Natural Lands Trust

land for life A Handbook on Caring for Natural Lands

Natural Lands Trust

land for life David B. Steckel Holly M. Harper

Editor and Contributor Roger Latham, Ph.D.

Editors Susan Charkes, Ann F. Rhoads, Ph.D.

Contributors Dan Barringer, Tim Burris, Drew Gilchrist, Darin Groff, David Harper, Andy Pitz, Jim Thorne, Nathan Walker cover photo: Ed Cunicelli Photographer Inc.

October 2008, second edition July 2014

A Handbook on Caring for Natural Lands LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Natural Lands Trust www.natlands.org

© October 2008, July 2014 by Natural Lands Trust. Second Edition. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission from Natural Lands Trust. If you would like to reprint or reuse this information, please contact us.

Natural Lands Trust Hildacy Farm Preserve 1031 Palmers Mill Road Media, PA 19063 tel: 610-353-5587 ~ fax: 610-353-0517 [email protected] ~ natlands.org

Land for Life – A Handbook on Caring for Natural Lands was made possible through generous support from the following:

Claneil Foundation The McLean Contributionship Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection Douglas C. Walker West Vincent Township William Penn Foundation LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

About the Authors

David B. Steckel is a professional consulting forester in Pennsylvania and has served for more than 20 years on the State Steering Committee for the Forestry Stewardship Program. A graduate of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, he is the former director of land stewardship for Natural Lands Trust and continues to serve a leading role in the organization’s natural resource stewardship consulting services.

Holly M. Harper is a registered landscape architect with 30 years of experience as a planner and conservation project manager at Natural Lands Trust. She has prepared natural resource stewardship plans for dozens of private, institutional, and municipal properties. Holly also serves as art director for Natural Lands Trust and has been acknowledged in Landscape Architecture Magazine as a “natural communicator—giving preservation of open space a new look with the combination of landscape architecture and graphic design.”

Natural Lands Trust is the region’s foremost land conservation organization and is dedicated to protecting the forests, fields, streams, and wetlands that are essential to the sustainability of life in eastern Pennsylvania and southern New Jersey. Since its founding in 1953, Natural Lands Trust has preserved more than 100,000 acres, including 42 nature preserves totaling more than 22,000 acres. Today, millions of residents enjoy the healthy habitats, clean air and water, bountiful recreational opportunities, and scenic beauty provided by the lands the organization has preserved. Natural Lands Trust Our professional land stewards are widely recognized for the depth of their knowledge and hands- on experience. In addition to caring for Natural Lands Trust’s expansive network of nature preserves, each steward is an expert in one or more natural resource management areas, including invasive plants, wildlife management, forestry, meadow restoration, and prescribed fire. Visit natlands.org for more information and helpful guides to caring for nature in your backyard. LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Acknowledgements

Land for Life – A Handbook on Caring for Natural Lands took its first steps in 1993 as the Design and Management Handbook for Preservation Areas in Lower Merion Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. The township had recently passed an ordinance requiring creation of open space, or Preservation Areas, on every new development over five acres in size. To ensure perpetual stewardship of these areas, the ordinance required the preparation and submission of “Maintenance and Operations Plans.” Natural Lands Trust was engaged to prepare a handbook for developers and landowners on the design of Preservation Areas, the setting of management goals and objectives for different types of resources, and detailed and specific recommendations for restoration and maintenance of natural resources. Over the last 25 years, Natural Lands Trust has prepared stewardship plans for a wide range of clients—Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, Winterthur Museum and Garden, Swarthmore College, Lehigh Gap Wildlife Refuge, and numerous private landowners—helping them to better understand their natural lands and develop goals and a management program to achieve those goals. The many recurring challenges and opportunities associated with these properties highlighted the need for a more detailed reference to guide the stewardship of natural lands in our region. Land for Life also draws heavily from Natural Lands Trust’s 60 years of experience stewarding natural lands, which has resulted from our Board of Trustees’ steadfast commitment to better stewardship and the support of our many donors and members. Land for Life has also been informed by the findings of the numerous local colleges and research organizations that have used our preserves. They include Academy of Natural Sciences, Albright College, American Chestnut Foundation, Antioch College, Bryn Mawr College, Columbia University, Cornell University, Delaware Valley College, Dickinson College, Environmental Defense Fund, Lafayette College, Pennsylvania Audubon, Pennsylvania State University, Philadelphia University, Rutgers University, Stroud Water Research Center, The Nature Conservancy, US Army Corps of Engineers, USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service, University of Pennsylvania, West Chester University, and Widener University. We are very grateful to the many people who have provided information, advice, and critiques of early versions of Land for Life. Special thanks are due Gary Gimbert, Ann Hutchinson, Tom Kershner, and Jack Stefferud (Natural Lands Trust); the West Vincent Township (Chester County) Environmental Advisory Council; Sylvia Gosztonyi; Aileen Parrish (London Britain Township, Chester County); Jeff Vey (Milford Township, Bucks County); Bob Enos; Cindy Dunn and Gene Odato (Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources); Jonathan Alderson; Betsy Ray Leppo (Pennsylvania Natural Heritage Program, Western Pennsylvania Conservancy); and Jeremy Freymoyer. LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Table of Contents

Introduction...... 1

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania...... 7 Overview...... 7 Major Natural Resources...... 9 Geology and Soils...... 9 Water...... 13 Plant Communities...... 14 Wildlife...... 19 Major Stewardship Issues...... 20 Deer Overabundance...... 20 Fragmentation and Edge Effects...... 23 Invasive Plant Species...... 26 Water Resources...... 29 Recreational Use...... 37 Dead Wood...... 41 Organic Waste Disposal...... 41 Aesthetics and Hazards...... 42 Preparing a Stewardship Plan...... 44 Step 1: Inventory Existing Natural Resources...... 45 Step 2: Delineate Natural Lands...... 49 Step 3: Establish Stewardship Units...... 55 Step 4: Establish the Conservation Priority...... 56 Step 5: Establish the Stewardship Goals...... 59 Step 6: Determine Appropriate Stewardship Strategies...... 59 Step 7: Prioritize and Schedule Stewardship Tasks...... 60 Step 8: Establish a Monitoring Program...... 62 Step 9: Assemble the Stewardship Plan...... 63 Stewardship Plan Summary...... 65 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Cover Type Options...... 66 Overview...... 66 Stewardship Matrix...... 67 Tree Dominated Areas...... 67 Overview...... 67 1. Healthy Native Forest...... 73 2. Degraded Forest...... 73 3. Hedgerow...... 77 Open Areas...... 80 Overview...... 80 4. Shrubland...... 81 5. Meadow/Grassland...... 85 6. Pasture/Cropland...... 90 Tree Dominated or Open Areas...... 92 Overview...... 92 7. Wetlands...... 92 8. Riparian Area...... 95 Human-Engineered Areas...... 96 Overview...... 96 9. Pond...... 97 10. Lawn/Landscaped Area...... 99 11. Stormwater Control Structures...... 101 Historic Resources...... 102 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures...... 104 Wildlife Management...... 104 Deer Management Options...... 104 Estimating Deer Impact...... 112 Estimating Deer Abundance...... 113 Natural Lands Trust’s Deer Management Program...... 116 Goose Management Options...... 118 Habitat Improvements...... 121 Forest Management...... 122 Reducing Forest Fragmentation and “Edge Effect”...... 122 Timber Harvesting...... 122 Invasive Vegetation Management...... 125 Management Strategy...... 125 Management Options...... 128 Invasive Introduced Species of Plants...... 129 Recommended Techniques and Procedures...... 135 Meadow Management...... 138 Wildlife Benefits...... 140 Establishment...... 142 Management...... 143 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Prescribed Fire...... 145 Program Organization...... 147 Equipment...... 147 Training...... 147 Photodocumentation...... 149 Stormwater Management...... 149 Streambank Stabilization...... 153 Bio-engineering Techniques...... 153 Channel Modifications...... 154 Trail Design and Maintenance...... 155 General Guidelines...... 155 Trail Construction...... 157 Trailheads and Parking Facilities...... 163 Trail Signage...... 163 Trail Marking...... 164 Hazard Tree Monitoring Program...... 165 Planting Trees...... 168 Pruning Trees...... 171 Native Plant Materials...... 172 Forest Trees...... 173 Forest Shrubs...... 175 Forest Vines...... 177 Forest Perennial Wildflowers...... 177 Forest Grasses, Sedges, and Rushes...... 180 Forest Ferns...... 181 Shrubland Trees and Shrubs...... 182 Meadow Perennial Wildflowers...... 185 Meadow Perennial Cool-Season Grasses...... 188 Meadow Perennial Warm-Season Grasses...... 189 Meadow Sedges and Rushes...... 190 Meadow Ferns...... 190 Native Trees and Shrubs for Landscaping and Wildlife...... 191 Large Trees...... 191 Small Trees/Large Shrubs...... 195 Shrubs...... 196 Sources...... 198 Glossary...... 201

Resources...... 211 Contacts...... 211 Additional Information Sources...... 217 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

To YOU the land steward...

Land for Life is for you. You are faced with a daunting task: to take care of natural lands. Natural lands don’t take care of themselves. Not here, not now. They need your help to be the natural lands they were meant to be, in the face of accelerating change, unrelenting pressure on dwindling resources, and never-ending competition for your time and your funds. You are absolutely necessary to the future of natural lands. Good land stewardship can turn degraded, barren lands into rich sources of diverse life. Good land stewardship can serve as an example to other land managers, building on itself to create a network of high quality natural lands. Good land stewardship can make a better future. To be a good land steward you need to do two things: develop a stewardship plan for your land, and then implement the plan by managing your land. Take your time. Look at this handbook not as a single resource but as many. Read this Introduction first to understand the basics of land stewardship. Then read the parts of Land for Life that you need to develop your plan. There are many other information resources available, to help with specifics of your plan. Land for Life includes references to these too. Land for Life will give you the understanding of land stewardship principles that you need to develop your plan. But it cannot tell you about your land itself. That is up to you. Know your land. Watch it, listen to it, breathe it in, taste it, walk it forwards and backwards. Know the rocks, the water, the soil, the plants, and the wildlife. Know how it got to where it is. Then, only then, can you decide where it ought to be. And one more thing. Thank you. © 2004 Jupiterimages Corporation LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Introduction

he need to protect and steward remaining natural lands has grown Allentown

A along with the wave of suburban I T N BUCKS development in southeastern Pennsylvania. Reading A COUNTY V L In response, public agencies and private MONTGOMERY Doylestown Y COUNTY foundations are helping municipalities S Norristown and land conservancies protect critical N N CHESTER Philadelphia Y natural lands within the region through fee E COUNTY DELAWARE E acquisition and conservation easements. P COUNTY S West Camden R Chester Media E Some municipalities, through Smart J

Growth practices, now require that new Wilmington W E developments contain a percentage of N Holly Harper open space. In addition, public agencies and private conservation organizations are working to inform landowners about the “best management practices” for Why stewardship? the remaining—both protected and unprotected—natural lands. In order to maximize the ecological Natural lands provide many environmental, ecological, and and community benefits of natural recreational benefits including protection lands, landowners and land managers of soil and water resources, habitat for local and migratory wildlife, and areas for hiking must establish an effective long-term and nature study. In order to maximize the ecological and community benefits land stewardship program. of natural lands, landowners and land managers must establish an effective long- term land stewardship program.

natural lands are areas that are dominated by vegetative cover types native to our region (e.g., forest, meadow, marsh, barrens) and typically require less maintenance to perpetuate than lands outside this category, such as formal landscapes and agricultural fields.

Introduction 1 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

What is land stewardship? the challenges and opportunities associated with each option; Taking care of natural lands to • Guides you through a “decision tree” to achieve conservation objectives. determine which stewardship option is appropriate for the existing or potential natural lands based on the existing Stewardship is an active process of conditions and your goals; and engagement with your land to direct it toward (or keep it at) a desired state. • Provides a list of additional resources on Because natural processes in the region major stewardship topics. have been and continue to be significantly altered by human activity, natural lands Land for Life is written primarily for those left to themselves will—in most cases— involved with natural lands planning become degraded and dysfunctional. It is and stewardship within the five counties not good enough to let natural lands go. surrounding Philadelphia (Bucks, Chester, Defining stewardship goals for Delaware, Montgomery, and Philadelphia individual properties and understanding counties). This includes owners and the existing resources and various issues managers of natural lands (conservancies, and opportunities associated with each homeowners’ associations caring for site are critical to sustaining healthy open space in conservation subdivisions, ecosystems beneficial to wildlife and safe officials responsible for park and greenway and enjoyable recreational areas for maintenance) and planning professionals human visitors. (including developers required to create a stewardship plan for open space within a development) engaged in the design, What this handbook layout, and preparation of stewardship will do for you plans. However, most of the planning Land for Life provides a framework concepts and stewardship issues and in which to make decisions on the recommendations are applicable to natural stewardship of natural lands. It will lands throughout the greater southeastern assist the owner or manager of existing Pennsylvania region and beyond. or potential natural lands in developing Land for Life employs current best management practices and is intended stewardship goals and a regimen to to help the land steward gain a greater implement stewardship practices. Land for Life: understanding of the importance of protecting and restoring a broad range • Provides information on the options of native ecosystems including forests, available for stewarding natural lands and grasslands, wetlands, and riparian areas. It can be used for properties of any size and type—from large parcels of unbroken forest to small open space parcels within conservation subdivisions. Ultimately, it is hoped that Land for Life will help to improve the stewardship of the growing “nature network” of protected public and private lands in the region. © 2007 Carlos Alejandro Photography

2 Introduction LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

How to steward natural lands

Your stewardship objective is to take the land from its current state to a desired future state (or keep it in the same state).

Your stewardship plan [p.44] helps you identify… What are the current resources on your land? • Geology and soils [p.9] • Water [p.13] • Vegetation cover type(s) [p.14] • Cultural (scenic locations, trails, etc.)

What are the stewardship issues that affect the health of these resources? • The four most common: ~ Overabundant deer [p.20] severely affect the sustainability of native plant communities, especially forests ~ Fragmentation and edge effects [p.23] encourage invasive plants and reduce plant/wildlife diversity ~ Invasive plants [p.26] replace native plants and reduce plant/wildlife diversity ~ Disrupted water cycle [p.29] depletes groundwater and causes flooding

What are your stewardship conservation priorities [p.56] and goals [p.59]? • Preserve and enhance the most important conservation value(s) of the site

What are your stewardship strategies to achieve the goals [p.59]? • What you need to do over time (years, in fact)

Your stewardship practices implement the plan [p.104]. Use the best management practices and techniques for your site, such as: • Decrease deer abundance [p.104] • Reduce forest fragmentation [p.122] • Control invasive plants [p.125] • Establish and sustain meadows [p.138] • Recharge groundwater [p.149] • Design and maintain trails [p.155] • Monitor and remove hazard trees [p.165] • Plant native trees, shrubs and flowers[p.168, 172]

Adapt! Monitor results, change practices or even goals if it is not working. Keep up with new management techniques.

Introduction 3 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Land for Life first intro­duces you to the Land for Life specifically assists you in types and composition of natural lands determining the driving consideration, in southeastern Pennsylvania and the or “conservation priority,” for conserving current stewardship issues affecting these and maintaining your natural lands. areas that should be addressed within a Your most important decision as a land stewardship plan. steward is whether to maintain, restore It then walks you through the process or convert the current cover type(s) on of developing a stewardship plan, a your site to protect and enhance the multistep process: conservation priority. This will depend on site conditions, resources on adjacent Step 1: Inventory existing natural properties, historical site use, and available to identify and better resources funding. The major cover types addressed understand the natural resources in Land for Life are forests, hedgerows, within the property and current shrublands, meadows/grasslands, pasture/ stewardship issues. cropland, wetlands, streambanks/riparian Step 2: Delineate natural lands from areas, ponds, lawns/landscaped areas, and remainder of the property. traditional stormwater management areas. Step 3: Establish stewardship Land for Life provides perspective and units to delineate areas with similar guidelines for converting and maintaining vegetation and past management. the current cover types as natural lands. In general, Land for Life is written from Step 4: Establish the conservation the perspective that human intervention, priority for the natural lands. while necessary, should be minimized and Step 5: Establish the stewardship should, as much as possible, support the goals for the natural lands. natural processes inherent to the area. The Step 6: Determine appropriate Stewardship Techniques and Procedures strategies for each stewardship unit. (page 104) section gives additional detail on the major stewardship issues and Step 7: Prioritize and schedule tasks recommendations. Finally, the main body for each stewardship unit. of Land for Life is followed by a glossary and Step 8: Establish a monitoring a list of resources from which you can find program to determine if goals are being additional information. met within each stewardship unit. Step 9: Assemble the Stewardship Stewardship challenges, Plan to record information gathered stewardship opportunities and decisions made. As a land steward you will face numerous challenges in implementing your goals. Human intervention, while necessary, The good news is that you are not alone. Your land is unique, but the problems are should be minimized and should, as much common to many other land stewards. as possible, support the natural processes That means that there is a wealth of learning out there about what works and inherent to the area. what doesn’t. Land for Life will help you

4 Introduction LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

meet these challenges by formulating For the land steward the challenge appropriate goals and strategies. is to manage the deer population at a There are four major challenges to land density that restores and sustains native stewards in southeastern Pennsylvania today. plant communities. Fragmentation/edge effects Invasive plants Removal of native vegetation from large Invasive plants—exotic (non-native) areas of the region—through conversion plants introduced for horticultural or to agriculture and followed by residential agricultural purposes—can spread rapidly and commercial development—have left and aggressively into natural areas and the remaining natural lands as primarily effectively displace native plants and lower fragmented “edge” type forest habitat. biodiversity. Not only do they alter the Edges are dominated by light-loving plants makeup of the plant communities on a (often invasive non-natives) and they site, but they also may affect soil chemistry support much less diverse wildlife than and hydrology. Exotic invasive plants are large, contiguous forests. usually less beneficial to wildlife than the For the land steward the challenge is native plants they replace, contributing to either reduce fragmentation through further to loss of biodiversity. restoring links between forest patches, or For the land steward the challenge is to to minimize edge effects by management of manage invasive plants (eliminating them the invasive plants. is highly unlikely) to a level that protects and sustains diverse native plant and Deer overabundance animal communities. Deer are a natural part of the region’s ecosystem, but long ago lost their primary Water quality (stormwater management) natural predators (other than humans). The natural hydrologic cycle returns A lack of natural controls coupled stormwater to the ground through with a highly successful Pennsylvania infiltration: as rain falls, most of it Game Commission policy (originally percolates down through the soil into implemented to save the species from the groundwater table. Groundwater extinction in the 19th century) focused on replenishes not only the underground maximizing the sustained yield for hunters aquifers that supply drinking water for has resulted in populations much greater much of the region but also wetlands than natural lands can sustainably support. and waterways. Suburban development, Although deer thrive on the edge habitat particularly the huge amounts of paved that a fragmented, suburbanized landscape (impervious) surface that comes with it, as provides, in overabundant numbers they well as old-style stormwater management consume the young trees, shrubs, and that pipes runoff into streams, has so wildflowers that make a forest healthy, altered this cycle that groundwater is beneficial to wildlife, and self-sustaining. depleted and flooding is common. They can also cause significant damage For the land steward the challenge is to agricultural crops and ornamental to restore, as much as possible, the natural plantings, and contribute to the spread of hydrologic cycle on the stewarded land. Lyme disease and vehicular accidents.

Introduction 5 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Before you go out Second, every property has a unique combination of inherent environmental A few last words are offered about conditions (geology, soils, slope, aspect, using Land for Life (or any other land hydrology, climate) and management management resource) and stewarding history. Every parcel of land will require a natural lands. First, today’s stewardship stewardship plan tailored to its particular recommendations are based on current conditions and history. It is extremely knowledge and technology. You should use Land for Life knowing that plant Every property is unique. communities will evolve, resource information and technology will change, important to be patient, observant, and not and new impacts to natural lands are afraid to modify your original stewardship inevitable that may require new strategies plan if you are not meeting your stewardship goals (a process that scientists Stewardship call “adaptive management”). It also does not hurt to question any recommendation recommendations from this or any other source if it does not fit into the reality that you experience on a will evolve over time. particular land parcel. Finally, managing natural lands in to address. In addition, our knowledge our region is truly a relationship that of natural systems will grow and new benefits from mental flexibility, a techniques and technologies will be light approach, and more humor and developed to address stewardship issues. To humility than hubris. History is littered illustrate this point, remember that within with evidence—failed projects and the past twenty years, best management civilizations—that testifies to the human practices have included maximizing edge capacity for stubbornly mismanaging and habitat diversity on every property natural systems. This capacity is painfully and the planting of invasive plant species for erosion control and wildlife food. Both Stewardship is a relationship. ideas are strongly discouraged today. evident in the human origins of the most serious issues facing land stewards today (overabundant deer, invasive plants, water quality degradation). Like other relationships, the stewardship of natural lands requires an ongoing commitment to understand (which will take many years) and respect your “partner” and it is guaranteed to provide you with unexpected surprises (good and bad) along the way. Holly Harper

6 Introduction LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania

OVERVIEW We have so disrupted natural processes atural lands in southeastern within the region, that we have made Pennsylvania consist of forests, Nmeadows, shrublands, streams, ourselves indispensable in the protection and wetlands that support a diverse assortment of plant and wildlife species. and restoration of natural lands. They have been shaped by human use and management for thousands of years—from development, the introduction of exotic agricultural clearings and the extensive plants and animals) on natural lands while use of fire by Native Americans to at the same time placing more demands wholesale clearing of forests by European on an ever-decreasing amount of natural settlers for agriculture and wood products land within the region. Stewarding to the suburban development­ of the natural lands is becoming an increasingly late 20th and early 21st centuries. As a complex task of trying to maintain the result of human influences and random environmental and ecological benefits of environmental stresses (high wind, natural lands and accommodating human drought, flooding, ice) natural lands have recreational needs. IN THIS SECTION shifted back and forth from open ground Active stewardship of natural lands in Historical and to forest cover over the centuries. our region is critical, ironically because present-day­ importance of Today, natural lands are an important of the anthropogenic (human created) natural lands in component of the regional landscape. impacts affecting these areas now. Based the region Natural lands harbor rare plant species and on our past record of poor stewardship, Role of land communities, and supply habitat (food, the argument could be made that natural stewardship lands would be better off without further water, shelter) for local and migratory The natural wildlife. They benefit human communities human intervention. While this may be resources of by protecting water supplies, filtering true in some areas of the world, we have natural lands: air and noise pollution, and moderating so disrupted natural processes within Water Rocks and soils climate. They are also valuable locations the region that we have made ourselves Plant communities for recreation and contemplation, indispensable in the protection and Wildlife observation of nature, and education. And restoration of natural lands. Our challenge Issues that affect they provide a welcome visual change from going forward is to steward natural lands in management of shopping malls and concrete highways. a manner that carefully considers the long- these natural Unfortunately, humans are placing term impact of stewardship activities and resources new and more permanent stresses (sprawl recreational uses prior to implementation.

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 7 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Lehigh County

Berks County

Bucks County

Montgomery County

Lancaster County Philadelphia Chester County

Delaware County National Agriculture Imagery Program/USDA, 2004 This composite infrared satellite image showing forested lands in dark red, open areas in light red, and developed areas in gray, illustrates how, with few exceptions, the region’s natural lands are small, disconnected and knitted into the dense fabric of developed areas.

The stewardship of natural lands mainly This section will provide an involves the manipulation of resources at introduction to the different plant and and above ground level. In our region this water resources that dominate southeastern mostly means manipulating plant resources Pennsylvania and the local geology and within forested and open areas, and to a soils that largely determine the types lesser extent (due to far less surface area and extent of these resources. It will and current regulations) surface water also detail the numerous issues involved resources. Understanding the different in managing plant and water resources types of plant and water resources, their and will highlight the main subjects of a characteristics and requirements, is critical stewardship plan and the concerns that to the development of a stewardship plan. need to be addressed within it.

8 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

MAJOR NATURAL RESOURCES Southeastern Pennsylvania also has one very unusual soil type based on Geology and Soils geology. The serpentine soils derived from serpentine rock can be very toxic to most The types of rock formations that form the plants where the soils are thin and where foundation of southeastern Pennsylvania organic material has not accumulated are quite diverse. A long history of folding, sufficiently to buffer the effects of the compression and intrusion of volcanic serpentine bedrock. Because of this unique material has left us a legacy of rock types soil characteristic, the plant communities ranging from soft limestones and shales to that grow on serpentine harbor many state very durable gneisses, diabase and quartzite and globally rare species, which require (see map on page 10). Typically, hard rocks special stewardship practices, such as form the high lands and soft rocks the prescribed fire. lower-lying areas. Different rock formations The complex geology of the region places vary in porosity; each formation will allow parts of southeastern Pennsylvania within groundwater to pass through rapidly or four physiographic provinces (see map on Geology slowly (or not at all) to feed streams and page 11)—the Coastal Plain encompassing rivers through springs and seeps. Generally, most of Philadelphia County and the determines softer rocks are more porous. southeastern sections of Delaware and Bucks Differences in chemical composition of Counties; the Piedmont encompassing all soil type rocks also have a strong influence on soil of Chester and Montgomery Counties, the quality. Taken together, soil wetness and remainder of Delaware and Philadelphia soil chemical composition tend to be the Counties, and most of Bucks County; and which strongest influences on soil fertility. the New England and Ridge and Valley Much can be predicted about the provinces sharing the very northern tip of determines types of plants that will grow on a site by Bucks County. understanding the type of soil occurring The Coastal Plain is a thin strip of plant type. there. Extreme wetness or dryness in soils land—roughly paralleling the Delaware creates stress for plants and so specialized River along the southeastern edge of the floras typically grow in these locations. region—with no hard bedrock near the In between the harsh conditions imposed surface and soils composed of ancient sand, by wetness or dryness, plant growth is gravel, silt, and clay deposits. These soils more strongly determined by soil fertility. can be very wet or very dry, depending Descriptions of soils in County Soil on how close the water table is to the Surveys can be very useful in determining surface. Moving north and west from whether a soil is extremely wet or dry and the Delaware River, the Coastal Plain fertile or infertile. Fertility can be related transitions to the Piedmont province back to geology, with quartzite and many containing hard bedrock near the surface. sandstones and shales producing lower This transitional area, known as the Fall fertility soils and gneiss, limestone, diabase, Line or Fall Zone, is most noticeable schist, and some shales and sandstones in streams and rivers as the location of producing richer soils. Most native plant rapids or waterfalls. Because the Fall Line communities are highly tolerant of low soil interrupted navigation of the major rivers fertility and are often outcompeted on high- by early European settlers and provided fertility soils by exotic invasive species. water power for mills, it is where many

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 9 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

•

LEHIGH COUNTY • •Allentown

BERKS COUNTY Quakertown•• BUCKS COUNTY Pennsburg• •

Doylestown S • chuy lkill Pottstown • • Lansdale Yardley• R • iv MONTGOMERY Morrisville e Langhorne r COUNTY Willow • Levittown •Ambler Grove • • • Tullytown• Phoenixville •Norristown • Honey King of Prussia Bristol • Brook Valley Forge• • Conshohocken • r LANCASTER Cheltenham• Rive COUNTY re • Malvern PHILADELPHIA wa • ela •Downingtown Manayunk COUNTY D Coatesville • West Chester •Parkesburg • DELAWARE COUNTY Landsdowne CHESTER • COUNTY Media • Darby• Chadds Ford Chester

Oxford• ROCK TYPES • Schist Red Sedimentary Rock Slate Unconsolidated Sediments Marble Sandstone and Minor Amounts of Others Dolomite Limestone or Dolomite Mixed with Others Quartzite Light-colored (acid) Igneous and Metamorphic Rock Limestone Dark-colored (basic) Igneous and Metamorphic Rock Shale and Siltstone Michael McGeehin In addition to affecting large- and small-scale patterns of development in the region, major rock types are the major determinant of soil type, which in turn is the primary influence on the types of vegetative cover plants that thrive best on a site.

INTERIOR FOREST PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGION WATER RESOURCES

10 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

•

• •Allentown LEHIGH COUNTY

Quakertown•• BUCKS COUNTY Pennsburg• BERKS • COUNTY Doylestown S • chuy lkill •Pottstown Lansd • • Ri ale Yardley ver MONTGOMERY Morrisville• Langhorne COUNTY Willow • Levittown Ambler Grove " • • • e Tullytown • in • Phoenixville •Norristown L King of Prussia l Bristol • Honey al • Brook Valley Forge• • Conshohocken "F • r LANCASTER y" Cheltenham• ive alle R COUNTY t V re rea • Malvern PHILADELPHIA wa "G • ela •Downingtown Manayunk COUNTY D Coatesville • West Chester •Parkesburg • DELAWARE COUNTY Landsdowne CHESTER • COUNTY Media • Darby• Chadds Ford Chester PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES Coastal Plain Province Oxford • Coastal Plain Piedmont Province • Gettysburg-Newark Lowland Piedmont Lowland Piedmont Upland New England Province Reading Prong Ridge and Valley Province Great Valley Michael McGeehin Most of the southeastern Pennsylvania region is part of the Piedmont physiographic province, with slow-draining moderately acidic clay soils, and hardwood-dominated forests. A small portion is coastal plain, which has sandy, usually well-draining soil; and another small portion is Ridge and Valley province dominated by fertile limestone soils; a tiny section is Reading Prong, with hard, rocky soils. INTERIOR FOREST PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGION WATER RESOURCES

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 11 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

towns and cities were founded, including in Berks and Lehigh Counties). Much of Philadelphia on the Schuylkill River and this area is heavily settled (including the Morrisville on the Delaware River. towns of Coatesville, Downingtown, and The Piedmont physiographic province King of Prussia) with attendant industry, is divided into three sections by major commerce, and roadways. Following the rock types. Closest to the Coastal Plain is Piedmont Lowland we encounter the final the Piedmont Upland consisting of rolling section of the Piedmont, the Gettysburg– hills supported by a foundation of schists Newark Lowland. The bedrock in this and gneisses (relatively hard rocks) with section consists of schists and gneisses in the schists typically weathering to higher- places, but is dominated primarily by thin fertility soils than the gneisses. Continuing or thick stretches of red shales, sandstones to the north and west we then find the and conglomerates, punctuated by hills Piedmont Lowland, a narrow limestone underlain by a volcanic rock known valley within Chester and Montgomery as diabase. Counties with rich soils that is locally The remaining two physiographic known as the “Great Valley” (not to be provinces of southeastern Pennsylvania confused with the Great Valley section of intermingle in a narrow band in northern the Ridge and Valley province to the north Bucks County. The Ridge and Valley

Watersheds (drainage areas) •Allentown LEHIGH cross political COUNTY boundaries, tying Lehigh the landscape Tinicum- together by virtue of shared Tohickon- geographical features. The BERKS COUNTY southeastern Doylestown Jericho Pennsylvania Schuylkill • region is located Pottstown Neshaminy • BUCKS Lansdale• almost entirely COUNTY within the MONTGOMERY COUNTY Willow Delaware River Lower Grove Susquehanna • • watershed, Phoenixville •Norristown and is made Tacony- Pennypack up of smaller LANCASTER COUNTY Brandywine PHILADELPHIA watersheds of the COUNTY Co many creeks and • atesville West Chester• Chester-Ridley-Crum streams in the DELAWARE CHESTER region. COUNTY COUNTY Media • Chadds Ford • Chester • White Clay er Riv are law WATER RESOURCES De Elk Subbasin Boundary • • Waterways County Boundaries Michael McGeehin

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGION INTERIOR FOREST 12 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

province (also called the Valley and Ridge hundred acres. Small streams have a province) is characterized by parallel, more acute reaction to local land use forested ridges divided by long, continuous change than larger streams and rivers. In valleys with fertile limestone soils. The particular, they are more vulnerable to northern tip of Bucks County includes pollution from adjacent land use activities a portion of the Great Valley section of such as construction, agriculture, lawn care this province. Adjoining the Great Valley practices, and paved areas such as roads section is the southernmost section of the and parking lots because of their much New England province, called the Reading lower volume of water. Although less Prong, which consists of rounded ridges of affected by local land use change, larger granitic gneiss and quartzite that are highly streams such as French Creek, Brandywine resistant to erosion. Creek, and Neshaminy Creek are still vulnerable to water quality degradation and must also endure excessive flood flows Water due to the cumulative effects of land use Water resources are generally divided into changes over a very large watershed. groundwater and surface water. As the Wetlands in the region typically follow names imply, groundwater is that reservoir stream networks and can be found at of water that occurs in fissures and aquifers the source of small tributaries, along the located below the soil surface, whereas bases of slopes, and in floodplains. The surface waters are visible above ground and National Wetland Inventory (NWI) typically include wetlands, streams and (see Additional Information Sources, rivers. The land area that drains to and page 217) provides general mapping of includes an interrelated network of ground more pronounced wetlands; however, and surface water resources is known as many potential wetland areas are better a watershed. All watersheds eventually indicated by hydric soils where the depth drain into a major river basin. The southeastern Pennsylvania region (outlined in bold on the Water Resources map at left) is located almost entirely within the Delaware River Basin. The exception is the southwest corner of Chester County, which lies within the Octoraro watershed of the Susquehanna River basin. The largest watershed within the region is the Schuylkill River watershed, which drains much of the central half of the region before entering the Delaware River at Philadelphia. The majority of streams in the region are small, first order or second order headwater streams that are high in the David Steckel A headwater seep feeding a first order stream. These small watershed. Unless they lie in a highly streams create networks of larger streams that eventually developed part of a watershed, these flow into larger creeks and rivers. Because of their low volume streams are generally not prone to severe of water, small streams are very sensitive to pollution from flooding as they only drain at most several stormwater runoff and to groundwater depletion.

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 13 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

to the seasonal high water table is less than Plant Communities 2 feet at certain times of year. Groundwater quantity is locally Ecologists have noted for centuries that determined by geologic formations (see plant species tend to sort themselves out above) and is everywhere vulnerable to in a pattern of roughly repeated contamination from failing septic systems, assemblages or “communities” across the livestock, pesticides and herbicides, and landscape and have developed numerous leaks and spills of toxic substances. The classification systems for cataloging this County Conservation District or Natural phenomenon. Land for Life uses the Resources Conservation Service can classifications presented in Terrestrial and provide you with groundwater information Palustrine Plant Communities of Pennsylvania for specific areas. (Fike 1999) to describe the various plant Maintaining and enhancing the health communities that are found within of local watersheds requires a focused southeastern Pennsylvania. strategy including: In general, plant communities are divided into two major groups—terrestrial • Retaining and restoring broad, and palustrine—depending on the natural, vegetated buffers along hydrologic characteristics of the site streams where they occur. A third group, aquatic • Retaining and restoring wetlands communities, including the underwater and wetland buffers and emergent plants of streams, lakes, and • Requiring effective stormwater ponds, is not covered in this handbook. management practices to promote In this context, terrestrial corresponds groundwater recharge and filter closely with “upland” and palustrine is stormwater runoff synonymous with “wetland.” Palustrine communities are typically found along • Identifying and protecting critical streams and rivers and in areas with a groundwater recharge zones and shallow water table. These two categories wellheads for community drinking are each broken down further into forest, water systems woodland, shrubland, and herbaceous • Minimizing use and proper handling openings. Forests, which cover the of potential pollutants majority of the region’s natural lands, are dominated by trees where the leaf canopy is closed or nearly closed and the majority of tree crowns are overlapping, typically Plant species tend to sort themselves out in with between 60% and 100% tree cover. a pattern of roughly repeated assemblages Woodlands are also tree dominated, but are more open in character and have or “communities.” between 25% and 60% tree canopy cover. Shrublands are dominated by shrubs and • Palustrine (wetland) communities are typically small trees, with herbaceous plants present found along streams and rivers and in areas in more open areas. Herbaceous openings with a shallow water table are communities dominated by plants with no persistent woody stem such as grasses, • Terrestrial (upland) communities are found sedges, and wildflowers. Palustrine forests, everywhere else woodlands, and shrublands are often

14 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

called swamps, forest seeps, or floodplain light conditions and can persist in the forests and thickets. Palustrine herbaceous understory until canopy trees die. Because openings are marshes, open seeps, and wet seedlings of shade-tolerant species are best meadows; their terrestrial counterparts are adapted to grow under low light conditions, meadows and grasslands. these species are often able to maintain The next differentiation in community dominance until the site suffers a significant types is based on the dominant species disturbance (high winds, extensive logging) within the community. Which species that increases the amount of light reaching dominate a forest is generally the result the forest floor, favoring intermediate or of the site’s physical characteristics (soil, shade-intolerant species. slope, aspect, soil moisture) and how past In southeastern Pennsylvania, most stewardship activities and environmental of the natural forest communities are stresses (wind, ice, flood, drought) have dominated by deciduous broadleaf affected the trees and the amount of shade (hardwood) species. Communities they cast on the forest floor. Some species dominated by conifers are limited (often referred to as pioneer species) are and typically the result of abandoned shade-intolerant and require full sun plantations established in the middle conditions to colonize a site. Examples part of the 20th century, although of shade-intolerant species in our region eastern hemlock and native pines are include sweet birch, eastern red-cedar, and minor components of some mixed quaking aspen. Species with intermediate hardwood forests in the region. Currently, shade tolerance include tuliptree, ash, oaks, communities dominated by oak species are hickories, and red maple. These species the most common plant communities in can colonize both open areas and forest the region and elsewhere in the southern gaps that are not open enough for pioneer two-thirds of the state. This is largely the species. Shade-tolerant species such as sugar result of two factors. One is the decline maple, eastern hemlock, and American of the American chestnut between 1910 beech have the ability to survive in low and 1950 due to an introduced fungus.

Examples of common terrestrial communities in southeastern Pennsylvania

Red oak – mixed hardwood forest: A broadly defined community type that includes most of Pennsylvania’s hardwood- dominated forests occurring on fairly mesic sites and is therefore quite variable in composition. Typically, this forest type occurs on soils developed from red shales, diabase, serpentine, schist and gneiss. In addition to soil influences, such stands often have had a history of heavy cutting and/or fire disturbance. Northern red oak is usually present, often dominant or codominant, most often with red maple, black and white oak, mockernut and shagbark hickory, sweet and yellow birch, white ash, American beech, and tuliptree. David Steckel

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 15 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Examples of common terrestrial communities in southeastern Pennsylvania, cont.

Tuliptree – beech – maple forest: These forests occur on fairly deep, not strongly acidic soils, at a mid- to lower-slope position. Typically, this forest type occurs on soils developed from limestone, marble, diabase and some shales with higher calcium and magnesium content. The most consistent tree species for this often very mixed type are red maple and tuliptree. American beech is often present and sometimes codominant. In successional, lower slope situations, tuliptree may occur in nearly pure stands. The long list of possible associates includes various oaks, mostly northern red oak, as well as black-gum, sugar maple, mockernut and shagbark hickory, sweet birch, and eastern hemlock (less than

David Steckel 25% relative cover).

Red maple (terrestrial) forest: This is generally an early- to mid-successional type that is becoming increasingly common as red maple increases in Pennsylvania’s forests. This type is seldom pure, but red maple dominates the tree stratum. Associated species include oaks, sweet birch, tuliptree, hickories, black cherry, ashes, and other hardwoods. This type is not well correlated with soil characteristics, but instead is a common result of release of a site from agriculture and a history of fire exclusion. David Steckel Dry oak – heath forest: A fairly broadly defined community type, these forests occur on xeric (very dry) to moderately dry, acidic sites, often on shallow or sandy soils and/ or steep slopes. Typically, this forest type occurs on soils developed from sandstone, conglomerate and quartzite. Soils developed from red shales, schist and gneiss can also support this community type if the area has experienced heavy disturbance from repeated cutting and/or fire. The most characteristic tree species is chestnut oak, usually occurring with a mix of black, scarlet and/or white oak. Other tree species include sassafras, black- gum, sweet birch, red maple, pignut hickory, and pitch, Virginia, and eastern white pine. Total cover by conifers generally does not

Ann Fowler Rhoads exceed 25% of the canopy.

16 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Examples of common palustrine communities in southeastern Pennsylvania

Red maple palustrine forest: The canopy of this, the most common of our swamp forest communities, is dominated by red maple and/ or black-gum. Other trees, e.g., yellow birch, eastern white pine, eastern hemlock, swamp white and pin oak, or black willow, may also occur. David Steckel

Sycamore – box-elder floodplain forest: This community type occurs along floodplains of larger and mid-size river systems that receive periodic or seasonal flooding. Although typically a palustrine community, there may be examples of this type that are terrestrial. The most characteristic tree species of this type are sycamore and box-elder, often with red and silver maple, American and slippery elm, red ash, and black willow. River birch is a common component of these sites in eastern Pennsylvania.

Skunk-cabbage – golden saxifrage forest seep: These are small communities (usually less than a quarter-acre) that occur David Steckel where groundwater comes to the surface in a diffuse flow, saturating the soil for most of the growing season. The water chemistry ranges from acidic to strongly calcareous, with only minor accompanying shifts in species composition. These seeps most often occur in a forested context. Canopy cover ranges widely, and may be contributed by woody plants rooted within the seep, or by overhanging foliage of trees in the surrounding uplands. The species composition is highly variable and includes skunk-cabbage, golden saxifrage, cinnamon fern, sedges, goldthread, partridge-berry, jewelweed, Pennsylvania bitter-cress, clearweed, sweet- scented bedstraw, slender mannagrass, swamp saxifrage, New York fern, swamp aster, and

sensitive fern. Claudia Steckel

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 17 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Examples of common palustrine communities in southeastern Pennsylvania, cont.

