypartof defunct andthathesawhimselfastheonetrueheirtolineofSuppiluliuma. But Assyriancontrolwas For thenextcenturyorso,recordsaresilentonCarchemish,upto Like itsfellowNeo-HittitestatesandotherSyro-Palestinianprincipalities, RIMA fi RIMA ne qualityhavesurvivedfromthereignsofYariris andKamanis, which fl 2:217).Sangara RIMA icted withinternalupheavals,andinvolvedinmilitary confrontations fi RIMA fi rst confrontation,joinedbyQueandHilakkuinthesecond.)The 3:9 rst halfofC8(fortheinscriptions,see* 3:18).Againin853,Sangarawasamongtherulerswestof – 3:23).ButSangaraapparentlyroseupagainstShalmaneser 10, 16 fi rmly re-establishedoverCarchemishbyTiglath-pileser – ’ RIMA s reignwasprecededbyafour-memberdynastyat CARCHEMISH 17). Shalmaneser 3:37,38). 148 ’ s successorKamanis.Inscriptionsand – 4) pointsout,noneofthesecanbe RIMA ’ s secondwesterncampaign,con- ’ s lastking.Possiblythesmall – 2:37;cf* 755). Hawkins(1982:407) CHLI I:123 RIMA al, Patin,and – 64). Yariris ’ fi s successor 2:23).In rst regnal Tigl. III fi rst – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 the pre-IronAgecitysurvives, apartfromsomeforti were acitadelmound,anouter forti the nameEuropos. Carchemish wasabandoned.Itpartlyreoccupiedin theHellenisticperiod,under in Babylonian alliance.Andhere,in605,the crownprinceNebuchadnezzar army ofAssyria an Assyriangovernor. came underthedirectcontrolofAssyrianadministration, asaprovinceruledby tives, andstrippedthelandofitswealth(* Carchemish, tookPisirisandhisfamilyleadingcourtiers backtoAssyriaascap- with thePhrygiankingMita(GreekMidas).Sargon attackedandcaptured Assyrian overlordofcommunicating,presumablywithaviewtoforminganalliance, 68 fl Three mainareasofthecitywereuncoveredduring 1911 Subsequently, intheperiod612 – icted aresoundingdefeatupontheEgyptianforces(* 9, 108 iue26 Figure – 9). Butin717,duringthereignofSargon II,hewasaccusedbyhis Inscription ofKatuwas,Neo-HittitekingCarchemish. ’ s Egyptianallies,ledbythepharaohNechoII,against aMedian CARCHEMISH – 610, thecityprovidedabaseofoperationsforan fi ed city,andaninnerforti 149 ARAB II:4,* fi cations oftheinnertown.Of Iron CS CS II:293).Carchemishthen I:467 – fi 14 excavations.These ed city.Very littleof – 8). Fromthenon, – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 Younger (Xenophon, after itsabortiveexpeditiontoPersiainsupportofthe PersianpretenderCyrusthe encounter withtheCarduchianswhileitwascrossinginto Armeniaonitsmarchhome late C7.Inthewinterof400 may havebeendescendantsoftheUrartians,whosekingdom hadendedviolentlyin the northernmostspursofZagrosmountainsbordering thelandofArmenia.They Hawkins ( by SuhisI(c.950)andAstiruwas850). information abouttwosuccessiverulingdynastiesinthis period,foundedrespectively in 717.Boththesculpturesandinscriptions(inLuwianhieroglyphs)provide These monumentsalldatewithintheperiodfromearlyM1toAssyriantakeover entry (latermodi great staircaseleadinguptothecitadel,so-calledherald tats anddedicatoryinscriptions)ofthetemplestormgod,gatehouse wall More substantialremainsoftheNeo-Hittitecitywereuncoveredwithininner identi Age datearethemeagreremainsofabuildingoncitadelmound,conjecturally Caria Carduchians iue27 Figure – fi mostnotably,thesculptedandinscribedexteriorfa ( ed, withoutevidence,asthoseofthetempleKubaba,city RlA maps 4 5:426 Lion head,Carchemish(C9). – , 5 46; 1995:1295 fi M1 peopleofeasternAnatoliaoccupyingamountainous regionon Regioninsouthwestern Anatolia, ) ed byanadditioncalledtheroyalbuttress),andking Anabasis – 1307; * 4.3). – 399 theGreekforceledbyXenophonhadahostile CARDUCHIANS CHLI I:73 150 – 223). fi rst settledintheNeolithic ç ades (mainlyrelieforthos- ’ s wall,theprocessional ’ s chiefdeity. ’ s gate. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 cant numberofCariansappear tohavesettled.UrbanizationoftheCarianhomeland and alsoservedalongsideIonians asmercenaries,especiallyinEgyptwhereasigni They subsequentlyjoinedtheIoniansintheirrevoltagainst Persianrule(499 fall ofCroesus incorporated intotheLydian empireinC6bytheLydian kingCroesus,andafterthe groups, eachofwhichwassubjecttoitsownrulingdynasty. Cariahad,however, been common assumptionthatArzawawasinhabitedandruled byLuwian-speakingpeoples. Carian groupswhoprovidedtherulingaristocraciesin region.Heargues againstthe Anatolia calledArzawainLateBronzeAgeHittitetexts wastheachievementofProto- recently proposedthatthepoliticaluni which clearlydistinguishesthemfromimmigrantGreeks. I.Yakubovich (2008)has of theCariansin Caria andLateBronzeAgeKarkisa.ItmightalsobesupportedbyHomer claim wouldbecompatiblewiththeproposedetymologicallinkbetweennames claimed thattheywerenativeAnatolians,andhadalwaysbeencalledCarians.This of westernAnatoliainlateM2.ButHerodotusnotesthattheCariansthemselves If so,theymayhaveparticipatedinthegeneralmigratorymovementstocoastlands Aegean islands,displacedfromtheiroriginalhomelandsbyIonianandDorianGreeks. by Herodotus(1.171),theCarianswereimmigrantstowesternAnatoliafrom precise locationisuncertain),attestedinHittitetexts.Accordingtoatraditionrecorded with Karkisa,thenameofaLateBronzeAgecountryinwesternAnatolia(whose period. ThenameCaria,attestedinClassicalsources,maybeetymologicallylinked Until C4,manyoftheCarianslivedinhilltopcommunities inindependenttribal iue28 Figure Storm god,Carchemish. ’ empirein546,theCariansbecamesubjectsofPersian kingCyrusII. Iliad (2.867)as ‘ speakers ofabarbarianlanguage fi cation oftheregioninwesternandsouthwestern CARIA 151 ’

– adescription ’ s description – 494), fi - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 a specialtimber, calledsissoo-wood(yaka-wood), usedintheconstructionofDarius tions ofthePersiankingDarius I(522 located northoftheStraitHormuzinPersianGulf. It Schmitt ( (2), Syangela,Syrna,Telmessus (1),Termera, Uranium. Loryma, Madnasa,Mylasa,Myndus,Olymus,Pasanda, Pedasa,Physcus,Pyrnus,Side Halicarnassus, HeracleaunderLatmus,Hydae,Hydissus, Iasus,Idyma,Labraunda, Cedreae, Ceramus,Chalcetor, Cindya,Cnidus,Crya(inCariaorLycia?), Euromus, Athymbra (inCariaorLydia?), Bargylia, Calynda(inCariaorLycia?), Castabus,Caunus, deciphered (seeGiannotta had settled.ItappearstohavebeenanIndo-Europeanlanguage,buthasyetbefully is largely ofGreekorigin),in Caria itselfbutmainlyinEgypt,whereCarianmercenaries of theregion. through Caria,butwasalsoconcernedtopreserveelementsoftheindigenousculture his inscriptions.MausolusplayedanimportantroleinthespreadofGreek notably duringtheruleofMausolus(377 progressed substantiallyinC4,underthePersian-backedHecatomniddynasty,most 29 Figure Carmania The followingcitiesofCariaareseparatelylisted:Alabanda, Alinda,Aphrodisias, The Carianlanguagehassurvivedinanumberofalphabeticinscriptions(thealphabet RlA Mausolus andhissister/wife,Artemisia. 5:423

( map 16 – 5), Mellink(1991:662 ) Central Asiancountry,attestedinPersianandClassicaltexts, et al. , 1994). – 5), Masson(1991:674 CARMANIA – 486) fromSusa(* 152 – 353), whostyledhimselfPersiansatrapin – 6). DSf 9,* fi rst appearsininscrip- DSz 8)asasourceof fl uence ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 the sanctuaryachievedhigh renown,attractinglarge numbers ofpilgrimsfromnear Apollo, accordingtoatradition recordedbyDiodorus(5.62 The well-knownsanctuaryofthehealinggoddessHemithea wasestablishedthere Nicolaou ( D. T. Potts(1989;2006),Schmitt(1990),Wieseh Gulf. ThenameCarmaniasurvivesinthatofthemod.IraniancityKerman. ously hadthisstatusunderPersianrule),extendingsouthofPersisalongthe this time,heestablished,orre-established,thelandasaseparatesatrapy(ithadprevi- benevolent onewhenhepassedthroughitonhiscampaignintheregion325.At an unpleasantplaceofexile.AlexandertheGreatfounditsenvironmentarelatively ing yearsuntilhisdeath(Berossus, deported thelastBabyloniankingNabonidustoCarmania,wherehespenthisremain- eaten bythemanandhisfamily. mixture himselfhandeditovertothemanwhohadbroughtheadhim,be head inthepalace,mincedtongue,mixeditwith enemy andbroughtittotheking.Allegedly,kingstoredskullofsevered He observestoothatnomaninthecountrymarriesuntilhehascutoffheadofan that eveninwartheyrodeassesratherthanhorses,becauseofthescarcitylatter. are saidtohavelivedandfoughtlikethePersians,butStrabo(15.2.14)comments the soil,incontrasttootherPersiantribeswholedanomadicexistence.TheCarmanians population, underthenameGermanioi,amongPersiantribeswhowereworkersof bearing riverinthecountryandminesofsilvercopper. Herodotus(1.125)listsits to lastseveralyears.HecitestheC4GreekwriterOnescrituswhorefersagold- country issubjecttocropfailures,promptingitsinhabitantsstoresuf fruits andanabundanceoflarge trees,exceptfortheolive.Henotes,however, thatthe duced vinesandfruitcrops.Strabo(15.2.14)referstoitsproductionofallkinds north, ithadanumberoffertilevalleyswhichfromancienttomediaevaltimespro- palace atSusa.Thoughthecountryislargely mountainous,withtractsofdesertinthe invasions. Mostofitisnowcoveredbysanddunes. Byzantine period.Thecitywas belonging toatemple),andtracesofcitywall,church, and fragments ofmarblecolumnsandsculpturesdatingprobably toC4(theformerperhaps Carpasia asalaunching-pointforhisCypriotcampaignin306. tary operationsagainsttheSpartans.TheMacedonianDemetriusIPoliorcetesused Cypriot mercenaryforcesemployedbytheAtheniancommanderCononforhismili- when oneofitscitizensledamutinyatCaunus(inCaria,southwesternAnatolia) foundation datenoearlierthanC7.Inhistoricalsourcesthecityis by alegendarykingofCypruscalledPygmalion.Archaeologicalevidencesuggests northeastern endofthecoastCyprus.Itwasfounded,accordingtoGreektradition, Castabus Caryanda Carpasia Following hisconquestoftheBabylonianempirein539,PersiankingCyrusII Material remainsofthecityincludeanumberrock-cut tombsfromitsnecropolis, PECS ( ( 436 Haghios Philon Pazarl M1 islandsettlementinCaria,southwesternAnatolia.See – 7), Taylor ı k ) ( et al. map 5 (1980),Megaw(1981). ) ( ) map 14 M1 BCE fi nally abandonedinC7CEfollowingthe FGrH ö CASTABUS fer ( ) City onthepeninsulaofsamenameat BNP 153 – 680F10a=* M1 CEcityinCaria,southwesternAnatolia. 2:1107 – 8). PE fl our, thenaftertastingthe 81 – ‘ palace 3). Diodorusreportsthat – 2, no.25).Itwasnot fi ’ rst attestedin399, datingtotheearly fi Sal cient produce ı fi hadas rst Arab – ı by . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 towers, tothenorthwestand northofthecity.Partsthemdatebacktoreign silting up slaves. Butthecityneededtoacquireothersourcesof wealthasitsharbourbegan and livelyexporttrade,ingoodssuchas prospered formuchofitshistory.Thiswasnodoubtlargely duetoitsharbourfacilities which surroundeditmadeitspopulationhighlyprone tomalaria),itappearshave province ofAsia. the RomanSenatedeclareditafreecity.In129was incorporatedintotheRoman over Caunus age, almostalltraceoftheindigenouspopulationand culturedisappeared.Control became increasinglyGreekinitscultureandethniccomposition. IntheHellenistic C4 itcameunderthecontrolofCariansatrapMausolus(377 War (431 the citybecameamemberofAthenianConfederacy,butduringPeloponnesian 1.171, 176).SometimeafterthewithdrawalofPersianforcesfromGreecein479, Harpagus duringhiscampaignthroughsouthwesternAnatoliac.540(Herodotus preserved ininscriptions.Itisstillalmostentirelyunintelligible. language istosomeextentborneoutbythesurvivingremnantsof Carians. HisclaimthattheirlanguagewassimilarbutnotidenticaltotheCarian and customsweredifferentfromthoseofallotherpeoples,includingtheirfellow believed thattheirancestorscamefromCrete.Herodotuscommentslifestyle to Herodotus(1.172),theCaunianswereofindigenousstock,thoughtheythemselves among thealliesofTrojans ( Bithynia andPaphlagonia( mainland Greece,andinnorthernAnatolianeartheBlackSeacoastregionof Lafond ( Cook andPlommer(1966),Bean( have ceased. the declineofitsoverlordRhodes.ByRomanperiod,cultgoddessmay sanctuary wentintodecline,itslesseningimportancethoughttobeconnectedwith the apparentlyever-increasingnumbersofvisitors.Perhapsnotlongafterthis the sanctuary,tore G domination oftheislandRhodes.We learnfromaninscription(theso-called cult ofHemitheaseemstohavereacheditspeakinC2whenthecitycameunder succeeded byanimposingIonictemple,builtonaplatform53m than asmallhilltopshrine,c.5msquare.ButinlateC4,thismodeststructurewas respect foritsreputation.DuringthePersianperiod(C6 protected bywallsorcustodians,neitherPersiansnorrobbersmolestedit,outof and far. Hecommentsthatthoughitwas Caunus Cauconians ö Notable amongthecity Despite thefactthatcitywasnotoriousforitsunhealthy climate(themarshlands Caunus is lenye inscription)thatinthe BNP