Tussock sedge marsh: These are tussock sedge-dominated marshes. The majority of these systems are influenced by past impoundment. The substrate may be peat, muck, or mineral soil. There is generally standing water between the tussocks for much of the year. Associated species include other sedges, rushes, bluejoint, tall meadow-rue, hairgrass, Joe-Pye weed, wool grass, water parsnip, marsh St.-John’s-wort, scattered common cattail and small red maple. The invasive species reed canary-grass, common reed and purple loosestrife are frequently a major problem in these systems. Claudia Steckel

Herbaceous vernal pond (synonymous with ephemeral or seasonal pool): This community type is characterized by seasonally fluctuating water levels; it may dry out completely in the summer. Species composition is variable between sites, as well as annually and seasonally. Cover may be sparse, species composition is extremely variable, some typical representatives include three-way sedge, mannagrass, rice cut-grass, wool-grass, and a variety of sedges. Claudia Steckel

Wet meadow: These are open, usually grass-dominated meadows. They are typically flooded early in the growing season, but are generally dry for much of the year. Representative species include rice cut-grass, wool-grass, bugleweed, pale meadow grass and smartweeds.

More detailed descriptions of these and the many other plant communities found within the region and the state can be found in Terrestrial and Palustrine Plant Communities of

David Steckel Pennsylvania (Fike, 1999).

18 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Oak communities in many natural lands will eventually give way to red maple- and beech-dominated communities after the current canopy trees decline.

The second is extensive clearcutting are the ones more tolerant of human- that occurred between 1850 and 1920 to dominated landscapes. “Backyard wildlife” increase agricultural production and to species—raccoons, opossums, rabbits, supply the growing cities and towns with voles, mice, robins, European starlings, construction materials and fuel (firewood, catbirds, mourning doves, blue jays, and charcoal). The high light conditions white-tailed deer—abound under urban created by clearcutting and the subsequent and suburban landscape conditions. Less wildfires preferentially favored oaks, which tolerant wildlife, however, still occur in the can tolerate fire very well. Because there more rural areas of the region where large is now a general aversion to clearcutting blocks of unbroken forest or grasslands and fire—although both are considered create interior habitat, that is, areas appropriate management practices when sufficiently removed (100 meters or properly used—the conditions required to about 300 feet) from all edges between perpetuate oak dominance occur less often. contrasting habitat types. In interior With overabundant deer consuming much habitat they encounter lower levels of of the annual acorn crop and the few oak predation and competition from the often seedlings that do sprout, indications are abundant “backyard wildlife,” which prefer that oak communities on many natural edges. Species in the sensitive category lands will eventually give way to red include black bear, bobcat, mink, river maple- and beech-dominated communities otter, and birds of interior forest (e.g., after the current canopy trees decline. scarlet tanager, ovenbird, various other However, any prediction of the future of warblers) and grasslands (e.g., eastern forests in our region will be challenged by meadowlark, bobolink, vesper sparrow). new pests (the Asian long-horned beetle Typically, these more sensitive species and emerald ash borer are poised to attack occur in areas of larger, unbroken forest our maple and ash species), climate change (warming temperatures will encourage southern species to spread into the region “Backyard wildlife”: white-tailed deer, and northern species to decline), and our European starling, raccoon

success with controlling the many invasive © iStockphoto.com/Arpad Benedek species already here.

Wildlife Because this region has been so fragmented and dominated by human use of the landscape, a good number of wildlife species no longer occur in this part of the state. Those wildlife species that remain Bill Moses Bill Moses

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 19 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

and grassland tracts of at least hundreds MAJOR STEWARDSHIP ISSUES of acres. One notable exception is the federally protected bog turtle (Clemmys he natural lands in southeastern muhlenbergii), which inhabits relatively Pennsylvania have been directly small wetlands throughout the region. Tand indirectly affected by human In Pennsylvania, wildlife can only activities for many centuries. While be managed directly through activities humans have benefited from the products approved by the state Game Commission of agriculture and forestry (fuel, food, and and Fish and Boat Commission. These building materials), many natural lands are two agencies regulate hunting, trapping, now suffering from the residual effects of and fishing within the state and support exploitation and mismanagement. Today, the protection of declining non-game we look to natural lands more and more to species. The manager of natural lands can provide local environmental and ecological have a strong influence on which animal benefits and to fulfill recreational and species use a site through stewardship of aesthetic needs. It is important to the plant and water resources on which understand the full range of issues that wildlife depend. Over the last few decades should be addressed in any stewardship wildlife management has transitioned plan to meet and maintain these needs and from a goal of maximizing habitat diversity benefits. Some issues (overabundant deer, to encourage edge-loving game species invasive plants, hazards) are the result of (deer, rabbit, pheasant) to an approach past human activities. Some (stormwater that also includes creating large blocks of erosion, adverse uses) result from more contiguous forest and grassland to protect recent activities on or near natural lands. populations that depend on forest interior Others (recreational use, dead wood and grassland habitat. management) are more generally related to the restoration and management of natural lands. This section details the common stewardship issues and how they affect the stewardship of natural lands.

Deer Overabundance Forest fragmentation, the extirpation of © iStockphoto.com Rick Coval large predators, and cultural norms about hunting have resulted in the proliferation of white-tailed deer to unprecedented population densities. Researchers believe that native forests evolved with deer densities of 5–10 per square mile (1 square mile = 640 acres). Deer populations are no longer kept at ecologically sustainable levels as they were for more than 99% of Bill Moses their existence, first by large predators and “Interior habitat wildlife”: more recently by Native Americans, for scarlet tanager, river otter, Eastern meadowlark, whom venison was a major source of food.

bobcat © iStockphoto.com/John Pitcher

20 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

A diverse array of predators regulated deer populations for millions of years before humans arrived in our region, including the timber wolf, dire wolf, grizzly bear, giant short-faced bear, mountain lion, American cheetah, and jaguar. Human hunters arrived in what is now southeastern Pennsylvania at least 13,000 years ago, forcing out most of the other major predators, but American Indians, timber wolves, and mountain lions continued to regulate deer populations until Europeans arrived and expelled all three. For the first two centuries after William Penn’s arrival,

the human population grew exponentially © iStockphoto.com/Midwest Wilderness and unlimited hunting began eroding the delicate balance between predators and Browsing by overabundant deer that had prevailed for eons. By 1900, white-tailed deer were nearly extinct in deer populations is the most Pennsylvania and other eastern states because of over-harvesting. By instituting significant factor in forest game laws, state agencies successfully rebuilt the deer population. Unfortunately, decline in Pennsylvania. these hunting rules, which largely persisted through the 20th century, focused on the seeds and seedlings that would have providing a “maximum sustained yield” become the next generation of canopy of game for recreational hunters and the trees, if not consumed by deer. deer population consequently soared Statewide, the deer density now to unprecedented levels in just a few averages 25 deer per forested square decades. There is general agreement among mile, two to five times the desired scientists, resource managers (foresters, density of 5–10 per square mile (2003 wildlife biologists, farmers, hunters) and PA Game Commission census). In some landowners (rural and suburban) that Pennsylvania suburban areas, populations this strategy has led to the degradation of have risen above 100 per square mile. forests, agricultural lands, and suburban Deer densities at this level threaten the landscaping throughout the state. (A perpetuation of forest communities, which detailed summary of this issue can be depend on the ongoing establishment of found in the 2005 report by the Deer tree seedlings and saplings in sufficient Management Forum, titled Managing numbers to occupy the gaps that are White-tailed Deer in Forest Habitat From created by periodic natural or human an Ecosystem Perspective, available at disturbance. A density of 15–20 deer http://pa.audubon.org.) The simple reason per forested square mile has been found for this is that abnormally high deer in some areas to be a maximum level populations affect all vegetation layers of allowing minimal advance tree and shrub the forest, including shrubs, herbs, and regeneration (a sufficient number of

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 21 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

established seedlings and saplings available to replace existing trees and shrubs following mortality or disturbance of existing vegetation), with a density of 5–10 per square mile needed to sustain a high diversity of native species, including native herbaceous plants. Deer are browsers, which means their diet consists mainly of newly grown twigs of woody plants, primarily trees and shrubs. When populations are high, deer can consume all of the established seedlings, as well as many tree seeds (particularly acorns) and herbaceous plants. Over 100

David Steckel species of native wildflowers and other DEGRADED FOREST – There are no young trees to replace the old plant species have been extirpated from ones; no shrubs or low trees for birds to find food, nesting sites Pennsylvania; at least some of these losses or cover; and no wildflowers to provide food or cover for ground- have been partly a result of overbrowsing nesting birds and small mammals, or nectar for pollinators. Deer by deer, and many more species are known overbrowsing, along with stresses on hydrology and the impact of to be in trouble in the state from the same invasive species, can degrade a healthy forest community to the cause. Browsing by overabundant deer point where it becomes unsustainable. dramatically reduces the survival of native flora and has led to the collapse of plant species diversity in the forest understory and the near cessation of tree reproduction in vast areas of Pennsylvania forests. The resulting lack of cover, food, and structural diversity within forests (see photos at left) has undoubtedly reduced wildlife populations, particularly of small mammal, bird, and amphibian species. Native oaks, which are highly preferred food for deer, are not regenerating, which means that wildlife-rich oak forests will cease to exist as adult trees age and die. Furthermore, exotic (non-native) invasive plant species are generally avoided by deer and other plant- eating wildlife (which is one of the reasons they are invasive), so deer have contributed David Steckel to their proliferation by stripping the forests HEALTHY FOREST – How can you tell you’re in a healthy forest? of their native competitors. You can’t see through it, at least in summer. Lush and three- dimensional, this forest is home to a complex, diverse community Part of the problem in understanding of life. It is the natural result of good stewardship. Deer may be the forest health problem is that it is too present but at a density low enough that the forest can sustain easy to “see the forest for the trees.” Most itself. Water and nutrients are available in appropriate amounts, forests in our region still look healthy, and exotic plants have not displaced the natives. with a canopy of large trees that have

22 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

A density of 15–20 deer per forested square mile has been found in some areas to be a maximum level allowing minimal advance tree and shrub regeneration, with a density of 5–10 per square mile needed to sustain a high diversity of native species, including native herbaceous plants. grown since the last extensive clearing and economic (timber production)—that in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. forests provide. The spread of invasive introduced shrub In forests that have been subjected to and understory tree species into natural overbrowsing for many years, the deer areas over the last few decades has filled density will probably need to be lowered in the vegetation layers vacated by native even further than the eventual optimal species as the result of high deer densities. level for a period of time to allow the forest Most forests still look superficially healthy to regenerate. The section on estimating because they are green. Forests with an deer impact under Wildlife Management understory stripped of vegetation have (page 104) provides guidelines developed a park-like structure, with tall canopy by Penn State University and the US trees and a uniform low understory or no Forest Service for visually assessing deer understory at all. Forests in some parts of impact on a forest community. our region have looked like this for so long The decision to restore any forest that many people have the impression it is must start with the goal of reducing and normal and natural. maintaining deer density at an appropriate The best chance for successful level. Unless this goal is achieved first, the regeneration is within forest gaps where management of other stressors becomes a more sunlight is available for growth. short-term lesson in futility that ultimately However, the number of seedlings in ends with the demise of the current canopy a typical forest gap in southeastern trees—and by definition, the forest itself— Pennsylvania is usually many times less through natural decline or the next major than in a gap in a healthy forest. Successful wind event. regeneration in a gap hinges on a few seedlings surviving a host of stresses (buck rubs, invasive vines, drought, insects, Fragmentation and Edge Effects windthrow) over the many decades it takes Historically, land use in the region was to reach the canopy. dominated by agriculture and logging. The elimination of tree regeneration Those uses, coupled with recent residential not only removes the defining component and commercial development, have of the future forest (canopy trees), it greatly effectively removed or disturbed most of amplifies the effects of other stressors the native vegetation in the region and, by freeing up growing space to invasive through subdivision and clearing, added plant species and physically creating the countless miles of edge (the zone where disturbed soil conditions to promote their forest meets a nonforested area) to the spread. This, in turn, compromises the fragments of forest that remain. Edges allow many benefits—environmental, ecological, light and drying winds to penetrate into

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 23 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

the forest, which fosters the proliferation Fragmentation of our forests is of aggressive, invasive plants that crowd second only to outright destruction and out native flora. Edges also provide easy conversion of forestland to other uses access to the forest by predators (feral cats, as a cause of degradation of ecosystem raccoons) and nest parasites (cowbirds) function, habitat quality, and biodiversity. that consume or displace forest interior Forest fragmentation results in the local animals, especially birds. extinction of species and can lead to far lower overall species diversity than would occur if the same total area of forest were Fragmentation of our forests is second to remain as a single contiguous block. The level of impact on the original forest only to outright destruction and conversion ecosystem depends on the number, size, and shape of resulting forest fragments. of forestland to other uses as a cause of Fragmentation has at least four degradation of ecosystem function, habitat components: • reduction in total forest area quality, and biodiversity. • reduction in the area that functions as forest interior • increase in the edge-to-area ratio • increased isolation from the nearest large forest blocks

Conventionally, in temperate eastern North America, the part of the forest that lies more than 100 meters (a little over 300 feet) from the closest edge is considered as functional forest interior for most species. It follows that, in two forest blocks with identical areas but different “footprints,” the one with the higher edge-to-area ratio (more sinuous edge or narrower overall shape) is more fragmented. A circle is the This section of French Creek shows how instead of a large, two-dimensional shape with the lowest continuous corridor, the forest is broken up into many edge-to-area ratio and hypothetically small pieces, each of which is another instance of edge the optimal shape for conserving forest habitat. Edge habitat is much less ecologically diverse, and diversity in a fragment, but smaller circles encourages the spread of invasive, non-native plants. have higher edge-to-area ratios than larger circles. Any part of a forest block whose width is 600–700 feet or less has little or no functional interior. Cutting a road or other = a zone encompassing the interface edge linear nonforest feature through a forest between forested and nonforested areas, including fragment may not decrease total forest area the part of the forest that is subject to ecologically by much, but the two fragments so created significant “edge effects” each has a much smaller maximum area, a

24 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

forest interior = the part of the forest that lies more than 100 meters (about 300 feet) from the closest edge

Interior forests in southeastern LEHIGH COUNTY Pennsylvania are primarily confined to the northern portions of the region, where topography BERKS and geology COUNTY have disfavored development. Elsewhere in the BUCKS COUNTY area, fragmented MONTGOMERY forests that COUNTY consist mainly or entirely of edge habitat LANCASTER predominate, with COUNTY PHILADELPHIA COUNTY accompanying loss of biodiversity and prevalence DELAWARE CHESTER COUNTY of invasive plant COUNTY species.

INTERIOR FOREST County Boundaries Waterways Interior Forest Edge Forest Michael McGeehin

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGION INTERIOR FOREST

WATER RESOURCES

EDGE TO AREA RATIO – Preserve A is so small it is all edge. Preserve B is larger, but it is still all edge because of its shape. Preserve C is smaller than B, but because it is circular, it has an area of interior forest. Holly Harper

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 25 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

much higher edge-to-area ratio, and far less Invasive Plant Species (or no) functional interior. For many animal species, the area of Another anthropogenic (caused by contiguous habitat in a forest fragment humans) problem encountered in the must be above some threshold size for a stewardship of natural lands in south­ population to sustain its viability for more eastern Pennsylvania—and increasingly than a few individuals. Minimum-area recognized as a threat worldwide—is requirements vary greatly among species, the presence of invasive plant species. but the total area of forest in a fragment is Even though the occasional immigration not all that matters. Many plants as well of new species into plant communities as animals are forest-interior specialists, is a normal process, the current high unable to utilize the outermost zone of rate of introduction—fueled by the forest near the edge as habitat. The area planting of exotic (non-native) species inside a forest but near its edge is vulnerable for horticulture, wildlife management, to a host of detrimental outside influences, and erosion control—is threatening the including increased wind, light, and heat, integrity of native plant communities and decreased humidity, and the influx of seeds the survival of native species. of invasive introduced species. In general, Not all exotic species are invasive. Of fragmentation favors invasive species and the almost 1,000 non-native plant species works against native species. known to have escaped to the wild in Furthermore, the threshold size Pennsylvania (there are about 2,000 native of a forest block required to sustain a species in the state), less than 5%—a few population of a forest-interior species dozen—have become invasive so far. An is larger with greater isolation from invasive species is one that rapidly spreads other forest blocks, because there is and outcompetes multiple native species, less movement of individuals between chiefly because of the absence of the blocks. Consequently a long-established predators, pathogens, and herbivores that population in a forest fragment may die keep it in check in its native range. An out even if the habitat remains intact, if invasive species displays one or more of the enough nearby forest fragments are further following characteristics: fragmented or destroyed. Put another • few predators, herbivores, and diseases way, in a neighborhood in which most of • adaptation to disturbance the forest is gone, the remaining forest fragment must be larger to sustain the same • fast germination level of species diversity than if it were • high population growth near other large forest blocks. • early reproductive maturity • vegetative as well as sexual reproduction • pollination by wind or multiple invasive species = insect species one that rapidly spreads and out- • wide tolerance to many habitat types competes multiple native species • fast growth rate • long-range seed dispersal capability • fruit used by wildlife or humans

26 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Nationally, the destructive impact of invasive species on native biodiversity Why invasives matter is exceeded only by direct habitat destruction and forest fragmentation. invasives outcompete natives Most invasive plants are particularly well adapted to colonize disturbed areas. resulting in In southeastern Pennsylvania the division and clearing of land parcels associated fewer natives in the natural area’s species mix with agriculture and more recent sprawl development have created countless miles resulting in of edge condition that is highly favorable to the proliferation of invasive species. • halting or subverting of natural The misguided promotion of several exotic succession species for erosion and livestock control • lower diversity of food sources and the region’s rich horticultural legacy (often using exotic species) have provided resulting in plentiful seed sources for regional dispersal of numerous invasive exotic species. • degraded habitat for wildlife The presence of invasive plant species complicates the goal of maintaining • disruption of nutrient cycling, healthy native plant communities because hydrology, fire regimes, and other invasive plants compete vigorously with vital ecosystem processes preferred native species for “growing space,” the major resources and conditions—light, water, nutrients, temperature, humidity, soil structure, and other factors—that support which is one of the reasons why they are plant growth in any area. As a result, invasive. The higher the cover and species invasive species have the ability to displace richness of native plants, the higher the native vegetation, halt or subvert the total insect biomass is in a given area of natural process of succession from field to land; conversely, the higher the cover of forest, and homogenize the structural and non-native plants, the scarcer insects are wildlife food resources of a site. They can as a food resource for other wildlife. Insects also alter nutrient cycling, local hydrology, are the richest source of fats and protein and fire regimes. for birds, fish, and many small animals These modifications to native plant that, in turn, are food for larger animals. communities reduce their habitat value Where non-native plants are abundant, far for native fauna, particularly migratory less of the total plant biomass is converted, songbirds, which nest within different via the food chains that make up the food vegetation layers, and insects, which are web, into animal biomass. Invasive plants vital links in many of the food chains have adverse impacts on virtually all native that make up the food web in ecosystems. wildlife populations, both by degrading Most native insect species (terrestrial and habitat directly and by reducing the total aquatic) are specialist feeders on just one food supply. native plant species or a narrow range of The control of invasive plants will be species. Exotic invasive plants rarely serve a perpetual concern of land managers in as a food resource for native insect species, the region. The extensive edge area and

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 27 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

The most problematic invasive species at this time

Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus): A woody vine that aggressively grows along forest edges or in open meadows. Its seeds are dispersed by birds and human collectors (the bright orange seed capsules are used for fall decorations). By growing into the

tree canopy, the vine shades the leaves of the host Dan Barringer tree and increases wind resistance and snow and ice (Elaeagnus umbellata): Once promoted accumulation, making it vulnerable to windthrow. Autumn-olive as a wildlife food along with its relative, Russian- olive (E. angustifolia), this shrub can rapidly invade abandoned fields and open canopy forests to the exclusion of all other plants.

Norway maple (Acer platanoides): A shade- tolerant tree that is invading many forests throughout the region. Once established, its dense shade prevents virtually all plants from growing around it. David Steckel Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum): A warm- season grass dispersed by deer and human walkers that quickly spreads to the detriment of native herbs and tree and shrub seedlings.

Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora): An upright shrub that was promoted as a “living fence,” its proponents failed to understand its Dan Barringer ability to spread Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica): A rapidly via bird perennial vine initially used for erosion control, its droppings. greatest impact is on forest tree seedlings and shrubs.

A more complete list of the invasive plants that have the most severe impacts on natural lands in the region can be found under Invasive Vegetation Management (page 125). Photos and detailed descriptions of individual plants are available at www.nps.gov/plants/alien/index and from other sources listed under Additional Information Sources (page 217).

28 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

seed sources in our region and the prolific nature of these plants guarantee that even with complete eradication on a given property, invasive species can quickly reestablish themselves as a serious stewardship problem if not monitored and addressed on a regular basis. A strategy for coexisting with these plants is needed—one that will minimize their effects on the aesthetics and ecological stability of a property, with a minimum of management effort. Invasive Vegetation Management (page 125) provides information on controlling invasive plants.

Water Resources Our natural lands directly influence the quality and quantity of water that constitutes the system of streams, wetlands, and groundwater in the region. In general, streams in southeastern Pennsylvania Holly Harper developed (and their aquatic biota Broad flat areas adjacent to streams with flood-tolerant plants slow down and temporarily hold seasonal and storm-produced evolved) within forested landscapes. Forest floodwaters. Floodplains serve as natural shock absorbers cover moderates stream flow throughout for the dynamic expansion and contraction of a waterway the year by maximizing infiltration and over time. With increased volume of runoff (due to upstream groundwater recharge, shades the water clearing for cultivation and paving for development, and surface (helping to maintain cool water resulting diminished groundwater recharge), streams erode temperatures for native fish and aquatic their banks, cut deeper channels, and lose their floodplains, insects) and provides food (leaves) and becoming more “flashy” (undergoing wider and more frequent structural debris (branches, trunks) for swings in volume) and flooding more often downstream. aquatic organisms. Streams in forested areas tend to be shallow and wide with rocky beds that serve as breeding and organisms, is drastically reduced in surface nesting sites for aquatic organisms. area and often covered with silt. Removing forest cover along streams The agricultural, suburban, and exposes the water surface to sunlight and urban land-use pattern of the region has eliminates preferred food resources. If the altered the natural balance of ground and dominant cover type along the stream surface water that defined the forested becomes sod-forming grasses (typical in landscape prior to William Penn’s arrival agricultural landscapes) or impervious in 1682. Almost the entire region has material, the stream loses the flexibility to been cleared of forest, plowed and grazed wander; with increased surface water inputs for agriculture, bulldozed for urban and during storm events, the stream begins to suburban development, planted in lawns, deepen and narrow its channel. As a result, or paved. Each of these actions generates the rocky streambed, so vital to aquatic unnatural rates and amounts of stormwater

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 29 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Why water matters runoff, particularly in the wettest periods of the year. Water that once infiltrated soil and recharged aquifers to gradually WATER QUALITY feed wetlands and streams during periods of drought is now lost downstream to degraded by the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays and contaminants from lawns and agricultural Atlantic Ocean. As a result, the frequency fields running off into streams and extent of flooding is artificially high, and the water table that allows solve by groundwater to feed wetlands and supply • installing/maintaining riparian the base flow of streams is artificially buffers reduced to unnaturally low levels during the driest periods of late summer. • reducing use of contaminants Decreased groundwater levels are • managing goose populations manifest in wetlands and small streams • controlling livestock/pet waste that become drier earlier in the year and in the resulting changes in the local plant and • managing first flush through wildlife populations. For example, invasive stormwater management species such as Japanese honeysuckle and multiflora rose have become dominant WATER QUANTITY in many former wetland areas, and salamander populations reliant on wetland degraded by pools (small areas of standing water, lack of recharge due to impervious normal in springtime) for breeding have surface depleting groundwater declined or disappeared for lack of habitat. Ongoing threats to the quality and resulting in quantity of water represent potential drying up of wetlands and streams threats to the natural lands in the region. With the advance of technology, humans solve by have the ability to alter the landscape • installing/maintaining riparian more rapidly and at a broader scale than buffers ever before. The more we clear native vegetation, excavate and compact soil, • infiltrating stormwater using BMPs and construct impervious surfaces such as rooftops and parking lots, the more we “short-circuit” the natural hydrologic cycle that recharges aquifers, regulates flooding, maintains diverse aquatic plant and animal communities, and feeds wetlands and streams with clean, plentiful water to support plant, animal, and human needs (including vital drinking water supplies). The primary threats to water quality and quantity in our region are modifications to hydrology caused by changes in land use. In natural conditions,

30 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

of the approximately 45 inches of rain that falls in southeastern Pennsylvania each year, 12 inches infiltrate into the groundwater, 25 inches are evapotranspired into the air, and 8 inches run off as surface water. However, once the landscape is urbanized, these proportions change with four main effects: • Non-point-source pollution results when excessive stormwater runoff volume carries pollutants from residential, commercial, and agricultural areas and sediment from erosion caused by an excessive runoff rate. (Note: point-source pollution is discharged from pipes at industrial facilities or sewage treatment plants.) • Flooding results from excessive runoff volume. • Groundwater is depleted by Group Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working reduced infiltration. DEVELOPMENT AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE Stormwater naturally percolates through the soil, recharging • Streambanks are destabilized by groundwater. In undeveloped conditions (top left), 5 times increased stormwater flows. more rainfall is infiltrated into the ground than runs off the surface. Land development modifies this natural hydrology, Overall, land development in a significantly reducing groundwater recharge and increasing watershed results in the amplification stormwater runoff. of both the high and lows of the natural hydrologic cycle. a protected habitat for wildlife to obtain Non-point-source Pollution water and other vital resources without being exposed to predators. Because these The following issues are associated with riparian areas are crucial to the protection non-point-source pollution facing streams and enhancement of water resources, in the region: a lack of riparian buffer has an adverse • Loss and Degradation of Streamside effect on the quality of water and aquatic Forested Areas and Wetlands habitats, and limits the overall wildlife Under natural conditions, the areas benefits of a site. adjoining rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds Decades of deforestation, agricultural are protected by forested “riparian buffers.” expansion, and increasing suburban A riparian buffer made up of a mixture development have drastically reduced the of native plant types—herbs, shrubs, and extent of water edge protected by forest trees—filters out sediment and pollutants, in southeastern Pennsylvania. (However, stabilizes banks, mitigates stormwater flows, in some watersheds, the combination reduces water temperatures, and provides of less acres in agriculture and better food for aquatic organisms. It also provides management practices promoted by the

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 31 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Natural Resources Conservation Service have increased riparian buffers.) Without the protective canopy and filtering and stabilizing root systems of riparian vegetation, streams can be degraded by thermal pollution and higher levels of total suspended solids, nutrients, and bacteria from stormwater runoff and nearby farms (livestock, fertilizer application) and homes (failing septic systems, lawn fertilizers). The minimum riparian buffer recommended by the US Forest Service for water quality protection (see diagram below) is typically a 95-foot strip along each

David Steckel side of a stream or water body that consists Without vegetation adjacent to a stream, stormwater runoff of three zones. The first zone should be flows at greatly increased volume into the waterway. This a minimum 15-foot (preferably 25–35- brings not only flooding and bank erosion, but also increased foot) strip of undisturbed forest next to pollution as the runoff carries sediment, nutrients and the stream or water body, which provides chemicals from the surface runoff that would be filtered if a detritus and helps maintain lower water riparian buffer were present. Ideally at least a 95-foot-wide zone on both sides of a stream should be vegetated. USDA Forest Service, 1992 The Streamside Forest Buffer

32 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

temperatures vital to fish. If steep slopes exist near the stream, this first zone may extend to 50 feet or beyond. The second zone is a 60-foot strip of managed forest where filtration, deposition, plant uptake, anaerobic denitrification, and other natural processes remove sediment and nutrients from runoff and subsurface flows. The third zone is typically a 20-foot strip of grass, or grass and shrubs, reducing the effects of accelerated runoff where concentrated flows are converted to dispersed flows by water bars or spreaders, facilitating ground contact and infiltration. Vegetation

management is important in all three zones David Steckel to maintain a functioning buffer. Uncontrolled stormwater runoff from adjacent roads and open areas can result in erosion within forested areas. • Excessive Stormwater Runoff Stream water quality is degraded by erosion, sedimentation, and serious good at protecting soils from high amounts flooding associated with ineffective of surface water inputs. Frequently, gullies management of stormwater from are created within forests by stormwater impervious surfaces. Uncontrolled roadside runoff from adjacent agricultural or runoff (which often contains oils, metals, residential areas. and salt) from ditches and culverts is a region-wide problem. Severe erosion • Household Impacts Residences in local watersheds may impacts are evident along stretches contribute to high fecal coliform bacteria of headwater streams in the region, levels and nutrient levels through failing particularly in certain agricultural settings septic systems and use of phosphate-based where functioning vegetated buffers have detergents. Phosphorus often contaminates been lacking for many years. Sediment is runoff from lawns and gardens where generated by storm runoff and associated chemical fertilizers are used and is an soil erosion from streambanks, farm fields, ingredient in household and commercial and construction sites. Excessive sediment detergents, which enter creeks through in streams can inhibit fish reproduction wastewater systems. Phosphorus is the main by smothering eggs, and can harm other nutrient responsible for eutrophication aquatic life, particularly bottom-dwelling (nutrient enrichment, which causes algal species that live between pebbles and blooms) in waterways. As algae decompose, cobbles, an important link in the aquatic dissolved oxygen is consumed, thereby food chain. diminishing the ability of the creek to Unfortunately, forests are often seen as support healthy populations of fish and a good place to direct concentrated runoff other aquatic life. Residents can exacerbate from farm fields and roads. While forest streambank erosion and sedimentation by cover and forest soils are able to capture mowing and dumping near streams (which and absorb precipitation better than any prevents the growth of tree and shrub other land cover, forest vegetation is not

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 33 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

root structures that can stabilize the soil), Aquatic wildlife migration patterns also altering channel shape, or filling wet areas suffer disruption by dams. Although fish that slow and absorb stormwater. ladders are being installed on the largest dams, thousands of dams exist on streams • Livestock and Pets in Streams of all sizes across the region, preventing and Wetlands migration of many species, from shad to The presence of cattle and horses in American eels to stoneflies. streams and wetlands can degrade stream quality through trampling and erosion of • Thermal Pollution streambanks and input of waste material. Unnaturally warm water temperatures Dogs, even though they are smaller, can along some reaches of local streams may have a similar impact on streambanks and exacerbate the impact of non-point-source water quality, including inputs of nutrients, pollution on the health of aquatic life. sediment, and fecal coliform bacteria. Warm water temperatures are mainly attributable to lack of shade along • Canada Goose Populations streambanks, discharge of warm surface Unnaturally high levels of fecal coliform water runoff from ponds and detention bacteria and nutrients are evident in some basins, and runoff from heated pavement locations downstream from ponds that and lawn areas. Thermal pollution can attract large Canada goose populations. trigger a vicious cycle as warm water • Dams encourages algal blooms, which absorb Dams, historically built to facilitate more sunlight, further warming water. transportation and mills, or more recently Algae is decomposed by bacteria, which for sediment- and flood-control, negatively consume oxygen from the water, further affect water quality and aquatic habitats. depleting dissolved oxygen. Dam pools trap sediment and allow greater sunlight exposure. The resulting Flooding turbidity, silt-covered stream bottom, Flooding is a natural process whereby and high summer water temperature are streams overflow their banks during heavy conditions that native aquatic wildlife precipitation events or snowmelts and cannot easily tolerate. Reservoirs also spill into floodplains. In natural settings attract large numbers of Canada geese, in this part of the continent, streams adding nutrient and fecal coliform typically reach bankfull stage and above pollutants, and reducing dissolved oxygen. once every 1½ years, on average. When floodplains are kept naturally forested and with networks of wetlands, they serve When floodplains are kept naturally to dissipate the velocity and disperse the volume of floodwaters. This reduces forested and with networks of wetlands, downstream hazards to human health and they serve to dissipate the velocity and impacts to property. Many of the agricultural areas of disperse the volume of flood waters. This the region have been cleared of natural vegetation for centuries. This allows reduces downstream hazards to human streams to cut deeply into their channels, health and impacts to property. which reduces their ability to overflow

34 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

their banks and disperse energy into the floodplain. As a result, even more 1500 downcutting occurs, further increasing the volume of water that the stream channel Post Development holds during storm events. 1000

By clearing vegetation, grading and Post Development with Detention compacting soils, and paving more of the but No Infiltration land—even with stormwater management

DISCHARGE (cfs) DISCHARGE Predevelopment 500 systems—we alter the natural flooding process in a way that prolongs periods of high flow in local streams. The major 0 cause of dangerous flooding is altered 0 10 20 30 40 runoff patterns, as we plow fields and pave TIME (hrs) over watersheds, allowing most of the STORMWATER RUNOFF HYDROGRAPH stormwater runoff to head directly into Conventional stormwater management facilities that do streams rather than recharging into the not provide infiltration or evapotranspiration only control soil as it would do naturally. The suburban the peak rate of runoff, not total runoff volume. Streams land-use pattern favors seemingly benign may still become degraded, even with stormwater basins, single-family residential neighborhoods because standard detention facilities unnaturally prolong periods of high flows. All stormwater management and shopping centers. However, the facilities should include a volume reduction component. construction sites, roads and parking lots, lawns, and sewage systems of this deceptively tame suburban landscape are responsible for the greatest threats to water • Drinking Water Supplies quality and quantity in the watershed. Most local wells are private. Well-drilling permits and data on private well levels Groundwater Depletion and yields has only recently been required Groundwater depletion is a serious by the Montgomery and Chester County condition that can lead to drying of local Health Departments. When wells go dry, it wells and loss of baseflow to wetlands is difficult to pinpoint the cause—it may be and streams. Soils lose their natural a combination of factors including drought, groundwater recharge ability when natural shallow well depth, increased demand vegetation is cleared and replaced with from surrounding wells, and increased lawn, graded and compacted soils, and impervious surface coverage. impervious surfaces such as paved areas • Stream Baseflow and rooftops. Depletion of groundwater As groundwater supplies diminish, less is difficult to monitor, since it requires water reaches the streams that depend comparison of groundwater well and on groundwater during dry months. In stream gauge data over time. first and second order streams, decreased

Groundwater depletion is a serious condition that can lead to drying of local wells and loss of baseflow to wetlands and streams.

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 35 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

baseflow magnifies the effects of pollutants. In sum, the quality and quantity of This results in increased stress on surface and groundwater and the ecological pollutant-sensitive aquatic species. Under integrity of natural areas are closely drought conditions, some southeastern interrelated. Increased surface runoff Pennsylvania streams can have so little generated by poorly planned development input from groundwater that 90% of the results in increased flooding and erosion, stream flow is treated sewer discharge diminished groundwater levels, increased during dry summer months. pollution of ground and surface water, increased concentration of pollutants, and reduced diversity of native plants Streams once buffered by forests that absorb and wildlife. Stormwater Management (page 149) provides general guidelines and slow surface runoff must accommodate and innovative strategies for areas under larger quantities of runoff flowing from suburban development that will minimize the impact to on- and off-site land and developed landscapes and with higher peak water resources. rates—“flashier flooding.” Streambank Stabilization Every stream and its floodplain evolves over time in the context of the specific Streams in slope, geology, vegetation, and climate developed of its drainage area. However, as land use watersheds cannot manage changes, watershed hydrology changes, so the higher the stream system must adapt to manage stormwater flows, the new flows. Streams once buffered by resulting in forests that absorb and slow surface runoff undercut banks must accommodate larger quantities of and the stream’s runoff flowing from suburban landscapes loss of access to and with higher peak rates—“flashier its floodplain. flooding.” These same streams, which were Natural convex-upward bank and channel once fed by a steady flow of groundwater seeping from a natural landscape, may in turn cease flowing in drier months due to depleted groundwater baseflows. Natural stream systems in Pennsylvania develop a dynamic equilibrium with their floodplain and channel that creates natural areas of moderate sedimentation and erosion, both in the channel and out onto the floodplain. In an undisturbed watershed, a stream meanders back and forth across its floodplain over the course Concave-vertical bank of time. Streams respond to flashier following disturbance flood patterns created by land clearing and bank erosion and suburban development by quickly

36 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS expanding their channels wider and Natural lands can accommodate many deeper, inhibiting the meander dynamic. Broader, more entrenched streams types of recreational use if the type and level are unable to overflow their banks in flood, restricting all the erosive of use is tempered by the resiliency of the velocities to the channel. These streams undercut surrounding vegetation, further resources within the natural lands. destabilizing their banks. This causes still more erosion. Why recreational uses matter Recreational Use the ability of a natural area to As the amount of natural lands decreases tolerate recreational use depends on across the region, the value of those the site’s resiliency remaining grows for both private landowners (as quiet retreats from today’s less resilient sites are degraded by use overdrive world) and public landowners (as places for their constituents to recreate). solve by Public landowners and private landowners permitting public access to natural lands gradually adding uses in order are under increasing pressure to allow of least impact and facilitate more types of use by greater numbers of people. Natural lands can accommodate many types of recreational use if the type and level of use is tempered by the resiliency of the resources within the natural lands. Each type of use places different demands on site resources and each site has a different level of resiliency to each type of use depending on site characteristics, especially soils, slope, and hydrology. Larger expanses of natural land with well-drained soils, isolated wetlands, and no special plant or animal resources can tolerate a greater volume and more types of use than smaller land areas with extensive wetlands or habitats for species of special concern. Each landowner must decide which uses will be allowed within the natural lands under his or her control. Sometimes David Harper this decision has already been made by a A paved walking trail adjacent to wetlands and meadow previous owner and conveyed through a at the West Vincent Township municipal complex provides restriction placed in a will, conservation observational access to natural areas but is not integrated easement, or deed restriction. If public into them, an appropriate choice for small, heavily used sites.

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 37 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

money (state, county, municipal) is used of permitted uses have been ascertained. to protect a property, there is often a Start with allowing the use that has the requirement to allow some form of public least impact—pedestrian use—and add access. In general, use of protected natural new uses, or expand current use areas, if lands should be restricted to passive the natural lands have not been noticeably recreation such as hiking, birdwatching, degraded. It is much easier to prohibit a and nature study. In some cases use by particular use from the start than to try to equestrians and mountain bikers can be stop it after negative impacts are realized. compatible with site resources. Motorized The following are a few issues and vehicles are usually only appropriate for considerations related to public use that stewardship activities. should be addressed in a stewardship plan As part of developing a stewardship for natural lands that will be used for plan, the landowner should understand recreational purposes. the inherent environmental conditions and determine what types of use can be Trails allowed and the appropriate level and Trails are a feature that can both facilitate place for each use. It is important to stewardship and recreational enjoyment of make sure that recreational uses do not a property and compromise management degrade the environmental and ecological efforts and wildlife habitat. On the one benefits that made the natural lands worth hand, trails provide easier access through protecting. To that end, it is a good rule to a natural area for stewardship activities gradually add uses only after the impacts and opportunities for observation, contemplation, exploration, and learning by recreational users. On the other Mowed grass trails hand, they often serve as avenues for the at Natural Lands spread of invasive plants such as stiltgrass Trust’s Gwynedd Wildlife Preserve (Microstegium vimineum) and garlic-mustard enable visitors (Alliaria petiolata). If sufficiently wide and to experience heavily used, they can become both a grassland habitat barrier to the movement of some wildlife while minimally (mice, salamanders) and a “wedge of edge,” disturbing resulting in a loss of interior forest habitat. wildlife. Trails are essential for proper stewardship and recreational enjoyment of natural lands, but if poorly designed or misused they can become stormwater channels that cut into hillsides and remove soil resources. In severe cases, gully erosion can lower the water table and stress established vegetation. Users of natural lands (hikers, equestrians, mountain bikers) may create rogue trails as the “need” or whim arises. This not only results in the formation of potential Mark Eberle

38 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

erosion channels, but also crushes Dogs on trails vegetation, disturbs wildlife, and expands must be firmly the amount of compacted soil. Compacted controlled to soil results in lower water percolation prevent stress on wildlife and and soil gas exchange—both detriments habitat, as well to vegetation even beyond the area of as on other surface disturbance. trail users. Where recreational use of natural lands is a high priority, trails are the best way to direct that use. The main concerns with walking trails are (1) limiting the number of trails to minimize soil exposure, (2) properly routing trails to direct pedestrians to where they should go and away from where they should not go, and (3) minimizing soil erosion potential through proper construction

and maintenance. © iStockphoto.com/Abby Wilcox If a trail system already exists within the natural lands, it should be reviewed and modified with the goals of Dogs minimizing the number of trails (to limit People walking dogs can be a compatible maintenance needs, erosion potential, and use of natural lands if dog owners follow soil compaction) and addressing current a few simple rules. First, dogs should be erosion and safety problems. In general, leashed at all times. Allowing a dog to run this will entail closing redundant trails, off-leash—except on the owner’s property rerouting trails, and installing appropriate or for lawful hunting—is prohibited by water control structures in unavoidable state and (most) local community laws. problem areas. Construction of any new Unleashed dogs threaten the safety and trails should be kept to a minimum, enjoyment of other users. Second, dog particularly in forested areas, to prevent walking should be limited to an established fragmentation. Unwarranted creation of trail system to prevent dogs from harassing new trails or inappropriate use of trails in or killing wildlife, disturbing understory publicly accessible natural lands should vegetation and degrading streambanks. be addressed through education (signage, This damage may seem insignificant or informational brochure, meetings with even unnoticeable to us, but to birds user groups) and enforcement. It is also nesting in a meadow or native plants just recommended that the use of vehicles on peeking through the soil, the disturbances trails be minimized, as heavy equipment can be severe, even deadly. Finally, owners can disturb and compact soil and can should clean up after their pets. Besides deliver weed seeds to new areas in soil being a public nuisance, dog waste can adhering to tires. degrade local water resources. Waste Guidelines are given in Trail Design left in a natural area can be washed and Maintenance (page 155). into streams or ponds during storm

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 39 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

events and contribute disease-causing Horses bacteria—including E.coli and fecal Southeastern Pennsylvania has a long coliform bacteria—and excess nutrients tradition of equestrian use of natural to local water sources. The latter can lead lands. Equestrian use can be compatible to algal blooms that eventually decrease with other recreational uses and have the oxygen level of the water body and minimal impacts on natural lands if trails adversely affect aquatic organisms. are properly laid out and maintained and equestrians are responsible users. Otherwise, potential conflicts with On appropriate stewardship goals and other users are likely sites, responsible equestrian use to result. Horses can damage trails under can be compatible heavy use or if used during wet conditions. with stewardship Using natural lands as a horse training or goals. Riding exercise facility is hazardous to pedestrians; horses in sensitive horse excrement on trails is an unwelcome areas (steep obstacle for pedestrians and another slopes, wetlands) potential vector for weed seeds. Unless it or at inappropriate is an existing use of the site, equestrian use times can severely damage trails and should be added cautiously and only after degrade soil and other uses are established. Ideally, trails water resources. can be wide enough—or separate trails created—to minimize the potential conflict between pedestrians and riders.

Mountain Bikes

Denise Barringer Mountain bikes can be relatively benign in natural lands under certain conditions (large area, low frequency of use, resilient resources); however, they are problematic if the activity is concentrated and in mixed-use situations. Repeated use of trails (particularly in forested areas) can accelerate trail erosion by funneling stormwater into narrow, continuous channels. Off-trail exploration disturbs understory plants and wildlife. Most importantly, irresponsible use of trails can threaten the safety and enjoyment of pedestrians. Like equestrian use, mountain bikes are best permitted after primary uses are established and only if appropriate © iStockphoto.com/Bill Grove conditions exist. If used infrequently, in large areas with resilient resources, mountain bikes can be compatible with stewardship goals. Otherwise their presence in a natural area can be problematic.

40 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Hunting and tiger beetles. Logs also help control The overabundance of white-tailed deer erosion by slowing surface water flow and and Canada geese can significantly affect by absorbing water in place. Mycorrhizal the plant and water resources of a site. The filaments reach up from tree roots into impact of geese can often be addressed by fallen wood to extract valuable nutrients. eliminating the cover types that attract Individual standing dead trees— them (open water and lawn). However, “snags”—are also important to leave, when reducing the impact of deer on large they do not pose a hazard to humans or natural lands is best achieved—at this structures, because they are used as dens point—through lethal removal. Under by many animals and harbor insects and current Pennsylvania game laws, the most microorganisms that provide food for practical lethal removal option is hunting many birds and small mammals. These, in turn, are food for larger mammals and during established seasons. (See Wildlife birds of prey. Management, page 104, for discussion of other lethal and non-lethal options.) Hunting Dead wood should be viewed as a can be compatible with other recreational valuable resource within natural areas. activities if it is properly regulated and It should receive as little “processing” as organized. Ideally, hunters should be possible. Hazard trees should, of course, screened and required to pass a proficiency be dropped to prevent injury to trail users, test so that only responsible and skilled neighbors, or structures. Any tree hunters are allowed on site. This will result downed by nature or chainsaw, however, in quick, clean kills and maximize safety should be left on the ground and cut for other users, including other hunters. only as needed to eliminate any trail Hunters should be informed that they are obstruction, future hazard, or attractive a vital part of the stewardship program nuisance, and to avoid covering areas of for the site and not just involved in a special value such as dense stands of spring recreational activity. See the description ephemeral wildflowers. of Natural Lands Trust’s deer management program under Wildlife Management Organic Waste Disposal (page 116) as a model for a regulated hunting program. Placing organic waste (grass clippings, pulled weeds, pruned branches, leaves, etc.) from landscaped areas in natural Dead Wood lands may appear to be a benign, perhaps Although often viewed as unsightly waste even beneficial, means of disposal, but material, dead wood is the foundation of this practice can pose real threats. (Note: the forest food chain and also provides Organic waste dumps are different from brush shelter to many animal species. In piles created from native materials or the piles addition, fallen logs and limbs serve as a of branches resulting from timber harvests, water reservoir in times of drought. They both of which can be food and cover for soak up water and can retain it for long wildlife and protect tree seedlings from deer periods of time, providing nursery sites for browsing. Brush piles are addressed on page seedlings (especially during dry spells) and 137.) Materials from landscaped areas are moisture for small animals like salamanders often foreign to the ecosystem and behave

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 41 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Aesthetics and Hazards The long history of intensive human activities in this region (homesteads, agriculture, logging) has left a great variety of debris and hazards within our natural lands. Examples include open wells and foundations, barbed-wire fences, farm dumps, abandoned equipment and vehicles, and toxic materials (e.g., old pesticide and fuel cans, painted and treated lumber). Natural lands are still

David Steckel used as dumping sites for construction Stockpiled and discarded organic waste is unsightly and also a and landscape debris and as party spots. hazard to humans, wildlife, and the health of natural areas. To improve the aesthetic and recreational value of a property and to protect both humans and wildlife from harm, an effort very differently from naturally accumulated should be made to catalog and remove materials. They can bear seeds of exotic unsightly and potentially harmful materials (and in some cases invasive) plants, and structures from natural lands. insects, fungi, bacteria, and chemical In addition to the removal of old debris properties, some of which can cause harm and hazards, a regular monitoring program to native species. They are invariably should be established to identify and placed in piles or thick layers and take address future issues as soon as possible much longer to decompose than the to minimize their potential impacts. thin layers of organic material laid down Periodically (as often as practical for naturally in forests. These unsightly piles the landowner or manager) walking the severely inhibit the establishment of native property boundary and any internal public plant species from seed while typically roads is a good way to identify dump sites providing favorable establishment sites for and other unwarranted use. many introduced invasive species. Of particular interest to every In many cases, the dumping of organic landowner with forested natural lands (and non-organic) trash originates from should be the monitoring and removal of adjacent properties. Property boundaries “hazard” trees. A landowner can be held should be monitored on a regular basis to responsible for injuries or damages that curtail dumping of lawn and garden waste might result from trees with obvious defects by neighbors. located on their property. All landowners

42 Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

have the obligation to make a reasonable effort to identify and remove hazard trees (see Hazard Tree Monitoring Program, page 165). Trees can become a hazard if they exist near an area or structure with high human use (e.g., residence, road, bench, picnic area) and they have a high potential to fall (whole or in part) due to structural defects. The level of scrutiny for hazard trees in any particular area should be driven by the amount of human use and the presence of structures that could sustain damage. The monitoring program should focus on high use areas or areas with significant structures. Ideally, an arborist, certified by the International Society of Arboriculture, should be hired to annually monitor high hazard areas (public and internal roads, off-site and on-site structures) and remove hazard trees. If possible, any cut portion of a tree in natural lands should be left on site as dead wood. Snags (dead, standing trees) in areas that are infrequently used are best retained for their wildlife benefits. David Steckel (all)

Typical unsightly and hazardous structures and obstacles found on natural lands: attractive nuisances such as trees fallen across trails, tree forts, and abandoned foundations and wells.

Land Stewardship in Southeastern Pennsylvania 43 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Preparing a Stewardship Plan

The ultimate purpose of any stewardship plan is to provide direction for the landowner or manager to take a parcel of land from its current state to the desired state based on the landowner’s goals for the parcel.

atural lands offer a broad menu habitat, the plan would need to address of both stewardship challenges many issues involved in converting the Nand opportunities for benefiting meadow to forest, including the types and wildlife and human users. Successfully number of trees to plant, when to plant addressing the challenges and maximizing them, and how to protect them from deer environmental, ecological, and recrea­ and invasive plants over several decades. tional benefits requires a serious, on-going If your goal is to maintain the meadow commitment to stewardship based upon for grassland bird habitat, the plan will a long-term perspective of protecting and codify the current stewardship regimen and enhancing the existing natural resources. address minor issues (e.g., spot-spraying Developing a stewardship plan is a good scattered invasive plants) to better protect process for cataloging existing resources on-site resources. and issues, delineating the landowner’s The complexity of the plan will be stewardship goals, and developing and directly proportional to the complexity implementing strategies for meeting the of the parcel (the number of different IN THIS SECTION stewardship goals. cover types) and the number of goals the The ultimate purpose of any landowner wishes to meet. A stewardship How do I decide plan also grows in complexity with the what to do with stewardship plan is to provide direction what I’ve got? for the landowner or manager to take a degree of degradation of existing resources parcel of land from its current state to the and how much the area will need to be A stewardship plan is essential desired state based on the landowner’s modified to help meet stewardship goals. to good land goals for the parcel. This might entail a The process for developing a stewardship. Here you will find a significant change and detailed instructions stewardship plan involves nine steps: 9-step planning or a simple plan that confirms or slightly process that will modifies the stewardship activities already Step 1: Inventory existing natural help you to decide resources and current stewardship issues. what to do with in place. Consider the example of an your land and how existing healthy meadow. If your strategy from the to achieve your Step 2: Delineate natural lands goals. is to create a forest in this area to meet remainder of the property. the goal of increasing interior forest

44 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Step 3: Establish stewardship units, the property through a process called site delineating areas with similar vegetation analysis. A site analysis will: (1) identify and past management. any legal restrictions on the property; (2) Step 4: Establish the conservation document the physical resources (geology, priority for the natural lands. soils, hydrologic features, slopes) and vegetation (type, condition, and extent); Step 5: Establish the stewardship goals and (3) note special features, such as for the natural lands. rare plants, scenic locations, trails, and Step 6: Determine appropriate large trees, as well as the presence of stewardship strategies for each unit. stewardship challenges and issues, such as invasive species, erosion, or safety Step 7: Prioritize and schedule hazards. This process should result in a stewardship tasks for each unit. thorough understanding of the property’s Step 8: Establish a monitoring program environmental and ecological resources, to determine if goals are being met within the threats to the integrity of those each stewardship unit. resources, and the property’s potential— Step 9: Assemble the Stewardship and limitations—for use. Plan to record information gathered and A site analysis starts with a base map decisions made. showing property boundaries, easements and rights-of-way, adjoining ownership, Remember that because natural existing roads and structures, water systems are continually evolving, land features, forested and open areas, and any stewardship must similarly evolve other relevant features. Mapping of the over time as new stewardship issues are detailed natural features (geology, soils, identified, land management knowledge topography and slopes, hydrology, and and technology change, and stewardship vegetation cover), along with existing goals are modified. Therefore, stewardship man-made features such as historic plans should be revisited on a regular structures, gardens, and landscape basis (every 3–5 years, or following a elements, is then overlaid on the base map significant change, such as new ownership individually or in combination. or modification of the conservation priority Geology and soils will indicate what or stewardship goals) to make sure they are general type of plant communities— still appropriate in all respects. Steps 6 and terrestrial (upland) or palustrine 7 should be reviewed and revised as needed (wetland)—would typically occur on on an annual basis. various parts of the site. Unusual bedrock types can indicate the potential for uncommon plant communities (e.g., Step 1 serpentine barrens, diabase meadows, INVENTORY EXISTING calcareous fens). Hydrologic features include surface water features (ponds, NATURAL RESOURCES streams, springs), wetlands, floodplains, and hydric soils. Moderate (15–25%) and he first step in developing a steep slopes (>25%) can be calculated stewardship plan is to survey the from topographic contour lines. Tproperty to identify the existing The vegetation information gathered natural resources and document any issues for a site analysis can range from simply that might affect the stewardship or use of

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 45 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

1. Parcels, Waterways, Waterbodies, and Township Boundary Park Boundary received from Chester County. 2. 2005 High Resolution Orthoimage received from DVRPC. 3. Floodplains received from PASDA (Pennsylvania Spatial National Wetlands Inventory Data Access--ww.pasda.psu.edu). 4. Stream Buffer created in GIS by NLT. Hydric Soils 5. NWI Site received from USFWS. 6. Hydric Soils received from USDA-NRCS. Riparian Buffer (95 feet) 100 Year Floodplain

vI vI

t e e r t S

t nu al W

N .

B r o a d et E tre a S s t

B r a

n St c

h r t e e tre R e S

t e

te d Anson B. Nixon Park

en a d t C

Lin S

l

. a Kennett Square, Chester County, PA

E y

C

r

E. e e

{" k HYDROLOGY Michael McGeehin Hydrology Anson B. Nixon Stewardship Plan Feet 1031 Palmers Mill Road, Media, PA 19063 Kennett Square Borough & Kennett Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania 0 250 500 610-353-5587 ~ www.natlands.org Compiled By: MTM 08/15/08 46 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

1. Parcels and Waterways received from Chester County. 1. Parcels, Waterways, 5 Ft Contours, Moderate and Steep Park Boundary Park Boundary 2. 2005 High Resolution Orthoimage received from DVRPC. Slopes and Township Boundary received through Chester 3. Soils Information received from USDA--NRCS. County. Waterways 2. 2005 High Resolution Orthoimage receive through DVRPC. Soil Type Waterways Chester (CdB2) Moderate and Steep Slopes with 5 Ft Contours Glenelg (GeB3, GeC2, GeC3, GeD2, GeD3) GeB3 Slopes 0 - 15% Glenville (GnB, GnB2)UoB Slopes 16 - 25% Urban Land (UogB, UsbB, UsmB) UoB GnB2 Slopes > 25% Water (W) Wehadkee (We) UogB Worsham (WoA) GeB2 UoB UrbanGnB2 Land--Glenelg Complex (UoB) GeB3 vI vI vI vI GnB GeD2 335 GeC2 GnB2 GeC2 GeC3

315 GnB2 370 GeB2 365 CdB2

GeD3 t t e W e e e r r t t S S GeB2 WoA GeC2 WoA t t nu nu al al W W

GeB2

N N . . We 305 GeC3

300 B 305 B UsbB r r o o a a d d et UsmB et E tre E tre a S a S s s t t

36 B B 0 r UoB r a a

n n St c St c h h UoB r t r t e e

R e tre e tre R

e S e S e

t Anson B. Nixon Park t e Anson B. Nixon Park d

te te d

en a en a C d t d t C

Lin S Lin S

l Kennett Square, Chester County, PA l Kennett Square, Chester County, PA

a

. . a

y E E y

C C

r r

e

E. E. e e e k {" TOPOGRAPHY {" k SOILS

Topography Soils

Anson B. Nixon Stewardship Plan Park Boundary Anson B. Nixon Stewardship Plan 1. Municipal Boundaries, Waterways, Waterbodies, and Parcel Unit 1: Low Use Natural Area Data received from Chester County. Feet 2. 2005 Aerial Photography received from DVRPC. Feet 1031 Palmers Mill Road, Media, PA 19063 Kennett Square Borough & Kennett Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania 0 250 500 1031Stewardship Palmers Mill Issues Road, Media, PA 19063 Kennett SquareUnit Borough 2: Moderate & Kennett Use To Naturalwnship, AreaChester County, Pennsylvania 3. Management Units created0 by NLT from250 site visit and Aerial500 listing610-353-5587 ~ www.natlands.orgmajor cover types (deciduous forest, agriculturalCompiled By: MTM 03/27/07 610-353-5587 ~ www.natlands.org Photo interpretation. Compiled By: MTM 03/27/07 )" Dam Unit 3: Disc Golf Area 4. Stewardship Issues Locations created by NLT from GPS data Unit 4: Landscape/Active Recreation Area and from Aerial Photo interpretation. (! Dumping (Current) field, etc.), to identifying the plant communities (! Dumping (Past) (! Dumping (Past and Current) present and noting dominant native and invasive *# Encroachment )"! Hazard species, to undertaking a detailed inventory of the G Road Salt Runoff ") Trail Improvement Needed canopy, understory, shrub, vine, and herbaceous vI vI layers. Obviously, because stewardship largely involves

Unit 1 manipulation of plant resources, the greater the detail +/- 9.1 Acres

Unit 4B the better. The level of detail, however, will depend on +/- 19.2 Acres

Unit 4C the available resources of the landowner. +/- 1.4 Acres Special features important to note include large

Unit 3 t e e +/- 21.6 Acres r t trees, plant and animal species of special concern S (endangered, threatened, or rare), patches of Unit 2A t +/- 26.7 Acres nu al Unit 2B W uncommon wildflowers (especially spring ephemerals), +/- 7.8 Acres seasonal pools, and wetlands. Stewardship issues that

Unit 4A N might be encountered include lack of native plant . +/- 21.9 Acres advance regeneration, invasive species, erosion (due

B r to on- or off-site uses or problems), lack of adequate o a d et E tre a S s t riparian buffer, old structures, hazard trees, and dumps. B r a

n

c Anson B. Nixon Park St

h r t e e tre R

e S e Kennett Square, Chester County, PA t

The maps on these two pages are examples of e d

t

en a d t C

Lin S

l

. a

E y

C STEWARDSHIP

r

E. e detailed maps showing the range of site characteristics e

" k UNITS and ISSUES that can be cataloged for a site analysis and on the { Michael McGeehin (all) following page is an example of a simplified site analysis Stewardship Units and Issues Anson B. Nixon Stewardship Plan map that would be sufficient for many landowners. Feet 1031 Palmers Mill Road, Media, PA 19063 Kennett Square Borough & Kennett Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania 0 250 500 610-353-5587 ~ www.natlands.org Compiled By: MTM 03/27/07

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 47 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

SIMPLIFIED SITE ANALYSIS

hedgerow

farm dump seasonal sedge pool wetland pasture mature upland uncommon forest wildflower patch

crops G oad r rch R e d Chu large pond e Ol n

sycamore v

i l l e

R

o

a

d

d steep a

o slopes R

y

r

r

a u pasture crops Q skunk- cabbage mature wetland upland forest steep slopes

old field/ shrub young lowland forest Holly Harper

48 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Mapping and Site Analysis Information Sources

INFORMATION SOURCE TYPE OF INFORMATION PROVIDED AVAILABLE FROM Property deed property line description, easements and county recorder of deeds rights-of-way, adjoining ownership Tax map property boundaries, easements and county and municipal offices rights-of-way, adjoining ownership, roads Survey property boundaries, easements and owner, surveyor rights-of-way, adjoining ownership, roads, structures, water features, wooded areas, topography, soils, wetlands, floodplain Aerial photographs roads, structures, water features, wooded Delaware Valley Regional Planning and open areas Commission (www.dvrpc.org), Pennsylvania Spatial Data Access (www.pasda.psu.edu), county US Geological Survey roads, structures, water features, sporting goods stores, map stores/ (USGS) quadrangle maps topography dealers, library, Pennsylvania Spatial Data Access (www.pasda.psu.edu) Geology maps geology Atlas of Geologic Quadrangle Maps of Pennsylvania, library, Pennsylvania Spatial Data Access (www.pasda.psu.edu) County soil survey soils, previous vegetation Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), Pennsylvania Spatial Data Access (www.pasda.psu.edu) National Wetlands wetlands US Fish and Wildlife Service, Inventory maps Pennsylvania Spatial Data Access (www.pasda.psu.edu) County Natural Areas natural areas, species of special concern county, Pennsylvania Natural Inventories Heritage Program (www. naturalheritage.state.pa.us) Field surveys natural resource assessment, natural resource consultant stewardship issues

we define natural lands as areas that Step 2 are covered entirely or mostly by plants DELINEATE NATURAL LANDS that are native—or those that have become naturalized—to the southeastern he next step in developing a Pennsylvania region. In general, natural stewardship plan is to use the lands do not receive or require ongoing, Tinformation gathered through intensive management—as do agricultural the site analysis to determine which or landscaped areas—to perpetuate.) areas of the property will be designated For most properties in this region, the as natural lands and addressed under the general limits of the natural lands are plan. (For the purpose of this handbook, fairly easy to establish. They are basically

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 49 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

DELINEATING NATURAL AREAS

hedgerow

farm dump natural seasonal sedge area pool wetland pasture mature upland uncommon forest wildflower natural area patch

crops G oad r rch R e d Chu large e Ol n

sycamore v

i l l e

R

o

a

d

d steep a

o slopes R

y

r

r

a u pasture crops Q skunk natural area cabbage mature wetland upland forest steep slopes

steep slopes old field/ shrub young lowland forest Holly Harper

50 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

the areas outside of the landscaped and could also be converted to native meadow agricultural (cultivated fields, pasture, or forest to shade the water surface, orchard) areas on the property. What will discourage Canada geese, and improve require some thought is: (1) whether any habitat for less common waterfowl and part of the current natural area will be other wildlife. used for other purposes in the future, such The second scenario, delineating as the site for a house or playing field; or natural lands for a conservation (2) if any of the current area in landscape subdivision, is more complicated because plantings (e.g., lawn) or agriculture can be you also need to delineate multiple converted to natural lands. residential lots. The examples on To illustrate this step we will consider this and the following pages illustrate two scenarios: (1) delineating natural simple design guidelines for refining the lands on a residential property; and boundaries of the natural lands. Following (2) delineating natural lands for a these guidelines will result in the design conservation subdivision. Using the of better, more effective natural lands site analysis map shown on page 48 for that meet the conservation goals of the the first scenario, we can delineate the municipality and landowner, maximize natural lands most easily by outlining and environmental and ecological benefits, and excluding the areas that will be maintained are easier to steward. in formal landscaping (areas that will be maintained as lawn, gardens, or recreation sites) or managed for agricultural purposes Natural areas design guidelines (crops or pasture for livestock). As the property is used now, the natural lands would include the forest, hedgerows, 1.0 wetlands, and old field/shrub areas. Natural lands should include the most Additional parts of the property could sensitive resource area of a property. be added to the natural areas depending on the specific conservation priorities and the financial resources of the landowner. For example, if a conservation priority woodlands for the property is to protect the stream woodlands NATURAL and the landowner no longer needs the LANDS income generated from the crop fields, the pond NATURAL pond crop fields could be converted to forest or LANDS wetland wetland native meadow to better buffer the stream (see map at left). The area around the pond

Unacceptable Acceptable Holly Harper

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 51 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Natural areas design guidelines, cont.

2.0 Natural lands should be designed as one, large block of land with logical, straightforward boundaries.

NATURAL NATURAL LANDS LANDS

Unacceptable Acceptable

2.1 In the case of a planned subdivision with common open space, the natural lands should encompass as few ownerships as possible (preferably just one) to limit the difficulty and complexity of future monitoring and enforcement. If more than one ownership is absolutely unavoidable, then the natural lands should be configured so that one parcel contains all of the most sensitive features of the natural area such as wetlands and riparian buffers, to avoid fragmenting the natural system and to ease the burden of monitoring and enforcement.

woodlands woodlands NATURAL NATURAL LANDS LANDS

Unacceptable Acceptable

2.2 Long, thin strips of land should be avoided as natural lands unless they are necessary to connect other significant lands or are designed to protect a linear resource that cannot otherwise be protected, e.g., a stream or trail. Holly Harper

52 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Natural areas design guidelines, cont.

NATURAL NATURAL LANDS LANDS

wetland wetland

Unacceptable Acceptable

2.3 Under no circumstances should a natural area extend into small corners of individual lots.

woodlands trail wetland wetland easement

woodlands trail easements NATURAL LANDS

NATURAL LANDS

Unacceptable Acceptable

2.4 The boundaries of natural lands should be designed to be as simple and straight as possible, so they can easily be found in the field and enforced. Where possible, natural boundaries or existing features of the land should be used, such as a forest edge or a stream buffer. Holly Harper

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 53 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Natural areas design guidelines, cont.

3.0 Natural lands should be designed as part of a larger continuous and integrated open space system. Maintaining or creating connections to natural lands on adjoining properties significantly increases the value of both areas.

Unacceptable Existing 3.1 If the natural lands are protected lands Parcels to be or will be legally protected, developed

they should be designed to be NATURAL contiguous to other protected LANDS areas on adjoining lands, if possible.

NATURAL Acceptable LANDS wetland

3.2 Where this is not possible, some connection woodlands to the other protected areas should be made. EXISTING PARK Holly Harper

54 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Step 3 STEWARDSHIP UNITS ESTABLISH STEWARDSHIP UNITS Residential property UNIT 2 hedgerow UNIT 4 nless the property is very small, its sedge natural lands will usually consist wetland UNIT 1a of more than one cover type. mature upland U forest Because stewardship goals, strategies, and

UNIT 3b G

ad crops r tasks are often different for different cover rch Ro e d Chu e Ol UNIT n

v

i l 5 l types, it is helpful to separate areas with e

pond R

o

a different cover types—or disconnected d

d a

areas with the same cover type—into o R

y

r

r stewardship units. Delineating stewardship a UNIT 3a u crops Q skunk units on a map creates a common view cabbage wetland and vocabulary for the property and allows UNIT 1b mature upland UNIT 6 you to discuss the current features and forest condition of each area of the property UNIT 7 young old field/ more clearly with stakeholders (family, lowland shrub forest residents, constituents, staff), consultants, and contractors. The map at right shows the stewardship units for the residential property scenario

STEWARDSHIP UNITS Conservation Subdivision

UNIT 3

hedgerow UNIT 2a young lowland forest

UNIT 4 pasture UNIT 1 mature upland forest UNIT 2b

UNIT 5 old led/scrub Holly Harper (both)

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 55 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

from Step 2. The second map on page 55 is protects and enhances every conservation an example of a fully designed conservation value of a site. The critical decision that subdivision with stewardship units. must be made in developing a stewardship plan is which conservation value is most important, in other words, what is the Step 4 conservation priority. The conservation priority will be the engine that drives all future ESTABLISH THE stewardship decisions for the natural lands. CONSERVATION PRIORITY All stewardship decisions should focus on protecting and enhancing the conservation atural lands are conserved priority of the natural lands. (It is possible because they have some type of to have multiple conservation priorities, Nconservation value to current particularly for very large properties, but or former decision-makers. Examples of more than two or three will muddle the conservation values include: decision-making process.) • Environmental – high quality water What or who determines the resource, special geologic feature conservation priority of each site? While the relative importance of all • – important wildlife Ecological conservation values should—and usually habitat, rare and endangered species does—figure prominently in this decision, • Recreational/Scenic – natural the conservation priority is ultimately environment for homeowner or local determined by those with legal authority community, gamelands, viewshed over the property. The following from public roadway decision tree will help you determine the • Historical – cultural features and use conservation priority for the natural lands of any site. • Programmatic – environmental education 1. Do any legal documents, for • Income Sources – timber production instance, the will of the former owner, a conservation easement, a The decision-maker is the person(s) deed restriction, municipal open that placed a legal restriction (such space plan, or subdivision approval, as a conservation easement or deed specifically dictate how the natural restriction) on the property that runs lands should be used or managed? with the property title or the person or Examples could include: the site must entity (corporation, municipality) who remain in a particular condition (forest, currently holds legal title to the land. meadow, agriculture); be managed for a If the landowner is trying to determine specific species or group of animals (bog the conservation values of a site, the site turtle, interior forest birds); or used for analysis will identify the special features environmental education. of the property that warrant conservation. • If yes, the conservation priority is The site analysis will, in most instances, determined. identify more than one conservation value. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to • If no, proceed to Question 2. steward natural lands in a manner that

56 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

2. Are there any features protected 4. Can the property help protect by federal regulations? Plant and or enhance a local, regional, or animal species listed on the federal statewide conservation priority? Endangered Species List (e.g., bog In many cases, the former or current turtle, bald eagle) are protected from decision-maker (landowner, township activities that threaten the viability board of supervisors) did not or does of a local population. Landowners not have a specific stewardship interest, with a listed species on their property but instead desires to see the property should consult with the US Fish and used to support a general interest such Wildlife Service before undertaking as wildlife habitat, the protection of a any activity—you will be given an high quality stream, or as a place for Incidental Take Permit if the activity private or public recreation. While these will not harm the species—within the interests will need to be addressed in property. Although you do not violate the stewardship plan, their more general any law by not consulting with the US nature allows the conservation priority Fish and Wildlife Service, if you proceed to be shaped by other conservation with an activity that does harm the considerations and to change over population, you can be prosecuted under time as the needs and concerns of the the Endangered Species Act. landowner or general conservation community change. • If yes, the conservation priority, at least for In order to determine how best part of the natural lands, is determined. to use the property to fulfill general • If no (or yes, but it only affects part of the conservation goals, it is helpful to natural lands), proceed to Question 3. understand the conservation priorities of local, regional, or statewide 3. Does the current landowner have organizations and agencies (see a specific conservation interest? Resources, page 211) and to view the Without any specific legal restriction property as part of a larger landscape. or federally regulated resource on the Helping to address a larger conservation property, the current landowner has the priority could help determine the authority to determine the stewardship conservation priority of the property. of any property, within the guidelines of Using the residential scenario from Step local ordinances. The landowner may 2, the two maps on page 58 provide have a specific interest for the natural a simplified illustration of how the lands such as environmental education surrounding landscape might influence or timber production. your choice of conservation priority. • If yes, the conservation priority is The first map shows the property determined. within a large forested landscape. • If no, proceed to Question 4. Converting the open areas to forest

The critical decision that must be made in developing a stewardship plan is which conservation value is most important, in other words, what is the conservation priority.

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 57 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Landscape context might help you determine your conservation priority. Depending on the cover type of surrounding properties, you may choose to manage for forest birds (top) or grassland birds (bottom).

convert to forest

STATE PARK

convert to forest

PRESERVE

agricultural crops degraded forest: convert to meadow

degraded forest: agricultural convert to crops meadow

pasture agricultural crops Holly Harper (both)

58 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

would significantly add to interior forest habitat to the benefit of threatened Step 6 songbirds. On the other hand, if DETERMINE APPROPRIATE the property rested within an open STEWARDSHIP STRATEGIES landscape of farmland and meadow and the more isolated forested areas on the nce goals are set for the entire property are heavily degraded, it might area of natural lands of a be best to eventually convert them Oproperty, stewardship strategies to native meadow to expand interior to achieve them can be established for habitat for threatened grassland birds. each stewardship unit. Simply stated, the These two examples show that the same strategies lay out what will happen over general landowner interests (wildlife the coming years in each unit to further habitat) can result in very different the stewardship goals of the entire area of conservation priorities depending on the natural lands. Stewardship strategies should landscape context. generally increase the environmental and ecological values of a unit while meeting a stewardship goal. The following are Step 5 examples of common stewardship strategies.

ESTABLISH THE Vegetation Management STEWARDSHIP GOALS ~ Maintain current cover type nce you have determined the ~ Convert to new cover type (discussed in conservation priority for the detail in Cover Type Options, page 66) Onatural lands, you are well on your ~ Control invasive plants (physical removal, way to establishing the stewardship goals, cutting, planting, herbicides, fire) that is, the desired future condition and use ~ Establish mowing or burning regimen of the natural lands. The first stewardship goal should always be to protect and Wildlife Management enhance the conservation priority of the property. There can be many other ~ Control disrupted wildlife populations stewardship goals, but none should conflict such as an extreme abundance of white- with this primary goal. From the examples tailed deer or Canada geese of conservation values in Step 4 above, the ~ Enhance habitat by creating snags, stewardship goals could be as follows: leaving dead wood, installing nesting Primary goal boxes and basking logs • Protect and enhance the forest Improve Aesthetics/ bird species of special concern Eliminate Hazards Secondary goals ~ Remove trash • Protect the water quality of ~ Discourage dumping the creek ~ Remove or secure obsolete/ • Provide recreational access for deteriorating structures local residents ~ Remove hazard trees

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 59 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Stormwater Management The following are general guidelines for ~ Take action to halt active erosion prioritizing restoration tasks. • Address hazards to humans and Public Use wildlife, such as hazard trees, obsolete ~ Construct or realign trails structures (abandoned wells, fencing, ~ Create interpretive materials buildings), or hazardous waste. ~ Establish an environmental • Address conditions that are actively degrading the conservation priority education program or other conservation values, such as ongoing soil erosion that is degrading Step 7 high quality water resources. • Remove unsightly debris to avoid PRIORITIZE AND SCHEDULE encouraging additional dumping. STEWARDSHIP TASKS • Address issues affecting the desired cover type, such as invasive plants or he next step in creating a overabundant deer. stewardship plan is determining Twhat tasks need to be done and in This should not be viewed as a list to what order to implement the stewardship be completed sequentially, but it is the strategies and achieve stewardship goals. typical order of importance or urgency of Stewardship tasks are generally divided restoration tasks in our region. In many into restoration tasks and routine tasks. cases these tasks will require the services Restoration tasks typically require a of contractors or volunteers, which can concentrated effort for a relatively short complicate the logistics of starting the period of time. The need for them is often work. Also, because support is sometimes a legacy of insufficient resources, interest, available from public agencies for or knowledge to perform routine tasks restoration tasks (tree planting, erosion (such as invasive species control, deer control) implementation can be delayed management) in the past or the result of by administrative requirements (e.g., grant an unexpected disturbance, for example, applications, budget approvals). tree blowdowns from high winds, erosion The timing of routine tasks is generally from heavy rain, or illegal dumping. dictated by the season (see table on following Routine tasks are ongoing (monitoring page). Routine monitoring of property for unwarranted use or hazards, mowing boundaries, hazard trees, and invasive trails, equipment maintenance) or cyclical species is often best done during the winter (cutting vines in the winter, mowing months when access to and visibility or burning meadows in early spring, within natural lands is best. Meadow administering a controlled deer hunt). mowing has least impact on wildlife in Restoration and routine tasks are largely late winter (prior to March 15); trail outgrowths of the stewardship strategies for mowing needs to occur throughout the the natural lands. Unless time or financial growing season. Time available for deer resources are unlimited, you will need to management using recreational hunters prioritize tasks in order to have the greatest is restricted to the seasons set by the impact with the available time and money. Pennsylvania Game Commission.

60 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

General Stewardship Task Schedule (see individual sections under Stewardship Techniques and Procedures for more details)

QUARTER TASK 1st Quarter Monitor property boundaries for unwarranted use (January – March) 1. Repost as needed 2. Address unwarranted use as needed Monitor for hazard trees 1. Prune or remove as needed Control invasive plants 1. Cut vines in canopy trees 2. Cut/herbicide shrubs 3. Spray evergreen vines on days above 45˚F Maintain meadows 1. Mow or burn if appropriate conditions and approvals exist Mow/selectively cut shrublands if needed Perform winter maintenance on equipment and structures 2nd Quarter Prep and plant meadows prior to June 1st (April – June) Water recently planted trees and shrubs as needed Maintain established meadows 1. Burn meadows if appropriate approvals and conditions exist Control invasive plants Maintain trails 1. Mow bi-weekly through growing season 2. Regrade and seed as needed 3. Install and maintain waterbars as needed Perform equipment maintenance as needed 3rd Quarter Maintain trails (July – September) 1. Mow bi-weekly through growing season Water recently planted trees and shrubs as needed Administer wildlife management programs if needed Control invasive plants 1. Spray broadleaf weeds in grasslands Maintain meadows 1. Mow or burn if needed Perform equipment maintenance as needed 4th Quarter Administer wildlife management programs if needed (October – December) Prep and plant meadows prior to November 15th Control invasive plants 1. Cut vines in canopy trees 2. Cut/herbicide shrubs 3. Spray evergreen vines on days above 45˚F Maintain meadows 1. Mow or burn if needed Perform equipment maintenance as needed

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 61 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Step 8 ESTABLISH A MONITORING PROGRAM

o most efficiently and effectively meet the conservation goals Adaptive Resource Testablished in a stewardship plan, environmental and ecological changes— Management (ARM) has those resulting both from management activities and from new influences on been termed “managing in the property—should be tracked. With periodic feedback as to which stewardship the face of uncertainty, with activities are or are not working, together a focus on its reduction.” with increased knowledge and new technologies, the stewardship of natural areas can be modified to better achieve established conservation goals. There ARM involves five basic steps should also be periodic (at least annual) monitoring to identify new disturbances 1. Determine (or review and update) conservation (dumping, new invasive species, erosion) so priorities for the property. they can be addressed as soon as possible. Monitoring should involve regular 2. Set and quantify resource stewardship goals for collection and analysis of data each conservation priority. (measurements or observations) to evaluate change or progress toward 3. Formulate a set of stewardship strategies and meeting stewardship goals. The tasks that are designed to move the system recommended approach for a practical toward the goals. monitoring program is to use the modern 4. Measure progress toward the goal at regular decision-support concept of adaptive intervals (e.g., every three years) using indicator resource management (ARM), which is species and other environmental indicators. a scientifically based way of “learning by doing.” ARM has been termed “managing 5. Update the set of stewardship strategies and in the face of uncertainty, with a focus on tasks based on the effectiveness of each action its reduction.” Implicit in this definition to move toward the goals. is that management can be improved if Repeat cyclically. uncertainty is reduced. Monitoring should address measurable goals; specific monitoring techniques should be designed to be repeated at regular intervals and to produce statistically valid results.

62 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Step 9 stewardship unit strategies that will guide the development of a task list each year. ASSEMBLE THE Because the stewardship plan is STEWARDSHIP PLAN intended to be a living document— growing as new information is learned he final step in preparing a about the property and evolving as stewardship plan is organizing all conservation priorities change—it is often Tof the information gathered and best to keep the document in a three-ring decisions made in a single document. binder that can easily accommodate these The resulting stewardship plan becomes a adjustments. The following is a sample handy reference and an annual reminder of outline for constructing a stewardship plan.

GENERAL AND BACKGROUND INFORMATION • Animal resources • Name of property ~ Animal species summary ~ Animal species of special concern/county • Plan writer/Plan date/Revision dates natural area inventory • Landowner • Special features • Date of acquisition ~ Scenic views description and map • Property size, location and directions ~ Rock outcrops and other geological ~ Location map (USGS) features description and map ~ Site map ~ Photos • Regional context ~ Aerial or satellite photo of surroundings CULTURAL AND HISTORIC RESOURCES and description INVENTORY AND ANALYSIS ~ Protected lands map and description • Existing structures and facilities • Ownership/stewardship history ~ Buildings, bridges, boardwalks, etc. ~ Historical aerial photos description and map ~ Parking, trails, signs, fences, gates, etc. • Legal restrictions/Donor’s wishes/Vision description and map ~ Photos NATURAL RESOURCES INVENTORY AND ANALYSIS • Public use • Geology ~ Policy • Soils ~ Existing uses ~ Proposed uses and improvements • Topography and slopes • Hydrology STEWARDSHIP ISSUES ~ Individual or combined maps for above • Forest regeneration • Plant resources • Overabundant wildlife species ~ Plant communities map and summary, including condition • Edge effects ~ Plant species summary • Invasive plant species ~ Plant communities and species of special • Lack of riparian buffers concern/county natural area inventory ~ Representative photos • Erosion

continued…

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 63 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

…continued

• Recreational use FINANCIAL RESOURCES • Unwarranted use • Operating budget • Aesthetic degradation and hazards • Capital budget • Other • Funding needs ~ Individual or combined maps for above where appropriate APPENDICES ~ Photodocumentation • Legal description/survey • Donation agreement/Grant restrictions CONSERVATION VALUES AND PRIORITIES • Plant inventory • Conservation values • Animal inventory • Conservation priority/priorities • Pennsylvania Natural Heritage Program/County Natural Area Inventory descriptions of LAND MANAGEMENT community or species of special concern • Stewardship units • Techniques and procedures – wildlife ~ Map management program, invasive plant • Stewardship goals management program, hazard tree monitoring program, etc. • Stewardship strategies and tasks ~ Unit 1 - Strategies to protect and enhance natural resources - Restoration tasks - Routine (annual) tasks - Strategies to facilitate public use - Programmatic tasks - Monitoring tasks - Photos where appropriate ~ Unit 2 - (Categories as above) ~ Unit 3 (etc.) • 5-year prioritization and scheduling of tasks

64 Preparing a Stewardship Plan LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

STEWARDSHIP PLAN SUMMARY

STEP PURPOSE LEVEL OF FOCUS Step 1: Inventory existing Catalog and map existing resources Entire property natural resources Step 2: Delineate natural lands Identify lands to be included in natural lands Entire property Step 3: Establish stewardship Outline areas with similar conditions for ease of Natural lands units planning and discussion Step 4: Establish the Identify why the area is important to conserve Natural lands conservation priority and establish the most important conservation value Step 5: Establish the Establish the desired future condition and use of Natural lands stewardship goals the natural lands Step 6: Determine appropriate Determine what will be done to take natural Stewardship units stewardship strategies lands from current condition to desired future condition Step 7: Prioritize and schedule Determine the order that tasks will be completed Stewardship units stewardship tasks to implement stewardship strategies Step 8: Establish monitoring Create a means for determining the effectiveness Natural lands program of current stewardship strategies for achieving stewardship goals by setting measurable goals and monitoring periodically Step 9: Assemble Stewardship Organize information gathered and decisions Natural lands Plan made into a single document

Periodically repeat Steps 4 through 7 and update Stewardship Plan as needed

Preparing a Stewardship Plan 65 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Cover Type Options

OVERVIEW To protect and enhance sually the greatest effect a land your natural lands, the most manager can have on achieving Ustewardship goals is through important stewardship strategy vegetation (cover type) management. This can range from as little as removing to develop is the desired a few invasive plants from a relatively vegetation (cover type). pristine forest to converting an open IN THIS SECTION field to forest through tree planting or converting a pond to wetlands. Before you What’s here? the desired vegetation (forest, meadow, can make the decision to maintain the What should I do etc.) of each unit. Generally this is the with it? current cover type of a stewardship unit or most important stewardship strategy to convert a stewardship unit from one cover Here you will develop in order to protect and enhance type to another, it is best to understand find guidance the conservation priority. The Stewardship on developing the characteristics of each cover type. strategies Matrix on the following page and This section of Land for Life highlights for managing guidelines within each cover type section different types of the major cover types that can be found provide direction for the development of vegetation (cover in southeastern Pennsylvania. For each type) to achieve the cover type strategy. your stewardship cover type there is: goals. The determination of which cover • an overview of the cover type; type option is best for a given stewardship A Stewardship unit will be influenced by numerous Matrix summarizes • the common forms or categories of acceptable this cover type in the region; considerations. These include site options for each conditions, existing resources on adjacent cover type (do I • its potential for addressing regional properties, the historical use of the site, preserve, restore conservation priorities; or convert?) and the amount of financial commitment Then for each • the current stewardship issues that can be given to the stewardship of the cover type: generally associated with the natural lands. All factors must be weighed An overview cover type; and in determining which avenue to pursue. Its potential On sites that require fairly severe and for addressing • general stewardship guidelines. conservation expensive restoration measures, the best priorities This information and the site analysis (see approach may be to plan for a slow, long- Stewardship issues page 45) is used to develop the cover type term, phased restoration that spreads the Stewardship strategy for each stewardship unit, that is, cost over many years. guidelines

66 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Stewardship Matrix

ACCEPTABLE OPTIONS EXISTING preserve as restore convert to convert to convert to convert to COVER TYPE is/enhance (degraded) forest shrubland meadow wetland (healthy)

healthy native forest

degraded forest

hedgerow

shrubland

meadow/grassland

pasture/cropland

wetland

riparian area

pond

lawn/landscaped area

traditional stormwater control structures

Areas with landscaped and agricultural cover types are not considered natural lands (although agricultural lands sometimes do provide wildlife benefits such as food and hiding places from predators) due to the frequent disturbance and use of biocides and fertilizers that are typical of most farmland management regimens. Assistance for developing stewardship plans for these cover types can be obtained from the Pennsylvania Agricultural Extension Service (see Resources, page 211, for contact information).