2:38). ( – map 5 – 404; seeglossary),itprovidedaportforbothsidesinthecon alreadyaseriousproblembyC1CE.Caunusnowlies3 kmfromthesea. fl fi uctuated betweenthevariousHellenistickingdoms,until 167,when rst attestedinhistorywhenitwascapturedbythePersiangeneral ) A legendarypeoplelocatedbyGreektraditioninvariouspartsof M1 BCE fl ect thegoddess PECS ’ s materialremainsareitswell-preserved walls,forti BAGRW – 440 M1 CEcityinCariasouthwesternAnatolia.According Iliad – 1, s.v. Kastabos),Kaletsch( fi CAUCONIANS rst halfofC2majorimprovementsweremadeto 58B3,86C2).InHomer, theCauconiansappear 10.429,20.329). ’ statusandimportance,alsotocopewith 154 fi gs (forwhichitwasfamous),salt, fi lled withrichofferings,andwasnot BNP – 4), thesanctuarywasnomore 2:1176). – 353), andthenceforth × 34minarea.The fl ict. Inmid fi fi ed with sh, and Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 an agora,andthefoundations ofaDorictemple(nodoubtdedicatedtoApollo, the of theRhodianPeraea(seeglossary). inhabitants assemi-barbarians.DuringtheHellenistic period,Cedreaebecamepart enslaved. Xenophon( to Athens,itwasattackedbytheSpartancommander Lysander anditspopulation member oftheAthenianConfederacy(seeglossary).In 405,whenitwasstillallied Marmaris. ApurelyCarianfoundationinorigin,the city is island ofSedirAda(S Bean (1971:166 to midC4. the temple-tombs).Potteryfoundintemple-tombshelpsdatetheirconstruction of morethan150tombs(themajorityaresimplechamberscutintotherockbelow disengaged fromtheparentrock.Theyarepartofanecropoliscomplexconsisting Some havepassagewayshollowedoutaroundthemsothattheirwallsarecompletely the cityandmod.villageofDalyan.Thereareabouttwentythesestructures. of Caunusaretherock-cutIonic-styletemple-tombscarvedintocliff-facebetween palaestra, alarge Byzantinechurch waslaterbuilt.Butthemostspectacularremains a nymphaeum(fountain-house),Romanbaths,andpalaestra.Inthecentreof of Mausolus.OtherfeaturesthesiteincludeanimpressiveGreek-styletheatre, 30 Figure Cedreae Ç avus Among thecity ¸ tepe Temple tombs,Caunus.

( map 5 – 79; see PECS ’ ) Sardurihinili s remains,whichlieonthe eastern halfoftheisland,areatheatre, M1 BCE 443 ¸ ehir Ada,S Hellenica – 4), Kaletsch( – 2.1.15)describesthisevent,referringtothecity ¸ M1 CEcityinCaria,southwesternAnatolia,onthe . ehirog BNP 3:39 CEDREAE ˘ lu) intheCedreaticGulf,16kmnorthofmod. 155 – 41). fi rst attestedinC5asa ’ s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 and subsequentlybyjoint British Age (c.midM2).Excavations werecarriedoutbyM.Mallowaninthe1930s, (c. 6000 Mesopotamia, withahistoryofoccupationextending fromtheHalafperiod both sarcophagiandtombsofallegedCariantypesunk into theground. two temples,andoutsidethecitygatesanumberoftombs oneithersideoftheroad to theHellenisticandRomanperiods,includestretches ofacitywall,theremains the citywascomingunderGreekin However, theappearance onthesiteofGreek-typearchaicstatuarysuggeststhatbyC6 the resemblanceofitsnametoGreekwordfor pottery ispurelycoincidental. gins aregenerallythoughttohavebeenCarianratherthanGreek.Scholarsagreethat Confederacy (seeglossary).Thereisnoinformationonitsfoundation,thoughori- pre-Hellenistic history,beyondthefactthatinC5itwasamemberofAthenian Ceramic Gulf,40kmsoutheastofmod.Milas.Virtually nothingisknownofthecity Roman empireattestedinthe the Byzantineperiodisindicatedbyitsappearanceinlistofcitieseastern are nofurtherhistoricalreferencestothecityafterthistime,thoughitssurvivalinto station ontheroutetoEgypt.AlsoinmidC5itbeganissuingitsowncoinage.There Confederacy (seeglossary),andapparentlyplayedanimportantroleatthistimeasa by settlersfromtheislandofSamos.InC5CelenderisbecameamemberAthenian may havebeenunoccupiedformanycenturiesbeforeitwascolonized,probablyinC8, Late Chalcolithicperiod.ButevidenceforBronzeAgeoccupationissparse,andthesite direction ofK.L.Zorog Recent excavationsonthecity Tracheia/Aspera), southernAnatolia,46kmwestofmod.Anamur(anc.Anemurium). Bean (1971:53 Mitford ( Bayburtluog Bean (1971:156 and builttombsislocatedonthemainlandoppositeisland. city after hismother, theBactrianprincessApame. shifted toanewsitebyAntiochusISoter(324 of Phrygia.IntheHellenisticperiod,CelaenaecameunderSeleucidcontrolandwas paign throughPhrygiain333,andappointedtherehisgeneralAntigonusassatrap mainland in480.AlexandertheGreatgainedcontrolovercityduringhiscam- the Maeander, whilemakinghiswithdrawalfromabortiveinvasionoftheGreek king Xerxesbuiltastronglyforti east central Anatolia,strategicallylocated,ontheMaeanderr., atthejunctionofmajor Chagar Bazar Ceramus Celenderis Celaenae ’ – s chiefdeityinGraeco-Romantimes).Anecropolisconsistingmainlyofsarcophagi west andnorth PECS – ˘ lu ( 4500) tothe 445),Zorog

– ( PECS ( 7). – map 5

7; Dinar ( map 4 PECS 444),Drew-Bear(

( map 10 444 ) ˘ – M1 BCE ) lu (2006). south routes.Xenophon( ) ( M1 BCE – map 4 fi 5). ˘ nal abandonmentofthesitein lu haveshownthatsettlementtheredatesbackatleasttothe ) Settlement locatedintheHaburr. basin,northwestern BNP ) M1 BCE Synekdemos – ’ M1 CEcityinCariasouthwesternAnatoliaonthe s acropolisconductedbyaTurkish teamunderthe 3:66). fi – ed palaceinCelaenae,allegedlyabovethesourcesof M1 CEcityonthecoastofRoughCilicia(Cilicia – fl Belgian andSpanishteams from1999onwards. CELAENAE uence. Othermaterialremainsofthesite,dating ofHierocles(datingprobablytoC5CE). 156 – M1 CEcityinsouthernPhrygia,south- Anabasis – 261), whorenamedthecityApamea 1.2.7 fi – rst halfoftheLateBronze 9) claimsthatthePersian ’ – s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 Hellenistic historybeyond thefactthatinC5,itwasamemberofAthenian northwest ofMylasa(mod. Milas).Almostnothingisknownofthecity Great in334.Virtually nothingofthecitysurvivestoday. came underPersiancontrol,whereitremaineduntil its liberationbyAlexanderthe Diodorus 12.82.2),whoselandlaytotheeast.Thirty yearslater, in387,Chalcedon and Thracianforcesitin It had,however, establisheditsindependenceby416,whentogetherwithByzantine in midC5ChalcedonbecameamemberoftheAthenian Confederacy(seeglossary). their populationshadabandonedthem(Herodotus6.33). Theywerelaterrebuilt,and Persian rule(499 Byzantium werecloselylinked.IntheaftermathofGreekIonianrebellionagainst settled seventeenyearslater(cf.PlinytheElder5.149).Subsequently,Chalcedonand the superiorqualitiesofalocationdirectlyacrossBosporus,whereByzantiumwas referred toChalcedonas ship ofArchias.AccordingtoHerodotus(4.144),thePersiancommanderMegabazus colony in685bycolonistsfromthemainlandGreekcityofMegara,underleader- originally occupiedbysettlersfromPhoeniciaandThrace,itwasestablishedasaGreek Anatolia, locatedontheAsiaticsideofBosporus.Thoughitssitewasperhaps Bean ( J. E.Curtis(1982b),Matthews( with anc.AshnakkumandQirdahat(Kirdahat). before thesettlementwas been builtonthesettlement-moundsometimeafterdestructionofpalace, and Amoritepersonalnamesattestedinthetablets.Housesgravesappeartohave mixed populationofthesettlementatthistimeisre making breadandbeer, animalfodder, andfoodrationsforpalacepersonnel.The light. Thetabletswereadministrativeinnature,containingrecordsofbarleyusedfor the Assyrianadministration.Anarchiveofabout100cuneiformtabletsalsocameto (if notastorehouse)wasconstructed,presumablytheresidenceoflocalgovernor reign oftheAssyriankingShamshi-AdadI(1796 site wasabandonedfortwocenturies,butitcameintoprominenceagainduringthe periods. Theearlypost-Akkadianerasawareducedoccupation,andaround2000the form inscriptions.TheinscribedpiecesdatetotheEarlyDynasticandAkkadian painted andincisedpottery,bullaewithsealimpressions,shortAkkadiancunei- major occupationphase.MaterialremainsfromtheEarlyBronzesettlementinclude early M4.ChagarBazarwasthenabandoneduntiltheEarlyBronzeAge(M3),its been foundforoccupationduringtheLateChalcolithic(NorthernUruk)periodin the Mesopotamiancontext. trends intheupperHaburr. valley,focusingonitsstatusasarelativelysmallsitein and reoccupation,itsinternaldiversity;(2)changingrolewithinsettlement related diachronicquestions:(1)thesite McMahon Chalcetor Chalcedon The sitewas PECS 216),Aune( et al.