An overview and general stewardship TREE DOMINATED AREAS guidelines for each option are provided in the following sections. The existing Overview cover types are broadly divided into tree dominated areas and open areas. The There are several types of tree dominated forested areas section is further segregated areas. A forest is an area dominated by into healthy and degraded forests. For trees that are greater than 15 feet tall and the purpose of this handbook the term have a canopy cover of at least 60%. Areas “healthy” refers to plant communities dominated by trees with 25–60% canopy and wildlife habitats consisting entirely coverage are termed woodlands. In this of native species (or nearly so) that show region woodlands historically occurred little sign of having been degraded by where frequent fire or river floodplain ice- processes of human origin (e.g., pollution, scour thinned the tree canopy. Forested overabundant deer, eroded streambanks; areas can exist as unbroken blocks, see Major Stewardship Issues, page 20). hundreds or even thousands of acres in size,

Cover Type Options 67 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

young maturing

FOREST AGE – Because most forests in southeastern­ Pennsylvania started growing after the site was last clearcut for timber or cultivated for crops, trees are typically within 10–20 years of each other in age. Even-aged forests progress through four broad age categories: young, maturing, mature, and old growth. Forests in the region most commonly fall into the “maturing” and “mature” categories. As healthy forests age, they increase in structural diversity (three-dimensional layering of plants) and wildlife species diversity.

mature old-growth David Steckel (all except right) Ann Fowler Rhoads

68 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

or as narrow woodlots surrounded by fields encouraging the establishment and or lawns. Because most existing forests growth of shrubs and forest wildflowers. started in areas subject to clearcutting As structural complexity and species within the past 150 years or on abandoned diversity increases, the wildlife value of agricultural fields, they are mostly even- the forest increases dramatically with the aged forests, with most canopy trees of proliferation of nesting sites (snags, shrubs, the same age. Due to variation in both understory trees) and food resources (nuts the growth rates of different species and and seeds from older trees, new shrubs, the growing conditions around each tree, and herbs). Unfortunately, in southeastern tree size does not necessarily correlate Pennsylvania, this is often the stage when with age. Uneven-aged stands will become the forest is colonized by invasive shrubs more common—assuming no major wind and vines, which, if left uncontrolled, will event or the widespread use of clearcutting rapidly degrade the forest and prevent it within the region again—as old canopy from reaching maturity. trees die and new generations of canopy A healthy mature forest is commonly trees mix with the old. described as one that, as a whole, has In addition to being classified by age and structural diversity (well-defined community type (see Plant Communities, canopy, understory, shrub, and herbaceous page 14), forests are often described by layers) and a variety of native plant their relative age. Even-aged forests have species in all layers. Because of these four broad age categories through which characteristics, a healthy, mature forest they progress. The wildlife and recreational is often dramatically more aesthetically benefits and stewardship challenges of the pleasing than younger age classes. The forest vary with each stage. high diversity and complexity create A young forest (also called sapling and many habitats that are beneficial to a pole stands) is dominated by trees less than wide variety of wildlife species, which a foot in diameter. They are typically dense use different areas within this three- stands with few shrub or herbs. Although dimensional mosaic to meet their food they contain dense vegetation, they do and cover needs. During this stage, the not provide low browse—characteristic of common nut-producing species—oaks, the old field and shrub stages that precede hickories, beech—are most productive them—and cover. In most cases the trees and the size of snags and associated are also too young to produce nuts or seeds. cavities increases. As snags gradually fall For these reasons, even-aged young forests to the ground, the amount of down and are, in general, the poorest wildlife habitat dead wood increases. As it is gradually of all forest stages. decomposed by fungi and insects, it Within a maturing forest, the number provides additional habitat (food, water, of canopy trees decreases and numerous living space) for amphibians and small small snags (dead standing trees) are mammals, which in turn are food for larger created by the overtopping (suppression) animals (snakes, hawks, owls, skunks, of slower growing trees by more vigorous foxes, bears). In general, maturing and trees in the race to capture additional mature forests are the most common forest sunlight in the canopy. As the number age classes in the region. of trees decreases through suppression Forests that survive environmental mortality and the remaining trees grow stresses and disturbances (ice storms, taller, more light reaches the forest floor, diseases and pests, high wind events,

Cover Type Options 69 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

logging) for an extended period of time recreational opportunities such as hiking, eventually become old-growth forest. birdwatching, and hunting, and offer Although age is one factor that determines a welcome visual relief from sprawl whether a forest is “old growth”—some development for motorists. Finally, they define old growth as early as 150 years can be a periodic source of income from old—its definition also requires the stand timber harvesting and the sale of specialty to have high structural complexity and crops such as mushrooms, ginseng, and species diversity, a heavy accumulation of goldenseal if managed properly. down woody debris, and a large number Overall, the forest cover type provides of snags. Because nearly every acre of the greatest number of environmental, forest in southeastern Pennsylvania has ecological, and recreational benefits. been subject to repeated disturbance from Unless a forested stewardship unit is highly agriculture and logging, only a few small, degraded and the conservation priority isolated patches can be considered as true would benefit from additional open cover, old growth in the region today. every effort—within the practical limits In addition to wildlife habitat, forests of the landowner’s resources—should provide many benefits for landowners, local be made to maintain the unit as forest. residents, and travelers passing through Cover type options for forests in different the area. Forest vegetation improves air forest conditions (healthy, degraded) are quality by filtering dust and other air addressed below. Hedgerows—swaths of pollutants, absorbing carbon dioxide, and trees that are too narrow to be considered releasing oxygen. Healthy forests with high as forests—are addressed separately (see structural diversity are extremely effective page 77). in capturing precipitation and their soils are able to absorb high volumes of water, Benefits to regional which helps to minimize stormwater conservation priorities inputs to small streams while recharging • Interior forests—those areas over 100 groundwater supplies. Forests also provide meters (305 feet) from an edge—are increasingly rare in the region due to fragmentation from past agricultural use Overall, the forest cover type provides and more recent increases in suburban development. They support many the greatest number of environmental, migratory songbird species that are ecological, and recreational benefits. declining with the loss of this habitat. • Riparian forests provide the greatest Unless the stewardship unit is highly benefits to adjacent water bodies, particularly small streams. They degraded and the conservation priority help to maintain water temperatures would benefit from additional open cover, through shading, absorb pollutants and accumulate sediments from agricultural every effort—within the practical limits and residential runoff, stabilize streambanks, and add leaves and woody of the landowner’s resources—should be debris to the stream, which furnishes made to maintain the unit as forest. food and shelter for aquatic organisms.

70 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

• Healthy forests absorb large amounts • Fragmentation and edge effects of carbon dioxide and sequester (store) exacerbate the impacts of deer and carbon in various forms—leaves, soil invasive plants by providing the organic matter, woody stems—for habitat that is most attractive to them. various lengths of time until these Fragmentation also lowers the habitat materials decay or are burned. value of forest cover by reducing the Increasing the region’s forested area amount of interior forest. and maintaining forest health can help • Two exotic insects—the emerald to sequester more carbon and reduce ash borer and Asian long-horned greenhouse gases that contribute to beetle—are poised to join the chestnut global warming. blight and gypsy moth as major pests that can alter the species composition Current stewardship issues of Pennsylvania forests. Ashes (white, • White-tailed deer overabundance green, black) and maples (red, silver, is a major problem affecting forests sugar, box-elder)—the preferred targets throughout the region and state. The of these pests—are major components of current overabundance of deer makes the region’s forests, both as canopy trees both the perpetuation of existing forests and seedlings. and the establishment of new forested areas difficult to achieve. Maintaining Landowner Input forest as a cover type (which should be Of all cover types, forest can require some the strategy for all but the most degraded of the least intensive management or sites) requires that measures are taken some of the most intensive, depending to reduce deer access to forest resources, on the current condition of the forest particularly seeds and seedlings. and the specific stewardship goals of the • Invasive plants degrade forests in a landowner. If the forest is already in a number of ways. Invasive vines (oriental healthy condition, landowners or their bittersweet, Japanese honeysuckle, grape, hired managers will need only to monitor porcelainberry, five-leafed akebia, mile- the property to identify future stewardship a-minute) can shade the leaves of large issues (overbrowsing by deer, invasive canopy trees and add significant weight plants) that can threaten forest health. to a tree that can lead to windthrow On the other hand, if the forest is highly during high winds or ice storms. They degraded or one of the stewardship goals can also smother shrubs and small trees is timber production favoring oak species in the understory. Invasive trees (Norway (see Timber Harvesting, page 122), a larger maple, ailanthus) and shrubs (multiflora commitment will be required to steward rose, exotic shrub honeysuckles, privets, the forest. The table on the following page Japanese barberry, autumn-olive) create shows the basic tools and considerations a forest that is much less diverse in that will be required of landowners under native species and key food sources for different stewardship scenarios, along wildlife, especially plant-eating insects, with the assistance available from public than a native forest. The result is a agencies and private organizations and decline in native wildlife populations, consultants (see Resources, page 211, for particularly migratory songbirds. contact information).

Cover Type Options 71 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Resources and Considerations for Forest Stewardship

CONDITION STEWARDSHIP GOAL

Healthy Forest General Wildlife / Recreation / Scenic / Biodiversity Timber Production

Assistance • Pennsylvania Audubon • Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry • Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry, Pennsylvania • Private consulting foresters Game Commission • Penn State Extension • Private consultants (foresters, forest ecologists, wildlife biologists, botanists) Tools/Materials • Monitoring: plant identification books, deer impact • Monitoring: plant identification books, guidelines (see page 112) deer impact guidelines (see page 112) • Invasives control: pruners, pruning saw, chainsaw, • Invasives control: pruners, pruning saw, “Weed Wrench,” herbicide chainsaw, herbicide Considerations • Monitor for invasive species at least annually and • Monitor for invasive species at least control as quickly as possible semi-annually and control as quickly as • Monitor deer impact on vegetation and reduce possible population to meet Impact Level 2 (see page 112) • Monitor deer impact on vegetation and • Determine types of use; develop facilities reduce population to meet Impact Level 2 (trails, bridges, benches, signage), as needed, to (see page 112) accommodate

Degraded Forest General Wildlife / Recreation / Scenic / Biodiversity Timber Production

Assistance • Stewardship information: available from • Timber management: engage a private Pennsylvania Audubon, Pennsylvania Game consulting forester to produce a timber Commission, Penn State Extension stand improvement (TSI) plan • Contractor/volunteers to reduce invasive species • Contractor/volunteers to reduce invasive cover and plant native replacements species cover • Wildlife management consultant to develop deer • Wildlife management consultant to management program develop deer management program

Tools/Materials • Monitoring: plant identification books • Monitoring: plant identification books • Invasive species control: pruners, pruning saw, • Invasive species control: pruners, pruning chainsaw, “Weed Wrench,” herbicide, heavy saw, chainsaw, “Weed Wrench,” herbicide, equipment heavy equipment • Tree and shrub planting: adding seedlings to forest • Tree planting: adding seedlings to gaps and areas of invasive species removal forest gaps Considerations • Prioritize invasive species control tasks • Prioritize invasive species control tasks • Determine appropriate method to decrease • Determine appropriate deer control deer impacts method • Determine types of use; develop facilities (trails, • Determine types of use; develop facilities bridges, benches, signage) to accommodate (trails, bridges, benches, signage) to accommodate

72 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Cover Type 1 Healthy Native Forest

Overview There are few forested areas in southeastern Pennsylvania that remain in an ecologically healthy condition. To qualify as such would require a site to be well stocked with native trees relative to its age and site conditions, free of invasive plants, and not overbrowsed by deer. These criteria could encompass a variety of forest types, site histories, terrains, and “looks,” from dense to relatively open, all young trees to varied age classes, reclaimed old field to never-logged steep

hillside, or dry, sandy soils to muck that is David Steckel saturated year-round. Any healthy native Healthy native forests, with abundant tree regeneration and forest is rare in our region and provides no invasive plants, are, sadly, uncommon in southeastern important environmental (air and water Pennsylvania. purification, soil formation, erosion control, groundwater recharge, nutrient affect existing vegetation. If any of cycling, climate moderation), ecological these conditions arise, the landowner/ (habitat for native wildlife, biodiversity manager should consult Cover Type 2: conservation), and recreational benefits. Degraded Forest (this page) or contact a qualified resource manager for an Cover type option and guidelines appropriate solution. The Pennsylvania 1a. Preserve As Is Bureau of Forestry can provide general The preferred stewardship option for information on forest stewardship and healthy native forests is to preserve it in financial assistance programs, and a list of its current condition. In order to achieve consulting foresters that may be contacted this goal every effort should be made to for further assistance. minimize disturbance either directly or indirectly from human sources. Interior Cover Type 2 trails are compatible although their extent should be minimized since they often act Degraded Forest as avenues for other disturbance factors such as invasive plants and dumping. Overview Most importantly, the site should be The majority of forests in our region exist monitored on a regular basis for the in a more or less degraded condition. presence of invasive vegetation, reduced This usually results from the presence of levels of advance regeneration due to invasive vegetation or a lack of advance overbrowsing by white-tailed deer, or tree and shrub regeneration due to over- changes in environmental conditions (air browsing by deer. Forests also are degraded or water pollution) that may adversely often by dumping and soil erosion.

Cover Type Options 73 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

The amount of degradation by invasive 2a. Restore to Healthy State vegetation on any given property will Because of the many environmental, vary relative to the age of the forest, the ecological, and recreational benefits of degree of fragmentation, the availability of forests, the preferred option is to restore seed, and the aspect of the site. In general, the degraded resource to its original state. the vitality and impact of invasive plants (1) Address the source of degradation as increases directly with available light (an soon as possible to minimize exception to this rule is Norway maple, restoration costs. The majority a tree that is well adapted to growing in dense shade). Consequently, forests usually (2) Use an established deer impact index of forests in are degraded most severely along their (see Wildlife Management, page 104) edges (particularly those with southern or to determine whether degradation is our region eastern exposure) and within interior gaps. due to an overabundance of white- tailed deer. If so, develop a strategy exist in a Cover type options and guidelines for reducing deer access to forest vegetation either by physical barriers There are two preferred cover type options more or less or a reduction in the deer population. for degraded forest. Which option or degraded options are chosen will depend on the (3) It will often require many years of degree of degradation, site conditions, treatment to successfully control condition. available stewardship budget, and invasive plants due to budgetary the environmental, ecological, and constraints and the vitality and recreational benefits of the resource. In persistence of the invasive plants. See general, options 2b and 2c should be Invasive Vegetation Management considered only for sites that have been (page 125) for recommendations on severely degraded. how to prioritize invasive species management tasks. David Steckel (both) Compared with healthy forests (see page 73), a degraded forest has less ecological value because of its lack of structural diversity (no shrubs or tree seedlings), which typically results from deer overbrowsing (left) and prevalence of invasive plants in the understory (right), or both. Unfortunately this is the most common condition of forest in the region.

74 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

(4) To promote native tree and shrub 2b. Convert to Native Shrubland regeneration within forest gaps Native shrubland is the preferred option protect existing seedlings with if the conservation priority is to protect fencing, tree shelters, or flexible threatened shrubland birds and the tree guards. If there is insufficient landowner has the resources to complete natural advance regeneration, plant necessary stewardship tasks. The landowner native trees appropriate to light and can either follow the guidelines under 2a to moisture conditions (see Native Plant establish tree seedlings (using short-statured Materials, page 172–200). Trees species) and shrubs across the area, or, if should be planted on a 10-foot x 10- adequate native tree and shrub regeneration foot spacing and protected from deer is present, maintain through periodic damage with measures such as fencing, mowing or selective cutting to prevent tree shelters, or flexible tree guards. canopy tree species from dominating the This should continue on an as-needed site. The easiest and most cost-effective basis to assure that sufficient advance shrublands to maintain are those that regeneration is available to replace have occurred naturally in the region for canopy trees as they die. thousands of years and tend to maintain (5) Heavy equipment should be used only themselves, to a degree. On upland sites, in extreme situations. If used, protect the most persistent types are heathlands, existing trees by staying as far away as which are dominated by members of the possible (at least outside of the drip Ericaceae or heath family (blueberries, line) to prevent soil compaction and black huckleberry, mountain-laurel, sheep- trunk scarring. laurel, native azaleas, and others) and scrub oak thickets, dominated by scrub (6) Remove any trash and dispose of or bear oak, a native oak species that it according to current municipal grows as a tall shrub. Note that evergreen and Pennsylvania Department of shrubs (two species in our region—rosebay Environmental Protection regulations. rhododendron and mountain-laurel) (7) Correct soil erosion by rerouting trails will not tolerate a management regime along the contour and controlling the of mowing or burning, but many native water source. Fill gullies and plant with deciduous shrubs resprout prolifically from a fast-growing, native, perennial grass their roots after cutting or fire. such as Canada wild-rye, riverbank (1) Determine the limits of available wild-rye, or Virginia wild-rye (or exotic mowing machinery (how large of annual rye or oats, which produce fast a tree or shrub can be cut) to set cover but do not persist) and native mowing frequency. In southeastern trees and shrubs. Do not use standard Pennsylvania, the mowing frequency conservation seed mixes—they will will usually need to be between three introduce persistent exotic species into and ten years to maintain a shrubland the forest. cover type. In most cases, it is advisable (8) Inspect the forest annually and address to engage a contractor with specialized degradation as needed. equipment to perform this work.

Cover Type Options 75 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

(2) An alternative method to maintain reforestation that will provide many of the native shrubland is to selectively environmental benefits of forest and help remove, through cutting or herbicide to diversify the ecological communities application (see discussion of within the region. This option is most appropriate use of herbicides, page appropriate if the forest is relatively small 133), invasive woody plants and and adjacent to existing meadow. Use seedlings and saplings of tree species the following guidelines (and information that typically grow above 25 feet in in Meadow Management, page 138) for height, while leaving tree species that converting degraded forest or hedgerow typically do not exceed this height to native grass and wildflower meadow. (see Native Plant Materials, pages For information more specific to your site 172–200, for a list of appropriate trees contact the USDA Natural Resources and shrubs that are locally available). Conservation Service or Conservation (3) Inspect annually for invasive species District representative in your area. and control as needed. (1) Prepare the area for seeding by eliminating all existing vegetation. 2c. Convert to Native Meadow Remove trees and shrubs manually or A forest or hedgerow sometimes becomes mechanically; use a non-selective (kills so degraded by invasive plants that it is all vegetation) herbicide as needed better to remove part or all of it with heavy (it may take multiple applications equipment. This is most obvious when at two-week intervals) to eliminate the majority (> 75%) of the canopy trees undesirable (invasive) plant species, have been killed or drastically deformed such as non-native vines (oriental by vines, or when an invasive species (e.g., bittersweet, Japanese honeysuckle), Norway maple, ailanthus) is dominant. shrubs (multiflora rose, autumn-olive), Creating a native grass and wildflower or herbs (Japanese stiltgrass, Canada meadow is one option other than thistle) that might compete with native meadow plants (see discussion of appropriate use of herbicides, page 133). (2) Use only native grass and wildflower species appropriate to site conditions (see Native Plant Materials, pages 172–200, for a list of species adapted to wet and dry sites). Plant at a rate of 10–15 pounds (pure live seed) per acre. If tall grasses such as Indian- grass, big bluestem, and switchgrass are used, they should be planted in patches rather than mixed in with shorter grasses and forbs because they are highly competitive in most situations, tending to overwhelm Drew Gilchrist other species and form monocultures. In some cases, a forest can become so degraded that it is best to clear the site before starting restoration. If adjacent to Add a fast-growing, native, perennial, existing open lands (meadow, agricultural fields), it might be cool-season grass such as Canada appropriate to convert a forest in this condition to meadow.

76 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

wild-rye, riverbank wild-rye, or birds) or, on larger contiguous blocks Virginia wild-rye (or exotic annual of meadow (more than 50 acres), until rye or oats, which do not persist) to August 15th, when threatened interior seed mixes at one half pound per acre grassland and meadow birds may still to provide a quick cover for erosion be nesting. See Meadow Management control, except when using a herbicide (page 138) for more information on with pre-emergent effects, such as preferred mowing times. Mow trails as Plateau, which would prevent the needed at a 6–8-foot width. seeds from sprouting. Plant in spring (4) Inspect meadows annually for intrusion (preferred) prior to June 1st or fall by invasive plants. Spot-spray as (mid- to late November). Liming needed to prevent reestablishment of and fertilization should be strictly invasive species. For recommendations avoided. Fertilization gives invasive see Invasive Vegetation Management species a competitive advantage over (page 125). many native species, which are fully adapted to the indigenous soils in our (5) If desired or needed to boost species region. Where invasive plants are diversity in species-poor meadows, abundant and fertilizers have been augment existing meadow species with applied in the past, it may be best to additional native species appropriate establish only grass species initially to site conditions by clearing scattered and add wildflowers to the meadow patches and seeding or planting plugs. after a few years. This allows time to monitor the meadow and to use Cover Type 3 broadleaf herbicides (which would Hedgerow also kill native wildflowers) to treat any residual weeds (see discussion of Overview appropriate use of herbicides, page Hedgerows are narrow swaths of trees 133). However, adding wildflowers between agricultural fields. They typically where warm-season grasses have arose along fences (perching birds would become dominant often requires that deposit tree and shrub seeds) or as the grasses be removed (mechanically planted “living fences” of Osage-orange or with herbicide) in patches where or multiflora rose. Over time they became wildflowers are to be planted. repositories of rocks, trash, and old farm (3) Mow meadows no more than twice a equipment. Unless they are periodically year (except for trails) between mid- cut back, hedgerows tend to widen over August and early March at a height time as shrubs and tree seedlings creep of 8–12 inches to prevent intrusion into the open field. Due to the relatively by tall shrubs and trees. One mowing high availability of sunlight, they are annually is preferable on sites with dominated typically by shade-intolerant high or moderately high soil fertility; or intermediate-tolerance tree species one mowing every 2–3 years may be common in the region. They are a enough on low-fertility sites. Meadows ubiquitous remnant of the agricultural should not be mowed between legacy of the region, inhabiting April 1st and July 15th, to prevent remaining farmland, parks, nature disturbance of nesting and feeding preserves, and subdivisions. wildlife (insects, small mammals,

Cover Type Options 77 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Benefits to regional Pennsylvania hedgerows of vast conservation priorities quantities of non-native, invasive shrub and vine seeds. • Traditionally, hedgerows were seen as important corridors for wildlife • Hedgerows are often used to buffer movement, providing cover for small new residential development and are mammals and birds. With recent cultural features that may be desirable to interest in protecting grassland birds maintain in a new subdivision, reducing this traditional value can be outweighed its impacts on more ecologically by hedgerows’ propensity to facilitate significant areas. predation on these threatened species (see below). Current stewardship issues • Native species in hedgerows can be • Invasive plants are often prolific within hedgerows due to the high availability of valuable as seed sources for afforestation projects on adjacent agricultural sunlight. Hedgerows can act as bountiful fields that are under conversion reservoirs of invasive species’ seeds that to forest. However, this benefit is can be transported into nearby forests by often outweighed by the detrimental wind and birds. contribution by most southeastern • Ground predators of threatened meadow bird species (fox, raccoon, coyote, feral cat, large snakes) use Hedgerows, narrow swaths of trees between hedgerows as cover and as travel corridors. Avian predators (e.g., Cooper’s agricultural fields, typically arose along hawk) use the canopy trees as perch sites from which to hunt these same fences or as planted “living fences.” birds. Hedgerows fragment meadows just as open areas fragment forests; they eliminate viable nesting habitat within 150 feet of the hedgerow edge. This impact can be reduced by using shrub species and avoiding tree species, to limit the potential height of the hedgerow and the availability of perch sites for predators, and by cutting lower branches so that the hedgerow is open beneath. This is a particularly good method for protecting (shading) small streams that flow through meadows without significantly compromising the surrounding meadow habitat. Dan Barringer • can be a potential Hedgerows, remnants of windbreaks between agricultural Hazard trees fields, can be corridors for the spread of invasive plants problem if the hedgerow is part of a trail (above) and predators of grassland birds. Hedgerows can be system with benches or observation valuable if used as a seed source in the conversion of adjacent farm fields to forest.

78 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

points. Hedgerow trees are more exposed (1) Determine the limits of available to environmental stresses than forest mowing machinery (how large of trees. High use areas near hedgerows a tree or shrub can be cut) to set should receive regular monitoring for mowing frequency. In southeastern hazard trees. Pennsylvania, the mowing frequency will usually need to be between three Cover type options and guidelines and ten years to maintain a shrubland Hedgerows are an historical remnant cover cover type. In most cases, it is advisable type whose value is diminishing as new to engage a contractor with specialized conservation priorities are identified in equipment to perform this work. the region. Whether or not to maintain (2) An alternative method to maintain a a stewardship unit in this cover type will native shrub-dominated hedgerow is to depend upon the conservation priority of selectively remove, through cutting or the natural lands. herbicide application (see discussion of appropriate use of herbicides, page 3a. Preserve As Is 133), invasive woody plants and If the hedgerow will eventually be seedlings and saplings of tall-growing part of a larger forest to enhance the tree species, while leaving tree species conservation priority or if it acts as a that typically do not exceed 25 feet in visual buffer or cultural feature, then it height (see Native Plant Materials, should be stewarded along with the other pages 172–200, for a list of appropriate forest resources within the natural lands trees and shrubs that are locally available). following guidelines under 1a above. (3) Inspect annually for invasive species 3b. Convert to Native Shrub-dominated and control as needed. Hedgerow This is the preferred option if the 3c. Convert to Native Meadow conservation priority is to protect If the conservation priority calls for threatened shrubland birds and the maximizing open meadow habitat, landowner has the resources to complete the removal of the hedgerow could be necessary stewardship tasks. This will warranted if it significantly reduces the require the eventual removal of tall trees fragmentation of meadow habitat. This is (> 25 feet) either through attrition or by likely to be a challenging task, requiring cutting. As tall trees are removed from heavy equipment to remove tree stumps the hedgerow, the landowner can either and rock piles. It could be undertaken all follow the guidelines under 2a to establish at one time, if resources permit, or staged tree seedlings (using “short” species) across as resources allow and need dictates (the the area, or, if adequate tree and shrub hedgerow could be a targeted source for regeneration is present, maintain through firewood cutting). After clearing part or all periodic mowing or selective cutting to of the hedgerow, follow guidelines under 2c prevent tall-growing tree species from to establish native meadow. dominating the site.

Cover Type Options 79 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

OPEN AREAS and moisture levels. On soils where nutrient levels are artificially high due Overview to past use of fertilizer, forest succession may be hindered by the dense growth of Open areas in natural lands are portions invasive species. of the landscape not dominated by trees. Trees—and therefore forests—gain Scattered trees can be present but they dominance of the landscape by developing shade less than 25% of the total area. the largest and sturdiest stems and Categories of open native vegetation branches of any members of the plant include meadows and grasslands (more kingdom, enabling them to place their than 50% herbaceous cover, often with photosynthetic or food-producing surfaces some shrub cover), shrublands (more (leaves) above the leaves of other types of than 50% shrub cover, often with some plants. This elevated position, however, herbaceous cover), savannas (dominated exposes trees to numerous environmental by herbaceous plants or shrubs with stresses, including high winds, ice, and scattered trees shading 10–25% of the drought. These stresses, along with tree area), “barrens” (any of the preceding, pests and pathogens, result in recurring where the lack of tree dominance persists disruption of the forest canopy by killing or for many years or centuries), and open toppling individual trees or large patches wetlands (marshes and shrub swamps). The of forest. This has allowed open cover natural tendency for most sites within our types to persist at the scale of a landscape region is to exist as forest. Maintaining or region, although in most cases their areas in artificial cover types (agricultural sizes and specific locations shift over fields, pastures, gardens, lawns) or in open long time spans in response to random native vegetation (grasslands, shrublands, environmental disturbances. savannas, marshes) continually sets Human activities have added to these back the process of ecological succession ambient disturbances in our region for that moves a site from domination by more than 10,000 years. The extensive herbaceous plants (grasses and forbs), use of fire, mainly by Native Americans, to an intermediate stage dominated by and agricultural practices (forest clearing, shrubs and small trees, and then finally to cultivation, and subsequent abandonment forest. When the (more or less) frequent of fields as fertility or markets decline), disturbance required to perpetuate these mainly after European settlement, helped cover types stops, succession proceeds. to maintain enough land in these cover Succession towards forest cover is slowest types to support wildlife species adapted to on soils that are low in nutrients, droughty, their conditions. Actively cultivated land or often saturated. Any of these conditions has little value for wildlife except for just makes it easier to maintain open areas. It is a handful of species such as white-tailed fastest on soils with intermediate nutrient deer, Canada goose, and raccoon. However, before the 20th century, practices such as cropland rotation with long fallow periods, Maintaining areas as agricultural fields, devoting a large acreage to hayfields, and delaying hay harvest until late summer meadows, pasture, or lawn essentially sustained a large total area of habitat that freezes the process of ecological succession.

80 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

had much in common with the all-native Cover Type 4 meadows that had existed in the region Shrubland for thousands of years. Twentieth-century changes in farming began to erode the Overview extent and habitat value of open areas; Shrublands are nonforested areas that they included mowing earlier in the have moved to the intermediate shrub/ summer before the end of many birds’ small tree stage of succession or are nesting season, switching to more intensive dominated by shrub species that greatly rotation with little or no fallow, pesticide slow forest succession by inhibiting tree use, and widespread abandonment of seedling establishment. The intermediate cultivation. As the region’s human successional stage shrublands, often called population grows and additional land thickets, usually grow into the forest is more or less permanently disturbed stage in just a few years unless exposed (converted to houses, roads, shopping to frequent tree-killing disturbance. The malls, etc.), the amount of land in open more persistent shrublands are those in cover types continues rapidly declining to which the dominant species change the the further detriment of specialist species environment to the detriment of tree dependent on these habitats. Maintaining regeneration or the soils are extremely natural lands in nonforest cover types can wet, dry, or infertile. They may last many help support declining wildlife populations years without disturbance, but eventually and perpetuate an historical component of they too are invaded and shaded out by the regional landscape. trees of the species that are most tolerant of the dominant shrubs’ influence or of Landowner input the soil conditions, unless subjected to Like forests, the amount of landowner occasional disturbance. input for open areas will depend upon the current condition of the area and the landowner’s interests. Open areas share many of the stewardship issues affecting forested areas. However, because open lands have a natural tendency to succeed to forest, the actual stewardship of these cover types can be more challenging, requiring larger, more expensive equipment. On page 84 is a table that shows the basic tools and considerations that will be required of the landowner who chooses to steward the two major open cover types (shrubland and meadow), along with the available assistance from public agencies and private organizations and consultants (see Resources, page 211 for contact information). David Steckel Maintaining shrubland as a cover type requires periodic disturbance—typically mowing every three to ten years— to keep both tall trees and invasive plants from taking over.

Cover Type Options 81 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

The difficulty of maintaining healthy native shrublands and their potential to be reservoirs for invasive plants if not properly maintained make them a challenging cover type for the typical landowner. However, it is a very valuable cover type for wildlife.

Due to thousands of years of Native plants becoming established, adding American burning and agricultural to the stewardship time commitment. practices over much of the past three In fact, existing shrublands in our centuries, shrubland was relatively region are dominated by exotic invasive abundant. Until recently clearcutting and shrub and vine species; restoring farmland abandonment across the region and maintaining such sites as native continually produced new shrubland shrublands may be more difficult and to replace acreage steadily lost to forest time-consuming than converting them succession. Shrubland abundance has to native meadows or forests. rapidly declined as forests have matured • The perpetuation of native shrublands and houses have consumed more recently requires the use of heavy mowing abandoned farmland. The result has been equipment or the intensive “weeding” of the decline of birds and other wildlife that tall-growing tree species. depend on this cover type. Cover type options and guidelines Benefits to regional conservation priorities There are four options for shrublands: preserve as is, restore to healthy state, • Native shrublands provide many of the convert to forest, or convert to native same environmental benefits as forests meadow. Which option or options are and some unique ecological benefits, chosen will depend on the stage of including habitat for threatened wildlife. succession, the degree of degradation by Because they are used by species of invasive plant species, site conditions, birds uncommon or declining in our available management budget, and the region (e.g., chestnut-sided warbler, relative environmental, ecological, and blue-winged warbler, prairie warbler, recreational benefits of the resource. The yellow-breasted chat, white-eyed difficulty of maintaining healthy native vireo, willow flycatcher, blue grosbeak, shrublands and their potential to be indigo bunting, whip-poor-will, reservoirs for invasive plants if not properly American woodcock, grouse, northern maintained make them a challenging cover bobwhite), they provide unique type for the typical landowner. However, if recreational (birdwatching and hunting) the conservation priority is threatened bird opportunities. species, the site lends itself to persistent dominance by shrubs (has very wet, dry, Current stewardship issues or infertile soils), and the landowner has the resources to undertake the required • Their relatively open character makes stewardship tasks, it is a very valuable native shrublands vulnerable to invasive cover type for wildlife.

82 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

There are few shrublands in grows as a tall shrub. Note that evergreen southeastern Pennsylvania that are in shrubs (two species in our region—rosebay an ecologically healthy condition. To rhododendron and mountain-laurel) qualify as such would require a site to be will not tolerate a management regime dominated by native shrub species and free of mowing or burning, but many native of invasive plants. Because shipping ports, deciduous shrubs resprout prolifically from croplands, and gardens in southeastern their roots after cutting or fire. Pennsylvania have been points of entry (1) Determine the limits of available for exotic species for centuries, invasive mowing machinery (how large of plants are particularly well established a tree or shrub can be cut) to set here. This means that abandoned farm mowing frequency. In southeastern fields and pastures—the usual precursors Pennsylvania, the mowing frequency of shrublands in the region—typically will usually need to be between three receive a plentiful supply of invasive and ten years to maintain a shrubland species’ seeds. The most likely sites for cover type. In most cases, it is advisable healthy existing shrublands are those to engage a contractor with specialized with extremely wet, dry, or infertile soils, equipment to perform this work. conditions native shrub species tend to be better equipped to deal with than invasive (2) An alternative method to maintain species. Healthy shrub swamps and upland native shrubland is to selectively native shrublands are rare in our region remove, through cutting or herbicide and provide important environmental application (see discussion of (air and water purification, soil formation, appropriate use of herbicides, page erosion control, groundwater recharge, 133), invasive woody plants and nutrient cycling, climate moderation) seedlings and saplings of tall-growing and ecological (habitat for native wildlife, tree species, while leaving tree species biodiversity conservation) benefits. that typically do not exceed 25 feet in height (see Native Plant Materials, 4a. Preserve As Is pages 172–200, for a list of appropriate Native shrublands are maintained in a trees and shrubs that are locally available). healthy state through periodic mowing or (3) Inspect annually for invasive species selective cutting to prevent tall-growing and control as needed. canopy tree species from dominating the site. The easiest and most cost-effective 4b. Restore to Healthy State shrublands to maintain are those that This is the preferred option for a mildly have occurred naturally in the region for degraded site. thousands of years and tend to maintain (1) Assess invasive plants and address by themselves, to a degree. On upland sites, using recommendations in Invasive the most persistent types are heathlands, Vegetation Management (page 125). which are dominated by members of the Ericaceae or heath family (blueberries, (2) Use guidelines under 2a, using black huckleberry, mountain-laurel, sheep- appropriate shrubland species (see laurel, native azaleas, and others) and Native Plant Materials, pages 172– scrub oak thickets, dominated by scrub 200), to fill in any shrubland gaps. or bear oak, a native oak species that

Cover Type Options 83 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

4c. Convert to Forest (2) If necessary, augment natural tree This option can be either the easiest or regeneration by planting native tree hardest road to take depending on the seedlings. This will require a spacing of status of succession (i.e., the number of between 10 feet x 10 feet and 20 feet native trees established) and the level of x 20 feet. degradation by invasive plants. It will be (3) Use protective measures such as the least costly if native trees are about fencing, tree shelters, and flexible tree to dominate the site and the amount of guards to minimize deer damage to invasive plant material is small. It will be natural or planted seedlings. the most difficult option if native trees are sparse and invasive plants are prominent. (4) Reduce plant competition through selective herbicide application to (1) Identify native trees and release them kill vegetation (see discussion of from competition with invasive plants appropriate use of herbicides, page by cutting or wick application of 133), particularly sod-forming grasses, herbicide (see discussion of appropriate around the base of each tree (once or use of herbicides, page 133). (Note: twice annually) or mowing (at least native trees can usually outcompete four times) during the growing season invasive shrubs, but not invasive vines until the canopy exceeds 60% cover. and trees.)

Resources and Considerations for Shrubland and Meadow Stewardship

SHRUBLAND MEADOW

Assistance • Pennsylvania Audubon • Pennsylvania Audubon • Pennsylvania Game Commission • Pennsylvania Game Commission • Penn State Extension • Penn State Extension • USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service

Tools/Materials • Monitoring: plant identification books • Monitoring: plant identification books • Vegetation control: pruners, pruning saw, • Vegetation control: field mower, herbicide chainsaw, herbicide, “Weed Wrench,” heavy-duty field mower/brush cutter

Considerations • Monitor for invasive species at least • Monitor for invasive species at least annually and control as quickly as annually and control as quickly as possible possible • Monitor deer population and maintain • Monitor deer population and maintain at appropriate level to sustain a healthy at appropriate level to sustain a healthy community (see discussion on estimating community (see discussion on estimating deer impact, page 112) deer impact, page 112) • Determine types of use; develop facilities • Determine type and frequency of cutting (trails, bridges, benches, signage) to accommodate uses • Determine appropriate mix of native grasses and forbs

84 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

After the canopy has reached 60% known as meadows. They provide many closure monitor for invasive plants and environmental (erosion control, stream control as needed. buffer), ecological (wildlife habitat), and (5) Inspect annually for invasive species recreational (walking and equestrian trails) and treat as necessary. benefits, and can be an attractive part of the landscape. 4d. Convert to Native Meadow Historically, meadows and grasslands This option is best if the site is dominated occurred as breaks in the eastern deciduous by invasive plants and adjacent to forest resulting from disturbances such as established meadow. After clearing shrubs fire, periodic flooding, insect infestation, and trees, use the guidelines under 2c and human clearing or because of site (and information in Meadow Management, conditions (saturated soil or unusual page 138) to convert the area to grass and geology). Most meadows existed as wildflower meadows. temporary ecosystems; without repeated disturbance, succession would eventually Cover Type 5 return the area to forest. As the Native American and then European populations Meadow/Grassland increased, disturbance by fire, logging, and Overview agriculture maintained a shifting mosaic of meadow communities. Meadows and grasslands are open areas There are few meadows or grasslands dominated by herbaceous plants. Areas in southeastern Pennsylvania that are predominantly covered by grass species in an ecologically healthy condition, are called grasslands; those having a that is, dominated by native grass and strong forb (wildflower) component are forb species and free of invasive plants.

Most meadows and grasslands exist as temporary ecosystems; without repeated disturbance, succession will eventually return the area to forest. Drew Gilchrist (both) Grasslands (left) are open areas dominated by grasses. Meadows (right) are open areas dominated by grasses and wildflowers. Meadows and grasslands need annual disturbance by mowing or burning to prevent woody vegetation from becoming established.