( ( map 5 Kad (2001:201)reportthatthenewresearchprogrammefocusesontwo fi rst occupied,asnoted,intheHalafperiod,andrecentlyevidencehas – OEANE 494), bothcitieswereputtothetorchbyPersians in494after ı ) k M1 BCE ö y ) BMD 1:481 ‘ ( fl the cityofblind fi map 4 icted aresoundingmilitarydefeatontheBithynians(thus nally abandonedc.1500.Identi 69 – – 2). 70), McMahon – ) M1 CEcityinCariasouthwesternAnatolia,10km M1 BCE CHALCETOR ’ s internalcycleofoccupation,abandonment, 157 et al. – (2001),McMahon ’ , becauseits M1 CEcityinBithynia,northwestern – 1775). Inthisperiod,alarge fl ected intheHurrian,Akkadian, fi fi cations havebeensuggested et al. rst settlersfailedtorealize (2005). ‘ ’ palace s pre- fi rst ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 of Tiglath-pileser III(745 Babylonia with Assyria,duringthereignsofSargon IIandhissuccessorSennacherib(seeunder leadership, forwhatprovedtobeaprotractedbutultimately unsuccessfulstruggle twice (721 Babylonia foradecadebeforecomingtothethrone c. 721.Heheldthekingship judge fromAssyrianrecords,Marduk-apla-iddinahad alreadybeenprominentin Marduk-apla-iddina II(biblicalMerodach-baladan),leader ofthetribeBit-Yakin. To more oftenagainsttheAssyrians.Mostnotableinthis respectwastheChaldaean constant warfareinthecountry,sometimesagainst its centraladministration,but Marduk (769 number ofChaldaeantriballeaders.Severalthese leaders, beginningwithEriba- of M1areseenasfactorspromotingtherisetoprominence withintheregionofa excellent strategiclocationofanumbertheirsettlementsonmajortraderoutes. wealthy, throughtheirlarge herdsoflivestockandtheincomeresultingfrom structure anddistinctidentity.Anumberofthemappeartohavebecomeextremely Babylonian socialandpoliticallife,whilestillmaintainingtheirtraditionaltribal In manycasestheyassumedBabyloniannamesandbecamecloselyinvolvedin became agriculturalists,orsettledinthelarge urbancentresofsouthernMesopotamia. have conquered(seebelow)mayexaggeratethenumberofChaldaeansettlements eight walledcitiesand820villageswhichtheAssyriankingSennacheribclaimsto settled wayoflife.Theybuilttownsandvillagestheirown and cattle.ButLipin a nomadicorsemi-nomadicexistenceintheirnewhomeland,andmanygrazedhorses each caseconsistsofBit,i.e. Persian Gulf),andBit-Shilani(totheeastofBit-Dakkuri).(Thecompoundnamein of Uruk),Bit-Yakin (aroundUrandthemarshestoeast),Bit-Sha by Lipin (rather thanethnic).FiveChaldaeantribesareidenti (2000: 417)concludesthatthedistinctionisbasicallyculturalandsocial-economic the Aramaeans,theyareclearlydistinguishedfromtheminanc.sources.Lipin people andaland.ThoughtheChaldaeanshadnumberoffeaturesincommonwith Greek Sealand marshlandsattheheadofPersianGulf. the northwestsometimeinC11orC10,settlingalonglowerEuphratesand king AshurnasirpalII(c.878).TheChaldaeansappeartohaveenteredBabyloniafrom attested insouthernMesopotamia(Babylonia)aninscriptionoftheC9Assyrian Bean (1971:48 was athree-linetextintheCarianlanguage. graves, andunderground chambers.Amongseveralinscriptionsfoundinthetemple manner forti Confederacy (seeglossary).Materialremainsofthesiteincludearingwallwhich Chaldaeans Political instabilityandeconomicweaknessinBabyloniaduringtheearlycenturies A signi fi ed thecity Chaldaioi ´ ’ (Bean),atempleofApollo,andnumbertombs ski (419),theyare:Bit-Dakkuri(southeastofBorsippa),Bit-Amukani(north fi ). TheChaldaeanshadalready beenincon – – cant numberoftheChaldaeanimmigrantsmayhavecontinuedtopursue 9; 710, 703).InalliancewiththeElamites,heunitedBabylonia underhis – PECS 761), occupiedtheBabylonianthroneandbecameembroiled inthe whichcomesfromtheAkkadianword Tribal groupsprobablyspeakingaWest Semiticlanguage, ’ s acropolisandwas 216). ´ ski commentsthatothersappeartohaveadaptedquicklya – ‘ 727), whorecordshisconquest ofanumbertheir House CHALDAEANS ’ +thenameofitseponymousfounder.) ‘ well builtofsquaredblocksintheLelegian 158 fi ed intheanc.sources.Aslisted ‘ Chaldaean fl kaldu ict withAssyriainthereign , usedtodesignatebotha – – ’ sarcophagi,shallow isderivedfromthe thoughtheeighty- alli (nearthe fi rst clearly ´ ski – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 1963, and19821983, the sitewassystematicallyexcavatedbyV. Fritz from1982 the EarlyBronzeAgethrough theIronAge.Afterearlierinvestigationsin1932,1939, to theIsraelitetribeofNaphtali.Itshistory(signi with biblicalKinnereth,attestedinJoshua19:35asone oftheforti shore oftheSeaGalilee.In1922itwasidenti city, consistingofasmalltellandlowerlocatedinnorthern Palestineonthewestern famous inlegendasworkersofiron.Seealso mountains southofTrapezus (mod.Trabzon). Itsinhabitants,theChalybes,were the southerncoastofBlackSea(thusStrabo12.3.19 Edzard ( attested asservingintheAssyrianarmy. ment intheAssyrianhomelandorotherpartsofempire.Chaldaeansarealso of theirtownsandvillagesthemassdeportationpopulations,forresettle- Assyria, andthepunishmentstheysufferedasaconsequence,includingdestruction records reportthecon from Assyrianrecords,particularlyintheperiodmidC9toC7.These it wasaformofWest Semitic.TheChaldaeans known oftheChaldaeanlanguage,beyondfactthatnamesindicate Chaldaean sources.Noinscriptionshavesurvived,andvirtuallynothingis term wasbeingusedinagenericsensetoapplyallBabylonians. whether thepersonssospeci (for thelatter, seeesp.Daniel2:5,10;5:7,11).Itis,however, dif term them hadreputationsasmagicians,diviners,astrologers,priests,andscholars,forthe integral aroleChaldaeansplayedinBabyloniansociety.Itappearsthatnumberof seem tobevirtuallysynonymousmaywellanindicationofhowsigni his brother. Assyrian rulerofBabylon,inhisrebellionagainstthekingAshurbanipal, leader, ruleroftheSealand,ralliedBabyloniansupportforShamash-shum-ukin, in acommoncause.Fiftyyearslater, hisgrandsonNabu-bel-shumate,aChaldaean iddina cities ofChaldaea(* he claimedthatinthecourseofthiscampaignconqueredeighty-eightwalled fi Elamites. Sennacheribwonaconclusive, alliance withJudah,inadditiontotheheprobablyalreadyhad likely thathetookthisinitiativeasa he hadreceivednewsoftheking a diplomaticmissiontotheJudaeankingHezekiah,bearinglettersandgift,after 130 tribes in731andtheimpositionoftributeontheirchieftains(* Chinnereth, Tel Chalybe rst militarycampaign,conductedinBabyloniasometimebetween704and702; Our informationabouttheChaldaeansisderivedalmostentirelyfromnon- The factthatinbothClassicaland – 3). Marduk-apla-iddinaalsoappearsin ‘ RlA Chaldaean ’ s resistancetoAssyria,hehadsucceededforatimeinunitingtheBabylonians 5:291 Legendary countryattestedinClassicaltradition,apparently locatedon – 7 s.v. Kaldu),J.Oates(1986:111 ’ isoftenappliedtosuchpersonsinbothClassicalandbiblicaltexts (Arabic CS fl icts inwhichtheChaldaeanswereinvolved,particularlyagainst II:301).ButdespitetheultimatefailureofMarduk-apla- Tell el- fi ed inthesetextswereactuallyChaldaeans,orwhetherthe CHINNERETH, TEL
Oreimeh ’ s illness(2Kings20:12,Isaiah39:1).Itisvery OT – sourcestheterms 35), Frame( fi 159 fi rst steptowardssecuringananti-Assyrian nal victoryoverMarduk-apla-iddinainhis ) Halizones ( OT map 8 fi sources,whichrecordhisdispatchof ’ OEANE ed byG.DalmanandW. F. Albright M1historyisknowntousmainly ) Bronze andIronAgeCanaanite fi 1:482 . cant) occupationextendsfrom ‘ Chaldaean – – 4), Lipin 20), andperhapsinthe ´ fi ski (2000:esp.416 fi cult todetermine ’ and ed citiesallotted Tigl. III ‘ Babylonian fi cant and 122 – 22). – 5, ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 Abu FanduwehandSusa(theIIperiod;seeunder Chogha Mishappearedagain,asoneofseveralmajorcentres ofSusiana During thesecondhalfofM4,correspondingtoLateUrukperiodinMesopotamia, archaeological record,mayhavebeenduetopopulationupheavalswithintheregion. abandonment c.4200,aboutthesametimethatSusamakesits covered c.20ha,andwasapparentlyanimportantcentreforpotteryproduction.Its in lateM5,ChoghaMishwasSusiana human occupationonthemounddatesbacktoM7.FromM6untilitsabandonment Karun r. intheregionofSusiana(mod.Khuzestan),27kmeastSusa.Evidence Delougaz andKantor(1996 Fritz ( period havebeenunearthed,perhapsdwellingsbuiltbylocalfarmers. last settlementonthesite,thoughremainsofafewhousesdatingtoHellenistic a hectareinarea,andhadbeenabandonedbytheendofC8.Thiswaseffectively 733. Afurthersmallsettlementroseupalmostimmediatelyafter. Itwaslessthanhalf probably bytheAssyriankingTiglath-pileser IIIduringhiscampaignintheregion constructed onpartofthemound,butitwasdestroyedduringsecondhalfC8, by thesite.AtbeginningofC8,asmall,new, apparentlyIsraelitesettlementwas provided byasmallfortressorwatchtower, overlookingtheimportantroadthatpassed apparently nowoccupiedthesite,andduringC9onlyevidenceofrebuildingis late tobeassociatedwiththepharaohSheshonqI been apalace.ThecitywasdestroyedbytheendofC10,orinearlyC9,probablytoo Late BronzeAge,withreoccupationoccurringsometimeduringIronAgeI(lateM2). tance inthisperiod.Thesitemayagainhavebeenabandonedbeforetheendof Papyrus Leningrad(1116A).Itsinclusionwiththesecitiesisanindicationofitsimpor- ten majorCanaanitecities,includingMegiddo,Ashkelon,andHazor, intheso-called Palestinian conquestsofthepharaohTuthmosis III(1479 this periodareverymeagre.Inwrittenrecords,thecityappearsamongSyro- lasting throughatleastthe not occuruntiltheendofMiddleBronzeII(C16),whenanewtownshipwasbuilt, was abandoned,forreasonsunknown,attheendofthisperiod,andresettlementdid Mainz, Germany. to 1985,andfrom19941999,onbehalfoftheJohannesGutenberg Universityin and Parthianperiods. and asinger. There isalsoevidenceforoccupationatChoghaMishduringthePersian fi scholars refertoasa tablets withcylindersealimpressions.Anumberofthese depictamale artefacts datingtothisperiodfromChoghaMish,aswell asfromSusaandUruk,are appears tohaveexperiencedanoveralldeclineinitspopulation. Notableamongthe in southwesternIran,the regionofSusiana,40kmsoutheastSusa.Covering an Chogha Zanbil Chogha Mish gure was,andwhatauthorityheexercised.Anotherofthe sealingsdepictsamusician In C10anew, stronglyforti The NEAEHL fi rst signi I:299