Cover Type Options 85 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Because shipping ports, croplands, and species of declining and imperiled gardens in southeastern Pennsylvania have butterflies (e.g., two-spotted skipper, been points of entry for exotic species for black dash, cobweb skipper, mulberry centuries, invasive plants are particularly wing, long dash, frosted elfin, silvery well established here. This means that blue, bronze copper, silver-bordered former agricultural fields—the foundation fritillary, eyed brown, Atlantis fritillary, of most meadows and grasslands in the giant swallowtail, falcate orangetip, region—typically receive a plentiful supply northern metalmark). Native meadows of invasive species’ seeds. The most likely and grasslands of just a few acres can sites for healthy existing meadows are those provide habitat for these and other with extremely wet, dry, or infertile soils, imperiled species. See Resources (page which provide growing conditions far more 211) for resources to help determine favorable to native grass and forb species whether a meadow has potential to than to invasive species. Healthy marshes, support threatened species. wet meadows, and upland native meadows • Increasing biological diversity at a local and grasslands are rare in our region and (neighborhood) scale. Many wildlife provide important environmental (air species whose populations are still and water purification, soil formation, secure in the region but are seen less erosion control, groundwater recharge, and less often with increasing suburban nutrient cycling, climate moderation) sprawl thrive in large or small meadows, and ecological (habitat for native wildlife, including many butterflies (e.g., eastern biodiversity conservation) benefits. tiger swallowtail, pipevine swallowtail, zebra swallowtail, northern metalmark, Benefits to regional great spangled fritillary, Aphrodite conservation priorities fritillary, mourning cloak, painted lady, • Preserving habitat for grassland interior red admiral, viceroy, monarch) and birds species, which require large blocks (e.g., American kestrel, red-tailed hawk, of meadow unbroken by hedgerows yellow-shafted flicker, barn swallow, tree or highways, including several swallow, northern rough-winged swallow, increasingly rare species of grassland eastern bluebird, eastern kingbird, purple birds (grasshopper sparrow, savannah martin, house wren, cedar waxwing, sparrow, vesper sparrow, eastern red-winged blackbird, indigo bunting, meadowlark, bobolink, horned lark, American goldfinch, song sparrow, northern bobwhite) whose populations chipping sparrow, field sparrow). have become imperiled due to the decline in this cover type. Maintaining Current issues meadows and grasslands in large blocks • Meadows and grasslands in our region (at least 25 acres but preferably greater are often degraded by invasive plants, than 50 acres) or as part of a larger open particularly woody vines (oriental landscape is necessary to provide habitat bittersweet, Japanese honeysuckle), for these species. shrubs (multiflora rose, autumn-olive, • Preserving habitat for meadow and exotic shrub honeysuckles), herbaceous grassland species that do not require perennials (Canada thistle, common large, unbroken blocks, including many

86 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

mugwort), and herbaceous annuals and wildlife (insects, small mammals, biennials (spotted knapweed, mile-a- birds) or, on larger contiguous blocks minute, Japanese stiltgrass). They also of meadow (more than 50 acres), until can suffer from human disturbances such August 15th, when threatened interior as soil erosion and dumping. grassland and meadow birds may still be nesting. See Meadow Management Cover type options and guidelines (page 138) for more information on There are four appropriate cover type preferred mowing times. Mow trails as options for meadows: preserve as is, needed at a 6–8-foot width. restore to a healthy condition, convert (2) The alternative to mowing is to use to forest, and convert to wetlands. prescribed fire to burn meadows and Which option or options are chosen will grasslands, rotating among sections depend on the conservation priority, the (10–20% of meadows <50 acres degree of degradation, site conditions, or one-third to one-half of larger available stewardship budget, and the meadows) to maintain a refugium relative environmental, ecological, and from which insects can re-colonize the recreational benefits of the resource. treated area. Obviously, this should only be undertaken by persons trained 5a. Preserve As Is in the use of prescribed fire and after Because they are uncommon in our notification of neighbors and public region, the preferred cover type option for officials, particularly the local fire healthy meadows and grasslands (those company (see Prescribed Fire, page that have not been degraded by natural or 145). The preferred vegetation and human factors) is to undertake appropriate weather conditions for using prescribed stewardship tasks to maintain them in fire in southeastern Pennsylvania are a healthy condition. Meadows are kept typically encountered in mid-March in a healthy condition by following or to mid-April. A second window of mimicking the stewardship practices that opportunity is sometimes available in have kept them healthy. In most cases early to mid-November. this means they are periodically mowed, burned, grazed, or a combination of the (3) Inspect meadows annually for intrusion three to prevent colonization by woody by invasive plants. Consult Invasive and invasive plant species. Vegetation Management (page 125) for recommendations on addressing (1) Mow meadows no more than twice a any problems. year (except for trails) between mid- August and early March at a height (4) If desired or needed to boost species of 8–12 inches to prevent intrusion diversity in species-poor meadows, by tall shrubs and trees. One mowing augment existing meadow species with annually is preferable on sites with additional native species appropriate high or moderately high soil fertility; to site conditions by clearing scattered one mowing every 2–3 years may be patches and seeding or planting plugs enough on low-fertility sites. Meadows (see Native Plant Materials, pages should not be mowed between 172–200). April 1st and July 15th, to prevent disturbance of nesting and feeding

Cover Type Options 87 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

5b. Restore to Healthy State birds) or, on larger contiguous blocks This is the preferred option for a mildly of meadow (more than 50 acres), until degraded site and is one of the least August 15th, when threatened interior costly of the five options to carry out grassland and meadow birds may still and maintain. be nesting. See Meadow Management (1) Regrade and seed any eroded areas (page 138) for more information on following guidelines under 2c. preferred mowing times. Mow trails as needed at a 6–8-foot width. (2) Remove and dispose of any trash according to current municipal (5) The alternative to mowing is to use and Pennsylvania Department of prescribed fire to burn meadows and Environmental Protection regulations. grasslands, rotating among sections (10–20% of meadows <50 acres (3) Eliminate invasive plants by spot- or one-third to one-half of larger spraying or wick application of meadows) to maintain a refugium appropriate herbicide (see discussion from which insects can re-colonize the of appropriate use of herbicides, treated area. Obviously, this should page 133) or manual or mechanical only be undertaken by persons trained removal. Use only herbicides approved in the use of prescribed fire and after for aquatic use for spray applications notification of neighbors and public within 100 feet of water resources. officials, particularly the local fire Areas that are disturbed by manual company (see Prescribed Fire, page or mechanical removal of invasive 145). The preferred vegetation and plants should be seeded with native weather conditions for using prescribed wildflowers and grasses mixed with a fire in southeastern Pennsylvania are fast-growing, native, perennial grass typically encountered in mid-March such as Canada wild-rye, riverbank to mid-April. A second window of wild-rye, or Virginia wild-rye (or exotic opportunity is sometimes available in annual rye or oats, which produce fast early to mid-November. cover but do not persist) to hinder reestablishment of invasive species. (6) Inspect meadows annually for intrusion by invasive plants. Consult Invasive (4) Mow meadows no more than twice a Vegetation Management (page 125) year (except for trails) between mid- for recommendations on addressing August and early March at a height invasive species. of 8–12 inches to prevent intrusion by tall shrubs and trees. One mowing (7) If desired or needed to boost species annually is preferable on sites with diversity in species-poor meadows, high or moderately high soil fertility; augment existing meadow species with one mowing every 2–3 years may be additional native species appropriate enough on low-fertility sites. Meadows to site conditions by clearing scattered should not be mowed between patches and seeding or planting plugs April 1st and July 15th, to prevent (see Native Plant Materials, pages disturbance of nesting and feeding 172–200). wildlife (insects, small mammals,

88 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

5c. Convert to Forest (3) Use protective measures such as This option is most appropriate if the fencing, tree shelters, and flexible tree area is relatively small (<10 acres) and guards to minimize deer damage. conversion would augment an adjacent (4) Reduce plant competition through forested area and result in reduced edge or selective herbicide application to increased interior forest habitat, connect kill vegetation (see discussion of two existing forested areas, or provide a appropriate use of herbicides, page natural screen to improve the aesthetics 133), particularly sod-forming grasses, of the site. Although there are many around the base of each tree (once or environmental and ecological benefits twice annually) or mowing (at least to be realized from this strategy, it is four times) during the growing season also a strategy that requires significant until the canopy reaches 60% cover. time and resources to accomplish due to the overabundance of white-tailed (5) After canopy closure, inspect for deer and invasive plants in the region. invasive plants annually and control Implementing this strategy will likely as needed. take many years of intensive stewardship 5d. Convert to Native Shrubland because of these factors. This is the preferred option if the These guidelines assume that conditions conservation priority is threatened common in the region, specifically shrubland birds and the landowner has overabundant deer and invasive species, the resources to complete necessary exist on the site. If native tree seedlings are stewardship tasks. Use guidelines under 3b already established in the meadow or the to convert meadow to native shrubland. land manager believes that an adequate number of trees will become established 5e. Convert to Wetland naturally, start the process at step (3). This is the preferred option for a meadow In the rare instance of adequate native that is relatively small, is adjacent to advance regeneration and low deer and existing wetlands, and has topography that invasive species pressure, begin at step (5). would lend itself to conversion to wetlands with minimal site work (e.g., light grading, (1) Select native species that are construction of a low berm to capture appropriate for site conditions surface water flow). On former agricultural (see , Native Plant Materials fields this can sometimes be accomplished pages 172–200). by breaking the drainage tiles that were (2) Plantings should be spaced to allow for installed to make the site suitable for control of competing vegetation with agriculture. This option and the specific available mowing equipment, but close tasks required to implement this strategy, enough for the canopy to close quickly. along with potential funding opportunities, For forest and wide hedgerows this will should be explored with representatives require a spacing between 10 feet x of the County Conservation District, 10 feet and 20 feet x 20 feet. Narrow USDA Natural Resources Conservation hedgerows that principally serve as Service, Pennsylvania Department of screens should have at least a 20-foot Environmental Protection, or US Fish and spacing in staggered rows to allow for Wildlife Service. good development of each tree.

Cover Type Options 89 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Cover Type 6 options are chosen will depend on the Pasture/Cropland conservation priority, site conditions, and the available stewardship budget. Overview 6a. Convert to Forest Pastures are open areas of short grasses This option is appropriate if the planted and forbs that are used for livestock area would augment an adjacent forested grazing. Cropland is used to grow area (and result in reduced edge or annual plants (e.g., grains, beans) and increased interior forest habitat), connect hay for consumption by humans and two existing forested areas, or provide a domesticated animals. A well-managed natural screen to improve the aesthetics pasture or cropland has minimal impacts of the site. Although there are many on adjacent natural lands and can be part environmental and ecological benefits of a landscape that supports threatened to be realized from this strategy, it is grassland-interior birds such as bobolinks also a strategy that requires significant and eastern meadowlarks (see Meadow/ time and resources to accomplish due Grassland, page 85). Poor stewardship to the overabundance of white-tailed (the area is overgrazed or full of weeds, deer and invasive plants in the region. or rows run up and down the slope) can Implementing this strategy will likely cause soil erosion through increased take many years of intensive stewardship surface runoff on adjacent natural lands, because of these factors. degrade nearby water resources through The following guidelines assume inputs of sediment and manure, or act as that conditions common in the region, a reservoir for invasive plant species. If specifically overabundant deer and invasive the area is to remain in agriculture, the species, exist on the site. If native tree landowner should contact the USDA seedlings are already established in a Natural Resource Conservation Service pasture or the land manager believes that about developing a conservation plan to an adequate number of trees will become minimize the impact on nearby natural established naturally, the process can start resources. If the area is no longer needed at step (3). In the rare instance of adequate for agricultural purposes, it can be added native advance regeneration and low deer to the natural lands of the property. This and invasive species pressure, it can start at is particularly beneficial if the pasture or step (5). cropland is currently located in an area that is often wet. (1) Select native species that are appropriate for site conditions Cover type options and guidelines (see Native Plant Materials, pages 172–200). There are four cover type options for converting an existing pasture or cropland (2) Planting design should allow enough to natural lands: convert to forest, convert space between trees to allow for to shrubland, convert to meadow, or control of competing vegetation with convert to wetland. Which option or available mowing equipment, but close

90 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

enough for the canopy to close quickly. 6d. Convert to Wetland For forest this will require a spacing This is the preferred option for a pasture of between 10 feet x 10 feet and 20 or cropland that was formerly wetlands feet x 20 feet. Narrow hedgerows that (previously drained for agriculture) or principally serve as screens should have a pasture or cropland that is relatively at least a 20-foot spacing in staggered small, is adjacent to existing wetlands, rows to allow for good development of and has topography that would lend itself each tree. to conversion to wetlands with minimal (3) Use protective measures such as site work (light grading, construction of a fencing, tree shelters, and flexible tree low berm to capture surface water flow). guards to minimize deer damage. On former agricultural fields this can sometimes be accomplished by breaking (4) Reduce plant competition through the drainage tiles that were installed to selective herbicide application to make the site suitable for agriculture. This kill vegetation (see discussion of option and the specific tasks required appropriate use of herbicides, page to implement this strategy, along with 133), particularly sod-forming grasses, potential funding opportunities, should be around the base of each tree (once or explored with representatives of the USDA twice annually) or mowing (at least Natural Resources Conservation Service, four times during the growing season) Conservation District, Pennsylvania until the canopy reaches 60% cover. Department of Environmental Protection, (5) After canopy closure, inspect for or US Fish and Wildlife Service. invasive plants annually and control as needed. Converting pasture or cropland to a more 6b. Convert to Native Shrubland This is the preferred option if the natural cover type would be particularly conservation priority is threatened shrubland birds and the landowner has the beneficial if it is currently located in an resources to complete necessary stewardship tasks. Use guidelines under 3b to convert area that is often wet. pasture or cropland to native shrubland. 6c. Convert to Native Meadow Meadows provide more environmental and ecological benefits than pasture and cropland and are less costly to maintain. This is a preferred option if the area is no longer needed for animal grazing and it would augment an adjacent meadow. Use the guidelines under 5b to convert pasture or cropland to native meadow.

Cover Type Options 91 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

TREE DOMINATED OR adjacent agricultural or developed lands, OPEN AREAS they provide valuable habitat for wildlife, including food, water, and protected travel routes for aquatic animals and species Overview that prey on aquatic animals, including a There are two cover types—wetlands and vast diversity of insects, fish, amphibians, riparian areas—that can exist as either tree birds, and mammals. To protect water and dominated or open areas depending on soil resources, wetlands and riparian areas past disturbance and hydrology. Wetlands should be left as undisturbed as possible. are saturated for an extended period This means keeping livestock out and during the growing season. Those that are avoiding mowing or other vegetation dominated by woody vegetation (trees management, with the exception and shrubs) are commonly called swamps. of planting native species and spot- Many trees and shrubs native to our region controlling invasive species. Wetlands are able to survive for several months in and waterways are heavily regulated saturated soils (e.g., red maple, pin oak, resources; the landowner should seek swamp white oak, blackgum, buttonbush, input from the County Conservation smooth alder, silky dogwood, winterberry), District, Pennsylvania Department of particularly if inundation occurs during the Environmental Protection, or USDA dormant or non-growing season. Wetlands Natural Resource Conservation Service dominated by herbaceous plants are before undertaking stewardship around commonly called marshes. wetlands and streams in order to comply Riparian areas are lands adjacent with federal, state, and local laws. to natural and man-made water bodies (stream, river, pond, reservoir). They can Cover Type 7 also exist as tree dominated or open lands and can be terrestrial (upland) or palustrine Wetlands (wetland). In agricultural areas the riparian Overview area is typically dominated by herbaceous Wetlands may be defined as areas that plants that are harvested as food crops or satisfy at least two of the following three serve as pasture for livestock. Riparian parameters: (1) they support hydrophytic areas in this region that are not subject to (water-loving) plants, (2) they contain repeated disturbance from agriculture or hydric soils, or (3) their hydrology is mowing are generally dominated by trees. such that there is permanent or periodic Open wetlands—shrub swamp or marsh— inundation, or soil saturation for seven are the exception to that rule. days or more during the growing season. Wetlands and riparian areas deserve Although historically maligned as special attention in developing and wasteland, wetlands (particularly forested implementing a stewardship plan. Indeed, wetlands) are finally receiving proper the mismanagement of these areas can recognition for the many important have serious impacts to the quality and ecological and environmental benefits quantity of local water resources. In they provide. Because the stewardship addition to reducing stormwater flow and of wetlands is covered by federal and filtering chemicals and sediment from state regulations that are periodically

92 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

modified, it is prudent to contact the Historically USDA Natural Resources Conservation maligned, Service, Pennsylvania Department filled, dredged, of Environmental Protection, or the and drained, Conservation District before conducting wetlands are now considered any stewardship activity in or near a essential for wetland area. maintaining water quality. Benefits to regional Good stewardship conservation priorities includes • Wildlife habitat. Amphibians, aquatic compliance with insects, and many animals that depend several levels of regulation on them as a major food source use designed to wetlands as breeding and feeding sites. protect this • Water quality protection. Wetlands valuable, yet buffer streams by absorbing sediments vulnerable, and chemical pollutants. habitat. • Stream flow moderation. By absorbing large amounts of precipitation, wetlands Molly Smyrl reduce the volume of water entering streams during storm events. By slowly Although historically maligned as wasteland, replenishing groundwater and streams they help maintain stream flows during wetlands are finally receiving proper dry periods. recognition for the many important ecological Current issues • There are three species of invasive and environmental benefits they provide. plants that can be especially destructive to wetland values in the region: purple Cover type options and guidelines loosestrife, reed canary grass, and phragmites can monopolize wetlands There are five options for wetland areas: and reduce their ecological value. preserve as is, restore to healthy state, Common cat-tail—although it is a convert to forest, convert to shrubland, native species and capable of effectively or convert to meadow. Which option or filtering pollutants from water—can options are chosen will depend on the also monopolize wetlands and reduce conservation priority, site conditions, biodiversity where runoff or groundwater and the available stewardship budget. is polluted with nutrients from fertilizer Any permitted stewardship work within use or septic drain field leakage in the wetlands is best undertaken when the watershed. Other invasive plants that ground is frozen or dry (to minimize are typically found in uplands can also the impact to the resource) and after be highly invasive in wetlands, notably consultation with a representative of multiflora rose and Japanese stiltgrass. the Conservation District, Pennsylvania

Cover Type Options 93 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Department of Environmental 1, 4a, and 5a for stewardship guidelines for Protection, or USDA Natural Resources maintaining healthy forest, shrubland, and Conservation Service. meadow, respectively. 7a. Preserve As Is 7b. Restore to Healthy State This is a preferred option if the existing This is a preferred option if the existing cover type is swamp (wet forest or cover type is wet forest, shrubland, or shrubland) or marsh (wet meadow) in a meadow in a degraded condition. See 2a, healthy condition. Consult Cover Types 4b, and 5b for management guidelines for

Resources and Considerations for Wetland and Riparian Stewardship

WETLAND RIPARIAN

Assistance • Pennsylvania Audubon • Pennsylvania Audubon • County Conservation District • County Conservation District • Pennsylvania Department of Environmental • Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, Pennsylvania Department Protection, Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, of Conservation and Natural Resources, Pennsylvania Game Commission Pennsylvania Game Commission • Penn State Extension • Penn State Extension • USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service • USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service

Tools/Materials • Monitoring: plant, bird, amphibian, insect • Monitoring: plant, bird, amphibian, insect identification books identification books • Vegetation control: pruners, pruning saw, • Vegetation control: pruners, pruning saw, chainsaw, “Weed Wrench,” herbicides chainsaw, “Weed Wrench,” herbicides approved for aquatic use approved for aquatic use, heavy-duty field mower/brush cutter

Considerations • Contact Conservation District or • Contact Conservation District or Pennsylvania DEP about technical Pennsylvania DEP about technical assistance and required permits before assistance and required permits before beginning work beginning work • Monitor for invasive species at least • Monitor for invasive species at least annually and control as quickly as possible annually and control as quickly as possible • Monitor deer population and maintain • Monitor deer population and maintain at appropriate level to sustain a healthy at appropriate level to sustain a healthy community (see discussion on estimating community (see discussion on estimating deer impact, page 112) deer impact, page 112) • Create/extend adjacent forest or meadow • Create/extend adjacent forest buffer buffer • Use proper timing (when soils are very dry • Use proper timing (when soils are very dry or frozen) for any necessary activity or frozen) for any necessary activity • Consider potential changes to hydrology • Consider potential changes to hydrology from upstream land use change from upstream land use change

94 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS restoring degraded forest, shrubland, and Given their critical position adjacent to meadow, respectively. 7c. Convert to Forest water resources it is preferred that all This is a preferred option if the existing riparian areas be maintained as forest or cover type is shrubland, meadow, pasture, or lawn and the hydrology permits trees to shrubland to maximize their buffering role. survive. See 4c, 5c, 6a, or 10a, respectively, for guidelines to convert shrubland, meadow, pasture, or lawn to forest. 7d. Convert to Native Shrubland This is the preferred option if the conservation priority is threatened shrub swamp birds, the landowner has the resources to complete necessary stewardship tasks, and the existing cover type is degraded forest, meadow, pasture, or lawn. Follow guidelines under 2b, 3b, 6b, or 10b, respectively, to convert degraded forest, meadow, pasture, or lawn to native shrubland. 7e. Convert to Native Meadow This is the preferred option if the existing Claudia Steckel Vegetation on forested riparian corridors adjacent to streams resource is pasture or lawn/landscaped area. or ponds is extremely important for filtering pollution from This would not be a preferred option if the runoff and slowing down stormwater. Stewardship should existing resource is forest or shrubland. focus on maintaining the forest cover. Follow guidelines under 6c and 10c, respectively, to convert pasture or lawn/ landscaped area to native meadow. role. An outside strip of meadow may be preferred in situations where high inputs of surface stormwater are directed into the Cover Type 8 riparian area from adjacent agricultural Riparian Area fields or developed areas. Riparian forests Overview can provide many benefits including environmental (as silt and chemical Riparian areas are lands immediately buffers for associated streams and areas adjacent to streams or ponds and typically of high carbon sequestration), ecological include floodplains, alluvial soils, and (wildlife habitat), and recreational stream-related wetlands (“oxbow” (fishing) benefits and can be an attractive swamps, marshes, and ponds). Given part of a property. The width of the buffer their critical position adjacent to water needed to protect the stream resources resources it is preferred that all riparian and provide environmental and ecological areas be maintained as forest or native benefits will vary depending on soils and shrubland to maximize their buffering slope. In general the buffer should be no

Cover Type Options 95 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

less than 25 feet (ideally 95 feet or more) HUMAN-ENGINEERED AREAS on either side of the stream and may need to be more to include sensitive areas such Overview as wetlands. The extent of the protected stream corridor should be determined on a The final cover types that can be case-by-case basis. encountered in natural lands or potential natural lands have the common Benefits to regional characteristic of being more or less conservation priorities “engineered,” that is, they have resulted from modifications such as regrading, • Protect water resources through shading and uptake of agricultural and urban paving, and construction of buildings and runoff, and provide food for aquatic other structures. They also are or have macroinvertebrates. been the focus of more intense human activity. In general, they require significant Current issues maintenance and, if not properly maintained, can present a hazard to the • The stewardship of riparian buffers landowner, visitors, and neighbors, and adjacent to or within residential compromise other natural resources. developments can be compromised due The degree to which each cover type to the proximity of residences and their can be incorporated into a property’s owners who complicate or eliminate natural lands depends on how much it can deer management, use the area as dump be modified and continue to perform its sites, or prune understory vegetation to intended function. A pond can become improve the view of the water body. part of a natural area if the area around it is • Excessive overland flow from converted to forest, shrubland, or meadow; agricultural fields, lawns, or impervious it can also be converted to a fully vegetated surfaces can lead to gully erosion. wetland—generally increasing its wildlife value, but losing its recreational (fishing, Cover type options and guidelines boating) function. Stormwater basins As stated above, riparian areas should can be somewhat naturalized through consist of forest, shrubland, or meadow less frequent mowing and the planting to buffer the adjacent water resource. of native trees, shrubs, and herbs. Lawn, Therefore, regardless of the existing however, can only become natural land by resource, the goal should be to maintain converting it to another cover type. The the corridor as healthy forest, shrubland, or landowner needs to weigh the benefits of meadow, or to move the existing resource naturalizing these areas with the loss of to healthy forest, shrubland, or meadow. original function when determining their long-term stewardship. Use the Stewardship Matrix (page 67) to reference the appropriate section for guidelines to achieve this goal.

96 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Cover Type 9 Benefits to regional Pond conservation priorities Overview • Habitat for wildlife, particularly amphibians, waterfowl, and wading birds. Ponds are open bodies of water formed by damming a stream or through the Current issues excavation of an area with a high water table or water source (springs or seeps). • Thermal pollution of associated streams. Because southeastern Pennsylvania was • When combined with low vegetation never glaciated, ponds are not a natural they are an attractive cover type for component of the landscape except for Canada geese. Aggregation of geese in a few oxbow ponds along large streams, large numbers leads to degradation of but they are common in the region due to ponds and associated streams. their former use for irrigation, fire control, • Older ponds are likely to need costly water supply, or flood control, and for their maintenance, including dredging and aesthetic appeal. Ponds can provide some repairs to berms and spillways. benefit, including environmental (silt traps for associated streams), ecological • The dams of in-stream ponds usually (habitat for aquatic plants and animals), obstruct the movement of aquatic and recreational (fishing, boating) benefits, organisms, including fish, which and they can be an attractive part of the restricts their access to upstream feeding landscape. However, the maintenance and breeding sites. costs and liability concerns associated with ponds and their impacts on water quality often outweigh these benefits. Unless shaded or very small, they can elevate water temperatures of associated streams (particularly if outflow is from the surface), block the migration of aquatic organisms, and, if surrounded by lawn, attract large numbers of Canada geese, which further degrade the water through their droppings. From a basic stewardship perspective they also can require costly, specialized maintenance, including periodic dredging and dam repairs, and they can be an attractive nuisance. In this handbook, we will address only ponds that are relatively small and part of larger existing or

potential natural lands. Holly Harper Large unshaded bodies of water contribute to thermal pollution of streams and attract large numbers of Canada geese. If a pond is retained, stewards should aim to reduce its negative effects on water quality with vegetated riparian buffers that help shade the water surface and attract a greater diversity of wildlife and fewer geese.

Cover Type Options 97 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Cover type options and guidelines converting lawn, invasive vegetation, There are six cover type options for ponds: or other cover to forest, shrubland, preserve as is, restore to healthy state, or meadow. The buffer should have a convert to forest, convert to shrubland, width of at least 95 feet to be effective. convert to meadow, or convert to Contact the USDA Natural Resources wetlands. Which option or options are Conservation Service, Pennsylvania chosen will depend on the conservation Department of Environmental Protection, priority, site conditions, and the available or Conservation District to make sure stewardship budget. The appropriate all current regulations are followed option will also depend on whether the when undertaking pond restoration and pond is in-stream or not. The conversion maintenance. of in-stream ponds to restore the original 9b. Convert to Forest stream channel is highly desirable because This is a preferred option if there is no of the direct impacts on water quality; desire to preserve the pond and approval off-stream ponds have a lesser impact can be obtained from the Pennsylvania on water quality if they do not empty Department of Environmental Protection into a stream, so their conversion to a for filling in the pond or breaching the different cover type is driven more by dam. These guidelines start with the maintenance costs and liability concerns. assumption that conditions common in the Conversion of in-stream ponds is a much region, specifically overabundant deer and more complicated process that involves invasive species, exist on the site. If the removal of the dam and legacy sediments land manager believes that an adequate (the silt that builds up behind the dam) number of native trees will become and the regrading and stabilization of established naturally, skip steps (3) and the streambank. Ideally, a restoration (4). In the rare instance of adequate native specialist can locate the historical stream advance regeneration and low deer and channel and regrade and plant the area to invasive species pressure, begin at step (7). encourage its reestablishment. (1) Follow Pennsylvania Department of 9a. Preserve As Is/Restore to Environmental Protection or USDA Healthy State Natural Resources Conservation This is the preferred option if there are Service recommendations for draining, sufficient funds to maintain or restore removing structures, and filling. the resource and water-based recreation Regrade as needed to restore the or education is the conservation natural topography of the site. priority. It is recommended that the (2) Seed exposed ground with a fast- pond be buffered by forest, shrubland, growing, native, perennial grass such or meadow, or a combination. Consult as Canada wild-rye, riverbank wild-rye, the Stewardship Matrix (page 67) to or Virginia wild-rye (or exotic annual reference the appropriate section for rye or oats, which produce fast cover but do not persist) to stabilize the Ponds are seen currently as having largely exposed soil. (3) Planting design should allow enough negative effects on the water quality of any space between trees to allow for associated stream. control of competing vegetation with

98 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

available mowing equipment, but Protection recommendations, follow the close enough for the canopy to close guidelines under 3b to convert a pond to quickly. This will typically require a native shrubland. spacing of between 10 feet x 10 feet 9d. Convert to Native Meadow and 20 feet x 20 feet. The spacing This is a preferred option if there is no can be more random if persistently desire to preserve the pond and approval wet soils or other conditions prohibit can be obtained from the Pennsylvania the use of heavy mowing equipment, Department of Environmental Protection necessitating manual control of for filling the pond or breaching the competing vegetation. dam. After filling and restoring the area (4) Select native species that are to its natural topography according to appropriate for the site (see Native Department of Environmental Plant Materials, pages 172–200). For Protection recommendations, follow the best survival trees should be 1–2 inches guidelines under 2c to convert a pond to in caliper for hardwoods and 6–8 feet native meadow. in height for conifers. 9e. Convert to Wetland (5) If seedlings are planted, use protective This is a preferred option if there is no measures such as fencing, tree shelters, desire to preserve the pond and approval and flexible tree guards to minimize can be obtained from the Pennsylvania deer damage. Department of Environmental Protection (6) Reduce plant competition through for filling the pond or breaching the dam. selective herbicide application (see This option and the specific tasks required discussion of appropriate use of to implement this strategy, along with herbicides, page 133) to kill vegetation potential funding opportunities, should be around the base of each tree (once or explored with representatives of the USDA twice annually) or mowing (at least Natural Resources Conservation Service, four times) during the growing season Conservation District, Pennsylvania until the canopy reaches 60% cover. Department of Environmental Protection, After closure monitor for invasive or US Fish and Wildlife Service. plants and control as needed. (7) Inspect annually for invasive species Cover Type 10 and treat as necessary. Lawn/Landscaped Area 9c. Convert to Native Shrubland This is the preferred option if the Overview conservation priority is threatened Lawn and landscaped areas are open shrubland birds, the landowner has areas that are formally landscaped and the resources to complete necessary maintained principally for recreational and stewardship tasks, and approval can aesthetic benefits. Because they afford the be obtained from the Pennsylvania least environmental and ecological benefits Department of Environmental Protection (indeed they can create environmental for filling the pond or breaching the problems if not managed properly) and dam. After filling and restoring the area usually are the most costly in the long term to its natural topography according to in personnel time, fuel and equipment Department of Environmental costs, and carbon “footprint,” their extent

Cover Type Options 99 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Because they afford the least environmental Cover type options and guidelines There are four options for lawn and and ecological benefits and usually are the landscaped areas: convert to forest, convert to shrubland, convert to meadow, and most costly in the long term in personnel convert to wetlands. Which option or time, fuel and equipment costs, and options are chosen will depend on the conservation priority, site conditions, and carbon “footprint,” the extent of lawn and the available stewardship budget. landscaped areas should be minimized. 10a. Convert to Forest This option is appropriate if the planted area would augment an adjacent forested should be minimized. Adding part of this area (and result in reduced edge or area to natural lands is a good way to increased interior forest habitat), connect increase environmental and ecological two existing forested areas, or provide benefits and reduce overall stewardship a natural screen to improve aesthetics costs for a property. Using native species of the site. Although there are many environmental and ecological benefits for landscape plantings (see Native Plant to be realized from this strategy, it is Materials, pages 191–200) will lessen the ecological impact of landscaping by also a strategy that requires significant providing food for key components of the time and resources to accomplish due food web, especially native insects (most to the overabundance of white-tailed cannot eat exotic species) and birds, and deer and invasive plants in the region. not promoting the introduction of invasive Implementing this strategy will likely species into nearby natural areas. take many years of intensive stewardship because of these factors. Use the guidelines Benefits to regional under 6a to convert lawn or landscaped conservation priorities area to forest. • None 10b. Convert to Native Shrubland This is the preferred option if the Current issues conservation priority is threatened • The increase in suburban development shrubland birds and the landowner has has led to the proliferation of this cover the resources to complete necessary type. The use of chemical biocides to stewardship tasks. Use guidelines under maintain this cover type can add insult 3b to convert lawn or landscaped area to to injury by polluting the remaining native shrubland. natural resources nearby. Using natural 10c. Convert to Native Meadow lawn care and native plant material, and Converting lawn or landscaped areas developing a tolerance for “weeds” can to native meadow would increase the help to minimize the ongoing impact of environmental and ecological benefits this environmentally and ecologically of the site, especially if it augmented worthless cover type. an existing meadow, buffered a stream corridor, or was located on a wet or steep

100 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

(>15%) site. Non-native meadow can Cover Type 11 be created from lawn areas simply by Stormwater Control Structures reducing the mowing frequency to once or twice annually. Converting to native Overview meadow requires clearing the existing Natural lands are rarely the source of vegetation and planting native meadow stormwater problems, but they often species. The latter option is preferable in suffer from the effects of poor stormwater that it allows the landowner to introduce management on properties upslope or desired native species and to eliminate upstream. Managing stormwater runoff exotic grasses (e.g., tall and red fescues, from impervious surfaces is an essential perennial rye, Kentucky bluegrass, creeping part of land and water stewardship. If bentgrass) and other invasive plants designed with careful attention to the that compete with native species. The ecology and hydrology of each site and each former option, however, may be more watershed, and with the use of innovative appropriate on wet or steep areas where best management practices (BMPs), native meadow establishment procedures projects can match or improve upon the would be more difficult and could create predevelopment condition. New residential environmental problems. Any plan subdivisions provide excellent opportunities that calls for the eradication of existing to work “on-contour” with broader systems vegetation to establish meadow on wet of berms, swales, and vegetated filter strips or steep (>15%) areas should follow and better utilization of natural soils and USDA Natural Resources Conservation vegetation than typically were used in past Service recommendations to minimize building practices. environmental impacts. Use the guidelines Unfortunately, many existing under 5b to convert lawn and landscaped stormwater basins are maintained as lawn, areas to native meadow. which provides no wildlife benefits except 10d. Convert to Wetland for Canada geese. There are several options This is the preferred option for lawn/ for converting to an alternative cover landscaped area that was formerly wetlands type to improve this condition and make (typically once drained for agriculture), stormwater structures a beneficial part of is relatively small, is adjacent to existing the property’s natural lands. wetlands, and has topography that would lend itself to conversion to wetlands Benefits to regional conservation priorities with minimal site work (light grading, construction of a low berm to capture • Stormwater basins maintained as lawn surface water flow). This option and the have no benefits as natural lands. specific tasks required to implement it, along with potential funding opportunities, should be explored with representatives While natural lands are rarely the source of of the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Conservation stormwater problems, they often suffer from District, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, or US Fish and poor stormwater management on properties Wildlife Service. upslope or upstream.

Cover Type Options 101 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Current issues HISTORIC RESOURCES • Conventional stormwater systems provide virtually no means of filtration Overview for contaminants found in stormwater runoff, other than by allowing suspended Southeastern Pennsylvania is brimming solids to settle out in detention or with historic resources, many of which retention basins. contribute to community character. They can be categorized as follows: (1) • Stormwater basins maintained as lawn built resources such as residences, barns, attract large numbers of Canada geese. commercial buildings, houses of worship, civic structures, etc., (2) archaeological Cover type options and guidelines resources—the artifacts and relics of past The number of options for stormwater human cultures, and (3) cultural resources control basins varies depending on which including combinations of built and professional you speak with. Engineers natural resources, such as trees, streams, are usually opposed to planting woody bridges, walls, spring houses, corn cribs, vegetation within stormwater basins— railroad tracks, and cemetery markers. particularly on the berms—because of Many township historical commissions concerns that the tree or shrub roots and review boards have inventoried will undermine berms and any liners or local historic resources. Because historic recharge beds at the bottom of the basin resources provide area residents and and that woody detritus can clog outflow visitors with a critical link to the past, it structures. Ecological designers believe is recommended that you contact your that woody vegetation will anchor soils local historical commission directly for on berms (as it does on streambanks) advice if your natural lands contain built, and promote recharge in basin beds archaeological, or cultural resources. (any clogging of outfall structures simply requires seasonal maintenance as an Cover type options and guidelines alternative to weekly mowing). As a There are two preferred management relatively easy alternative to traditional options for historic resources: preserve lawn, stormwater basins can be converted as is and restore to a healthy state. The to native meadow to increase ecological option selected will depend upon the benefits and eliminate the basin as an condition and integrity of the resource, attraction to flocks of Canada geese. the available management budget, and the 11a. Convert to Forest interpretive value of the resource. A local Follow guidelines under 10a. 11b. Convert to Native Shrubland Follow guidelines under 10b. 11c. Convert to Native Meadow Follow guidelines under 10c.

102 Cover Type Options LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

historical review board will likely consider 12b. Restore to a Healthy State a resource to have a high degree of If a resource that has a high degree of integrity if it possesses one of the following: integrity and interpretive value exists in (1) an authentic, remnant historic or a state of disrepair, every effort should be architectural identity evident through made (funds permitting) to restore the surviving or physical characteristics such resource to its form and condition at an as location, setting, design, materials, appropriate point in history. If restoration or workmanship; (2) the documented is not feasible for financial or other reasons, potential of possessing retrievable the goal should be to stabilize the resource or surviving characteristics; or (3) in order to prevent further damage. documented association with an historical Consultation with your local historical event or person, accompanied by surviving commission will help determine the relevance to the setting of the event appropriate point in history and provide or person. It is recommended that you guidance on how to preserve a resource’s contact your local historical commission authenticity in the restoration process. or a consultant trained in historic resource conservation for assistance in determining the integrity and interpretive value of Southeastern Pennsylvania is brimming your historic resource(s). If required, the commission will also help identify with historic resources, many of which potential sources of preservation funding. contribute to community character. 12a. Preserve As Is If a resource has a high degree of integrity and interpretive value, measures should be taken, at the very least, to sustain the existing form, integrity, and material of the resource. Preservation may include either initial stabilization or ongoing maintenance. Because of the varied nature of historic resources, it is recommended that an expert in the type of resource present be retained to advise on the most appropriate methods for preservation, that is, an architect specializing in historic architecture, an archeologist, or landscape historian.

Cover Type Options 103 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

IN THIS SECTION What can go Stewardship Techniques wrong? What can I do and Procedures about it? Deer Prevent deer from overbrowsing his section provides an overview Pennsylvania. It is followed by a much vegetation of the stewardship techniques and briefer discussion—an indication of their Geese procedures that can help land much lower impact—of Canada geese. Keep geese from T degrading water managers in southeastern Pennsylvania bodies address the problems highlighted in the Deer Management Options Forests Major Stewardship Issues section (page Reduce 20). New information and methods Wherever deer are present on natural fragmentation pertaining to stewardship are emerging all and edge effects lands in southeastern Pennsylvania, there the time. The land manager should keep is a strong likelihood that the population Invasive Plants current on natural lands management Slow, stop is higher than the ecosystem can sustain or reverse issues to become aware of new options as without substantial losses of native plant degradation of soon as possible. The land manager should and animal species, forest structural plant communities also keep track of what techniques and diversity, and advance tree regeneration Meadows procedures work best on his or her property and the proliferation of exotic (non- Establish or and share this information with colleagues maintain a native) invasive plant species, black-legged meadow in the region (through Natural Lands ticks, and the bacterium that causes Lyme Prescribed Fire Trust and other stewardship information disease. That is because deer populations Learn when and networks) to improve prevailing best are no longer regulated as they were for how to use fire management practices. millions of years, first by native predators to enhance plant communities and more recently by Native Americans Stormwater hunting to supply their families with food. Put stormwater WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT Year-round, geographically pervasive back into the predation is the only force that has been ground he problems posed by an demonstrated to be capable of limiting deer Streambank overabundant deer population population numbers in most of our region, Stabilization are highlighted under Major but all of their major predators are gone Establish a T riparian buffer Stewardship Issues. Deer overabundance and will not be returning. Foods preferred Trails causes the most significant adverse impacts by deer are so abundant across southeastern Design and affecting native Pennsylvania forests. The Pennsylvania that competition for food maintain trails following is a discussion of the methods does not limit deer numbers, at least not Hazard Trees currently available and their applicability until they are so plentiful that browsing Identify, monitor, to reducing the impact of overabundant has caused catastrophic changes to native remove and deer populations in southeastern ecosystems. Recreational hunting as it document hazard trees

104 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS has been practiced since game laws were Failure to manage the deer population will first instituted over a century ago is very different from predation or subsistence make healthy natural forest communities hunting. It does not regulate deer numbers at levels that allow native species unsustainable in southeastern Pennsylvania. diversity, forest structure, and advance tree regeneration to be sustained. However, the Pennsylvania Game Commission has been making changes to hunting regulations recently in recognition of the problems created by overabundant deer, expanding the hunters’ “tool kit,” extending hunting seasons, and allowing non-recreational culls in some circumstances. This has broadened landowners’ options if they wish to reduce deer impacts on their natural lands. This section is designed to help a land manager determine which option or options are most appropriate for his or her property.