– fi ( 301). map 12 ( cant settlementwasbuiltduringEarlyBronzeII(midM3).Butit Al-Untash-Napirisha – ). ‘ priest-king ) Settlement-mound insouthwesternIran,locatedonthe fi rst phaseoftheLateBronzeAge(C15).Butremainsfor fi ed 4hacitywasbuilt,oneofwhosebuildingsmayhave ’ CHOGHA MISH . Therehasbeenmuchspeculationaboutwhothis ’ s dominantsite.Inthisphaseofitsexistence,it 160 ) ( map 12 ’ s campaignintheregion.Squatters ) Late BronzeAgeElamite city Susa – 1425), andisalsolistedwith ) – atatimewhenSusiana fi rst appearanceinthe – fi alongwith gure whom Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 iue31 Figure Susian, andMesopotamiandeities,asattestedintheinscriptionsfoundonsite.Up The othertempleswithintheprecinctwerededicatedtoawiderangeofElamite, Inshushinak andNapirisha,originallythechiefgodsofSusaAnshanrespectively. level byaseriesofstaircases.Calledthe blue-, green-,gold-andsilver-colouredglazedbricks,wasaccessedfromground 12 m.Ontopoftheuppermostlevel,ahightemplewasconstructed.Ithadfacing concentric levelswaserectedinthecentralcourtyard,toatotalestimatedheightofc. ziggurat (seeglossary)inasubsequentbuildingphasewhentowerconsistingofthree and wingedgrif middle ofeachthreeits100mlongsides.Thegatewayswereguardedbybulls ing anopensunkencourtyard,whichwasaccessedbymonumentalgatewaysinthe of itsown.Originally,thebuildingwasasingle-levelstructurewithroomssurround- square-based zigguratmadeofbakedandsun-driedbricks,enclosedwithinawall walled precinct,containinganumberoftemples,andinthecentrecomplex between 1951and1962onbehalfoftheFrenchArchaeologicalMissioninIran. 1946. ItwasexcavatedonamoreextensivescalebyR.Ghirshmannduringnineseasons by R.deMecquenem,whomadelimitedsoundingsin1936and1939,again Untash-napirisha native royalseattoSusa,thecitywasnevercompleted,andabandonedsoonafter Elamite kingUntash-napirisha(1275 area ofc.100ha,thecitywasbuiltinC13asareligiousandceremonialcentreby There aretwomainsectionsofthesite.The Chogha Zanbil. fi ’ s death.Thesitewasdiscoveredin1935,andinitiallyinvestigated ns madeofglazedterracotta.Thebuildingwastransformedintoa CHOGHA ZANBIL – 1240). Thoughapparentlyintendedasanalter- 161 kukunnum fi rst consistsofatemenos,orsacred , itwasdedicatedtotwodeities – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 between tworoyalhouses. abroad towedanElamiteprince,inorderconsolidateinternationalalliance was inconsistentwithnotionsofanafterlife).Conceivably,sheaprincesssentfrom come fromaforeignlandwherecremationwasnotpractised(presumablybecauseit interred weremembersofroyalty,hespeculatesthattheuncrematedfemalemayhave cremation hasbeendiscoveredatnearbySusa.Ontheassumptionthatallthose signi forty to together withtheirfunerarygoods,werecremated.Thesingleexceptionwasafemale, tombs wereusedformultipleburials,andwithonlyoneexceptionallthebodies, chambers, upto4mhighand5 domestic apartments.Thetombswerespacious,architecturallyelaboratevaulted worthy becauseofanumbertombsbuiltbeneaththebuilding Palace I,alsocalledthe served, wasalsodesignatedbyGhirshmannasapalace).Themostcomplexofthese large buildingswhichGhirshmannlabelledaspalaces(afourthbuilding,poorlypre- sector ofthecity,referredtoas as the inner courtyardcomplex,dubbedtheRoyalEntrance(itisreferredtoininscriptions ha, lyingtotheeastoftemenos,andprotectedbyarampart.Adoublegate napirisha, andthatitwasprimarilysacredceremonialincharacterfunction. language. Thetextsmakeclearthatthecitywasanewfoundation,builtbyUntash- Elamite language,thusprovidinguswithaninvaluablesourceofinformationonthis texts areinAkkadian,butthegreatmajority(some to 6,500inscribedbrickshavecomelight,alongwithothertexts.Afewofthese Artefacts unearthedfromvariouslocationsonthesiteincludeglazedterracotta The secondsectionofthesite,designatedasroyalcity,coversanareac.85 iue32 Figure fi cance ofthesecremationburials,observingthatnotonesingleinstance ‘ Great Gate fi fty yearsofage,whoseskeletonwasfoundintact.Ghirshmannstressesthe Chogha Zanbil,inscriptionon bakedbrick. ’ ), providesaccessthroughtheforti palais hypog – CHOGHA ZANBIL 6 mlong.Eachwasaccessedbyasteepstaircase.The é ‘ e royal quarter ( ‘ underground palace 162 ’ . Itcontainstheremainsofthree fi fty-two texts)arewritteninthe fi cations tothenortheastern ’ ) – isparticularlynote- ’ s privateand – Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 lands hadbeenincorporated intotheempirebyCyrusII,probablyduringacampaign in the the inscriptionsofDariusI(522 see Vogelsang (1992: 289 For abriefsummaryofexcavationsconductedintheregion fromthe1930sonwards, so-called Archaicperiod(C6 (Russian ref.citedbyFrancfort,1988:187,n.116).Fortress-complexes datingtothe Dingil times withcourtyardsandgardensattached.Afarming establishmentdiscoveredat camels. AtypicalsimpleChorasmiandwellingconsisted oftwotothreerooms,some- and theraisingoflivestock,includingcattle,sheep,goats, pigs,donkeys,horses,and been identi entary elements.Thelatterapparentlylivedmainlyinvillages beginnings oftheZoroastriancult.Itspopulationconsistedbothnomadicandsed- south oftheAralSea.Itmayhaveplayedanimportantrole,inearlyM1, (the latterconsistingofPersianinscriptionsandAvestan literature),locatedtothe perhaps somecenturiesbeforeChomawasestablished. no connectionwithChoma,butratherbelongtoaLycian settlementwhichexisted Another similarbutuninscribedtombislocatedcloseby.Thesetombsprobablyhave inscription isthemostnortherlyofallknowninscriptionsinnativeLycian language. inscriptions inthislanguagewerecarvedonsepulchralandothermonuments.The cates thatsettlementintheareadatesbackatleasttoC5orC4,periodwhen northwest ofthesite,andbearinganinscriptioninnativeLycian language,indi- stones reusedinthenearbyvillages.However, arock-cuttomblocatedc.5kmtothe existence indicatedonlybyscatteredsherdsandinscriptions,anc.dressedbuilding C1 CE,whenPlinytheElder(5.101)referstoit.Notraceofanc.cityremains,its southwest ofmod.Elmal Bean ( Ghirshman (1966 of devastationinSusianac.1110. fourth kingoftheSecondDynastyIsin(seeunder The enterprise wasshortlived,abandonedbeforecompletiononthedeathofitsfounder. the majorgodsofempire the empirecouldclaimequallyastheircapital,andwhichinitssacredprecinctunited founder goddess andafriezeofwildgoats. the PalaceItombs,acacheofalabasterjugs,andanivorypaneldepictingwinged beads, andmaceheads),thecrematedremainsofgravegoods(weaponsjewellery)in and metaltoolsweapons,alarge numberofvotiveofferings(animal bull andgrif Chorasmia Choma Chorasmia wasamongtheeasternlandsofPersianempire listedseveraltimesin The buildingofAl-Untash-Napirishaonvirgin soilhasbeenseenasre fi PECS nal destructionandpillagingofthesitemayhavebeenduetoNebuchadnezzarI, daiva dz ’ s visionofanewcentrefortheElamiteempire,onewhichallmembers 223;1978:156 ˇ e consistsofsixroomsandhasbeeninterpretedas a smallmanorhouse M1 BCE fi inscription(seeglossary)of hissonandsuccessorXerxes(* ed – fi

8), deMiroschedji( ( n sculpturesreferredtoabove,c.160cylinderseals,arangeofstone map 16 – whichappeartohaveengagedprimarilyinagricultural activities – – 7). M1 CEcityinnorthernLycia, southwestern Anatolia,15km ) Central AsiancountryattestedinM1GreekandIraniantexts ı – ( 91). BAGRW OEANE ’ – s maincitiesandprovinces(thusdeMiroschedji).Butthe 4) havecometolightatKyuzeliGyrandKalalyGyr. – 486), e.g.inhisBisituninscription(* 1:487 CHORASMIA 65C4).Itisnotattestedinwrittensourcesbefore – 90), D.T. Potts(1999:222 163 Babylonia – 30). – some285ofthesehave ), duringhiscampaign DB XPh 6),andalso fl 3).These ecting its fi gurines, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 The sitewas Katlimmu. (TherewereseveralBronzeAgecitiesofthis name;see identi C13 wasunearthedinoneoftheroomsthisresidence,enablingTell Chueratobe ernor this phaseincludeasmallshrineoftheMitannianperiod,andwell-forti Mitannian andsubsequentlyunderAssyriancontrol.Thefewmaterialremainsfrom reoccupied inthesecondhalfofM2,periodwhenregioncame in lateM3,followingitsAkkadian-periodoccupation.Afteralonghiatusitwas lower cityappearstohaveconsistedentirelyofprivatehouses.Thesitewasabandoned structed, includingseveraltemples,alarge palace,andaresidentialquarter. The22ha part ofthecitadel-mound.Oncitadel,anumbermajorbuildingswerecon- mudbrick forti reached itsmaximumdevelopment.Theentiresettlementwassurroundedbya doned inM4.ThesitewasthenreoccupiedduringmuchofM3,whenTell Chuera Correns between1982and1985,W. Orthmann from1986onwards. Oppenheim FoundationbyA.Moortgatbetween1958and1976,U.Moortgat- river valleys.Thesite,coveringc.65ha,wasexcavatedonbehalfoftheMaxvon citadel-mound andlowercity,innortheasternSyria,betweentheBalihHabur Moortgat-Correns ( Francfort (1988). king XerxesforhisinvasionofGreecein481. Pharnaces, islistedbyHerodotus(7.66)amongtheforcesassembledPersian fi have beentheresidenceofaPersian hypostyle hall,excavatedatthelarge siteofKalalyGyrinChorasmia,isthoughtto (* at Susa(reignofDariusI),wheretheyarerecordedbringingatributeturquoise among thetributariesofPersianempireinfoundationdocumentspalace calls thesixteenthPersianprovince(butseeglossaryunder Chorasmians arelistedbyHerodotus(3.93)amongthepeoplesmakingupwhathe ming thesurroundingriver, therebycuttingoffthewatersupplytothesefarmlands. Persians convertedalarge, mountain-lockedplateauintheregionintoalakebydam- Herodotus (3.117)reportsthedevastationcausedtoChorasmianfarmlandswhen which heconductedintoCentralAsiasometimeafterhisconquestofBabylonin539. of bothacropolisandlower town,withalarge necropolis extendingtothesouthand ment onthesiteextendsbackatleasttolastcentury ofM2.TheM1cityconsisted son oftheAthenianheroTheseus.Evidenceprovided by tombsindicatesthatsettle- 1956). InGreektradition,itseponymousfounderChythrus wasthegrandsonofAcamus, dated to673/672,theso-calledEsarhaddonprism(*Borger, 1956:60 among thetenkingdomsofislandinaninscription theAssyriankingEsarhaddon southeast ofthecity.Itsking atthetimeofEsarhaddonprismwascalledPilagura Chytroi Chuera, Tell g. 6).AcontingentofChorasmiansunderthecommandArtabazus,son DSf The earliestsettlementonthesitedatesfromHalafperiod(M5);itwasaban- ’ s residenceoftheMiddleAssyrianperiod.Asmallcuneiformarchivedatingto 10,* fi ed withthecityofHarbe(Hurbe)referredtoinMiddle Assyrian textsfromDur ( Kythrea DSz fi RlA nally abandonedinC12. (Assyrian fi 9).(CarnelianmayalsohavebeenminedinChorasmia.)Apalacewith cation wall,withasecondinnerforti 4:480 ) ( map 14 – 7), Orthmann( Harbe (3)/Hurbe ) City-kingdom innortheasternCyprus,listedasKitrusi CHUERA, TELL OEANE fi cial, possiblyasatrap(seeFrancfort,1988:181, 1:491 164 BronzeAgesettlement,consistingof ) – 2). fi cation wallsurroundingatleast satrapy Harbe (1) ). Theyappear § 27, Heidel, fi rst under and fi ed gov- (2) .) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 remained effectivelyindependent, exceptperhapsforanarrowstripalongthecoast. period ofPersiandomination, asinotherperiods,itislikelythatCiliciaTracheia the Greatin333,CiliciawasdirectlygovernedbyaPersian satrap.Throughoutthe been locatedatTarsus. Inthefollowingperiod,from401 totheconquestsofAlexander con of thedynasty,whowas,accordingtoHerodotus(1.74), oneofthemediatorsin went bythetitleSyennesis.Thewasprobablyadopted fromthenameoffounder to haveenjoyedarelativelyhighdegreeofautonomyunder alineoflocalkingswho During the decades ofC6onwards,bothpeoplesweresubject,atleast nominally,toPersianrule. warrant therisksentailedincampaigningagainstthem. Subsequently,fromthelast to conquerthem,orwhetherhesimplydecidedthat the rewardstobewondidnot do notknowwhetherthismeansthattheysuccessfully resistedanyattemptshemade king Croesus(560 observes thattheCiliciansandLycians weretheonlypeopleswhomLydian from themountainsinland. manage tosubsist,asportsofcallforthecoastaltradeandexportdepotstimber Tracheia, aprimitivetriballifeprevailed;onlyalongthecoastdidfewsmalltowns ization: 192) notedthatthecontrastinphysicalconditionscorrespondedtoacivil- to thecountriesrespectivelycalledHilakkuandQueinAssyriantexts.Jones(1971: Cilicia Pediasthe the Plain (Latin Aspera)or Cilicia consistedprimarilyoftwodistinctparts,knownbythetermsTracheia panied andfollowedthecollapseofLateBronzeAgecivilizations.Graeco-Roman from theTroad, migratingtosouthernAnatoliaduringtheupheavalswhichaccom- conceivable thattheancestorsofoneM1Cilicia ( originates fromalegendaryGreekpeoplecalledtheCilices,whoaccordingtoHomer the regioncalledCiliciainGraeco-Romantimes.InClassicaltradition,name derived fromHilakku,thetermusedinAssyriantextstodesignatewesternpartof Nicolaou ( sanctuary been attributedtothegoddessPaphianAphroditeonbasisofinscriptions.The Artemis, andHercules.Theremainsofasanctuaryonhillnorthwestthecityhave buildings ofGraeco-Romandate,includingagymnasiumandshrinestoHermes, abandonment. bishopric inthelastofthese.TheArabsackcity912CEresultedits ently Lysias. ThenceforthitismentionedbynumerousGreekandRomanwriters.Itappar- C4, whenreferencetoitismadeinoneofthespeechesAthenianorator (Greek PylagorasorPhilagoras).ThecityisnotattestedinGreeksourcesuntilearly Cilicia Iliad In theearliesthistoricalreferencetoCiliciainClassicalsources,Herodotus(1.28) Chytroi remainsvirtuallyunexcavated.However, inscriptionsindicateanumberof fl ict betweentheMedesandLydians in585.Thedynasty 6.397)wereoneofthepopulationgroupsTroad (q.v.). Itisinanycase fl ourished duringtheHellenistic,Roman,andByzantineperiods,becominga