No management David Steckel No deer management is an option if Choosing not to manage deer can result in a park-like forest natural factors (predators, disease, famine) with only canopy trees and an herbaceous layer dominated by and human activities (hunting, car exotic invasive species. accidents) within the area are maintaining the deer population at a level that does An instructive example of the effects not adversely affect important natural of the no-management approach is a or cultural resources. Another basis for 3,400-acre preserve north of Carlisle, no management that applies even where Pennsylvania, managed by Natural Lands deer are overabundant and there is clear Trust. This property has suffered from evidence of adverse ecosystem impacts is a extreme deer overabundance (densities landowner’s belief that wild animals should over 100 per square mile) since the late not be harmed, perhaps coupled with the 1960s when hunting was prohibited by hope that nature or human ingenuity will the donor’s will. The deer population has eventually remedy the impacts without remained high—despite the total lack the need for lethal methods. In most of understory vegetation—through the situations in southeastern Pennsylvania, consumption of the annual mast crop landowners with conservation priorities (acorns, beech nuts, hickory nuts, etc. that include wildlife habitat, natural plant from the existing canopy trees), the few communities, or income from timber tree seedlings that are able to germinate, harvesting are likely to see those priorities and agricultural crops on adjacent farm compromised by the consequences of the fields. As a result, the forest resembles a no-management option. park with canopy trees and a carpet of

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 105 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Japanese stiltgrass spread and sustained Without deer management, by deer disturbance of the soil. Studies perpetuation of some semblance of natural of forest gaps—the usual site of dense forest communities would require the regeneration—by biologists at Dickinson use of artificial regeneration (planted College show a complete absence of tree trees and tall shrubs) to regenerate the seedlings. Computer models confirm the forest until the deer population collapses obvious: in the best case scenario, one through disease or starvation. Trees and without a major wind event or forest shrubs will need to be tall enough (>5 pathogen, the forest will gradually degrade feet) when planted to escape browsing of into an impoverished savanna community terminal buds and be planted in numbers with extremely low native species diversity sufficient to maintain at least a 60% closed as the current canopy trees decline and die. canopy under pressure from environmental Based on the current understanding stresses and pests and pathogens. The land of deer ecology and results on properties manager will also need to accept the likely with high-density deer populations, loss or severe degradation of the native failure to manage the deer population herb layer. will make healthy natural forest communities unsustainable in southeastern Active management Pennsylvania. The loss of native species Active methods to control deer diversity and structural variation in the overbrowsing can be grouped into two understory will reduce habitat for local categories: those that restrict or deter deer and migratory wildlife. A forest without a access to desired vegetation and those that diverse understory lacks cover for ground- reduce the deer population within a tract nesting birds such as ovenbird, worm- of land. The current tools used to modify eating warbler, and Louisiana waterthrush white-tailed deer behavior include barriers, and protected feeding and nesting areas repellents, and lethal removal. Two other for other forest-interior birds, including approaches that are often talked about but barred owl, Acadian flycatcher, wood are infeasible at present or are prohibited thrush, cerulean warbler, northern parula, in the state are contraceptives and trap American redstart, Kentucky warbler, and transfer. and hooded warbler. A forest devoid of an understory also lacks shelter and Barriers moist conditions preferred by reptiles Barriers physically restrict deer from and amphibians, including salamanders, interacting with vegetation in the treated frogs, and turtles. The likely shift in plant area. Options under this method include dominance to exotic invasive species tree shelters, netting, and deer exclosure from natives, which are preferred browse fencing. Tree shelters and netting protect for deer, will decrease food resources individual trees or shrubs; fencing excludes for insects (a key link in the food web deer from all the vegetation in a specific sustaining larger animals), birds (the area. Physical barriers have proven to be growth and survival of young birds, and effective in protecting trees and shrubs in often adults as well, depend on insects formal landscapes and forest vegetation to supply fat and protein), and aquatic although they can be expensive if used invertebrates in associated forest streams over a large area. (they are largely unable to digest leaves of Tree shelters are useful to protect exotic plant species). seedlings in open areas (estate areas, forest

106 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

gaps, and edges) until they reach 6 feet in height and are above the maximum browsing height of deer. However, their cost and maintenance requirements might limit their use by some landowners (financial assistance for planting and tree shelters may be available from the Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry or the USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service). A 5-foot tree shelter with support stake costs $5 to $6 depending on the quantity purchased. A per-acre cost at a 12-foot x 12-foot spacing will therefore run $1,500 – $1,800, plus tree seedlings and installation. Tree shelters also require periodic monitoring and maintenance as Gary Gimbert they are attractive to deer as rubs and are Tree shelters are useful to protect seedlings in open areas sometimes targets of vandals. (forest gaps and edges) from deer damage until they reach six Fencing holds more promise as a feet in height and are above normal browsing height. deer management tool, but it involves significant up-front expense and frequent breaks caused by falling limbs or vandals monitoring to ensure the integrity of the and restricts not only deer movement, fence. Deer fencing around significant but also the movement of several other areas of land are 8–12 feet high and animal species. Cost estimates for large- constructed of box wire, plastic mesh, or scale fencing projects are currently on electrified wire (shorter fencing can be the low end about $8–$10 per running effective if the enclosed area is very small foot of fence and, depending on site or narrow, such as a vegetable garden). characteristics and materials used, can The Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry uses range up to $30 or more per running foot, two 4-foot sections (8-foot total height) of including installation. box wire fencing kept tight to the ground Costs and monitoring are complicated to protect tree regeneration following by internal roads, paths, or streams, timber harvests. Bowman’s Hill Wildflower requiring gates and stream crossing devices. Preserve in Bucks County fenced 80 of One option that reduces the cost is to its 100 acres with electrified wire in the use temporary fencing, enclosing large early 1990s, effectively protecting its (a quarter to half of the forested area) wildflower collection. Tyler Arboretum, sections on a rotating basis to protect vital near Media, Delaware County, in 2000 forest regeneration from deer browsing installed a 12-foot-tall, 2-mile-long deer while maintaining accessibility to the fence around 105 acres of its collection at rest of the forest for management and a cost of $350,000 (including more than recreation. However, once advance tree $50,000 to provide vehicular access and regeneration is established and the fence a portion placed in the endowment for is moved, the previously fenced areas are continuing maintenance). In addition open to understory degradation again by to its high initial cost, fencing requires deer browsing. constant monitoring to quickly repair any

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 107 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Fencing can also be used as an and experimenting with new products as instructional and monitoring tool. deer adapt. Although foliar sprays may Small (10 meter square) deer exclosures be useful for landscape and other special can be built at a relatively low cost plantings, repellents are usually impractical (approximately $300 per exclosure) to be for natural lands. monitored and compared to the existing forest. These study and demonstration Contraceptives areas provide a picture of the forest’s Contraceptives to prevent pregnancy in potential when browsing impacts from deer deer have been tested and are a subject of are removed. They also provide a feasible, ongoing research. The two major types of more understandable, and far more useful contraceptives are immunocontraceptives barometer of deer overabundance than and hormonal contraceptives. estimating deer density. The state of the Immunocontraceptives “vaccinate” forest within the exclosure can guide deer an animal against egg proteins. When an management outside. ovary releases an egg, the deer’s immune system views the egg as a foreign body and Repellents rejects it before it can implant itself within Repellents create unpleasant sensory the uterus. Although very expensive and experiences that discourage deer from labor-intensive, immunocontraceptives physically interacting with vegetation have proven effective in arresting in the treated area. Repellents include deer population growth under certain periodic loud sounds, bright lights, or circumstances, such as on islands or foul-tasting foliar sprays, often with a base within fenced parks or zoos where deer are of capsaicin, the fiery alkaloid in chili confined to a relatively small area. peppers. Repellents can be effective in At present, the cheapest and most small areas where the goal is to reduce common method for administering browsing damage to tolerable limits. immunocontraceptives is through the The main drawbacks to repellents use of dart guns—close-range arms that are cost (approximately $150 per acre, are accurate to about 40 yards. Most plus application) and their short-term population biologists feel that in order effectiveness. Deer, particularly those in to stop herd growth in deer, they have to dense populations, quickly adapt to these prevent pregnancy in 90% of the female tactics. The manager must be committed to population. Immunocontraceptives continually monitoring application needs developed so far have to be readministered periodically to sustain sterility in each individual doe. The use of contraceptives to manage Hormonal contraceptives work primarily by preventing ovulation in the deer population on natural lands in does. The most effective method for southeastern Pennsylvania is not only administering this type of contraceptive is through subcutaneous implants. prohibited by law, except as part of an Although one treatment can be effective for multiple years there are logistical and established research program, but it is also health concerns associated with the use of hormonal contraceptives in natural infeasible at this time due to the high cost. areas on free-ranging deer (entering

108 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS and leaving properties at will). The first Trapping or darting deer and moving them is the need to immobilize each deer to apply the treatment, which is logistically to another location is the most expensive, difficult, very expensive, and stressful to the animal, often leading to self-injury or difficult, and ineffective deer control method. death. Potentially more problematic is the unknown consequences of introducing these hormones into the food supply. greatest of which is finding a location Currently, there are no contraceptives willing to accept more deer. This problem for free-ranging deer that are approved has become more difficult with the recent by the FDA or any other governing body. spread of chronic wasting disease (CWD) Also, the effects of deer contraceptives to nearby states (West Virginia and New on other animals (including humans) York). Attracting well-fed deer into baited have not been studied. Because deer in traps is the next challenge. Finally, survival southeastern Pennsylvania are free ranging, rates of transported deer have been low. there is a high probability of human At present, the Pennsylvania Game consumption of treated animals. It is even Commission has a policy of issuing no more likely that hormonal contraceptives permits for trapping and transferring deer. will enter the food chain when treated deer Lethal Removal die and are consumed by other animals, for instance, raccoons, opossums, foxes, Hunting is the most frequently used deer coyotes, turkey vultures, crows, or turtles. population reduction and maintenance Introducing hormonal contraceptives into method commonly available to the environment and food chain could landowners and land managers. Other have unknown and far-reaching effects. lethal removal options, including The use of contraceptives to manage deprivation permits for farmers and culls the deer population on natural lands in by sharpshooters are available, but tightly southeastern Pennsylvania is not only controlled by the Pennsylvania Game prohibited by law, except as part of an Commission. All lethal means of deer established research program, but it is management focus on reducing the number also infeasible at this time due to the high of does by mainly targeting antlerless deer. cost (over $1,000 per doe annually for Removing bucks has almost no effect immunocontraceptives), the potential on the year-to-year rate of population health risks of hormonal contraceptives, increase, decrease, or maintenance. and the high mobility of the local deer herd. A controlled, recreational hunting The fact that deer are free ranging through­ program in most cases is the most practical out the region makes treating enough of deer management tool available in the right animals almost impossible. southeastern Pennsylvania at this time.

Trap and Transfer Trapping or darting deer (requiring a Hunting is the most frequently used deer permit from the Pennsylvania Game population reduction and maintenance Commission) and moving them to another location is the most expensive, difficult, method commonly available to landowners and ineffective deer control method. It is an option fraught with problems, the and land managers.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 109 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

A controlled limitations on hunting areas and times, hunting program notification of appropriate persons when is probably the hunting is in progress, and an easy way to most effective identify permitted hunters by other users. deer management Most importantly, all hunters should be tool available to landowners carefully screened for firearm proficiency in southeastern and a history of ethical hunting practices. Pennsylvania at Any hunter who violates any program this time. rule should be immediately removed from the program. Ideally, hunting can lower the deer population to a level where only a few deer need to be removed each year to maintain the population at a level that allows healthy regeneration of the forest. Achieving this maintenance level is often complicated by ongoing suburban development in the surrounding landscape, which temporarily concentrates more deer on the remaining natural lands. If Drew Gilchrist this is the case, it will probably require an extended period of more intense However, scientific evidence is still lacking hunting, targeting mainly does, until that it is fully effective over a broad range the conversion of unprotected natural of situations for reducing impacts of deer areas in the landscape to residential or to levels adequate for the restoration and other uses is complete. Perpetuating a maintenance of ecosystem health. The maintenance level is also complicated likelihood of success rests to a large degree by the fact that with a lower population, on the level of experience, skill, and it may take hunters as much time to dedication of the particular set of hunters search out and remove a few deer as it who are the mainstay of the program. now takes to remove a few dozen deer. There are several concerns surrounding The land manager will need to engage the effective use of a deer-hunting program proficient, dedicated hunters to maintain that should be considered by any land the population at acceptable levels. Until manager prior to implementation. The additional options become available, foremost issue is the safe use of firearms recreational hunting will be the most or archery in a region with a growing widely used long-term method of keeping population and increasing use of natural the population in check and allowing lands. This is a particular concern in for limited forest regeneration until a communities where natural lands are part point where populations stabilize in the of the common open space that is used surrounding area, which could be decades. by the local community. Any hunting There are several potential alternatives program should be closely monitored and modifications within the lethal by the land manager and controlled by removal option that can be employed restrictions that minimize the potential to reduce deer populations. The first is conflict between hunters and other users the use of archery, particularly on small of the natural areas. These should include

110 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

properties or properties with numerous applications (coupons) to landowners that residential structures on its borders. they can then give to hunters. One coupon This would expand the hunting area is granted for every 5 acres of farmland and (the safety zone for archery is 50 yards; every 50 acres of other land cover (forest, firearms require a 150 yard safety zone) meadow, successional). Additional permits and extend the hunting time during the above the standard formula are available if year by several weeks. An added benefit the landowner submits a management plan of allowing expanded access by hunters is with their request. Unlike in past years, the that permitted hunters will monitor for landowner is no longer required to open unwarranted hunting while they are in their land to the general public. the field. A final option does not involve In some situations, it is more efficient recreational hunting at all. It is the use of to engage a local hunting club to sharpshooters to remove deer. Under this implement a deer population control option qualified professional sharpshooters program. They can handle all program are hired to euthanize a high quantity administration, including proficiency tests, of deer within a property. This requires the scheduling of hunting times, and data a special permit from the Pennsylvania collection on the separate harvest rates of Game Commission. The process is very does and bucks. The group should provide rigorous and requires the landowner to proof of insurance and be in close contact make a convincing case that hunting with the property landowner or manager within current game laws is not a viable to avoid conflicts with other activities in option for managing the deer population hunting areas. at desired levels. However, this is probably Another alternative for expanding the safest (removal is usually done at the number of deer harvested each night using infrared sighting scopes, over year is enrollment in the Pennsylvania isolated baiting stations located where Game Commission’s Deer Management shots are directed into the ground) and Assistance Program (DMAP). This quietest (sharpshooters use rifle silencers) program provides additional permit removal method and is the most effective

Summary of Active Deer Management Options

METHOD COMMENTS MOST APPROPRIATE APPLICATIONS High cost and maintenance Converting small open areas to forest. Protecting landscape Tree Shelters requirements plantings. Significant up-front cost, Establishing tree regeneration in overbrowsed forest areas. Deer Fencing frequent monitoring Creating demonstration areas. Protecting collections (arboretums). Repellents Impractical in natural areas Protecting landscape plantings in small areas. Maintaining populations in areas enclosed by fencing or isolated Contraceptives High cost, permit/license by significant natural boundaries (e.g., water, mountains). Expensive, difficult, transfer Removing deer that are in an area that puts humans or themselves Trap and Transfer location, permit/license in immediate danger. Currently most effective, Reducing and maintaining populations in areas large enough to Lethal Removal safety concerns provide appropriate safety zones.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 111 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

option for reducing the deer population Deer Impact Index 2 in the shortest time. The cash outlay is Low: Species composition and height of relatively high but the time demands on regeneration is determined mainly by the land manager can be considerably available light, nutrients, and seed source. lower than that required to run a There is a well-developed shrub layer and controlled hunting program. The venison native wildflowers are abundant and grow is dressed and donated to charitable food to their full size. banks or government-run institutions. Deer Impact Index 3 Removal of other signs of the cull such Moderate: Evidence of browsing is as bloodied leaves may also be a part of common with a greater reduction in height the sharpshooters’ services. Culls must be and abundance of the most-preferred performed annually, at least until ecosystem species than of the least-preferred species. restoration is achieved. Once the deer population is reduced and overbrowsing Deer Impact Index 4 impacts are alleviated, a controlled hunting High: Preferred species are sparse or absent program—if it is permissible or feasible— and all plants are nearly the same height may be adequate to maintain the desired as a result of browsing. Vegetation in deer population density. the shrub layer is sparse except for the least-preferred species (e.g., spicebush, American beech, exotic invasive shrubs). Estimating Deer Impact Deer Impact Index 5 Monitoring vegetation indicators is a Very high: A pronounced browse line is practical way to assess the effect of deer on evident with virtually no vegetation below forested areas. Vegetation can be assessed the browse line except for two rhizomatous by two methods: (1) comparing the overall fern species, hay-scented fern and New influence of deer browsing on existing York fern or exotic invasive herbaceous vegetation to an established index or (2) species such as Japanese stiltgrass and quantitative sampling. The US Forest garlic mustard. Service and Penn State University have The deer impact index is a qualitative developed a five-level deer impact index measure; its utility for detecting change to visually assess the level of deer influence over intervals as short as one or two years on forest health: is weak and its usefulness depends heavily Deer Impact Index 1 on the level of experience and knowledge Very low: No deer browsing. Occurs only of the evaluator on food-plant preferences within a well-maintained deer exclosure. of deer, expected maximum sizes of various plant species under a variety of habitat conditions, and how to distinguish signs of Monitoring vegetation deer browsing from plant damage by other animals and causes other than herbivory. indicators is a practical way Please note that these impact levels apply to later successional stages, particularly to assess the effect of deer maturing, mature, and old-growth forests. on forested areas. Young forests (up to approximately 30 years old) typically have a dense canopy that prevents sunlight from reaching the

112 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

forest floor. In this stage—called the pole • number of seedlings and saplings of or stem exclusion stage—the understory each tree species, and is largely free of shrubs and herbs due to • special measures of indicator species heavy shade. As the forest matures and (forest-floor species known to be the canopy thins from the death of weaker vulnerable to deer but somewhat trees, there is sufficient light to support a tolerant of moderate levels of shrub layer on which deer can browse. browsing, for instance, Canada Quantitative sampling is more time- mayflower, Indian cucumber-root, consuming but its interpretation involves and several trillium species); measures less judgment and specialized expertise. may include height of tallest plant A quantitative approach could include or length of longest leaf in the plot, periodic surveys along a transect or and number of flowering/fruiting cataloging vegetation change within individuals versus number of non- fixed plots. The latter could be used in flowering/fruiting individuals of each conjunction with the construction of indicator species in the plot. deer exclosures. Methods need to be scientifically rigorous if the results are to be The US Forest Service has developed sufficiently credible to serve as the basis for assessment procedures for determining labor-intensive and potentially costly deer the current level of deer impact on management procedures. For example, the forest regeneration as well as the level of protocol should include: competition from invasive species and • random selection of areas to other plants (e.g., ferns, mountain-laurel) be sampled; that might interfere with the growth of established seedlings after a timber harvest. • sampled areas large enough and A copy of this assessment procedure is sufficiently dispersed to include the outlined in the Forest Service General variety of plant resources found within Technical Report NRS-11 available from the property; the US Forest Service, Northern Research • sufficient replication and interspersion Station, 359 Main Road, Delaware, OH of treatments across the entire 43015 or http://nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/2471. sampling area, for example, deer fencing, repellents, hunting; and Estimating Deer Abundance • sufficient number of samples to increase the likelihood of early It is often said that a density of 15–20 deer detection of relatively subtle per forested square mile is a maximum differences and to minimize the level allowing minimal advance tree and chances of confusing the effects of shrub regeneration, and a density of 5–10 deer browsing with the effects of other per square mile is needed to sustain a factors that influence plant species high diversity of native species, including composition. native herbaceous plants. These numbers come from a small set of studies in large The data gathered within sampling plots or forest tracts of a single forest type in along transects may include: northwestern Pennsylvania, in which deer • percent cover of each plant species density was known because the research below 6 feet above the ground surface areas were fenced, emptied of deer, and (maximum height of deer browsing), then restocked with exactly the numbers of

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 113 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

deer needed to achieve specific densities. on monitoring deer signs (e.g., tracks, This was excellent research, but we also fecal pellets) and direct methods that know that deer density interacts with a require capturing or observing deer. Direct host of other factors in determining the methods may deliver more accurate and level of browsing impact on various forest precise population estimates but they tend ecosystem functions. Those other variables to be prohibitively expensive. include forest type, understory species Direct methods include aerial surveys, composition, landscape context, soil type, which have the advantage of covering soil moisture regime, forest-floor light large areas quickly and easily, although level, length of growing season, alternative hiring pilots and renting aircraft are food sources, historical land use, patterns expensive. The main problem with of seasonal movement by deer, and legacy using aerial surveys for white-tailed deer effects of prolonged high deer numbers in this region is visual obstruction by (e.g., depleted seed bank, scarcity of live vegetation. Although the region contains a seed sources within dispersal distance, predominantly deciduous forest and aerial and disproportionate abundance of non- surveys are performed only in winter, a preferred understory plant species). These large percentage of deer can be obscured interactions are complex, unpredictable, by evergreen trees and shrubs, topographic and severely constrain the potential features, and even the trunks and usefulness of deer density alone as a branches of deciduous trees and shrubs. predictor of ecosystem impacts. Researchers have shown that thermal Where resources are limited, which is imagery—flying at night using infrared- certainly the case for most managers of sensitive instruments—is far more effective natural lands in southeastern Pennsylvania, than daytime aerial survey methods. It is it may be cost-ineffective to divert time ideally done on very cold winter nights, and money from vital tasks, including when the thermal contrast is greatest. deer management, to estimating deer Sources of error include counting two or density. Keeping careful track of the more deer lying or standing together as number of does killed each year by hunters one and missing deer that are partially or sharpshooters, in combination with obscured by evergreen foliage, tree trunks, rigorous monitoring of ecosystem indicators or topography. A recent review evaluating (see previous section) is sufficient in most the application of thermal imagery cases for tracking progress in achieving technology in a variety of deciduous forest and maintaining a deer density that allows environments reported inconsistent results, forest ecosystems to be sustainable. with 11 to 69% of the deer missed in the However, if the resources are available, audited surveys and an average detection it is desirable to monitor deer abundance rate of 56% of the total deer present in the to make certain that management actions study areas. intended to reduce or maintain deer Another direct approach is the populations actually do so. Making a full mark-recapture method, which involves count of any animal species in the wild marking individual deer and comparing is nearly impossible, but several methods the proportion of marked deer recaptured have been developed to estimate the or killed in a subsequent roundup or hunt. abundance of white-tailed deer. This method is highly labor-intensive Survey methods can be classified into and extremely expensive because a large two general types: indirect methods based number of deer need to be marked—at

114 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS least 45% of the deer if the population If the resources are available, it is desirable is small (less than 200). In addition, the method is based on the assumptions that to monitor deer abundance to make certain marks are never lost and deer do not emigrate from the study area. The mark- that management actions intended to reduce recapture method has been shown to overestimate deer populations because of or maintain deer populations actually do so. unknown mortality of marked deer and emigration from study areas. Accurate all existing pellet groups on each plot, monitoring of mortality and emigration then return to those plots several weeks requires the use of radio-collars in place of or months later and count the newly marks. Another problem with this method deposited pellet groups. Deer density can is that every deer is assumed to have the be estimated by assuming a daily defecation same probability of being recaptured or rate per individual deer. The assumptions taken by hunters, which is likely to be of this method are that a random sample violated owing to differences between of plots has been selected, deer movement older and younger deer in wariness, ability across the study area is the same from year to evade pursuers, and hunter preference. to year, the defecation rate is known and The only place the mark-recapture method remains constant among deer and surveys, has been used is in a small minority of and pellet groups are counted accurately scientific research projects that are well on the plots. In practice, the pellet funded; it is beyond the budgets of most group technique has often been applied land managers and researchers. somewhat differently. Surveys are usually Most indirect methods do not provide performed in winter and the number of estimates of absolute abundance, but are days is taken to be the time since leaf drop. intended to provide an index of relative This removes the labor requirement of abundance that can be used to detect first eliminating all existing pellet groups changes over time within a particular area. on plots, but results are distorted by the For example, counts of the abundance precarious assumptions that all pellet of deer trails, tracks, deer sightings per groups deposited prior to leaf fall have kilometer walked on foot, intensity of been covered by leaves and that leaf drop browsing, abundance of fecal pellet groups, occurred on a specific day. and number of deer killed on roads have Although widely used, pellet group all been used as indices of abundance. counts are subject to many sources of error, All of the index methods assume that which may be minimized by careful design potential sources of variability in the index and execution of the specific protocol. (e.g., deer defecation rates, hunter effort, They include observer skill and fatigue movement by deer across the landscape) in detecting pellet groups, choice of plot are constant in a specific area over time so shape, habitat (vegetation) influences on that the changes in the index over time detection of pellet groups, and decay rate reflect changes in population size alone. of pellets. The most sophisticated surveys Counting fecal pellet groups is the apply the technique of “distance sampling” most widely applied means of indirectly to account for differential detection estimating deer density. A typical method among habitats, factor in the decay rates is to visit a large sample of uniform-sized of pellet groups, and use a statistically plots across the study area and eradicate based sampling design. However, even

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 115 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

(presumably because of dietary changes) NATURAL LANDS TRUST REGULATED HUNTING PROGRAM and among age and sex classes and that Rules and Regulations pellet decomposition rates differ according Natural Lands Trust conducts controlled deer hunts on properties to habitat type. Despite their limitations, to manage deer populations consistent with the preserve’s natural however, pellet group counts may be resource management goals. Hunters receiving permits for the the most practical means of monitoring deer management program are expected to conduct themselves changes over time in deer densities in in a safe, honest, and ethical manner. Any hunter who does natural areas. not act accordingly will have his or her hunting permit revoked immediately. Listed below are the requirements that must be met to receive a permit, examples of what the Trust considers Natural Lands Trust’s Deer unacceptable behavior, and the regulations that must be followed Management Program while hunting on any Trust preserve. At Natural Lands Trust, our goal is Permit Requirements to preserve and enhance the plant 1. All hunters must attend a preseason orientation course to be communities within our preserve system to conducted by the preserve manager. maximize wildlife benefits. With that goal 2. All hunters must present proof that they have completed the in mind and based on an understanding of Pennsylvania Game Commission hunter-trapper education course. the requirements of the state wildlife code, Bowhunters must present proof that they have completed a we have instituted a deer management bowhunter education course. program that focuses on reducing deer 3. Hunters must have an antlerless deer license for the deer populations to a level that will allow management unit of the preserve. advance tree regeneration and survival 4. All hunters must pass a proficiency test using the sporting arm of native herbaceous species. While we they plan to hunt with. For firearms, a hunter must place 4 out of employ small exclosures to protect certain 5 slugs in a 9-inch paper plate at 45 yards. No buckshot allowed. plants and for demonstration purposes, over Shooting from a treestand 10 feet above the ground, an archer must place 5 out of 6 arrows in the vitals of a 3-D target. The target most of our lands we implement controlled will be placed at 5, 10, and 15 yards from the base of the tree. hunts to reduce the numbers of deer. The rules that hunters must adhere Unacceptable Behavior (includes, but is not limited to, the following) to reflect an overriding concern for 1. Shooting in marginal situations such as at running deer, when safety, not only for the participants of vital organs are obstructed, and at excessive distances. the management program, but for other 2. Disrespect of Trust employees, adjacent landowners, and other preserve users such as walkers and bird- preserve users. watchers (see sidebars). A mandatory 3. Consumption of alcoholic beverages or use of controlled proficiency test ensures that hunters substances. are familiar and competent with their 4. Failing to appropriately follow up every shot. sporting arm and a flagged map locates hunter positions for the preserve manager 5. Displaying game animals unnecessarily. continued… and other hunters. Participants wear bright NLT armbands that allow preserve managers as well as others to tell from a the most careful surveys are based on a distance if a hunter has permission to hunt. number of questionable assumptions, The rules place due emphasis on removing including a constant defecation rate does from the population, because it and no variation in decay rates among is almost exclusively the doe removal habitat types. Research on defecation rates rate that influences population size. indicates that they vary among seasons Preferentially harvesting does is capable

116 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

NATURAL LANDS TRUST REGULATED HUNTING PROGRAM Rules and Regulations

…continued

Hunting Regulations 1. The Trust will determine the days and hours of hunting permitted at a site. 2. Hunters must comply with all Pennsylvania Game Commission regulations (including returning report cards). 3. Hunters must endeavor to harvest an antlerless deer. Any hunter that does not make a good faith effort to harvest an antlerless deer will have their permit revoked. Archers must take an antlerless deer before being eligible to harvest a buck. 4. Hunters must hunt at least 20 hours. 5. Only two shells can be loaded at any one time (one shell in the chamber, one in the magazine). 6. Only portable tree stands may be used and hunters must wear a safety belt. No screw-in steps are allowed. All tree stands must be removed by January 26th, or they will be forfeited. 7. Crossbows and .410 shotguns are not allowed. 8. Hunters must follow the hunting procedure listed below.

Hunting Procedure A metal box will be placed in a convenient spot, accessible to all hunters. The box will contain armbands, a map of the preserve, and the hunting log. Prior to each hunting stand the hunter must: (1) remove one of the armbands from the box and put it on the exterior of his or her hunting coat (once the supply of armbands is exhausted, no additional hunters may hunt until a hunter returns from the field and returns an armband to the metal box); (2) mark the map to indicate where they plan to hunt; (3) sign in on the hunting log; and (4) display a parking permit on the dashboard of their vehicle. While hunting, the hunter must: (1) wear the armband; and (2) carry the permit. At the end of each stand, the hunter must: (1) return the armband to the metal box; (2) remove the mark from the map; and (3) fill in the hunting log completely.

Termination Procedure If the preserve manager witnesses a case of unacceptable behavior or a violation of one of the hunting regulations by a permitted hunter, or is informed of such an incident by a reliable source, he will abide by the following procedure to address each incident: 1. The preserve manager will verbally inform the hunter of the infraction. 2. The hunter will be provided the opportunity to respond to the accusation. 3. If, in the opinion of the preserve manager, the hunter has clearly exhibited an unacceptable behavior or has violated one of the hunting regulations, he will verbally inform the hunter that his hunting permit is revoked immediately. 4. If there are legitimate extenuating circumstances surrounding a violation of hunting regulation 6 or 8, the hunter will be given a warning. A second violation of these regulations will result in immediate loss of hunting privileges. Violations of any other hunting regulation or unacceptable behavior rule will not receive a warning and will result in immediate termination of hunting privileges. 5. The hunter will be notified in writing of a warning or the loss of hunting privileges.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 117 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS Jack Stefferud As part of its deer management program, Natural Lands Trust regulates the hunters it permits on its preserves. Requiring a certain level of proficiency and mapping hunter locations help protect the safety of all preserve users. Dan Barringer

of bringing populations to tolerable levels year with the breathtaking spectacle of its far more quickly than would a random migrating flocks to a semi-domestic removal strategy; preferentially harvesting species regarded in many areas as an bucks has almost no effect on birth unwanted pest. Canada geese are attracted rates and therefore will not control the to open water—particularly open population size. water bordered by lawn or other short, Operating the program requires herbaceous vegetation that provides them relatively little staff time to administer. In a clear view of potential predators. Where fact, staff time expended in administration vegetation is less disturbed or altered by is readily made up through time saved humans, they usually live and feed in by the reduction in staff patrolling time areas adjacent to larger streams. Goose during the hunting season. Permitted populations in our region have exploded hunters monitor unwarranted access to in recent decades with the proliferation the preserve during the hunting season, of their ideal habitat in the form of golf enabling managers to attend to other course water hazards, stormwater basins, responsibilities. and old farm ponds that are now included in residential and other landscaped areas. The following management Goose Management Options recommendations apply to the year-round The Canada goose did not breed resident population of Canada geese; the anywhere in Pennsylvania before the much smaller migratory population seldom 1930s, when the Pennsylvania Game if ever causes any problems. Commission began releasing captive pairs, On properties with attractive goose with their flight feathers clipped, into the habitat, landowners will need to consider wild. Since then, the species has gone active management to prevent degradation from an awe-inspiring native of the high of on-site and off-site water quality by Arctic that heralded spring and fall each coliform bacteria and nutrient input from

118 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

droppings. In cases where goose density is pushing through the wire, electrifying it very high, they can also strip vegetation temporarily may be necessary. from stream or pond banks and facilitate Repellents bank erosion and sedimentation of the water body. Excessive goose droppings and Repellents, such as methyl anthranilate and occasional belligerent behavior during anthraquinones, are available to spray on the nesting season can also discourage vegetation to make it unpalatable to geese. recreational use of these areas. They are expensive, but in theory should need to be used for only a short period. Active Management Harassment Habitat Management Several options are used to harass geese The most effective way to decrease goose and discourage them from using a property, impacts is to change the area into habitat including dogs, scarecrows, or loud noises. that is less attractive to them, preferably Dogs are very effective in harassing geese. to one that would qualify as natural lands. The landowner could use his own dog Establishing a strip of natural cover (trees, shrubs, meadow) at least 20 feet wide The most effective way to decrease goose around the water will deter geese from wandering into the mowed areas beyond. impacts is to change the area into habitat In some cases, it may even keep geese off of the pond or lake itself. This method that is less attractive to them. reinforces the general recommendation to establish and maintain riparian buffers along any water body. Habitat management is the best long- term method for reducing goose impacts on natural lands, but it may be necessary to implement other active management techniques to further discourage geese, particularly while the new, more natural habitat is getting established. Other techniques include the following. © 2005 Jupiterimages Corporation Fencing A single strand of wire placed about 6–10 inches above the ground will help deter geese from walking from the pond into the adjacent planted areas. Mark the wire with flagging that flutters in a breeze. The flagging will protect humans from tripping over the wire and the fluttering will make geese nervous. Even though they can easily fly over the wire, in most cases it will Holly Harper (bottom and top right) keep them confined to the water. It does Canada geese and their droppings, one of the major causes of decreased water quality of ponds and streams due to fecal not need to be electrified, but if geese are contamination and nutrient overload.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 119 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

or use a professional goose management­ can kill geese during the legal hunting service, which uses specially trained dogs season (September to mid-March) or by for this purpose. These services, which use obtaining a depredation permit through small herding dogs or sometimes hunting the Pennsylvania Game Commission (this breeds, are contracted to periodically visit requires substantial paperwork) for off- a site to chase the geese. season hunting. Although hunting seasons Loud noises can also be used to harass may not coincide with the time of year geese. This method uses firecrackers or when a landowner wants to discourage shells that explode after being fired from geese from his or her property, over time a shotgun. There are also propane-fueled and combined with other deterrents, cannons that make loud booms. These lethal remove could help to provide methods can be labor intensive, but they enough time for a natural riparian buffer to have been successful in driving off geese become established. in many places. Contact the Pennsylvania Egg Tampering Game Commission for current regulations on implementing these methods. Geese can be discouraged from using a Scarecrows are a more passive form of property by killing their eggs without harassment that uses balloons, alligator breaking them or removing them from models, or owl decoys to deter geese. These the nest. Geese will produce new eggs if a are very short-term solutions, at best. In clutch is lost, but they will continue caring most cases, geese quickly learn that they for intact eggs, even if they are dead. A aren’t a threat and ignore them. goose pair will often abandon an area after attempting unsuccessfully to nest there. Lethal Removal Egg tampering, which consists of either Lethal removal is often an effective way oiling or addling, requires registering with to dissuade flocks of geese from using a the US Fish and Wildlife Service and property. It usually requires the removal of reporting your activities by October 31 only a few geese to induce the remaining each year. Addling eggs is shaking them geese to leave the area. Landowners violently to kill the embryo. In oiling, one uses a cloth saturated with cooking oil to completely wipe the eggshell to keep air from passing through the shell wall and smother the embryo. The key is not to cause any visible changes to the eggs or nest to avoid triggering the geese to build another nest and lay additional eggs. These techniques, allowed between March 1 and June 30, should be done shortly after geese have finished laying eggs and are © iStockphoto.com/Audrey Roorda beginning to sit on the nest. A goose nest Egg tampering can prevent nesting Canada geese from successfully fledging should be approached with the greatest offspring, but it requires registration caution and only when the goose pair is with the US Fish and Wildlife Service out of sight; geese defending their nests and requires the greatest caution to and offspring have been known to cause avoid being injured by geese defending physical trauma to humans, including their nest. broken arm bones and head injuries.

120 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Habitat Improvements and development. Often they can be recreated through relatively minor earth Wildlife management is more than just moving (by hand or machine) or the addressing species whose populations have destruction of existing drainage tiles in reached pest proportions. In addition to agricultural fields. The USDA Natural improving the health of natural plant Resource Conservation Service and the communities to the benefit of many species, Pennsylvania Game Commission can land managers can encourage a particular provide information on creating and species or group of species to use the enhancing seasonal pools. property by supplying some components of their habitat requirements. Below are Brush Piles examples of improvements that can be Brush piles are piles of woody debris, most effective in southeastern Pennsylvania. commonly the branches of trees and large The Pennsylvania Game Commission can shrubs, that are assembled to provide provide additional recommendations for resting and escape cover, nesting sites, game and non-game species. and den sites for wildlife (see page 137). Typically, the largest materials are placed Nesting Boxes at the bottom, with increasingly smaller Many birds use natural cavities in trees material added in layers that alternate as nest sites. Nesting boxes provide a direction. Brush piles provide the greatest suitable alternative that can attract benefit if they are located in places, such particular species to a property. The box as forest openings or edge, where cover at should be constructed to fit the size of the ground level is lacking. Species that benefit bird and be located in the appropriate from brush piles include cottontail rabbit, plant community and at the proper gray squirrel, chipmunk, skunk, raccoon, height and orientation to the sun and fox, and many bird species, along with prevailing winds. Species that commonly some amphibians and reptiles. use nesting boxes in the region include eastern bluebird, wood duck, purple Nesting boxes martin, Carolina wren, house wren, provide a suitable northern flicker, red-bellied woodpecker, alternative to screech owl, barn owl, American natural cavities kestrel, tree swallow, and barn swallow. and can be used The Pennsylvania Audubon Society, to attract at least Pennsylvania Game Commission, and a dozen different Pennsylvania DCNR Bureau of Forestry bird species. can provide plans for constructing and locating nesting boxes for each species.

Seasonal Pools Seasonal pools or vernal ponds—areas that hold water for just a part of each year—provide valuable habitat for amphibians, aquatic insects, and migratory waterfowl. They are uncommon in the region due to past draining for agriculture © 2005 Jupiterimages Corporation

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 121 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

FOREST MANAGEMENT trees and shrubs of species appropriate to specific site conditions should be planted Reducing Forest Fragmentation along forest edges with high permeability (see Native Plant Materials, pages 172– and “Edge Effect” 200). Mixtures of evergreen and deciduous Decreasing the edge-to-area ratio and species should be used where the natural increasing the area of functional forest community would include evergreens, in interior can be accomplished by afforesting order to enhance impermeability in all selected “peninsulas” and “islands” of seasons. Construction and maintenance nonforested land that presently intrude practices should be avoided that would into the main body of a contiguous forest. damage understory and mid-canopy Edge effects are conditions in and vegetation at the forest edge and increase near the forest–nonforest transition zone its permeability to sunlight, air movement, that foster the growth of invasive plants, and the influx of seeds. provide access for nest predators (e.g., The ecological and environmental raccoon) and parasites (e.g., brown-headed conditions of forested areas within cowbird), and repel forest-interior animal natural lands are protected and enhanced species. In southeastern Pennsylvania, by contiguous forest on neighboring edges with a southern, southeastern, properties. Together they minimize edge or southwestern exposure are usually effects and create a larger unfragmented most degraded by invasive plants taking forest. For this reason, it is best to engage advantage of the greater amount of adjoining landowners to discuss the sunlight to creep into the forest. Dense, benefits of coordinated management. healthy mid-canopy and shrub layers at the forest edge can help prevent edge effects Timber Harvesting from moving into the forest interior by intercepting seeds and blocking sunlight Timber harvesting is the cutting and and drying winds. A forest edge that has removal of trees for sale as veneer, existed for many decades often has a well- sawlogs, pulp, or fuel. In southeastern developed wall of leaves and branches Pennsylvania trees are primarily harvested extending from near the ground to the for veneer or sawlogs to produce fine upper leaf canopy. Remediation is often furniture, cabinetry, or pallet material. required at more recent edges, particularly Timber harvesting can have, for better on a southerly exposure where trees have or worse, substantial long-term effects been cut down within 20 years, and at on the environmental, ecological, and edges where landscape maintenance economic benefits of the forest. Done practices restrict new growth. Such edges properly, a timber harvest provides periodic are said to have high permeability. Native income for the landowner and increases

Decreasing the edge-to-area ratio and increasing the area of functional forest interior can be accomplished by afforesting selected “peninsulas” and “islands” of nonforested land that presently intrude into the main body of a contiguous forest.