PECS ( ‘ In CiliciaPedias,tradeandindustryfosteredthegrowthoftowns. map 4 ’ ’ . CiliciaTracheia wastherugged,mountainouswesternpartofregion, s originsappeartodatebacktheArchaicperiod(C7 223 fi rst periodofPersiansovereignty,fromc.542to401,the Ciliciansappear – ) M1 BCE 4), Iacovou(2002). ‘ – ‘ Rough Cilicia smoother 546) failedtosubdueduringhiscampaignswestoftheHalysr.; we – ’ ’ M1 CEcountryinsouthernAnatolia.Itsnameisprobably , fertileeasternpart.Theseregionsroughlycorresponded ’ , andCiliciaPedias(LatinCampestris)or CILICIA 165 ’ s populationgroupsdidinfactcome ’ s seatofpowermayhave – 6). ‘ Cilicia of fi nal Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 asty whichruledCariain C4 onbehalfofthePersianadministration.Laterin C5, Cindya inearlyC5wasalmost certainlyoneoftheancestorsHecatomniddyn- Artemis Cindyas.AmancalledPixodarus(sonofacertain Mausolus)wholivedin a citadelandenclosingforti of theMermnaddynasty. when theinvaderswere Cimmerians but hadforfeitedthiswhenhesupportedEgypt kingdom. Hehadpreviouslysecuredassistanceagainstthe invadersfromAshurbanipal, of Lydia victims ofthisstrugglewastheLydian king Gyges(GugguinAssyriantexts),founder Phrygia Mita). SubsequentlytheyengagedinaprolongedstrugglewiththekingdomofLydia, Phrygians, whoseempiretheydestroyedc.695underitslastkingMidas(Assyrian Cilicia (sometimebetween637and626). successor Ashurbanipal.AccordingtoStrabo(1.3.21),Lygdamis waslaterkilledin (Tugdammu inAssyrianrecords)sufferedadefeatatthehandsofEsarhaddon (* leader Teushpa inabattlethelandofHubushna(see success againsttheAssyrians.In679AssyriankingEsarhaddondefeatedtheir holdings southwards,partlyatAssyria arose outoftheirattempts,fromSargon Cimmerians arecalledtheGumurru,fromlandofGamir. TheirwarswithAssyria 161 slaughter ofanumberthekingdom (721 earliest referencestothemoccurinAssyrianletters,fromthereignofSargon II upon AsiawhentheyweredrivenfromtheirhomelandbynomadicScythians.The stock, originatinginsouthernRussia.AccordingtoHerodotus(1.15),theydescended Kammenhuber ( *Houwink tenCate(1965),Magness-Gardiner( Bronze Agecivilizations. Luwian settlementinAnatoliathecenturieswhichfollowedcollapseofLate BCE andearlyM1CE,thatthesecountriesbecamethemostimportantcentresof Cilicia Tracheia hadsigni elements occurinLycia andCiliciaTracheia. Fromthis,itseemslikelythatLycia and Pisidia, Pamphylia,Isauria,Lycaonia, andCilicia.Thegreatestconcentrationsofthese re ment inM2.AndanongoingM1LuwianpresencethroughoutsouthernAnatoliais Roman periods.SouthernAnatoliahadbeenoneofthemajorareasLuwiansettle- of Luwian(q.v.) elementsintheregiondowntoandincludingHellenistic and Cindya Cimmerians fl ARAB The Cimmerians An importantfeatureofM1Cilicia,particularlyCiliciaTracheia, isthepersistence ected inanumberofLuwianonomasticelementsfoundtheinscriptionsLycia, – – 80, * 705), whichrecordtheirroutofanarmyfromthekingdomUrartuand ’ ’ s successorasthedominantpowerinwesternAnatolia.Oneofprincipal

II:206;cf.*Ivantchik,1993:180 s Mermnaddynasty,whoin644waskilledaCimmerian attackuponhis ( map 5 SAA RlA ’ attacksuponLydia lastedforabout100yearsuntillateC7orearlyC6, 5:594 I:29 ) An IronAgepeople,perhapsofThraco-PhrygianorIndo-Iranian ’ M1 hilltopcityinCariasouthwesternAnatolia,with remainsof onslaughtuponAnatoliaalsobroughtthemintocon – – 6), Ivantchik(1993),Bouzek( 32, nos30 fi fi nally drivenfromLydian territorybyAlyattes,fourthruler cant numbersofLuwianspeakersintheirpopulationsM1 fi cation wall.ThegoddessArtemiswasworshippedhere, as – 2, * OEANE CIMMERIANS SAA ’ s expense.Buttheyappeartohavehadlittle 2:8 166 ’ V: 109 ’ s reignonwards,toexpandtheirterritorial s provincialgovernors(*Ivantchik,1993: – OEANE – 5). In652theCimmerianleaderLygdamis 11). 2:11 – 10, no.145).InAssyrianrecordsthe ’ s rebellionagainstAssyria.The – 12), Hellmuth(2008). Hupis(h)na ), southernAnatolia fl ict withthe ’ s sonand Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 belongs tothelineofMuk(a)sas,anamecorrespondingMPS throne fromc.738to709(seeunder man iswellknownfromAssyriantextsasthekingofQue,whooccupiedhiscountry identi hair, beard,andclothingre base, andsculpturedinhighrelief,depictingachariotpulledbypairofbulls.Its belonged tothekingdomcalledQuebyAssyrians.Thestatueismountedona of Adana,intheregioncalledCiliciaClassicaltexts.InearlycenturiesM1,it The site(whichisnotwherethemonumentwasoriginallylocated)lies30kmsouth covered in1997andinscribedwithahieroglyphicLuwian *Tekog Bean (1971:82 apparently beenamalgamatedintotheneighbouringcityofBargylia. talents. FromC3onwardsthecityisnolongerattestedinwrittenrecords.Ithadnow contribution totheConfederacy Cindya becameamemberoftheAthenianConfederacy(seeglossary).In425itsannual excavations atBamboulafrom 1976onwardsbyaFrenchteamunderthedirection of fi Antiquities. TheseuncoveredanumberofLateBronze Agesanctuarieswithinaforti- Kathari atthenorthernendofsitebyV. Karageorghis fortheCypriotDeptof deities temple toAphrodite ary dedicatedtothegodHeracles and 1930byE.GjerstadfortheSwedishCyprusExpedition broughttolightasanctu- period. ExcavationsontheBamboulahill(i.e.city of Cyprus.ItshistoryoccupationextendsfromtheEarly BronzeAgetotheRoman bilingual, butHiyawaintheLuwianversionof dom ofAwarikus/Urikki iscalledAdanawa intheLuwianversionofKaratepe for AchaeanorMycenaeanGreeks.We haveyettoexplainsatisfactorilywhytheking- Hypachaeans ( fi the IronAge,asTekog tion ofpopulationsfromwesternAnatoliaortheAegeantoCiliciaatbeginning Greek world.Ifso,itsappearanceinthe Late BronzeAgetexts,andgenerallybelievedtorefertheAchaeanorMycenaean represents anaphaeresizedformofAhhiyawa(q.v.), anamewellknownfromHittite The latternameisusedalsointhePhoenicianversionof of theKaratepebilingual,anditsinhabitantsDanuniansinPhoenicianversion. Karatepe ation ofQue the Phoeniciantext.Thisancestralreferenceprovidesafurtherexampleofassoci- M. Yon broughttolightC9 Citium Ç ed settlement,andalsoproducedevidenceofabronzemetallurgical industry.Further t neatlywithHerodotus inek In theLuwianversion,Awarikus ˘ lu andLemaire(2000),LebrunDeVos (2006). fi ö ed asWarikas (Awarikus) intheLuwianversion,Warikas inthePhoenician.This fi ( guring prominentlyinPhoeniciancult.)In1959,excavations werebegunat y ). ThekingdomofAwarikus/Urikki iscalled AdanawaintheLuwianversion Kition – 7; Site insouthernAnatoliaofaC8statuethestormgodTarhunza, dis- ’ s royallinewiththelegendaryGreekseerandcity-founderMopsus(see PECS ‘ sub-Achaeans , 455). Larnaka – ˘ Astarte hadoncestoodbesideit.(Melqartand were lu andLemairesuggest(2000:1006).Suchahypothesiswould ’ statement(7.91)thattheCilicianswereoriginallyknownas ) fl ’ ( – ) ect Assyrianin map 14 8 sanctuariesofMelqartand Astarte,andanumberof – providedthatAhhiyawawasinfacttheHittiteterm ’ s treasurywasassessedatthesubstantialsumoffour – ’ kingdomiscalledHiyawa.Thisnameundoubtedly Melqart. Thereissomeevidencetosuggestthata ) City andM1kingdomonthesoutheastcoast Que CITIUM Ç 167 inek ). IntheLuwiantext,Urikkistatesthathe fl uence. Theauthoroftheinscriptionis ö y inscriptionmaywellre Ç inek ’ s acropolis)conductedin1929 ö y bilingual. – Phoenician bilingualtext. Ç inek ˇ

ö – y bilingual. i.e.Mopsus fl ect amigra- – in ’ s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 and C.Picardshowedthat the columnsbelongedtopropylaea(datedC2), i.e. which providedthesite archaeologist T. Makridydiscoveredanumberofcolumns andinscriptionsthere, Delian Apollo(C7?).Thesanctuary occur intheGreekpoetHesiod(lateC8 the sanctuary tion, probablyinC8,itwasunderthecontrolofcity ofColophon,whencecameall located onAnatolia Gjerstad ( he wasaPhoenician. school ofphilosophy,whowasborninthecityC4.His contemporariesbelievedthat into theRomanprovincialsystem. Pumiathon, anddestroyeditsPhoeniciantemples.In50CECitiumwasincorporated until CitiumfelltoPtolemyISoterin312.HeexecuteditslastPhoenicianking, on thekingdom Except forabriefperiodinearlyC4,whenGreekcalledDemonicuswasinstalled in theeasternMediterraneanaswellprovidingamajorsourceofcity enabled themtoplayasigni kings owedtheirdominance,atleastinpart,toPersiansupport.Theirpowerfulnavy e.g. BaalmilkI,Azibaal,II(C5),andMilkyatonPumayyaton(C4).These Citium captured andannexedtheirkingdom and C4thecitykingdomwereruledbyalineofPhoeniciankings,whoinmidC5 over therebels,PhoeniciansgaineddominanceinCitium,withPersiansupport.InC5 last ofwhomCitiumparticipatedintherevolt.ButfollowingPersia Persia in499 city in thecityfromthistimeonward,Citium ent settlerstoestablishacolonythere.Butdespitesigni arrived inCitiumbylateC9,withmerchantsandtraderspavingthewayforperman- anywhere inCyprus.Thereis,however, nodoubtthatPhoeniciansfromTyre had no tioned. WhileMycenaeanproductscertainlyreachedCyprusinlarge numbers,thereis Late BronzeAgefounderscamefromtheMycenaeanworldisnowseriouslyques- wall, arestillvisibleatthenorthernendofanc.city.TheoldviewthatCitium city wasbuiltonthesite.Substantialremainsofitswall,asalsolaterClassical ment datestoC13,thelastcenturyofLateBronzeAge.Inthisperiod,aforti human occupationinthisperiod,theearliestarchaeologicalevidenceforactualsettle- (see below).Thecity changes throughoutthisperiod,untilits built towardstheendofC9.Itlastedfor naval installations.IncludedamongthesanctuarieswasanimposingtempleofAstarte, Clarus Citium Circumstantial evidencesuggeststhatuptothetimeofIonianrevoltagainst Though EarlyBronzeAgetombsinvariouspartsofLarnakaattesttosomeform fi ’ s culturere rm evidencethatMycenaeansthemselveseveroccupiedthesiteorindeedsettled SCE ’ s Phoeniciankingsareattestedininscriptionsandcoinlegends

( map 5 ’ III:1 s mostfamousinhabitantwasthephilosopherZeno,founderofStoic ’ – s of – 494, CitiummayhavebeenruledbyGreekkings,probablyunderthe 75), Karageorghis (1976),Nicolaou( fl ) ’ M1 BCE ecting ablendofbothPhoenicianandGreekelements. s throne(388 fi cials. Theearliestofthemanyliteraryreferenceswehave toClarus ’ s westerncoastintheregioncalledIoniaM1.From its founda- ’ s portlayontheeastsideofsite,belowacropolis. ’ s identi – M1 CEsanctuaryandoracularcentreofthegodApollo, fi – cant roleinthecontestsbetweenGreeksandPersians 387), thePhoeniciandynastyhelduninterruptedsway fi cation. In1913,furtherinvestigations byMakridy fi CLARUS ’ rst cametolightin1907,whentheTurkish s northernneighbour, Idalium.Anumberof 168 PECS fi ’ – s populationwaspredominantlyGreek,the nal destructionbyPtolemyISoterin312 early C7),andintheHomericHymnto fi 456 ve centuries,undergoing anumberof – 8), Iacovou(2002). fi cant Phoenicianpresence ’ s crushingvictory ’ s wealth. fi ed ’ – s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 Cape CrioontheRes quarter ofC4(Bak an oliveoilproductionplantdatingtomidC6,andabove ita Bronze Agelayers),apsidal,single-roomhouseswhose potterydatesthemtolateC6, ations includestructuresofearlyProtogeometric(C10 transition therefromBronzetoIronAge.The have providedmoreinformationabouttheprehistoric settlementonthesiteand Great in334. Tachos. However, itremainedasubjectofPersiauntilitsliberationbyAlexanderthe of astratagemthecityLeucae(seeunder years later, accordingtotheGreekwriterDiodorus(15.18),itgainedcontrolbymeans under thetermsof as anisland(alongwithCyprus),tothe Confederacy (seeglossary).ButitrevertedtoPersiancontrolin386whenwasadded, from theGreekworldin479,andsubsequentlybecameamemberofAthenian and predecessorAlyattes. king Croesus(560 against Persianrule,499 the islandinordertoprotectthemselvesagainstPersiansduringIonianrevolt settlement hadbeenbuilt.AccordingtoPausanias(7.3.9),thepopulationshifted the GulfofSmyrna,andlinkedbyacausewaytomainlandwhereoriginal Ionian League(see not actualMycenaeanoccupation.Clazomenaewasoneofthetwelvemembers no morethantradingcontactsbetweenthesettlementandMycenaeanworld, In theabsenceofotherevidence,Mycenaeanpotteryfragmentsverylikelyindicate Bronze Agesettlementthere.Butthewasprobablyofindigenousorigin. region calledIoniainM1.MycenaeansherdsfoundonthesiteprovideevidenceofLate Bean ( E. Akurgal (1973:136 ning in1988,wereundertakenbyJ.delaGeni his motherLeto,andsisterArtemis.Furtherexcavationsofthesanctuary,begin- cella (innersanctuary)wasenlarged toaccommodatethreecolossalstatues temple underwentanumberofsubstantialchanges.IntheRomanimperialperiod,its variety ofplacesinAnatoliaandregionsbeyond.Throughoutitslonghistory,the oracular centres,reachingitspeakinC2andC3CE.Itsclientscamefromawide ation inthesanctuary.ByC3ClaruswasbecomingoneofAnatolia valuable informationontheproceduresandritualsassociatedwithoracularconsult- temple excavations, awell-preservedtwo-roomedoracularcomplexwasdiscoveredbeneaththe of thesanctuary,wasexcavatedbyL.Robertfrom1950to1960.Incoursethese the monumentalentrancetosanctuary.TheDorictempleofApollo,focalpoint Cnidus Clazomenae Recent excavationsatClazomenaeunderthedirection of G.Bak Clazomenae wasliberatedfromPersiancontrolwhentheforcesweredriven PECS fl

458,s.v. Klazomenai),Moustaka ( oor, alongwithanumberofinscriptions.Thelatterhaveprovidedmuch map 5

( – ) map 5 City locatedinthesouthwestern cornerofAnatolia,atthetip 9), L.Robert( – ı Panionium r inY 546), afterhavingsuccessfullyresistedanattackbyCroesus ¸ adiye peninsula.Thesitewas occupiedfromtheBronzeAge ‘ ) King Greek cityonthecentralAegeancoastofAnatolia,in – ı ld 494. HalfacenturyearlierthecityhadfallentoLydian PECS ı r ’ ı s Peace m andGates,2007:322). ). InC5itwasmovedtoanewlocationonanislandin 226),Robertand(1989;1992),delaGeni et al. (2004). ’ (seeglossary;Xenophon, CNIDUS ‘ 169 cities inAsia Leucae è fi re. nds broughttolightbytheseexcav- ), foundedin383bythePersian ’ cededbytheGreekstoPersia – 9) date(builtdirectlyabove ‘ Hellenica mansion ı ’ r, EgeUniversity, è s mostimportant re (1996). 5.1.31).Some ’ ofthesecond – ofApollo, ’ father Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 E. Akurgal (1973:252 built thegreatlighthouseof Alexandria. was establishedinthecity.Andc.279,Sostratus,anative ofCnidus,designedand the goddesssculptedbyPraxiteles(C4).ByendofC4 animportantmedicalschool centre ofgreatculturalactivity.ItstempleAphrodite housedthefamousstatueof cophagi androck-cutchambertombs,liestothe eastofthecity.Cniduswasa (council house),astadium,andseveraltemples.Alarge necropolis,containingsar- They includedomesticdwellings,agridlikestreetlayout, atheatre,bouleuterion The city used asanavalstationwhichcouldaccommodatetwenty triremes(Greekwarships). located. Two harbourswereformed,oneoneachsideofthecauseway, thelarger being land settlementlinkedbycausewaytotheislandwhere themainresidentialareawas Great in334. Peace to Sparta.In386itwashandedoverPersiaunderthetermsofso-called the campaign againstthePersiansatEurymedonr. inPamphyliac.468.In412, Athenian commanderCimonusedthecityasabaseforhis in 479,CnidusbecameamemberoftheAthenianConfederacy(seeglossary).The (Herodotus 1.174).IntheyearsfollowingGreekvictoryoverPersianforces Harpagus, duringhiscampaignalongAnatolia acknowledged thenewoverlordofregionbysurrenderingtoPersiangeneral in midC6. this wealthtothetreasurywhichtheybuiltanddedicatedgodApolloatDelphi provided thebasisforcity trading settlementestablishedatNaucratisintheNileDelta.Trade andcommerce Mediterranean andparticipatedinGreektradingactiviesEgypt,throughthe the hexapoliswaslocated.InC7andC6Cnidusestablishedcoloniesinwestern Doric templededicatedtoApollomayindicatethesitewherecommonsanctuaryof Every fouryears,thefederationcelebratedDorianGamesatCnidus.Theremainsofa city ofHalicarnassus(mod.Bodrum)ontheAnatolianmainland(Herodotus1.144). were Lindus,Camirus,andIalysusontheislandofRhodes,Cos, reasons connectedwithitsmaritimeenterprises. city wasrelocatedonthepeninsula Greeks inanother. TheoriginalGreeksettlementwaslocatednearmod.Dat Peloponnese (southernmainlandGreece) colonists. Greeklegendarytraditionsattributeitssettlementtoimmigrantsfromthe the collapseofBronzeAgecivilizationsinC12,CniduswasoccupiedbyGreek recruiting groundsforwomenemployedinthepalace Greece, weknowthatCniduswasoneoftheeasternAegean Linear Btablets(seeglossary)foundattheMycenaeanpalacePylosinwestern a numberoftombswhichcontainedmarble Age remainsincludesherdsofMycenaeantype,and,pre-datingtheperiod, through theGreek,Hellenistic,Roman,andByzantineperiodsuntilC7CE.Bronze The Around thistime,theLydian empirefell tothePersiankingCyrusII.Cnidus M1 CniduswasoneofthesixcitiesconstitutingDorianhexapolis;other fi nal decadeofthePeloponnesianWar (seeglossary),Cnidusshifteditsallegiance ’ (seeglossary).ItremainedsubjecttoPersiauntilliberatedbyAlexanderthe ‘ double city ’ s materialremainsdatepredominantlytotheHellenistic andRomanperiods. – 3), Love( ’ ofCnidus,towhichStraborefers(14.2.15),consisted ofamain- PECS 459),Jenkins(1999 ’ s considerablewealth.TheCnidiansallocatedsomeof ’ s tipc.360,nodoubtforcommercialandstrategic CNIDUS 170 – – ). DorianGreeksinonetradition,Argive fi gurines ofEarlyCycladictype.From ’ s westernandsoutherncoastsc.540 ’ s textileworkforce.Following fl eet priortohisdecisive – western Anatolian ç a. Butthe ‘ King fi ve ’ s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 Lysimachus, one ofhissuccessors,whotransplanteditspopulation tohisnewly the Greatin330.Following Alexander From thenonitremainedsubjecttoPersiauntilthePersian empirefelltoAlexander 1.2.4), butoncemoresubmittedtoPersianoverlordship afterthefallofAthensin404. (Thucydides 3.34).In409,itagainallieditselfwith Athens(Xenophon, (see glossary),butfactionalstrifewithinthecityled toitsrejoiningPersiain430 had earlierenjoyed.InC5itbecameforatimemember oftheAthenianConfederacy Persian overlordship.Bythistime,ithadlostmuchof the importanceandaf (680 incorporated intotheLydian empireafteritscapturebytheLydian kingGyges who provedhighlyeffectiveasalliesinbringingwars to anend.InC7,thecitywas Strabo (14.1.28)observesthatitwasoncerenownedfor itsnavalandcavalryforces, its horsesandtheskillofhorsemen,wasalsonoted forthefertilityofitssoil. of C9,onethechiefcitiesIonianLeague(see Age. Ifso,ithadbeenreoccupiedbyearlyM1,andwastobecome,perhapstheend found onthesite,butthesehavesincebeenlost. working outsidethemainstreamoftholostradition.Mycenaeansherdswerealso tholos tomb(seeglossary),discoveredin1922,hasbeenattributedtolocalbuilders its populationmayhavecontainedsomeMycenaeanelements.Asmall is noevidencethatColophonwaseveraMycenaeansettlement,asoncebelieved,though western Peloponnese(Strabo14.1.3).ThiswouldsuggestaMycenaeanorigin.Butthere though laterGreektraditionascribeditsfoundationtosettlersfromPylosinthe harbour (Thucydides3.34).ColophonmayhavebeenaMinoansettlementinorigin, called IoniainM1,40kmsouthofIzmir. IntheClassicalperiod,Notiumservedasits the regiontoRomanempire. appears tohavelostmuchofitsformerprosperityatthistime.In64CENeroannexed the Hellenisticperiod,ColchisbecameanoutlyingterritoryofSeleucidempire.It they wererequiredtopayatributeof100boysandgirlstheiroverlord.During northernmost subjectsofthePersianempire.Herodotusreportsthateveryfourthyear C5, accordingtoHerodotus(3.97),theColchiansandneighbouringtribeswere latter occasion,heburntthekingdom against Colchis,withafurthercampaignintheregionsixorsevenyearslater. Onthe Urartian tradewiththeBlackSearegion.InmidC8,Sarduriconductedacampaign Argishti I,andSarduriIIinlateC9C8 for campaignsbeyondUrartu soil. Trade accesstothisrichmetalliferousregion abundant irondeposits,andalreadyinC12themetalwasbeingextractedfromits golden ram,whose Colchis, ruledbyAe that theColchianswereEgyptianinorigin.InClassicaltraditionkingdomof Sea, occupiedbyanumberofpopulationgroups,thoughHerodotus(2.104)claims CAH Colophon Colchis We cannotbesurewhetherthecitywasabandonedatendofLateBronze In C6theColchiancoastwascolonizedbyGreeksettlers,probablyfromMiletus. III.1:1034(indexrefs,s.v. Kulkhai),Braund( – 652). AfterthefallofLydia tothePersiansin546,Colophonbecamesubject ( Kulhai