122 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS the diversity of wildlife habitat while Timber harvesting can have, for better or minimizing the degradation of soil and water resources. Done poorly, long-term worse, substantial long-term effects on the income opportunities are lost, habitat values are reduced, and the haul roads environmental, ecological, and economic and skid trails associated with harvesting result in soil erosion and stream siltation. benefits of the forest. Poor harvesting practices leave the forest devoid of economic value, create a haven effect on the future composition and for invasive plants, and leave hazards for growth of the forest. Ideally, all types recreational users. of canopy harvest reduce the density Timber harvesting can be viewed as an of undesired species and encourage the extension of the natural disturbances under establishment and growth of seedlings of which forests have evolved for millennia. desired tree species. Cutting canopy and understory trees The following is a general overview significantly modifies the distribution of of the three major types of timber harvest light within the forest vegetation layers, undertaken in this region. Additional which mimics some of the effects of high information on harvesting timber, wind, ice, fire, and pathogens. The main including state regulations that affect difference is that most natural disturbances harvesting operations, can be found do not result in the removal of large in Timber Harvesting in Pennsylvania: quantities of nutrients (contained within Information for Citizens and Local tree trunks and branches) from the site. Government Officials, which is available Forest scientists currently are investigating from the Penn State Cooperative whether repeated timber harvests will Extension or the Pennsylvania Bureau eventually compromise the productivity of Forestry. of forest soils and limit the growth of future trees. Ironically, other scientists Clearcutting and political leaders cite the positive Clearcutting, sometimes called canopy consequences of removing some elements removal, entails the cutting of all trees from the natural cycles, specifically carbon. within an area. This is the method that was By converting trees to construction used between 1850 and 1920 to clear most material, carbon is sequestered (locked up) of Pennsylvania to feed the great demand as long as the buildings last. If the wood for chemical wood, lumber, firewood, and died and rotted in the forest, the carbon charcoal from the growing eastern cities. would return to the atmosphere as carbon Unfortunately, this method was used dioxide, adding to the accumulation of without regard to slope or hydrology and greenhouse gases. resulted in extensive loss of topsoil, the The art of any good timber harvest— siltation of streams, and many years of like gardening, farming, or meadow wildfires as the slash (residual branches) management—is to provide more dried out in the exposed conditions. The growing space to desired species and less misuse of this method here and in other to undesired species. Harvests differ in the parts of the country has given clearcutting number of merchantable trees removed a bad name. Even though clearcutting has from a given area and in associated been poorly applied in many cases, it can activities intended to have a positive

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 123 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

be an effective method for establishing 30–70% of the trees within an area are stands of economically valuable species, harvested. The remaining trees shelter the particularly oaks and black cherry, which existing seedlings, provide seed for more have low to intermediate tolerance of regeneration, and hold back the competing shade (i.e., they require open conditions vegetation. Once enough seedlings are to successfully reach the canopy). established to ensure a future forest, the Used properly, in a limited area, with remaining canopy trees are harvested. Both consideration given to slope and avoidance clearcutting and shelterwood cutting result of wetlands and riparian areas, clearcutting in even-aged forests. can be an effective means of perpetuating our diminishing hardwood forests. Selection Cutting Clearcutting diversifies wildlife habitat Selection cutting helps to perpetuate by creating forest openings that harbor a uneven-aged forests. In this method larger suite of herbs and shrubs not found under canopy trees are harvested individually a dense forest canopy. As the cut area or in small groups. At the same time proceeds through various stages of growth, understory trees—usually with no it offers food (berries, low buds and shoots economic value—are thinned. Thinning of shrubs and trees, insects) and structural allows seedlings of shade intolerant species variety preferred by many game species such as oaks, ashes, and tuliptree to acquire (deer, turkey, rabbit, grouse) and migratory more growing space and get a jump-start songbirds (yellow-breasted chat, blue towards the canopy. The smaller openings grosbeak, indigo bunting, chestnut-sided produced by selection cutting have less warbler). It should be noted, however, that aesthetic impact than clearcuts, while creating forest openings in southeastern still perpetuating tree species with greater Pennsylvania can be problematic because economic and wildlife values. It also may of invasive plant species that flourish leave some forest stands less susceptible to in this edge habitat. If the clearcutting invasive plants. method is employed, the landowner should closely monitor the harvested area and Highgrading quickly address any attempt by these bad Highgrading (confusingly, sometimes actors to become established (see Invasive called selective cutting) can result in Vegetation Management, page 125). the highest short-term economic return A variation of clearcutting is called for the landowner and the greatest profit shelterwood cutting. In this method, margin for the logger. However, it reduces the potential for future timber harvests When considering a timber and typically reduces wildlife values. In highgrading, individual canopy trees— sale, it is wise to confer with usually the largest and most commercially valuable—are selected for harvest. This the local service forester leaves the forest stocked with less valuable and (usually) genetically inferior trees from the Pennsylvania and, because the harvest creates limited Bureau of Forestry. change in the distribution of light, the

124 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

regeneration of shade intolerant species INVASIVE VEGETATION such as oak, ash and tuliptree is not MANAGEMENT encouraged. As a result, the forest becomes dominated by shade tolerant species, in our area mainly American beech, Management Strategy red maple, and sugar maple. The most In natural lands management, the most extreme version of highgrading is called efficient and effective strategy usually diameter-limit cutting in which every results from basing stewardship goals and tree over a given diameter is harvested. strategies on a thorough understanding of This removes all the best trees (in an the environmental forces in the area and even-aged forest, the largest trees are those adopting only those goals and strategies with the best genes) from the forest. This that work with, and not against, these leaves the forest dominated by poor quality forces. This is especially true in developing trees with limited potential for future a strategy for minimizing the impact of economic return. Landowners are strongly invasive plants. Any attempt to alter discouraged from using highgrading— the vegetation of a site will succeed or particularly diameter-limit cutting—to fail according to its effects on the major harvest timber. forces that support plant growth in that When considering a timber sale, it is wise area: light, water, inorganic nutrients, to confer with the local service forester temperature, humidity, soil structure, and from the Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry. other factors collectively known as the At no charge, the service forester will “growing space.” Given that growing space analyze your forest and tell you when and in any area is finite, successful management where it is appropriate to harvest trees. will result from those practices that make He or she can also inform you of any more growing space available to desirable financial assistance that may be available species (native members of natural for improving your forest, for example, communities) and less to undesirable creating a stewardship plan, tree planting, species (introduced invasive plants). or control of invasive plants. When a Often the most difficult step in harvest is appropriate, it is always best to controlling invasive species is deciding engage the services of a private consulting what to do first. Creating a “plan of forester to guide you through the process and ensure that you are getting the best price for your trees. The consulting forester Two rules of invasive plant management will mark the trees to be cut according to your stewardship goals and make sure 1. In general, the future rate of forest degradation that the harvest operation is executed is inversely proportional to the current level of in a manner that protects soil and water degradation. resources and leaves your forest with increased potential for future harvests. The 2. Management efforts should be focused on state service forester can provide a list of restoring that part of the plant community that private consulting foresters. controls the most growing space.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 125 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

resulting loss of growing space can have a major impact on the entire forest stand, by providing a seed source for the rapid spread of invasive species from that point. On the other hand, the loss of a single tree in a heavily degraded, open-canopy area creates relatively little change in the total amount of growing space in the stand that is controlled by invasive species. The second rule is that management efforts should be focused on restoring that part of the plant community that controls the most growing space. In a forest community the canopy trees take up the majority of the growing space. Once the canopy is free of invasive species, the manager can proceed to the next layer until the ground level is reached. Holly Harper Based on these rules, the focus of initial restoration efforts should be to halt In natural lands management, the most the degradation of the canopy layer in the healthiest areas, moving then to the efficient and effective strategy usually moderately invaded areas, and so on to the results from basing stewardship goals and most degraded areas. Those areas that are severely invaded should, for now, be left strategies on a thorough understanding of for “dead.” Since they essentially cannot degrade any further, their restoration the environmental forces in the area and (which will usually require significant resources, including heavy equipment and adopting only those goals and strategies that years of high maintenance) is best left work with, and not against, these forces. until the healthier, less affected sites are stabilized. This approach is also healthier, psychologically, for the people involved in attack” is critical in order to make the restoration. Spending the initial phase of a most efficient and effective use of limited project stabilizing the majority of a site is stewardship resources. Although it may more rewarding than struggling through a seem logical to address the most severely small, highly degraded section. degraded areas first, this is not always the Restoration priorities may need to be best use of resources. The following two modified for best short-term efficiency of rules can help focus management efforts. labor and long-term results, according to The first rule is that, in general, the the time of year or availability of labor. future rate of forest degradation is inversely For example, the cutting and herbiciding proportional to the current level of of understory invasive trees is best done degradation. When a tree within a healthy during fall and early winter when sap forest is toppled by invasive vines or a is flowing into the roots, whereas the gap is colonized by an invasive tree, the planting of seedlings is best done in the

126 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS late winter and early spring. If labor is first Invasive plant removal must be done available in the spring, then it is best to plant seedlings in moderately to heavily properly or it can have catastrophic impacts. invaded forest areas first and wait until the fall to cut the invasive trees in lightly to moderately invaded areas. available growing space or planting new Two points should be noted while ones. Invasive vines are the exception to planning an invasive species control this rule, because they grow on and not in program. First, invasive plant removal place of native species and can weaken, must be done properly or it can have kill, or topple trees. All invasive vines catastrophic impacts to the health of should be treated as soon as possible. natural lands and its wildlife. Removing Replacement planting should be trees such as Norway maple and undertaken in the same year as invasive groundcovers such as English ivy opens species removal. This will provide the up the canopy and scarifies the soil, native species with an edge in recapturing conditions that are ideal for the rapid the growing space made available by establishment from seed of opportunistic weeding out invasive species. (It should be species, a category that includes most emphasized that successfully establishing invasive plants. Removing understory native species after treating invasives shrubs such as exotic shrub honeysuckles, will hinge on proper deer management— privets, or linden viburnum can transform either restricting access to the plantings a forest stand that was a haven for or establishing and maintaining the migratory and resident birds and other appropriate deer density.) Any site where animals to one devoid of understory cover plants to be removed comprise more than and thus no longer a viable refuge (from 25% of the cover within their forest layer predators), feeding, or breeding habitat (canopy, subcanopy, tall shrub and sapling, for many species. Removal without ground) will probably require planting replacement has numerous subtle effects to augment any natural regeneration. but some effects can be dramatic, such as Removal should be undertaken at times a striking decline in birds that were once of year when direct disturbance of wildlife common. In general, the restoration of a is minimal, preferably late fall or winter. degraded community, particularly forest, Replacement plantings should precede should be done in a manner that removes the onset of the spring breeding season only a small fraction (less than 10%) of the total biomass of any vegetation layer In general, the restoration of a degraded (canopy, subcanopy, shrub, ground) leaving wildlife plenty of space to find refuge and community, particularly forest, should time to adjust to changing cover and food conditions. If the amount of invasive be done in a manner that removes only a material is light and widely scattered throughout a forested area, the entire small fraction of the total biomass of any forest can be treated at the same time. vegetation layer leaving wildlife plenty of However, if the shrub layer, for example, is heavily dominated by invasives it is best space to find refuge and time to adjust to to treat the area over several years, waiting for existing native shrubs to fill in the changing cover and food conditions.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 127 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

because many birds return to the same sites to assume the growing space vacated year after year to reestablish territories by the natural decline and mortality of and renest. To insure their survival and to native species or the deliberate removal of maintain ecosystem integrity, replacement invasive species. plants must be of native tree, shrub, or The second point is that any invasive herbaceous species carefully selected to species management program must be be appropriate to soil conditions and undertaken in concert with a serious effort the community type at each individual to restore “natural” low deer density if deer restoration site within the natural area (see are overabundant, that is, if ecosystem Native Plant Materials, pages 172–200). degradation by deer overbrowsing is Replanting after removing invasive evident. Without sufficient native plants accomplishes several objectives. regeneration, any long-term effort to It replaces vertical forest structure and restore native plant communities will be bird cover where they had been provided futile. If the deer density is not restored mainly by the invasive species (e.g., where and maintained at a low enough level, exotic shrub honeysuckles, privets, or perpetual reliance on planting will be a linden viburnum are removed). Where severe drain on stewardship resources and invasive species have eliminated entire will require permanent, extensive use of forest layers (e.g., Norway maple and unsightly measures (fencing, tree shelters) English ivy, which eradicate native to protect plantings from deer browsing. shrub and herbaceous layers in forests), replanting after removal restores long-lost Management Options vertical forest structure and bird cover. Where invasive plants are removed from There are many management options streambanks or floodplains (especially for controlling invasive vegetation. Japanese knotweed) or from steep slopes, These include physical removal, cutting, replanting renews protection against soil planting, herbicides, and fire. Usually, erosion. In all cases, the planted native the control of invasives on any given site species restore lost components of the requires a combination of two or more indigenous food web; invasive species’ methods. The most effective mixture and leaves and stems are little utilized as food timing will be unique to each site. What by native wildlife, which is one of the is common to all sites is the fact that the reasons they succeed so well here. prolific nature of invasive plants mandates It must be emphasized, however, that periodic monitoring and control to prevent planting should be viewed as only one a major disruption to the aesthetics, native component of forest restoration where biodiversity, and ecosystem function of the invasive species are removed. The goal affected site. of maintaining natural lands as a set of natural communities dominated by native Physical Removal species will be met only by reducing the The most effective practice is the deer population to a level that allows selective removal of invasive species natural regeneration from seed produced without disturbing the surrounding by native species already growing on the native vegetation. The invasive plant is natural lands. Once natural regeneration denied growing space and the surrounding is restored, a healthy crop of seedlings and desirable (native) vegetation is well- saplings of native species will be poised positioned to occupy the vacated growing

128 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS continued… RECOMMENDED CONTROL TECHNIQUES PLANTING BEFORE REPLACEMENT seedlings); (small removal physical which cutting, bark; avoid herbiciding root suckering prolific stimulates bark or cut stem herbiciding removal; physical seedlings); (small removal physical bark or cut stem herbiciding bark or cut stem herbiciding removal; physical foliage young herbiciding mowing; bark or cut stem herbiciding cutting; cut stem herbiciding removal; physical herbiciding areas); (small removal physical foliage seedlings); (small removal physical cut stem herbiciding seedlings); (small removal physical cut stem herbiciding foliage herbiciding mowing; removal physical foliage herbiciding mowing; foliage herbiciding mowing; bark or cut stem herbiciding removal; physical foliage herbiciding removal; physical bark or cut stem herbiciding removal; physical foliage herbiciding mowing; bark or cut stem herbiciding removal; physical or cut foliage herbiciding removal; physical stem DESCRIPTION tree shrub or creeping vine woody tree shrub shrub upright vine woody shrub herb spring-ephemeral perennial tree tree in spreading aggressively plant herbaceous open areas herb biennial in spreading aggressively plant herbaceous forest the herb perennial shrub vine shrub or woody creeping shrub in spreading aggressively plant herbaceous on floodplains particularly open areas, shrub upright vine woody or climbing prostrate , currently associated with the greatest harm to native biodiversity in southeastern Pennsylvania SCIENTIFIC NAME Ailanthus altissima quinata Akebia Aralia elata Elaeagnus umbellata Pseudosasa japonica Celastrus orbiculatus Euonymus alatus Ranunculus ficaria Prunus avium Phellodendron amurense Coronilla varia Alliaria petiolata Glechoma hederacea podagraria Aegopodium Lonicera maackii Lonicera japonica Lonicera morrowii Humulus japonicus Rhodotypos scandens Hedera helix COMMON NAME tree-of-heaven ailanthus; five-leaved akebia, Japanese angelica-tree, autumn-olive bamboo, garden bittersweet, oriental burning-bush lesser celandine, bird cherry, amur corktree, crownvetch mustard garlic gill-over-the-ground goutweed amur honeysuckle, Japanese honeysuckle, Morrow’s honeysuckle, Japanese hops, jetbead English ivy, INVASIVE INTRODUCED SPECIES OF PLANTS INVASIVE

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 129 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS RECOMMENDED CONTROL TECHNIQUES PLANTING BEFORE REPLACEMENT foliage herbiciding removal; physical foliage herbiciding removal; physical foliage herbiciding seedlings); (small removal physical bark or cut stem herbiciding foliage herbiciding removal; physical stem or cut bark herbiciding removal; physical foliage herbiciding removal; physical foliage herbiciding removal; physical foliage herbiciding removal; physical bark, or cut stem foliage, herbiciding cutting; stem or cut bark herbiciding removal; physical stem or cut bark herbiciding removal; physical foliage herbiciding removal; physical foliage herbiciding removal; physical removal physical stem or cut bark herbiciding removal; physical stem or cut bark herbiciding removal; physical stem or cut bark herbiciding removal; physical bark or cut stem herbiciding bark or cut stem herbiciding DESCRIPTION herb perennial Eurasian very large herb perennial Eurasian very large in spreading aggressively plant herbaceous wet open areas tree in spreading aggressively plant herbaceous open areas shrub climbing or often upright shrub creeping is species the herb; perennial very large Eurasia, and America to both North native to be is thought invasive form but the populations Eurasian from descended in spreading aggressively plant herbaceous open areas vine woody shrub shrub shrub creeping in spreading aggressively plant herbaceous areas forest in spreading aggressively plant herbaceous areas forest shrub upright shrub upright shrub upright vine woody vine woody , currently associated with the greatest harm to native biodiversity in southeastern Pennsylvania SCIENTIFIC NAME Fallopia sachalinensis Fallopia japonica Lythrum salicaria platanoides Acer perfoliata Persicaria Rosa multiflora Vinca minor Phragmites australis Miscanthus sinensis Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Ligustrum obtusifolium Ligustrum vulgare terminalis Pachysandra Microstegium vimineum Duchesnea indica Viburnum plicatum Viburnum dilatatum Viburnum sieboldii Wisteria sinensis Wisteria floribunda COMMON NAME giant knotweed, Japanese knotweed, purple loosestrife, Norway maple, mile-a-minute rose multiflora periwinkle reed common phragmites; Japanese plumegrass, porcelainberry privet, border privet, common Japanese spurge, Japanese stiltgrass, Indian strawberry, doublefile viburnum, linden viburnum, Siebold viburnum, Chinese wisteria, Japanese wisteria, …continued INTRODUCED SPECIES OF PLANTS INVASIVE

130 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

space. This approach is preferable wherever possible, although it may be limited as a practical alternative by the availability of workers and equipment relative to the size, quantity, and type of invasive species present. Relatively small quantities of invasives can be effectively removed through manual pulling, digging with hand tools (shovel or spade), or pulling with a heavy-duty truck or tractor. One specialized hand tool that works well on small single-stemmed plants is called by one manufacturer a Weed Wrench. It is designed to clamp to the base of a tree Dan Barringer or shrub and lever the entire plant out of An efficient method for removing unwanted shrubs or small the ground. A tractor-mounted front-end trees involves replacing the loader bucket on a tractor with loader is ideal for removing larger trees or a Brush Brute to impale the base of the plant and then lift it out of the ground. When using this method, care must be shrubs by several methods. One method taken to minimize soil disturbance. entails elevating the lower branches with the bucket while a chain (a logging slip chain is best) is attached to the base of the is removed and the speed at which native plant and then, by raising the bucket, the vegetation can occupy newly available plant can be removed from the ground. A growing space. second, easier tractor method is to use a It should be noted that physical single fork attachment on the front-end removal, especially involving heavy loader to pop the shrub out by positioning equipment, can create soil conditions that the fork under the crown (the swollen area favor the reestablishment of the species from which the roots and stem emerge) being removed or other invasives. For and raising the bucket. The third, and most this reason, it is best to limit disturbance efficient, method requires replacing the as much as possible and to be prepared loader bucket with a tool called a Brush to monitor the site and address any new Brute—a 4–6-foot steel frame with 18- invasive species problems promptly. inch “teeth.” With this tool the operator simply drives into the unwanted shrub or Cutting small tree until the base of the plant is Removing some or all of the impaled between the teeth and then lifts photosynthetic (food-producing) area of the entire plant out of the ground. an invasive plant without disturbing the Regardless of which means is employed, surrounding vegetation is another way to it is generally desirable to remove as much redistribute the available growing space of the root system as possible to prevent and control invasives. It is less effective, resprouting, although removal of the but also less labor intensive, than physical crown is usually sufficient to prevent rapid removal. Cutting the plant with a pruner, reestablishment of the plant. In individual handsaw, or lightweight chainsaw reduces cases the success of these methods depends its aboveground growing space without on the thoroughness with which the plant disturbing surrounding vegetation.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 131 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

However, the entire root system and any is particularly true at edge sites (where uncut stems can resprout and reoccupy the open fields or lawns meet forests) and growing space. For this reason, it is best hedgerows. There the vines gain the added to cut the plant as low as possible to the benefit of tree support, which they can ground and to add an herbicide utilize to occupy greater growing space to application (refer to Herbicides, below, the detriment of the host trees. for further details). This option is most appropriate for Mowing controlling invasive species in forested Mowing removes most of the areas. In this situation, the surrounding photosynthetic material from both vegetation is most often trees and their desirable (native) and undesirable (non- leaves are usually situated above the target native and invasive) plants. It effectively plant material. Because the surrounding puts all plants on an equal basis in regards trees limit the sunlight needed for food to the availability of aboveground growing production, a cut plant is forced to rely space. This is, however, only a temporary on stored root reserves to maintain the situation. Because species vary greatly remaining parts of the plant and support in their response to mowing, a mowing new leaf growth. Although invasives are treatment will favor those species that can usually able to survive cutting, they may refoliate (occupy the available growing be weakened sufficiently to slow their full space) faster. Repeated mowings favor grass recovery for an extended period. species (which grow from the base of the Cutting is less effective in open areas. stem) and non-grass species that grow close Typically, resprouting and rapid growth enough to the ground to escape severe allow invasives to quickly reoccupy the defoliation. Given the vigor of invasive available growing space. The problem is plants, repeated treatments are usually alleviated only temporarily; cutting will necessary to make this method an effective be required again within a few years. This control strategy. Mowing is often the most cost-effective Cutting vines low method to control invasives in large open to the ground and areas where physical removal is beyond the as high as possible manpower available. The initial treatment at edge sites or may require the physical removal of plants within hedgerows (especially multiflora rose) too large to will maximize mow, which would interfere with future the delay in their mowing operations and act as a seed bank movement back into the canopy . from which the species could spread. For this same reason, it is advisable to remove any obstructions, such as fallen trees or rocks, around which invasive plants can become established and spread. In most cases it is sufficient to combine invasive species control with annual meadow mowing. Areas heavily infested with vines may require more frequent mowing for several years to weaken the

Dan Barringer invasives and encourage competitive

132 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

native grass species. Meadow areas heavily affected by invasives may warrant herbicide application (refer to Herbicides, below, for further details), followed by afforestation planting of natives. areas

Planting Another option to take away growing space from invasive species is by planting native trees and shrubs to increase their density and shade out invasive plants. It is particularly important to minimize the successional amount of interior and exterior edge of areas a forest (high light areas where invasive plants thrive) by encouraging native species growth in forest gaps and rounding off sinuous or concave edges At Natural Lands Trust’s Binky Lee (see plan at right). Preserve we are In areas where invasive species are a using afforestation significant component of the vegetation, it (planting in is desirable to plant trees and shrubs where previously open invasives have been removed. Killing or areas) and natural removing the invasives often disturbs the succession to soil surface, giving a strong advantage to reduce edge. opportunistic species as plants colonize the Dan Barringer newly vacated growing space. Invasives will quickly reoccupy such a site unless they are suppressed by other plantings. Planting should occur in early spring reliance on herbicides is a “once and done” or fall to optimize plant survival. Because attitude that is not conducive to the long- they must compete with invasives, only term control of invasives. Inappropriate use native species highly adapted to a site’s of herbicides can degrade soil and water conditions (particularly light and soil water resources and harm humans and wildlife, availability) should be planted. particularly amphibians and aquatic animals. Used appropriately, however, Herbicides herbicides can be an important tool In most cases the use of herbicides alone for land managers in certain situations. is not an effective long-term solution Herbicides should be applied in natural areas for controlling invasives. Difficulties in only by qualified applicators trained in both the delivering adequate amounts to the target safe use of each herbicide and the identification plants at the correct time in their growth of desirable (native) versus undesirable cycle, the near-impossibility of avoiding (invasive) species. Training and licensing collateral damage to native plants and for herbicide application is provided by the other organisms, and the potential health Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. risks to workers are all drawbacks to their To safely administer herbicides to the use. In addition, inherent in the sole target plant it is best to cut it back as much

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 133 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

was a frequent occurrence within forests, following major disturbances such as windfalls or insect defoliation, and on the open grasslands, shrublands, and barrens scattered throughout the region. In addition, Native Americans living in the region used fire for thousands of years for numerous reasons, for example, to drive game, to rejuvenate food resources such as berry patches and pasture for game species, and to make travel easier and safer. Fire exclusion over the last century has modified the plant composition of forest communities. Many eastern forests are now in transition from an oak- and hickory-

Dan Barringer dominated canopy to a fire-sensitive red While the exclusive use of herbicides is not an effective long- maple- and beech-dominated canopy. term solution for controlling invasives, used appropriately, The use of fire to control invasives by they can be an important tool in many situations. giving an advantage to native, fire-tolerant species is an exciting new application for as possible and wait for it to resprout prior an old management tool. The difficulty in to herbicide application. To control small utilizing this tool is the obvious destructive trees, shrubs, or vines, an herbicide with power that can arise from its misuse or glyphosate should be applied to the fresh improper application. Local governments sprouts two weeks after cutting. Larger and fire companies are often not receptive plants can be most effectively controlled by to the use of fire to restore and maintain applying an appropriate formulation of the native biodiversity and ecosystem function. herbicide triclopyr or glyphosate directly If you plan to use fire to manage natural to the freshly cut stump or to the uncut lands, you will need to prove to these stems of shrubs and trees with smooth bark authorities that you are properly trained (ailanthus, young Norway maple). This and equipped (see Prescribed Fire, page second method works best in fall when sap 145) to undertake this activity. flow is into the roots. It should be noted, As with herbicides, only properly however, that there is some risk to nearby trained individuals should utilize fire as a desirable trees from herbicide application. management tool. To be effective and safe, Research has shown that herbicides can weather and fuel conditions must meet be translocated through root grafts (a narrow parameters (the burn prescription). relatively common occurrence) into other In this region it is usually best to burn in trees. Care should be exercised in treating early spring—mid-March to mid-April invasive trees in close proximity to highly for herbaceous invasives, late April to desirable trees. early May for woody invasives—a time when many natural fuels reach a peak Fire of flammability but weather conditions Fire has played an important part typically make containment simpler. in shaping local plant and animal Furthermore, invasives usually sprout communities for thousands of years. Fire earlier than native species, making them

134 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

vulnerable to fire at a time when many natives are highly fire-tolerant. Before undertaking a burn it is also crucial to acquire any necessary permits, notify neighbors, and coordinate with local and state authorities and, of course, the local fire company.

Recommended Techniques and Procedures The following are techniques and procedures for addressing different types of invasive plants. For more information, see Invasive Plant Species under Additional Information Sources, page 217.

Herbaceous Plant Removal Equipment: Mower, herbicides, backpack sprayer Herbaceous invasives (e.g., garlic mustard, Japanese stiltgrass, mile-a- minute, miscanthus, Japanese knotweed, giant knotweed) are probably the most difficult to control because they are mostly available for treatment during the growing season when desirable (native) plants Darin Groff are growing nearby. They also quickly The use of prescribed fire can control invasives by giving an colonize disturbed areas, including areas advantage to desirable native species as seen here in the where invasive shrubs and trees have restoration of a serpentine woodlands. been removed. Small areas of herbaceous invasives can be pulled, dug, or mowed species. Also, some evidence suggests that until they stop resprouting. In some cases applying a pre-emergent (a chemical that they can be treated in late winter or early prevents seed sprouting) can be helpful in spring before native herbs appear. For heavily affected areas of mile-a-minute and example, the basal leaves of garlic mustard Japanese stiltgrass. (an herbaceous biennial) can be sprayed with glyphosate on warm (above 40˚ F) Groundcover and Vine Removal days (see discussion of appropriate use of herbicides, page 133); early sprouts of Equipment: Pruners, pruning saws, loppers, mile-a-minute can be treated similarly. blade weedwhips, chainsaws, herbicides, Large areas of invasive herbaceous plants backpack sprayer, wick applicator can be sprayed with glyphosate during Groundcovers can be pulled on a regular the growing season although care must be basis or herbicides can be used to control taken to avoid collateral damage to native or eliminate patches (see discussion of

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 135 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

appropriate use of herbicides, page 133). systemic herbicide such as glyphosate or Care must be given not to spray non-target triclopyr (best done in late summer or species. For evergreen groundcovers (e.g., fall when sap is flowing into plant roots). English ivy, pachysandra), a mixture of Thin-barked shrubs can also be treated triclopyr and diesel fuel has been used with a 20–30% mix of triclopyr in basal successfully as a foliar spray on warm oil applied in a band around the base of (above 45˚) winter days. the trunk (best applied during the growing The first priority in invasive species season). See discussion of appropriate use control is to remove vines affecting of herbicides, page 133. canopy trees. Cut woody vines both at ground level and at least 5 feet above Tree Removal ground level and remove from trees if Equipment: Pruners, pruning saws, removal won’t cause damage. Immediately loppers, Weed Wrench, chainsaws, following cutting, large stumps should be front-end loader, herbicides, backpack painted with a systemic herbicide such as sprayer, wick applicator glyphosate or triclopyr. In areas adjacent to structures or high-use It should be noted that even though invasive locations, drop invasive and hazardous vines pose a significant threat to the forest, trees without damage to surrounding there may be native vine species within a desirable trees and either let them lie or natural area that have high food value for cut them into pieces to create brush piles wildlife. Poison-ivy, Virginia creeper, and the for wildlife habitat (see below). Trunks and five grape species native to our region should limbs of Norway maple or black locust not be cut from trees unless they begin to (considered invasive in some communities seriously compromise the health of the tree. such as meadows and savannas) that are Among native vines, this is likely to happen large (> 6-inch diameter) and straight only with grapes, which can eventually (> 8-foot sections) may be useful for trail overtop the canopy of a tree. If overtopping stabilization and restoration. Some other or threatening to overtop a native tree, a invasive tree species such as ailanthus grape vine should be cut but not treated with will decay rapidly and are not useful for herbicide so that it can resprout. (The non- this purpose. Stumps of felled trees should native wine grape and its hybrids occasionally be immediately treated with a systemic escape from cultivation in our region, mainly herbicide such as glyphosate or triclopyr in highly disturbed areas, but it is rarely seen (see discussion of appropriate use of in the wild and is not invasive.) herbicides, page 133). Ailanthus and black Shrub and Sapling Removal locust will root-sprout vigorously following cutting, even with herbicide treatment. Equipment: Pruners, pruning saws, Do not cut, but apply basal herbicide as loppers, blade weedwhips, Weed described above. Other thin-barked trees Wrench, chainsaws, tractor-mounted such as young Norway maple can also be brush hog, front-end loader, herbicides, treated this way. Smaller limbs and related backpack sprayer debris should be left to rot or fly-chipped Eliminate or control invasive shrubs and on-site. In appropriate areas, larger (> 6- saplings by manually or mechanically inch) trees can be girdled to create snags pulling or by cutting. Stumps cut manually for cavity-nesting wildlife. All dead trees, should be immediately painted with a snags, or branches that do not pose a safety

136 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

hazard or a threat to the ecological health perform invasive species control. Problem or stability of the forest should be left in areas are more easily traversed and cool- place for their wildlife habitat benefits. weather clothing gives added protection To create a brush pile, first build a base to the work crew. Systemic herbicides are by placing four large logs, set 1 foot apart also most effective in the fall when sap and parallel to each other, and then place is flowing into the roots. The exception four more logs of the same size, stacked to this rule is for herbicide applications perpendicular to the first logs. Add brush that target the foliage of invasives, such to the top and sides, starting with the as spraying to control herbaceous plants larger limbs first, then adding smaller (Canada thistle, mile-a-minute, common pieces until the pile is about 6 feet high mugwort) in meadows or small shrubs and 6 feet wide. (young autumn-olive, exotic honeysuckles, privets) in meadows or forests. Any heavy Planting equipment use should be conducted when It is particularly important to establish the ground is dry or frozen. trees in forest gaps where invasives have Plant trees and shrubs in early spring been removed. This can be done through before they leaf out or in early fall to allow natural or artificial (planting) regeneration. for root growth before the ground freezes. The former is the preferred method If needed, install flexible tree guards in because new seedlings are more likely to August and remove in January, until be derived from a gene pool that has the tree is large enough (2–3 inches in evolved under the environmental diameter) to withstand buck rubs. conditions of the region over thousands of years. However, the prevalence of overabundant deer throughout the region often necessitates planting to more quickly establish desirable species. Planting design should include enough space between planted trees to allow access to control competing vegetation, but close enough to quickly provide enough shade to help inhibit the regrowth of invasives. It should also be naturalistic in form, that is, straight lines or rows should be avoided, except when large equipment is required for maintenance. For best results, follow guidelines under Planting Trees, page 168. Planting should continue on an as- needed basis to assure that sufficient advance regeneration is available to replace canopy trees as they die. Darin Groff When planting to fill forest gaps, the trees and shrubs should Schedule be only wild-type (no cultivars) native species appropriate to the site conditions and they should be protected from deer In general, late fall and winter are the damage with fencing, tree shelters (shown here), or flexible most efficient and least arduous times to tree wraps.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 137 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Ongoing Management MEADOW MANAGEMENT Following initial treatment, an annual or biennial inspection and control ost grasslands and meadows schedule should be adopted to prevent in eastern North America are initial conditions from recurring. After Mshort-lived ecosystems. Without a thorough first treatment, regular but repeated disturbance, woody cover (trees small-scale treatments are often sufficient and shrubs) quickly returns. It is now to preserve the native diversity, ecosystem believed that agriculture and burning by integrity, and aesthetic quality of a site. Native Americans, coupled with the more Until natural regeneration becomes recent agriculture of European settlers, adequate in forest areas, the planting of maintained extensive herbaceous openings trees and shrubs should continue on an in this region for thousands of years, and as-needed basis to ensure that sufficient that feeding, wallowing, and trampling advance regeneration is available to replace by now-extinct “megaherbivores”— canopy trees as they die. Reduce plant mammoths, mastodons, giant ground competition through selective cutting or sloths, horses, tapirs, peccaries, and herbicide application (see discussion of others—created and maintained a appropriate use of herbicides, page 133) patchwork of meadows and grasslands for on neighboring plants around the bases millions of years before that, until their of trees during successive growing seasons demise upon arrival of humans to our until the canopy reaches 60% cover. region about 13,000 years ago. As a result, numerous native plant and animal species, particularly birds and butterflies, are completely dependent upon these habitats and are now threatened as they decline. Most meadows in southeastern Most grasslands and meadows in eastern Pennsylvania have an agricultural past—old hayfields or pasture—and are North America are short-lived ecosystems. dominated by non-native cool-season grasses planted for centuries as fodder, such Without repeated disturbance, woody cover as tall fescue, perennial ryegrass, Kentucky (trees and shrubs) quickly returns. bluegrass, orchard grass, and timothy. Cool-season grasses, so named because

Grasslands and meadows are historical components of the regional landscapes that offer food, cover, and nesting sites for small mammals, butterflies, and several threatened bird species. Bill Moses

138 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

they grow best during spring and fall, have Two misconceptions are widespread: photosynthetic machinery like most other one is that most cool-season grasses

kinds of plants, a system called C3 for are non-native, and the other, that short. Warm-season grasses, which grow most native grasses are warm-season. mainly in the heat of the summer, have Considering the state’s flora as a whole,

specialized system called C4, which works the facts are somewhat the opposite. Of in a manner similar to a turbocharger in a the 173 grasses (165 species, plus varieties car engine, delivering carbon dioxide much and subspecies) native to Pennsylvania,

more efficiently (using far less water) to the 105 are cool-season (C3) grasses and 68

sunlight-powered parts of the plants’ cells are warm-season (C4) grasses. The higher

that combine CO2 with H2O to produce diversity of cool-season grasses also holds sugars, which fuel growth. The C4 system enables warm-season grasses to continue photosynthesizing and growing when most plants are forced by heat or dry soil conditions to shut down. The cool-season grasses’ new leaves emerge in late winter or early spring and they generally flower and set fruit in spring or early summer. In warm-season grasses emergence is usually delayed until late spring or early summer and they generally flower and set fruit in late summer or fall. Native cool-season and warm-season grasses (see Native Plant Materials, pages 172–200) can perform well together in mixture because competition between grasses of the two types is reduced, due to differences in rooting depth (cool-season species tend to have shallower roots than warm-season species) and the separation of peak growth and photosynthesis to different parts of the growing season. Native warm-season grasses thrive on marginal soils and survive periods of low

rainfall due to their C4 photosynthetic system and deep, fibrous root systems, which can penetrate the soil to a depth of 5–10 feet. In native meadow plantings, a reasonable goal is to achieve 50–75% cover of warm-season grasses (e.g., little bluestem, big bluestem, Indian-grass, © 1995 Conservation Research Institute/Heidi Natura broomsedge, switchgrass), with the Unlike the shallow roots of turf grasses like Kentucky blue grass, the deep roots of native warm-season grasses help them remainder in native cool-season grass and tolerate marginal soils and, in turn, protect these soils from forb cover. water and wind erosion.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 139 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

when considering species only native to plant species that provided the highest the Piedmont and Coastal Plain areas quality food and habitat for native meadow of southeastern Pennsylvania. There are wildlife. The typical grassland or meadow a total of 149 grasses considered to be today is an abandoned field invaded by a native to this region with 83 cool-season few introduced species—multiflora rose, and 66 warm-season representatives. The autumn-olive, Japanese honeysuckle, table below summarizes the distribution of Amur honeysuckle, Canada thistle, mile- native grasses by type. The table further a-minute, and Japanese stiltgrass are classifies them by habitat preference, examples—that crowd out most native showing that in the Piedmont and Coastal plants and degrade the habitat for native Plain of Pennsylvania there are 68 native animal species. cool-season and 64 native warm-season Declines are especially devastating of grasses that are mainly or facultatively interior grassland and meadow species, that open-meadow dwellers (leaving 15 cool- is, those that need blocks of contiguous season and 2 warm-season grasses as mainly habitat, usually greater than 50 acres, restricted to forests). where there are large areas at least 100 meters (about 300 feet) from any forest edge or other non-meadow land cover. Wildlife Benefits Analyses of breeding bird survey data Declines in populations of neotropical show that 16 of the 19 species that breed migrant birds that breed in the forests in interior grasslands and meadows of eastern North America have received in the East have been losing ground much attention, but grassland and meadow and 12 of them have declined steeply. birds in the region are in even greater Populations of birds such as bobolink, peril. Since the first European settlement, eastern meadowlark, grasshopper sparrow, native grasslands and meadows have savannah sparrow, vesper sparrow, upland steadily diminished in size and species sandpiper, and northern bobwhite have diversity. These plant communities were fallen off drastically in recent years due to once composed of hundreds of native the loss of habitat and the fragmentation

Pennsylvania Native Grasses, including varieties and subspecies

ENTIRE STATE PIEDMONT AND COASTAL PLAIN COVER TYPE

PREFERENCE Cool-season (C3) Warm-season (C4) Cool-season (C3) Warm-season (C4)

Mainly open 30 48 20 46

Mainly tree 19 2 15 2 dominated

Open or tree 56 18 48 18 dominated

SUBTOTAL 105 68 83 66

TOTAL 173 149

140 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

of remaining habitat into pieces that are too small to meet their needs. Most of this loss is from residential and commercial development and from changes in farming practices, such as earlier mowing times and, ironically, the widespread use of conservation tillage which largely eliminates bare soil conditions used by some of these birds. © iStockphoto.com/Frank Leung There is an ongoing effort by scientists and resource managers to better understand what makes ideal habitat for grassland and meadow birds. Over the past decade, there has been wide promotion of native warm-season grasses as the ideal habitat. Warm-season grasses are a key part of prime habitat for grassland

birds because they are bunch grasses, in Bill Moses (all except top right) contrast to the sod-forming growth habit Birds of large open landscapes: bobolink (top left) of the common non-native cool-season and eastern meadowlark (bottom left) are two birds grasses, such as those planted for hay, that prefer cool-season grasslands; savanna sparrows pasture, or turf (see illustration on page (bottom right) prefer warm-season grasslands; and 139). This means that they grow upright horned larks (top right) are “dirt birds,” using bare with bare ground between clumps. This soil in cultivated fields. characteristic provides high-quality nesting sites and materials and allows grassland Despite the great benefits of native birds to move more easily and better warm-season grasses, research is showing protected from avian predators in their that they do not fit the needs of all search for food. The open space between grassland birds. While savannah and clumps also provides space for wildflowers grasshopper sparrows prefer warm-season to become established. grasses, bobolink and meadowlark do best In spring, ground-nesting birds utilize in cool-season grasslands. And some birds, the cover afforded by the grasses and e.g., horned larks, are full- or part-time wildflowers to brood and rear their young. “dirt” birds, using the bare soil created Flowers attract insects, which constitute by traditional cultivation (moldboard the most important element in the diet of plowing) and heavy grazing, which mimics young birds. During the autumn months, the trampling, wallowing, and grazing native wildflowers and grasses produce by megaherbivores that occurred during highly nutritious seeds. These are relished most of the evolutionary history of native by a variety of songbirds and will attract grassland and meadow plant and animal many migrants that stop over on their long species. There is a growing consensus journey south. Throughout the winter, the that a large open landscape (hundreds of upright grasses provide food and cover for acres) with diverse cover types in patches the resident birds to help them survive the of various sizes, including warm- and cool- winter months. season grasslands and forb-dominated

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 141 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

meadows, is best. Agriculture (row crops, borders of Chester and Lancaster Counties. pasture, hay fields) without hedgerows can These ancient grassland remnants harbor, be a compatible economic land use within according to discoveries so far, at least three a mosaic of native grasslands and meadows dozen moth species listed as endangered, intended to provide habitat for grassland- threatened, or rare in Pennsylvania. interior birds. Structural diversity—created Many butterfly species have also by planting a patchwork of meadow types, developed close relationships with native each with a mix of species—produces meadow wildflowers, which they use for preferred cover for the greatest variety of the nectar (adults) and the leaves and grassland and meadow wildlife species. stems (larvae). As our few remaining Little is known about the effects of undisturbed habitats continue to be lost declining native grassland habitat to other to suburban development, many native kinds of wildlife in Pennsylvania, including plants are becoming increasingly rare. small mammals, snakes, lizards, turtles, The implications for butterflies are dire; insects and other arthropods, and various with the loss of their host plants, some animals that live in the soil. But we can butterfly species are inching closer toward get some idea of the probable magnitude of extinction. Unless native wildflowers and the problem from surveys of one of the few butterfly habitats are restored, we can groups that has been studied—moths—in expect to see further declines in overall the native grasslands of the State Line butterfly populations and continued losses Serpentine Barrens along the southern of rare and endangered species.

Meadow Establishment establishment through spraying Conversion to native grasses and forbs (top) and then is best achieved by eliminating existing planting with vegetation that can aggressively compete a no-till drill for nutrients and water, particularly turf (bottom). grass species, trees, shrubs, and invasive vines. Trees and shrubs can also obstruct mowing and other future maintenance activities. Remove all woody stems manually or by cutting (chainsaw, field mower). If the larger stumps cannot be removed they should be flush-cut or ground down even with the surrounding soil surface and treated with a systemic herbicide to prevent resprouting (see discussion of appropriate use of herbicides, page 133). Turf grasses can be eliminated either by physically removing the sod (digging small areas; plowing and disking larger sites) or treating the area with an

Paul Claypoole (both) herbicide and seeding with a no-till drill.

142 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Because a meadow is typically a short-lived successional stage, it must be periodically disturbed to prevent woody vegetation from becoming established. This can be accomplished either by mowing annually or prescribed burning every few years.