( map 5 inUrartiantexts) fl ) M2 ë eece inspiredthequestofJasonandArgonauts. Colchishad tes, fatherofMedea,wasthelandtowhichPhrixus – 1 citylocatednearAnatolia ’ s northwesternfrontierbytheUrartiankingsMinua, COLOPHON ( ’ OCD s royalcityIldamusha. map 4 171 ’ 361),vonBredow( s death,Colophoncameinto con ) Region ontheeastcoastofBlack – thoughthereisnoactualevidencefor may Panionium BNP havebeenoneofthereasons ’ s Aegeancoast,intheregion 3:527 – 8). ). Itwasfamousfor fl fl ed onthe fl Hellenica ict with uence it Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 the C1CERomanwritersPomponius MelaandPlinytheElder. Tas glossary). Itscontinuingexistence inRomantimesisindicatedbyreferencestoit in ( probably tobeidenti remains forbuildingmaterials. in 1842havenowalmosttotallydisappeared,dueto constantquarryingofthese relatively substantialremainsofthecitywhichT. A.B.Spratt sawwhenhevisitedit within theperiodofinscriptionswrittenin Lycian language(C5 originating fromCorydalla,indicatesanindigenousLycian presenceatthesite,least discovered onablockofstonereusedforbuildinghouse atKumlucabutapparently C7 whenPhaseliswasallegedlysettled.AbilingualinscriptioninLycian andGreek, Corydalla wasprobablyfoundedbysettlersfromtheislandofRhodes,perhapsinearly 1 kmwestofmod.Kumluca.LikethenearbycitiesRhodiapolis,Gagae,andPhaselis, periods. But thefewmeagrematerialremainsofsitealldatetoRomanandByzantine that itsbeginningsdatebackbeforetheperiodofM1GreeksettlementinAnatolia. a Christiancommunity,recipientofthefamousletterfromPaul. the Romanperiod,itgainedanimportantplaceinChristiantraditionashomeof Antiochus II(andnamedafterhiswifeLaodice).Thoughitsdeclinecontinuedduring But itwaseclipsedinC1byLaodicea,acityfoundedmidC3theSeleucidking industry. AccordingtoPlinytheElder, itwasonceoneofPhrygia wealth duepartlytoits the Younger (see 10,000-strong GreekmercenaryforcetoPersia course, butnotatColossae.)InearlyC4,thetimeofill-fatedexpedition tributary oftheMaeander. (TheLycus doesinfactrununderground formuchofits the Lycus r. disappearsunderground for Persian kingXerxes 20 kmeastofmod.Denizli.Herodotus(7.30)referstoit,duringhisaccountthe Bean ( Bean (1971:257 E. Akurgal (1973:133 fi The remainsarespreadoveraroughlytriangularsite,coveringc.1sq.kmandcon- C4. Theseincludeanumberofhouses,stoa,andtemplethegoddessDemeter. Harvard UniversityandtheAmericanSchoolofClassicalStudiesinAthens,dateto incorporated intotheSeleucidandAttalidempires. resettled afterhisdeath,butneverregaineditsformerstatus.Itwassubsequently founded cityofEphesus.Lysimachus leftColophonlargely derelict.Itwasrebuiltand Crya Corydalla Colossae BAGRW ned withinadefensivewallwhichwasforti The city Most ofColophon PECS M1 BCE 464). 65A4).InC5thecitywasamemberofAthenian Confederacy(see

’ s name,withitsdouble-sin

( – ( map 5 9). map 15 – Cunaxa 4), Bridges(1974),MacDonald( – M1 CEtownineitherCariaorLycia insouthwesternAnatolia, ) ’ M1 BCE progressthroughtheregionin481,asalarge Phrygiancitywhere ) fi ’ M1 BCE s remains,excavatedbyteamsfromtheFoggArtMuseumof ed withmod.Tas ), Colossaewasapparentlyapopulousandprosperouscity,its fl ourishing tradeinhighqualitywoolanditscloth-dyeing – – M1 CEcityintheLycus valley,westernAnatolia, M1 CEcityineasternLycia, southwestern Anatolia, COLOSSAE ¸ yaka onthewesternsideofGulfFethiye fi PECS x, isofAnatolianorigin,whichmayindicate 172 fi ve stades(c.900m)beforebecominga fi 233),Ziegler( ed bytwelvesemicirculartowers. fi ght forthePersianpretenderCyrus BNP 3:578 – ’ 9). s mostfamouscities. ¸ yaka isasmallsite, – 4). The Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 during theearlyArabinvasions. eighteen ormoreyears.InC7CEitwasagainabandoned, thistimepermanently, 1934 and1953.Theearthquakeof365CEledtothe abandonmentofthesitefor was excavatedbyG.McFaddenfortheUniversityofPennsylvania Museumbetween from C7(orearlier)toC4CEofasanctuarydedicated ApolloHylates.Thesanctuary 365 CE.Culturalcontinuitythroughoutthisperiodis re period, andalsounderRomandomination,untilanearthquake destroyedmuchofitin in Alexander Curium (16.42, 46)reportsarebellionbythesekingdomsagainst thePersiankingArtaxerxesIII. victory. InmidC4CuriumwasoneofnineattestedkingdomsCyprus.Diodorus outside Salamis,defectedtoPersiaandmadeasigni Curium Cypriot principalitiestoentertheIonianrebellionwhichbrokeoutagainstPersiain499, in C7subjecttoAssyriansovereignty.WhenOnesilus,kingofSalamis,stirredother 673/672 (*Borger, 1956:60 the cityasKurioccursinprismtextofAssyriankingEsarhaddon,datedto cation withitofthenamereadas inscription ofthepharaohRamessesIII(1184 and enamelroyalsceptre,datingtoC11. Greek origin.Themostnotablesmall ground continuedtobeusedintotheCypro-Classicalperiod,apparentlybysettlersof Age andprovidethe 14.6.3). CemeteriesatlocalitiesBamboulaandKalorizikidatebacktotheLateBronze was foundedbyimmigrantsfromArgos insouthernGreece(Herodotus5.113,Strabo ous partsandlevelsofthesitesince1934.AccordingtoClassicaltradition,Curium Bronze AgethroughtheByzantineperiod.Excavationshavebeencarriedoutonvari- Cyprus, 16kmwestofmod.Limassol.ItshistoryoccupationextendsfromtheLate forces andleadthembacktoGreece. them murdered,XenophonwasoneofthoseelectedtocommandthesurvivingGreek But afterthesatrapTissaphernes inveigledtheGreekgeneralsintoameetingandhad Cyrus waskilled.Evenso,theGreeksroutedArtaxerxes Greek forceeasilydefeatedArtaxerxes force ofover10,000Greekmercenaries,amongwhomwasXenophon.Thoughthe brother CyrustheYounger, apretendertothethrone.Cyrus of abattlein401betweenthePersiankingArtaxerxesII(404 Nicolaou ( Xenophon, Bean ( Carian inscriptionislocatedontheshore. with aforti Curium Cunaxa Curium seemstohavehadarelatively It ispossiblethatthe PECS PECS ’ ’ s lastknownking,Pasicrates,joinedAlexandertheGreat againstthePersians s kingStasanor Anabasis 886). ( Kourion 467 M1 MesopotamiantownontheEuphratesr. nearBaghdad.Itwasthescene fi ’ s siegeoftheLevantinecityTyre in332(Arrian, ed acropolisaccessedbyarock-cutstairway.AnIonictemplewith 1.8,Plutarch, – 8), Soren( ) ( map 14 OEANE fi fi rst materialevidenceofoccupation.TheKalorizikiburial Artaxerxes rst joinedtherebels,butsubsequently,inbattlefought fi rst writtenattestationofthecityappearsinanEgyptian § 3:304 27, Heidel,1956),whichwouldindicatethatCuriumwas ) City andM1kingdomonthesouthwestcoastof 7 Kir – – 13. 6), Iacovou(2002). inthisinscription.Afurtherpossiblereferenceto ’ CURIUM left fi nd fromthecemeteryisafalcon-headedgold 173 fl ank troops,therebellionwascrushedand fl – ourishing existenceintheHellenistic 1153), butthisdependsontheidenti fi cant contributiontothePersians ’ troopsinasecondencounter. fl ected inthecontinuoususe ’ armywasswelledbya – Anabasis 359) andhisyounger 2.22). fi - ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 situated 5kmfromthecoast. ItwasthemostimportantLycian settlement inthe in Cutha(* Seleucid chroniclementionsatempleadministratorof Emeslam, thetempleofNergal was occupieddowntoatleastthelatePersian(Achaemenid) period(C4),andinfacta Nebuchadnezzar II(604 enjoyed afreshleaseoflifeascult-centreunderNabopolassar Dilbat andBorsippa,cameunderthecontrolofBabylonian kingNabopolassar. It tants ofCutha and Ashurbanipalhadre-establishedhiscontroloverBabylonia. Thesurvivinginhabi- well asenemy-in sieges tookanincreasingtolluponthecitiesaffected,throughdiseaseandstarvationas other citiesseizedbytherebel(includingBorsippa,Sippar, andBabylonitself).These con shum-ukin. Yet withinamonthofCutha into war, andCuthaotherBabyloniancitieswerelostbyAshurbanipaltoShamash- throne ashissubject-ruler. Butgrowingtensionsbetweenthebrothershaderupted Sixteen yearsearlier, AshurbanipalhadinstalledShamash-shum-ukinonBabylon ukin inhisrebellionagainstbrother, theAssyriankingAshurbanipal(* nacherib ation workwascarriedoutonEmeslam,thetempleofcitygodNergal, bySen- beginning ofanapparentlystableperiodinCutha paved thewayforreassertionofAssyrianauthorityoverBabylonia,andmarked exterminating therebelfactionsinCuthaandothermajorcitiesofregion.This forced to iddina Sennacherib respondedbyleadinghistroopstothecityconfrontMarduk-apla- against thenewAssyriankingSennacherib(* tion force,consistingofBabylonians,Chaldaeans,Aramaeans,Elamites,andArabs, iddina II(biblicalMerodach-baladan)useditasamilitarybaseforassemblingcoali- in themilitaryhistoryofperiod.Around703,BabyloniankingMarduk-apla- Adad V, Adad-nirariIII,andTiglath-pileser III).Thecityalsoplayedasigni visited Cuthaandofferedupsacri in M1AssyrianandBabyloniantexts.InC9earlyC8,anumberofkings More informationaboutthecityisavailableforitsIronAgephase,fromreferencestoit of theUradministration. period oftheUrIIIempire(C21)itwasruledbyaseriesgovernors( C23, inaninscriptionoftheAkkadiankingNaram-Sin(2254 excavation ofthesitewasconductedbyH.Rassamin1881 the siteofTall Ibrahim,whichislocated30kmnortheastofBabylon.Abrief,partial of thenetherworld,innorthernBabylonia.Itisalmostcertainlytobeidenti Edzard andGallery( Cyaneae Cutha In thelate620sCutha,alongwithothernorth-central Babyloniancitiesincluding In 651CuthawasamongthecitiescapturedbyAssyrianprinceShamash-shum- There areonlyscantreferencestoCuthainMiddleandLateBronzeAgetexts(M2). fl ict begantoturninfavourofAshurbanipal.HistroopslaidsiegeCuthaand ’ s army.Intheensuingcon

( ’ map 11 s grandsonandsecondsuccessorAshurbanipal(668

fl ABC ( ee forhislife.Sennacheribfollowedupvictorybysystematically map 15 ’ s (andSippar RlA 117). ) fl Bronze andIronAgecitycult-centre,especiallyofthedeities 6:384 icted casualties.Within twoyearstherebellionhadbeencrushed, ) M1 BCE – 7). – 562). ArchivaltabletswritteninCuthashowthatthe city ’ s) urbanpopulationweredeportedtotheAssyriancapital. – fi M1 CEhilltowninLycia, southwesternAnatolia, ces tothegodsthere(e.g.ShalmaneserIII,Shamshi- fl ict, thecoalitionwascrushed,anditsleader CUTHA 174 ’ s falltoShamash-shum-ukin,thetideof CS ’ s history.Duringthisperiod,restor- II:301)(seeunder – 2. Cuthais – 630/627). – ’ s sonandsuccessor 2218). Duringthe fi ensis rst attestedin Babylonia ABC ) onbehalf fi fi cant role ed with 129). ’ ). s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 of ingots,thecargoes ofLateBronzeAgemerchant vesselswhichtookonand middle ofM3(EarlyCypriot period),andwasaprincipalcomponent,intheform mountains. Theorebegantobeexploitedandexported fromtheislandaround substantial copperoredeposits,locatedprincipallyin thefoothillsofTroodos Late BronzeAgeMycenaeanworld,foundatCypriotsites. Theislandwasnotedforits found innumerousoverseassites,andbythemanyimported products,e.g.fromthe Middle BronzeAgeonwards,areattestedbythelarge depositsofCypriotimports cultural andcommercialtieswiththecivilizationsofthese worlds,fromtheendof network whichlinkedEgyptandtheAegeanwestern Asianworlds.Itsclose movement andthearrivalofsettlersatbeginning thePhiliaperiod. to havebeenfollowedbyintensiveinteraction,culminating insigni tent contactsbetweenCyprusandAnatoliaduringthe Late Chalcolithicperiodappear Anatolia and/orCiliciaarethesourceofmost,ifnotall,theseinnovations.Intermit- range ofdomestictechnologiesandpractices.Mostscholarsacceptthatsouthwestern keys, theplough,rectilineararchitecture,extra-muralburial,newceramicwares,anda atic exploitationoftheisland major innovationsintechnology,economy,andsociety.Theseincludethe Kyrenia mountainrangewhichdominatestheisland central-western region,thefertileMesaoriaplainlyingtoitsnortheast,and Its mostprominenttopographicalfeaturesincludetheTroodos mountainmassifinthe located 69kmsouthofTurkey king CyrusII,seeHerodotus1.157 Didyma (Branchidae)onhowtheyshouldrespondtoanultimatumfromthePersian late C4onwardswassuccessivelysubjecttoSeleucid,Attalid,andRomanrule. mid C6,becameamemberoftheAthenianConfederacy(seeglossary)inC5,andfrom came fromCyme.Thecitywassubjecttoasuccessionofoverlords.ItfellPersiain before migratingtoBoeotiainmainlandGreece.Ephorus,theC4Greekhistorian,also League. ThefatheroftheGreekpoetHesiod(lateC8 It wasthemostimportantofAeoliancities,andperhapschiefcityan Wormell/Mitchell ( Bean (1978:108 sacred pool,toseethere to Pausanias(7.21.13),themethodofdivinationwasforenquirergazeinto dates toC3.CyaneaewasthesiteofoneApollo dating themtotheperiodC5 wooden houses.SeveralofthetombsbearinscriptionsinLycian language,thus tombs, freestandingorcutintothecliff-face,builtasstonereplicasofLycians cophagi, areofRomandate.However, therearealsoanumberoftraditionalLycian remains withinit,includingatheatre,baths,library,cisterns,andnumeroussar- region lyingbetweenthecitiesMyraandAntiphellus.Acircuitwallmostof Cyprus Cyme Cyprus occupiedanexcellentstrategicpositionwithinthe anc.internationaltrading The beginningoftheEarlyBronzeAge(knownasPhiliaphase)ismarkedby For theepisodeinwhichemissariesfromCymesoughtadviceoracleat

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map 5 ( map 14 – 11). OCD ) Greek cityontheAegeancoastofAnatolia,inregionAeolis. 418). ) Island intheeasternMediterraneanSea,9,251sq.kmarea, ‘ everything hewantstobehold – ’ 4. Awell-preservedtemple-tombofIonictypeprobably s copperresourcesandtheintroductionofcattle,don- ’ s southerncoastand122kmwestoftheSyria. – 60. CYPRUS 175 ’ ’ s Lycian oracles.Here,according s northernlittoral. – early C7)wasacitizenofCyme ’ . fi cant population fi rst system- ’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 evidence foranyMycenaean settlementontheisland,orevenfordirectcontacts Mycenaean Greekssettledon CyprusduringtheLateBronzeAge.Thereisnoclear Many scholarsnowdisputethelongstandingassumption thatsubstantialnumbersof time theCypriotshadtheirownwritingsystem, so-called Cypro-Minoanscript. Bronze Ageinternationallanguageofdiplomacy.However, weknowthatatthis silver. TheAlasiyan Egypt withcopper, undertheguiseof indicate aspecialrelationshipbetweenthetworulers (see king ofAlasiyaandthepharaohEgyptduring mid C14Amarnaageseemsto linking Egypt,Syria history, nodoubtprimarilybecauseofitsstrategiclocation nearthemainsearoutes island mentioned inLateBronzeAgeEgyptianandHittitetexts. Thelattermakeclearthe attested fi technology ontheisland,beginninginM3.Almostallscholarsnowacceptidenti- of athousandormoreyearshasbeencloselyconnectedwiththedevelopmentmetal sion fromisolatedruralcommunitiestohierarchiesofurbansettlementsoveraperiod cemeteries datingbacktotheEarlyandMiddleCypriotperiods.Thegradualprogres- excavated onCyprus(see economy, bothforlocalbuildingactivitiesandexport. Levantine, andAegeanlittorals.Timber alsoplayedanimportantroleintheisland discharged theirmerchandise atmanytradingemporiaalongtheEgyptian,Anatolian, 14 Map cation ofCyprus(oratleastpartCyprus)withtheBronzeAgelandcalledAlasiya, In recentyears,anumberofEarlyandMiddleBronzeAgesettlementshavebeen ’ s vulnerabilitytoattacksandsubjugationbyexternal enemiesthroughoutits Cyprus. fi rst inaMiddleBronzeAgetextfromMariontheEuphrates,andfrequently – – Egyptian letters(* Palestine, andAnatolia.Correspondencepassingbetween the Alambra, Marki,Pyrgos, Sotira CYPRUS ‘ gifts EA 176 33 ’ fromtheAlasiyanking,inexchangefor – 9) arewritteninAkkadian,theLate ). Therearealsonumerous Alasiya ). Alasiyasupplied ’ s Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 (but seeglossaryunder empire, Cypruswasincorporated intowhatHerodotus(3.91)calledthe When thePersiankingDariusI(522 degree ofautonomy,beingallowed(amongotherthings) tominttheirowncoinage. Under Persianoverlordshipthelocalkingsseemto have enjoyedarelativelyhigh C6 untilthePersiankingCyrusIIestablishedsovereignty overtheislandc.545. until theendofC8. Tyre, whileavassalstateofAssyria,enjoyedhegemonic positioninCyprusatleast have beencloselyassociated.Na a candidateforQartihadasht.)Phoenicianculturalin Qartihadasht (CypriotCarthage)inC8inscriptions.(Citium hasalsobeenproposedas been suggestedthatAmathusistobeidenti re have evidenceofasigni Greek elements.InC5andC4CitiumwasruledbyalineofPhoeniciankings.We also city ofCitium.Thenceforththe presence ontheislandfromlateC9onwards,whenPhoeniciansettlersarrivedin trace inthearchaeologicalrecord.Thereis,however, clearevidenceofaPhoenician with somescepticismbyscholars,particularlysincetheallegedconquesthasleftno conquered thesevenkingsofisland(707)(* apparently nearCitiuminlateC19CE,theAssyriankingSargon IIclaimstohave Iron AgeCyprusanditskingdoms.Inaninscriptionengravedonastelediscovered not allofthesekingdomsmayhaveoriginatedintheearlypost-BronzeAgeperiod. Idalium, Marion,Paphos,Salamis(perhapstheearliest),Soli,andTamassus. Mostif ten attestedkingdomsofIronAgeCyprusare:Amathus,Chytroi,Citium,Curium, indication oftheethnicdiversityCyprus The factthatsomeofitsrulershadGreeknamesandSemiticisseenasan Assyrian records,CyprusisreferredtoasYadnana, theland 1956), reportsthatCyprusatthistimewasdominatedbytenseparatekingdoms.In dated to673/672,theso-calledEsarhaddonprism(*Borger, 1956:60 were alsotakingplace.AninscriptionfromthereignofAssyriankingEsarhaddon, Aegean andLevantineworlds,intheperiodfrom1100to800.Butsigni continuity andcontact,intheaftermathoftheseupheavals,betweenCyprus economy ofothercontemporarycultures.Inanycase,therewasasigni view, becauseBronzeAgeCyprushadneverdevelopedthehighlycentralizedpalace Cyprus seemstohavesufferedlessdestructionthanotherareas,perhaps,inJ.D.Muhly western Asianworldinthe by thepharaohRamessesIIIofdevastationsin records. Infact,ifCyprusisAlasiya,theislandspeci upheavals arecommonlyassociatedwiththeso-calledSeaPeoplesattestedinEgyptian Bronze AgecivilizationsinthewesternAsianandAegeanworldstoanend.These in thisperiod,withthird-partymerchantmenactingascommercialintermediaries. island mayhavebeenduetothelatter between CyprusandtheMycenaeanworld.Thepresenceofgoodson fl After aperiodofapparentindependenceinC7,Cyprus wasdominatedbyEgyptin Unfortunately, wehaveonlyscatteredscrapsofinformationaboutthehistory Cyprus wasamongthevictimsofupheavalswhichbroughtmanyLate ected instrongPhoenician satrapy fi cant PhoenicianpresenceinthecityofAmathusC8, fi rst halfofC12(* fl ), alongwithPhoeniciaand Syria uence onthecity aman (1998)hasargued thatthePhoeniciancityof ’ s culturere ’ s inclusionontheinternationalsea-tradingroute CYPRUS – 177 486) reorganized theadministrationofhis ’ populationduringitsIronAgephase.The fi ed withthecapitalofkingdomcalled ARE IV fl CS ected ablendofbothPhoenicianand ’ s materialcultureandreligion.Ithas II:297).Butthisclaimisviewed fl : fl fi uence andpoliticalcontrolmay §§ icted bythesepeoplesonthe cally mentionedintheaccount 65 – 6, * ‘ in themidstofsea ANET – Palestine. Atthe fi 262).Evenso, cant degreeof fi fi § cant changes fth province 27, Heidel, ’ ’ s . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 Khazakstan Persian kingCyrusII,onthe Jaxartesr. (mod. SyrDarya)inthecountryofSogdiana, Karageorghis (1982;1985),Reyes(1994),Muhly( all itsmonarchies,exceptfortheoneinstalledatSoli. largely undisturbeduntilPtolemyISoterconqueredtheislandin294andabolished from midM1onwards.Andtheisland military dominance,Cyprusdemonstratedanincreasingly Greekculturalorientation against thePersiankingArtaxerxesIII(359 Diodorus (16.42,46)alsoreportsanisland-wideandultimately unsuccessfulrebellion became abattlegroundseveraltimesinthisperiodbetween GreekandPersianforces. much ofC5andC4,uptoitsconquestbyAlexander theGreatin330,island pro-Greek andpro-Persiancamps.)ThoughCyprusremainedunderPersianrulefor remained loyaltothePersians.(Muhlysuggeststhatislandwasdividedbetween Ionian revoltin499undertheleadershipofOnesilus,kingSalamis.Amathusalone attempt byallbutoneofitskingdomstothrowoffthePersianyokejoining beginning ofC5,Darius Cyropolis iue33 Figure – ( Uzbekistan region.Itwasone ofaseriesdefencesettlementsestablished Cyreschata Cypriot oinochoe , fi rmly reassertedhiscontrolovertheislandafterabortive Leninabad (C7). CYROPOLIS OEANE ) ( ’ map 16 s systemofindividualmonarchiesremained 178 2:89 – 338). Yet inspiteofPersianpoliticaland – 96), Steel(2004). ) City foundedinmidC6bythe Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 13:55 02 Oct 2021; For: 9780203875506, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203875506-3 Roman emperorHadrian. dom ofPergamum (c.190),but in133wasincorporatedintotheRomanempire. by AlexandertheGreatin334.InHellenisticperiod,itbecamepartofking- ‘ against theSpartansoffcoastatCyzicus.Underarrangementsofso-called between AthensandSparta.In411theAtheniansunderAlcibiadeswonamajorbattle the PeloponnesianWar (433 repulse ofPersiain479,itbecameamembertheAthenianConfederacy.During (499 of theeasternGreekworldbetweenC6andC4. major reasonforitswealth.Itssplendidgoldcoinagewasthemostimportantcurrency between theBlackSearegionsandAegeanwaswellchosen,nodoubta city seems tooearlyforaMilesiansettlementanywhere.Theearliestfeasibledatethe founded land bytwoparalleldykes.AstatementEusebius(2.81.87)thatCyzicuswas peninsula onwhichitlay;thewasoriginallyanislandjoinedtomain- 5.142). AccordingtoPliny,thecitywasformerlycalledArctonessus,nameof founded onthePropontisbysettlersfromMiletus(Strabo14.1.6,PlinyElder of Marmara),northwesternAnatolia.InGreektradition,itwastheearliestcolony E. Akurgal ( Benveniste (1943 11.11.4). cities intheregiondestroyedbyAlexanderGreat(Arrian, by nomadictribes,includingtheSaka(q.v.). Two centurieslater, itwasamongthe by Cyrusfortheprotectionofhisempire Cyzicus King Little ofthecitysurvivestodaybeyondremainsatempleearlyC2CE At thebeginningofC5,CyzicusparticipatedinabortiveIonianrebellion ’ s foundationisbelievedtobec.700.Cyzicus – ’ 494) againstthePersiankingDariusI.Someyearslater, afterthe s Peace PECS fi ( rst in756(andthenagain679),isconsideredunlikely,sinceaC8date Belkis, Balk – 473 ’ 5). in386(seeglossary),thecityfelltoPersianoverlordshipuntilliberated – 4), Drew-Bear( ı z ) ( map 5 BNP – 404) (seeglossary),dominationofCyzicus 4:26 ) City onthesouthwestcoastofPropontis(Sea – 7). CYZICUS 179 ’ s northeasternfrontieragainstincursions ’ locationonthebusytraderoute Anabasis 4.3.1,Strabo fi nal Greek fl uctuated