(An herbicide should not be used within setbacks are temporary and should not be 50 feet of a stream unless it is a formulation a cause to give up on efforts to establish approved for aquatic use.) Spring (before native meadow vegetation. Often, where the beginning of June) and late summer initial plantings do not produce the or early fall are the preferred times to desired result, a follow-up attempt a year plant meadows. If a rapid conversion to later is successful. native grasses is not an option for lack of funding or equipment, the landowner can encourage a gradual change from exotic to Management native grass dominance through the timing Because a meadow is typically a short-lived of management. Certain bird species, successional stage, it must be periodically particularly bobolinks and meadowlarks, disturbed to prevent woody vegetation can thrive in large open areas dominated from becoming established. This can be by exotic turf grasses created simply by accomplished either by mowing annually reducing the mowing frequency of turf, or prescribed burning every few years. pasture, or hay field to once per year. The frequency and timing of mowing One of the challenges of meadow has a dramatic affect on the composition establishment and management is a of a meadow and its wildlife residents. tendency for the planted native grass When and how often to mow will depend species to become over-dominant. This upon your conservation priority and is particularly true of the warm-season the environmental conditions of the “tallgrasses,” notably big bluestem, Indian- grassland or meadow (see table on page grass, and switchgrass. It is best to mass 144). In general it is best to mow when forb plantings and separate them spatially wildlife is less vulnerable to disturbance, from the tallgrass plantings. This type that is, during the non-growing season of patchiness is common in nature and (roughly mid-November to mid-March in should be imitated to the extent possible southeastern Pennsylvania). A late winter in new meadow establishment. Grasses or early spring mowing (prior to April 1st) should be planted in rates not exceeding is best. Mowing at this time conserves 1–2 pounds per acre in order to achieve winter cover for wildlife and avoids high species diversity. disturbing nesting and feeding wildlife Initial failure of meadow and grassland (birds, small mammals, butterflies) in plantings, especially of warm-season spring and summer. If wet soil conditions grasses, is not uncommon. Weather and prohibit mowing in late winter/early other factors are beyond the control of spring a fall mowing (after the first hard even an experienced practitioner. Such frost) when these areas are dry or a winter

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 143 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

mowing when the ground is frozen are It is best to mow meadows when the other preferred options. Sometimes a ground is dry or frozen. They should be cut second mowing is needed to control at a height of 8–12 inches. Meadows must undesirable plants during the growing also be monitored for intrusion by invasive season; a mid-July to early August mowing plants. Invasives in meadows can be will help control woody and invasive eliminated by spot mowing, spot-spraying plants, encourage warm-season grasses, or wick application of an appropriate and provide sufficient time to establish herbicide (see discussion of appropriate winter cover. The only case where this use of herbicides, page 133), or manual or would not be appropriate is in larger (>50 mechanical pulling. acres) grasslands and meadows (or smaller To emphasize that a meadow is meadows in a larger open landscape), intentional and managed, it is often which can support threatened interior beneficial to maintain a mowed turf swath grassland and meadow birds. These birds around the public edges and consider can nest into mid-August. In this situation incorporating a trail network. Well- it is best to mow only one-third to one- maintained trails encourage people to get half of the grassland or meadow each year into the meadow and discover its beauty to minimize disturbance of ground- up close. However, care should be taken nesting birds. to minimize the extent of trails to prevent

Recommended Mowing Regimen

CONSERVATION PRIORITY ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS Most Meadow Wildlife Grassland/Meadow-Interior Birds (<50 acres of total habitat*) (>50 acres total contiguous habitat*) Dry or frozen in late Mow in March winter/early spring Wet in late winter/ Mow after first hard frost (mid-November) early spring

Mow entire area in March; mow Mow entire area in March; mow Heavy invasives one-third to one-half the area one-third to one-half the area in mid-July, alternating in in mid-August, alternating in subsequent years subsequent years

* To determine the extent of meadow habitat, individual meadows must be connected on at least one side and can have no more than a few sparse trees (no shrubs or vines under the trees) in order to be connected enough to function as a single meadow.

144 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

undue disturbance of wildlife. This is PRESCRIBED FIRE especially true in meadows that support grassland-interior birds where trails can rescribed fire is the controlled fragment the habitat and provide easy application of fire to achieve access for predators. Pspecific conservation or land Another tool for managing meadows management goals. This technique is is prescribed fire. Native Americans used accepted within the scientific and natural fire to manage the landscape for thousand resource management communities as a of years, which selected fire-adapted way to perpetuate a natural and historic species to dominate native grasslands and influence on local ecology in a manner meadows. Periodic spring fires (with at that minimizes and often reduces threats least 3–5 years between burns in a given to persons or property. The goal of a area), rotating among sections of the fire management program is to utilize meadow landscape to maintain a refugium prescribed fire in a manner that perpetuates from which insects can re-colonize the and enhances desired plant communities treated area (for meadows less than 50 within natural lands. acres only 10–20% should be burned in any year; for larger meadows one-third to one-half can be treated), will effectively A prescribed fire is defined as fire applied discourage invasion by woody plants. Prescribed burning should be done only by in a knowledgeable manner to fuels (live well-trained personnel and in accordance and dead vegetation) on a specific land with federal, state, and local laws. Where tallgrasses become area under selected weather conditions, to overdominant, crowding out most other kinds of plants, sites may require post- accomplish predetermined, well-defined, planting maintenance to reduce the grass cover and make room for forbs. management objectives. Prescribed burning and tillage have been used to reduce grass cover, as has selective herbiciding. Though still uncommon in the East as an ecosystem management tool, grazing at low density (less than 0.5 “animal units”—1,000 pounds of grazer—per acre) should be considered as an alternative, especially in meadows. Grazing is widely used in Europe as a tool for the conservation management of native grasslands, meadows, and shrublands. Dan Barringer

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 145 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Fire has played an important part barrens, the lack of fire has resulted in the in shaping local plant and animal buildup of organic duff and invasion by communities for thousands of years. Fire woody vegetation, conditions that decrease was a frequent occurrence within forests the viability of plant species adapted to the (especially following major perturbations mineral soil and full sunlight conditions such as wind events or insect defoliation), maintained by periodic fires. At the same native grasslands, and on the open barrens time, maintaining abandoned agricultural (serpentine, scrub oak, heath, and pine land as meadow (artificially maintained barrens) scattered throughout the region. representatives of ephemeral forest Before European settlement, wildfires openings) has become very problematic set by lightning or Native Americans due to the growing presence of exotic, were frequent and widespread. Native invasive vegetation. Left unchecked, Americans used fire for many reasons, invasive species such as Canada thistle, including driving game, rejuvenating food multiflora rose, and Japanese honeysuckle resources such as berry patches and pasture outcompete the native grasses and for game species, and making travel easier wildflowers that can tolerate periodic and safer. fires. Through displacement of native Fire exclusion over the last century vegetation, invasive plants homogenize has modified the plant composition of the structural and food resources of the forest, grassland, and barrens communities, site, thereby reducing the habitat value for threatening important historic natural native fauna. ecosystems and allowing the potentially There are two conditions that will dangerous build-up of organic fuels. need to be met to permit the greater use Eastern forests are now in transition from of prescribed fire in our region. The first an oak-hickory dominated canopy to a is to implement programs that safely and fire-sensitive red maple canopy. On the effectively apply this powerful tool. Use of prescribed fire will require the support of both the general public and local authorities, particularly fire management Plant communities personnel. Careful use and clear communication between owners of natural that benefit from lands and neighbors and local authorities is essential in maintaining their support. prescribed fire The second condition is a better understanding of the biological and • Grassland and meadow ecological effects of fire in this region • Shrubland in order to intelligently guide its use to achieve natural resource management • Serpentine barrens goals. To date, most research has been undertaken in western states, which • Oak-hickory and mixed contain different plant species (both oak forest natives and undesirable invasives) and site conditions. Detailed knowledge of

146 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

plant responses to different fire regimes • Increase the general level of training and (frequency, season of application) is fire experience for all participants. needed to make the best use of this • Obtain all necessary fire-fighting stewardship tool. personal gear, tools, and equipment. A prescribed fire is defined as fire applied in a knowledgeable manner to Pre-burn fire management/stewardship fuels (live and dead vegetation) on a staff activities and public relations specific land area under selected weather • Develop a burn prescription. conditions, to accomplish predetermined, • Establish burn plots and create well-defined, management objectives. firebreaks. Safely fulfilling this definition requires extensive preparation, proper training, • Coordinate burn activities with and specialized equipment. The following appropriate fire and police groups, local are critical components of a successful and state government officials, and state prescribed fire program. and federal environmental organizations. • Notify neighbors. Program Organization Required guidelines should be established Equipment for all burns and include the following: Safe application of prescribed fire Organizational commitment requires proper equipment to protect both participants and the property of • Commit the staff time, equipment, neighbors. On the following page is the and resources necessary for a current inventory of Natural Lands Trust’s quality program. specialized equipment for our 14-person Ecological justification and research fire management team. • Develop an ecological justification for each burn unit, including benefits to Training species of special concern. Prescribed fire should only be used by • Develop a site fire management plan, trained staff or contractors. Training is including standard operating procedures currently available from: for all prescribed burns and expected effects on all natural resources. • DCNR, Bureau of Forestry District 17, 610-582-9660 • Photodocument the burn area before and after the burn. • New York Wildfire and Incident Management Academy, 631-444-0276, • Conduct appropriate research and [email protected] monitoring as needed and share results with other practitioners. • Eastern Area Training: Partners in Wildlife Management, www. Training and equipment nationalfiretraining.net/ea • Designate a fire leader/burn boss with advanced training (in order to meet required state qualifications).

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 147 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Natural Lands Trust’s Fire Management Equipment

QTY EQUIPMENT USAGE QTY EQUIPMENT USAGE 3 drip torches (w/brackets) fire ignition 1 mini-striker portable pump water pump 6 collapsible backpack pump fire suppression 2 200-gallon slip-on unit fire control 3 Indian backpack pump fire suppression 1 2" foot valve water supply 12 Nomex jumpsuits personal protection 4 1½" x 8' suction hose water supply

12 helmets personal protection 13 1" to 5⁄8" reducers water supply 12 plastic face shields personal protection 13 1½" to 1" reducers water supply or goggles 2 2" to 2½" increaser water supply 12 Nomex neck and face guards personal protection 1 2" to 1½" reducer water supply 12 fire shelter personal protection 6 1", 1½" & 2½" double water supply 12 leather gloves personal protection male & female fittings 1 fire weather kit monitor weather 12 headlamps safety 12 radio harness communication 7 hotshields and bags safety 12 portable radios communication 3 practice fire shelters safety 1 mobile Ritron radio communication 2 replacement goggle lens safety 1 radio organizer communication 1 case of fusee ignition 1 radio cloning cable communication 2 fusee holders safety 3 wire rakes fire control/prepare 1 extra fuel can 5-gallon ignition 3 council rake fire control/prepare 1 1991 fire trailer haul equipment 1 turbo meter (anemometer) monitor weather 2 work lights fire control at night 1 tool box repair/parts 1 window protector mount on light 9 personal protective gear bags 1 brush bar system safety equipment bags 1 Warn Trans4mer brush truck safety 1 radio gang charger communication winch system 20 1½" x 100' hose fire control 1 5-gallon pail of class A foam fire control 11 1" x 100' hotline hose fire control 1 foam inductor and nozzle fire control

18 5⁄8" x 50' mop up hose fire control 1 spool of pea cord safety 6 1" x 1" x 1" gated wyes* fire control 2 2" suction hose, 10' each water supply 3 1½" x 1½" x 1½" fire control 2 500-gallon portable tank water supply gated wyes* 1 75-gallon relay tank water supply 7 1" nozzle fire control 2 firefighter portable pump water pump 15 ¾" nozzle fire control * fire hose Y-splitter

148 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Minimum requirements for all participants STORMWATER MANAGEMENT (always check for updated requirements) in a prescribed fire program should be: anaging stormwater runoff • S-130 and/or PA-130 (Firefighter from impervious surfaces is an Training) Messential aspect of land and water stewardship. To assist in measuring the • S-190 (Introduction to Wildland “ecological footprint” of a given project, Fire Behavior) ask: “How close to the pre-development • I-100 (Introduction to Incident condition are its runoff rate, quality, and Command System) quantity? ” It is important to consider • L-180 (Human Factors on the Fireline) each project not individually, but rather as one of a series of sites contributing The fire leader should have extensive cumulatively to the flooding, erosion, training including: sedimentation, water pollution, and • S-290 (Intermediate Fire Behavior) drought effects in each watershed. With careful attention to the ecology and • S-390 (Introduction to Fire hydrology of each site and each watershed, Behavior Calculations) and with the use of innovative best • RX-300 (Federal Prescribed Fire management practices (BMPs), project Burn Boss) designers can minimize a site’s “stormwater In addition, all participants in a prescribed footprint” by re-creating the conditions fire program should meet the federal of the site in its natural state. When standard for physical fitness. Participants designing a subdivision, the natural areas should be tested annually prior to the burn and greenway lands provide excellent season and pass the most current standard. opportunities to work “on-contour” with At this time, the minimum standard is for broader systems of berms, swales, and all participants to walk 2 miles with a 25- vegetated filter strips and better utilization pound backpack within 30 minutes. of natural soils and vegetation than more concentrated suburban development sites. Natural lands typically retain far greater Photodocumentation volumes of stormwater than agricultural It is often helpful to establish fixed or developed areas. This translates to points from which to periodically take fewer and less severe floods and more photographs to monitor and help evaluate consistent stream baseflows during drought the relative success of the fire management periods. When a new site is converted program. Ideally, photos should be taken before and after burns and in the middle of the growing season. Stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs) are innovative management practices designed to re-create natural hydrology and so reduce flooding and increase groundwater recharge.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 149 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Ask: “How close to the pre-development Incorporating current stormwater BMPs can reduce non-point-source pollution and condition are the runoff rate, quality, and flooding, and increase baseflow. The last generation of stormwater quantity? ” It is important to consider systems provided virtually no means of filtration for contaminants found in each project not individually, but rather stormwater runoff, other than by allowing suspended solids to settle out in detention as one of a series of sites contributing or retention basins. In contrast, new cumulatively to the flooding, erosion, stormwater BMPs filter runoff to improve water quality. Simply recharging runoff into sedimentation, water pollution, and soil rather than discharging it to wetlands and streams allows the soil and vegetation drought effects in each watershed. to remove excess nutrients, chemicals, sediments, and salts from paved areas, rooftops, and lawns. If carefully designed, to residential or other intensive use, these systems will not contaminate wells innovative stormwater systems may be with non-point-source pollutants. With used to recreate the natural hydrology by the addition of innovative techniques infiltrating and retaining stormwater runoff such as vegetated filter strips, vegetated on-site during storm events and discharging swales, sediment forebays, and constructed it more slowly; this also helps to maintain wetlands, the filtration effects on runoff a more natural stream hydrologic regime. from each site are significantly enhanced. By eliminating unnecessary clearing, The stormwater planning and design grading, and impervious coverage and by strategies proposed here are comprehensive promoting groundwater recharge, each and include evaluating the entire project project can minimize its watershed impacts. from a stormwater perspective, taking into The technique of handling runoff in many consideration such factors as: small systems close to where it is generated • amount and location of vegetation on the site is a major improvement over clearing and soil grading, concentrating runoff in a few large basins at the lowest areas of the site (often with the • amount and location of impervious poorest soils for recharging groundwater). cover to be constructed, Because new suburban development often • integrating stormwater management exploits on-site groundwater resources systems throughout the site and early while reducing groundwater recharge, in the design process, these techniques are fundamental toward • type and location of stormwater best protecting water supply. management practices (BMPs) The need to manage stormwater employed on the site, and runoff on the site provides numerous opportunities for the land steward • amount, location, and type of to address some of the major water vegetation to be planted as part of quality issues facing local watersheds. the landscaping plan.

150 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

When compared to conventional • Evaluate the potential for utilizing stormwater management systems, projects green roofs. designed using this approach can reduce • Where impervious cover does exist, runoff volume and peak rate reaching incorporate vegetated “islands” to streams, maintain recharge of groundwater enhance opportunities for recharge. aquifers, and enhance the quality of runoff water. If designed properly, the result is less Stormwater Management Systems downstream flooding and erosion, cleaner water, healthier aquatic life, and more • Integrate stormwater systems throughout baseflow for streams and wetlands. The the site and early in the design process, techniques proposed here are also generally and avoid shoehorning them into the consistent with the National Pollution open space as a final step. Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) • Make sure system design treats the first Phase II requirements. flush of runoff that carries the highest amount of pollutants. Vegetation Clearing and Soil Grading • Avoid collecting, piping, and rapidly • Evaluate the grading plan to minimize sending untreated stormwater to the unnecessary clearing, cutting, and filling. lowest areas of the site. • Retain the natural soil mantle and • Instead, disconnect, disperse, and slow vegetation wherever possible to reduce down stormwater runoff, managing the amount of stormwater runoff that it with localized BMPs to maximize must be controlled. recharge within each micro-watershed, • Carefully delineate limits of disturbance close to the impervious cover source in woodlands, around specimen where it is generated. trees, and in open areas that could be • Utilize non-structural, vegetation-based converted to meadow or reforested areas. BMPs wherever possible. • Avoid clearing vegetation anywhere • Merge the landscaping plan and natural within 100 feet of streams. lands/greenway lands management with stormwater management systems Impervious Cover wherever possible. • Evaluate the building program to minimize the amount of unnecessary New stormwater BMPs filter runoff to paved area and rooftop. • Minimize road widths and utilize improve water quality. Simply recharging localized parking pull-offs instead of full on-street parking. runoff into soil rather than discharging it • For lower-traffic areas, overflow parking, to wetlands and streams allows the soil and walkways utilize porous paving, gravel, or paving blocks. and vegetation to remove excess nutrients, chemicals, sediments, and salts from paved areas, rooftops, and lawns.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 151 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

• Recommended BMPs: discharged through an overflow ~ Rain gardens are small infiltration designed to disperse sheet flow into beds, depressed slightly below grade, open space. and planted with wet-soil-tolerant ~ Constructed wetlands and wet ponds native trees, shrubs, and herbaceous can be incorporated as landscape plants to serve multiple functions: features and planted with native landscape features as well as biofilters wetland vegetation to serve as living to improve water quality, promote filters for runoff, areas of visual recharge, and provide habitat for interest for residents, and habitat for plants and wildlife. Rain gardens can aquatic life. These should be designed be incorporated into site plans within with sediment forebays. median strips, cul-de-sac islands, road shoulders, adjacent to parking lots, Landscaping Plan and in front lawns to handle roof and • Incorporate revegetation stormwater driveway runoff. BMPs into the overall landscaping plan ~ Vegetated swales and infiltration for each site, rather than treating them trenches can be included along road separately. Pay careful attention to the shoulders to disperse and recharge use of native trees, shrubs, and plants to sheet flow from roads. This technique blend the function and aesthetics of the requires certain sections of road to site and its stormwater systems into any be designed without curbs or with adjoining or nearby natural areas and periodic curb cuts. Road shoulders open spaces. can be planted with native warm- • Go beyond typical street tree plantings season ornamental grasses and and maximize the planting of native wetland shrubs to serve as natural canopy trees throughout the site that check dams to reduce velocities and will mature over time to recreate a promote recharge. forest canopy that reduces runoff ~ Roof drains can be added to direct volumes and velocities, contributes to roof runoff from downspouts into regional air quality enhancements and subsurface infiltration beds, including reduces energy costs for home heating rain gardens. and cooling. ~ Level spreaders and infiltration • Reduce the amount of turfgrass trenches can be designed to handle throughout the site and maximize the runoff at the rear lot lines and in amount of reforested area, wildflower protected open space. Runoff can be meadow, and native plant gardens. directed to these areas with carefully Encourage homeowners to use natural designed berms and swales, then landscaping and planting practices as alternatives to lawn.

152 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

STREAMBANK STABILIZATION Stream channels can be restored to a state tream channels can be restored to that reduces bank erosion and reaches a a state that reduces bank erosion Sand reaches a new equilibrium. new equilibrium. Often, the reason why streams experience accelerated bank erosion and in-stream habitat loss is because of poor stormwater habitats. Bioengineering includes a variety management from upstream land use. This of uses of natural material to mimic natural constraint should always be considered in conditions and stabilize streambanks: order to set realistic expectations of success • Live stakes – Live stakes are a from a stream restoration project. If there dependable, cost-effective way to is a high proportion of impervious cover introduce stabilizing vegetation to upstream, with few opportunities to better under-vegetated streambanks. A number manage runoff using BMPs or through of native shrub species are available redesign and redevelopment, the potential that will grow from live stakes, mainly for stream restoration to a natural state is various species of willows and shrubby limited. In such a case, it may make more dogwoods. These species have fibrous sense to stabilize a stream in its existing root systems that help hold soils degraded state in the short term and together and are specifically adapted attempt incremental improvements over to a stream-side environment. Their the long term. flexible stems bend and dissipate energy To restore streams that are constricted from floodwaters and protect banks from within their channels from this damaging ice flows. They can also be downward cycle of undercutting and bank integrated into gabion construction. destabilization, the following techniques Stakes can be purchased commercially should be considered. or selectively harvested from nearby sources. They are often 18 inches Bioengineering Techniques long, at least 1-inch caliper, and are sometimes scarred on the lower end to “Hard engineering” is an approach that encourage rapid root growth. Planting emphasizes installation of retaining walls should occur in early spring when plants and gabions to lock streams into place in areas where space is limited and in-stream erosion is severe. These devices do little to dissipate energy from accelerated runoff, will likely experience undercutting, and Live stakes often transfer erosion problems downstream to another site. Therefore, preferred techniques encourage natural systems to function to restore streams and protect Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Group Working

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 153 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

are dormant. A pilot hole is made in the water line. They fill with sediment, the bank using a dibble bar and sledge. which becomes an excellent area in Using a rubber mallet, the stake is then which to grow species with strong fibrous driven into the bank at least 12 inches. root systems. Stakes should be planted at a 45˚ angle • Live fascines – Fascines are bundles of facing downstream so that currents and live cuttings from shrubs at least 6 feet debris do not rip them out. The lower long and 12 inches in diameter. They are ends of stakes should be within 12 staked into a streambank at or below the inches of the normal water line in the waterline, similar to coconut fiber logs. stream. Stakes are most successful when Sometimes a trench can be made at the invasive species and low-hanging tree toe of the bank where a fascine can be branches are removed so they receive staked. The live material will then grow sufficient sunlight. roots and stems while the space between • Coconut fiber (coir) logs – These serve the cuttings will allow sediment to as a short-term bank stabilization tool as collect to help stabilize the bank. well as a growing medium for live stakes Fascines without live cuttings can also and other streamside-stabilizing plants be used solely to buffer streambanks and such as soft rush. Made from coconut collect sediment. These are useful below tree fiber, these logs (18 inches x 10 feet) the water line when erosive voids exist are staked in at the toe of the slope at under trees along the bank. • Plantings – Where conditions are too dry to plant live stakes, the same species should be planted several feet above the water line using container-grown stock.

Channel Modifications Bioengineering techniques can help stabilize a mildly degraded stream. Coconut fiber logs However, where a bank approaches a slope of 90˚, the erosion potential is greater than the ability of bioengineering techniques to stabilize the bank. In these cases, the Bank grading streambank, or the channel itself, may first need to be sculpted. In Pennsylvania, any earthwork in or near a stream will require a General Permit from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection.

• Bank grading – Where a streambank’s slope approaches 90˚, bank regrading

Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group (both) Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working can be considered as long as it is

154 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

accompanied by effective bioengineering TRAIL DESIGN AND practices. The simplest form of bank MAINTENANCE regrading entails pulling a bank back from the water line to a 3:1 slope. Erosion-control fabric is installed along General Guidelines with new seeds, plantings, and stakes. In general, three types of guidelines However, when trees exist on the should be followed in constructing new slope or the working area is limited, trails and maintaining existing trails: the technique must be modified. Every recreation enhancement, environmental stream is different and one method does protection, and public use and safety. not fit all conditions. All streambank If followed during trail layout, they will modifications should consider upstream result in trail alignments that offer a land use changes and the long term more aesthetically pleasing and varied success of the project as well as recreational experience, a more stable trail downstream effects of new flow patterns. that can be maintained with less expense, • Geomorphology – Fluvial geomorphology and a safer and more enjoyable outdoor is a multidisciplinary field of study experience for users. The more time and that analyzes local topography, soils, thought that is put into the trail planning and climate to select specific stream phase, the better the trail is likely to be. geometry. The recommended geometry Well-designed trails take advantage of based on such a study includes natural features, are low maintenance, and specifications on entrenchment and meet the needs of the user. The trail should sinuosity of the stream in order to mimic meander around trees and rocks, follow natural stream patterns. the shape of the land, and otherwise take In extreme cases, modifying stream advantage of natural land features. The geometry may lead to actual earthwork best trails show little evidence of the work within the stream to help restore that goes into them. A little extra effort equilibrium. This could include a variety spent widely scattering cut vegetation, of methods including J-hooks, check blending slope cuts, or raking leaves back dams, and log diversions. The purpose over fillslopes pays off in a more natural- of these techniques is to redirect water looking trail. and encourage areas of sedimentation to protect eroding banks. Recreation Enhancement • Trails should be varied so as to enhance the user’s enjoyment and visual experience. • Trails should provide scenic views and incorporate points of interest such as historic structures or sites, wetlands, ponds, or rock outcrops. Main trails should bypass these resources where possible, with only secondary trails providing access to them.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 155 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

• Trails should be buffered from the • When locating a trail, primary sight, sound, and hazards associated emphasis should be placed upon with man-made features, including characteristics of soils and topography roadways, buildings, and urban or that control trail stability. suburban land uses. • Trails should follow the contour • The trail designer should make of the landscape. creative use of vegetation to enhance • Trails should not go straight up the hiking experience. steep grades. • The trail designer should route trails • Areas having slopes in excess of through varied types of plant cover, 20% should be avoided, unless those avoiding alignments through continuous areas are to be paved or otherwise stands of similar vegetation. stabilized (e.g., steps). • Trails should not have long straight • Soils that are deep, well drained, sections that are unbroken by vegetation resistant to erosion, and do not have or topography. Short trail sections with high seasonal water tables are most many broad turns are desirable. suitable for trail development. • Sudden changes in direction or too • Where trails follow steep grades, much meandering should be avoided, sidehilling—cutting a notch and except where switchbacks are needed to sometimes filling to form a narrow negotiate a long steep slope. bench—should be used to reduce • Planting showy native plants and erosion and improve surface drainage. butterfly or hummingbird-attracting • Switchbacks should be used when going plants in a naturalistic style in key up steep gradients where sidehilling areas along trails can greatly improve cannot gain elevation fast enough. user enjoyment. • Switchback segments should not be • Locating resting areas (benches or visible from one another. access to large, flat-topped boulders) near features such as streams and ponds • Wide turns should be used in will allow users opportunities to pause switchbacks to limit shortcutting, and enjoy the sights and sounds of the particularly where the trail is in an open resources on the property. hardwood forest where users can see ahead. Visual anchors should be used to Environmental Protection encourage users to follow the trail. • Trail layout should minimize impact on • Every attempt should be made sensitive resources, such as wetlands. to position trails outside of If highlighting these areas, special environmentally sensitive areas, precautions should be taken to reduce but, with careful planning, a trail the impact of hikers through the use of may incorporate special features of bridges and elevated walkways. the landscape into its design with minimal environmental impact. • Side trails leading to fragile resource areas should generally be longer and more difficult to discourage the majority of main trail users from using them.

156 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Public Use and Safety • Where there are road crossings, the TRAIL CLEARING hiker’s exposure should be minimized DIMENSIONS by crossing in the shortest practical manner, usually at right angles, with Hiking adequate sight distances. A = 1’ • Trails should not parallel road B = 6’–8’ rights-of-way. C = 1½’–2’ • Trails should avoid areas of streams and Equestrian ponds with steep banks, deep water, or A = 2½’ other potential hazards to children. B = 10’ C = 3’ • Where trails are in the vicinity of urban or suburban land uses, they should have a buffer as wide as possible DER, Bureau of State Parks, Division Outdoor Recreation, PA Program, 1980. The Pennsylvania Trails and sight lines as long as possible to keep potential conflicts with adjacent 1 foot. For equestrian trails, a 3-foot- landowners to a minimum. wide treadway should be cleared with all projecting limbs cut back an additional 2½ Trail Construction feet for a total horizontal width of 8 feet. The trail should be cleared to a vertical Constructing good, easily maintained height of 6–8 feet for a hiking trail and 10 trails and their associated structures is feet for an equestrian trail. somewhat complicated. The basic In clearing trails all shrubs, vines, low- concepts are described below, but please hanging branches, blowdowns, small trees, refer to Additional Information Sources, and fallen logs should be removed. Logs page 217, for detailed reference manuals and rocks can be used along the trail edges on the subject. and as anchors and points of interest. Shrubs and small trees should be cut flush Trail Clearing with the ground surface. Care should be When rerouting an old trail or establishing taken not to disturb the ground surface or a new trail, the general alignment should to pull plants out by the roots as this will be walked and flagged to determine exactly lead to erosion of the treadway. Large trees how the treadway should wind and dip, fallen across the trail should be left in place which rocks should be removed, and which by making two cuts and removing a 4-foot- trees might need to be cut. This is a critical wide section from the trunk across the step in the trail building process, as slight trail. If motorbikes or mountain bikes are a shifts in the alignment can significantly potential problem, the logs can be notched affect drainage and treadway durability. to provide a flat surface for hikers, yet After the precise location of the trail prohibit the passage of wheeled vehicles. is determined, the treadway should be When clearing is completed, cuttings cleared. For hiking trails, an 18–24-inch should in general be scattered in wide treadway should be cleared with all areas adjacent to the trail and left to projecting limbs cut back an additional decompose. It may be necessary to collect

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 157 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

the cuttings and remove them from the immediate trail area where the trail runs through more formally landscaped areas such as along public roads and through suburban developments. In the first year of a trail’s use, repeated TYPICAL TRAIL CROSS SECTIONS clearing is required to deter continued vegetation growth. In subsequent years, clearing will probably be necessary only two or three times a year. An exception would be in open fields and grassy areas where mowing is required to maintain a clearly visible treadway.

Treadway Stabilization The type of tread surface on trails will ultimately be determined by the rate of use, the terrain through which the trails pass, and the underlying soils. Initially, once a trail has been cleared, it should be surveyed to ascertain where special measures should be taken to stabilize the treadway, mainly treadway hardening and erosion control measures. Most problems are likely to occur where a trail traverses steep slopes or wet areas, or where surface water drainage

US Forest Service, Technology and Development Program US Forest Service, Technology flows across the trail during storms. In most areas there will be no need for actual trail construction, as careful trail SWITCHBACKS AND CLIMBING TURNS design should have selected stabilized areas. In existing stable areas with slopes of less than 10%, the exact alignment of the treadway can be delineated by sweeping herbaceous and trailing plants and leaf litter off the path. If, with time and use, initially stable areas begin to show signs of erosion, then some stabilizing type of material, such as crushed stone, should be integrated into the soil of the treadway. Trails on Slopes Climbing turns can be built on gentler slopes, usually not more than 15–20%. Switchbacks Where a trail cuts across a slope greater are needed on steeper slopes. than 10% (1 foot rise for every 10 feet

US Forest Service, Technology and Development Program US Forest Service, Technology of run), a slightly outsloped or sidehill

158 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

treadway should be excavated to prevent trail widening and erosion (top far left). LOG OR TREATED TIMBER WATERBAR AND ANCHORS Depending on the slope, the amount of excavation and the use of the excavated material varies. On steeper slopes, excavated soil is not used at all in the fillslope. This soft material is likely to erode away quickly, creating dangerous soft spots on the downhill edge of the trail. As the slope decreases, it becomes more feasible to use fill material as part of the treadway. Switchbacks and climbing turns are used on steep slopes where sidehill trails alone cannot provide the needed rise in elevation in a limited distance. A climbing turn is a reversal in direction that maintains the existing grade going through the turn without a constructed landing. A switchback is also a reversal in direction, but has a relatively level constructed landing (bottom far left). Switchbacks usually involve special treatment of the approaches, barriers, and drainages. Long sections of trail between these turns are usually better than short ones; fewer will and Development Program US Forest Service, Technology need to be built and there will be less of a temptation to shortcut them. Both topography wherever possible, making sure switchbacks and climbing turns take skill the water won’t return to the treadway. A to locate and are relatively expensive to Coweeta dip uses a reversal in grade on construct and maintain, therefore, every sidehill trails to shed water continuously effort should be made to minimize their use all along the trail segment. A bleeder is when designing a trail. a shallow graded depression across the treadway. A drainage dip, appropriate Surface Water Control only on grades less than 8%, is a channel Diverting surface water off the trail is reinforced with earthen mounds running one of the first priorities in designing and diagonally across the treadway. maintaining trails. Running water erodes Waterbars are the second most common the treadway and support structures and drainage structure after outsloping. They can even lead to loss of the trail itself. The are diagonal rock or log barriers that divert first choice to address surface water is to water off the treadway (above). Even enhance the natural drainage by outsloping though waterbars have been standard the treadway and creating grade dips such practice in the past, they should be avoided as Coweeta dips, bleeders, or drainage dips. where it is feasible to use some form of The aim is to take advantage of the natural a grade dip. By design, water hits the

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 159 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

waterbar and is turned. The water slows trails where no provision was made during down and sediment drops in the drain. design or construction for proper drainage. The number one cause of waterbar failure Correctly installed, a waterbar must be is sediment filling the drain until the water constructed of rock or a rot-resistant type of tops the bar and continues down the trail, wood. Logs should be a minimum diameter rendering the waterbar useless. A good of 6–8 inches at the small end—greater if grade dip can be built more quickly, works water flow is heavy—and all bark must be better, requires less maintenance, and is removed. It should be placed at a 30˚– 45˚ less obtrusive on the landscape. angle and extend at least 1 foot past the Waterbars are useful on trails where outside edge of the treadway on both sides. there isn’t much soil to work with, in areas If the natural topography would allow water that experience torrential downpours, and to return to the trail, it is essential that where a tripping hazard is acceptable. They the situation be remedied by extending may also be necessary when repairing older an outlet trench beyond the end of the rocks or log. Where water flow is heavy or the bar directs water down a steep slope, runoff may erode the soil adjacent to the TURNPIKE treadway. Where this is a problem, rocks should be placed in the channel to slow the water and make it drop its sediment. Drainage ditches are trenches along the side of a trail to collect water seeping from a hillside or runoff entering a trail that can’t be immediately removed with a grade US Forest Service, Technology and US Forest Service, Technology Development Program dip. The water can then be diverted across the treadway at appropriate points with a dip or water bar. Trails in Wet Areas Trails should be designed to avoid wet areas. Equestrian trails in particular should avoid small streams and wetlands if at PUNCHEONS all possible to prevent water degradation from erosion and excrement. Where this is impossible or an existing trail has developed a drainage problem, several options exist. Because nearly every technique for fixing trails in wet areas is expensive and needs to be repeated periodically, relocating the problem section nailers of trail should be considered first. Using stepping stones is a simple and relatively inexpensive technique for crossing small drainage swales and muddy US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration US Department of Transportation,

160 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

areas. The stones should be large, fairly flat fluctuations, except following major storm on top, and buried such that they rise above events. The stepping stones should be large standing water, but don’t rock. Space the and flat-topped. They should be placed stones for the average stride, remembering approximately 2 feet apart across the that trails are for children, too. stream. Ideally, the bottom on which the Turnpikes are used to elevate the trail stones are laid should be stone in order to above wet ground. The technique uses prevent movement. fill material from parallel side ditches and As an alternative to stepping stones, from off-site, if necessary, to build up the a simple bridge could be constructed of a treadway higher than the surrounding single or double stringer with two base logs water table (top far left). The most similar to the puncheon described above. important consideration is to lower the The base logs should be placed on each water level below the treadway base and bank above the flood level on a flat stone carry the water under and away from or ledge, secured with pins if possible. The the trail at frequent intervals. Turnpike stringer(s) should be secured to the base construction is used to provide a stable log on each end using 10-inch or 12-inch trail base in areas of high water table and spikes or large bolts. Both the base logs fair to well drained soils. They are practical and the stringers should be of rot-resistant up to 10% grades. wood, such as black locust, eastern red- A puncheon, or bog bridge, is a wooden cedar, or white oak, from which all the walkway used to cross muddy areas (bottom bark has been removed. To facilitate far left). It can be used where lack of tread construction, crossing sites for bridges material makes turnpike construction should be selected where the banks are the impractical or firm mineral soil cannot same height and midway between turns. A be easily reached; puncheons can be handrail is needed for safety only if the top supported on muddy surfaces better than of the stringer is more than 3 feet above turnpikes, which require good drainage. the stream. The stringer surface should be They consist of decking made from flat- randomly scored to provide safer footing topped logs, called stringers, notched into when wet. base logs, or mud sills, set into firm ground. Any new stream crossing that If firm footing is not available, use rock involves a structure requires a permit and fill to solidify the bottom of the trench from the Pennsylvania Department of they’re set in, increase the length of the sill Environmental Protection, Bureau of to give it better flotation, or use more sills Dam Safety, Obstruction, and for the needed flotation. Stormwater Management. Boardwalks are elevated post and Crossing Drainage Swales, Streams, decking structures that provide access and Wetlands to marsh and wetland ecosystems with For minor crossings of small streams minimal negative impacts. Boardwalks and drainage swales, there is no need are usually constructed of wood and the for construction of elaborate bridges. foundation is usually a pier or wood post. Natural stream crossings using stepping If touching the ground or submerged in stones are ideal where the stream flow is water, the posts most often are chemically generally low and there are not significant treated with an oil- or water-based

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 161 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

wood preservative such as creosote, immediate closure. Complex restoration pentachlorophenol, chromated copper projects include obliterating the trail, arsenate, or zinc chloride. These wood recontouring, and revegetating the preservatives are toxic to the natural treadway with appropriate plant species environment and can be harmful to human (see Native Plant Materials, pages 172– health. They do, however, add longevity 200). Careful monitoring and follow-up are and structural safety. Two alternatives are necessary to ensure that eventually almost posts made from recycled plastics that all evidence of the trail is gone. do not release harmful chemicals into Each abandoned trail should be the ground or water and galvanized steel closed. If the trail is not blocked to helical piers and anchors. The recycled prevent further use, the trail may persist plastic post is either mechanically driven indefinitely. Closure is particularly to the depth of firm soil or bedrock or important if stabilization and revegetation secured in a concrete footing set in an are being attempted. The abandoned excavated hole. The helical piers and treadway should be blocked to all traffic, anchors screw into the ground quickly, recontoured, and disguised to prevent users much the same as a wood screw goes into from being tempted to take it. This work a piece of wood. Railings are an optional should be accomplished for all segments consideration for boardwalks that meander visible from trails that remain open. through wetland habitat. When the height If the section of trail to be abandoned of the decking above the ground exceeds is short, it is simplest to just pile brush 30 inches, rails are recommended. along its entire length. If it is long, brush Permits may be required for a should be placed far enough along from boardwalk. The US Army Corps of its intersections with trails in current Engineers (for the Delaware River use to obscure the path. Extending the watershed: Philadelphia District, 215- brush a few feet on either side of the 656-6729; for the Susquehanna River entrance will help deter users from going watershed: Baltimore District, 410-962- around the blockage. If there are any 3670) requires a permit for any discharge areas of active erosion, these should be of fill within wetlands. stabilized to restore the natural contour and drainage patterns. Revegetation can Abandoning Trails be accomplished passively or actively. When it becomes necessary to abandon a Passive revegetation allows surrounding trail, it should be done effectively and with vegetation to colonize the abandoned trail. sensitivity. Restoring abandoned trails to This works when erosion has been stopped, a natural state requires as much attention adequate precipitation occurs, and adjacent and planning as constructing new trails. vegetation consists of desirable (native) The goal is to reduce the continuing species that spread and grow rapidly. Active impact abandoned trails have on the revegetation ranges from transplanting landscape. Simple restoration may consist onsite vegetation to planting seeds or of blocking new shortcuts and allowing the propagated plants of appropriate native vegetation to recover. “Planting” old tree species (see Native Plant Materials, pages stumps and placing rocks naturalistically 172–200). Successful revegetation almost within the old treadway helps give the trail never is complete within a single season.

162 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Trailheads and for construction, native plant species Parking Facilities should be planted to restore the area after construction. Place a signboard or kiosk to Determine where trailhead and provide users with rules and regulations, parking should be located, taking into management information, maps, and other consideration safe vehicular access, site important information (see below). conditions suitable for construction of a parking area, proximity of neighbors, and Trail Signage ease of policing. Try to avoid locating parking facilities and trailheads in areas Trail signage is used to guide trail use and where the trail would deteriorate under to provide information about features along heavy use. Before you finalize the site the trail. Trailhead signage and kiosks location, you should contact Pennsylvania provide basic information (e.g., name of One Call (1-800-242-1776) to determine property, property map), orient visitors to if there are any underground utility lines trail rules and regulations, such as the uses near the site. allowed on the trails and the times when The most critical element in the the trails are open or closed, and present design process is accurately projecting the information about the property and the number of parking spaces that should be organization that owns and manages it. constructed at a trailhead. Parking should The trailhead is also an excellent location be provided for the average high day of for distributing trail maps. trail use. This would be a typical weekend Along the trail, signage can be used day in the spring or fall. Do not attempt to to highlight natural features (e.g., large design for a peak day. tree, unique geology), historical uses The second most important step in (e.g., old stone walls) of the property, the design process is the development of or to illustrate the complex interactions standard construction specifications for in natural ecosystems. They are also a trailheads and parking areas. Functional, good way to inform visitors of ongoing aesthetic, and maintenance considerations restoration activities—such as riparian are important to establishing these buffer plantings—and how it will improve specifications. The trailhead areas the conservation value of the property. should be simple, well built to minimize Although there are endless amounts of maintenance needs, and attractive, information that can be communicated on blending in with the natural setting as any property, interpretive signage should much as possible, with a minimum of be: (1) limited in number and (2) concise grading and vegetation disturbance. The (if possible, include illustrations or photos entrance drive and parking areas should to make the intended point more clearly). be properly constructed with crushed Other appropriate types of signage stone laid over a base suitable for soil and for trails indicate the distance to drainage conditions on the site. Asphalt other locations, points of interest, or paving should not be used except to improvements (e.g., office, shelters) stabilize high-traffic entrance and parking and inform users where they are leaving areas. Along the perimeter of the parking the property. areas and where there has been clearing

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 163 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Trail signage should be constructed of Trail Marking materials that are in harmony with the natural environment and are sufficiently Trail markers include cut or painted blazes rot-resistant. Options include wood (black on trees; wood, plastic, or metal marker locust, white oak for posts; cedar for the tags; and marker posts. These markers are sign), recycled plastic, metal, fiberglass used to help travelers identify the trail embedded, laminated, or for very short- corridor when the treadway is indistinct, term temporary signs, paper. Wood the ground is covered with snow, or when signs should be ¾–1½ inch in thickness the path is confused by multiple trails or with wording inscribed using a router or obscured by weather such as dense fog. sandblaster. The sign can either be left They should be used only when the trail unpainted or painted with one or two is not obvious, there is a sudden change in contrasting colors. direction, and at trail junctions. If possible, the signs should be installed As with signage, standards should be on 4-inch x 4-inch posts with zinc-plated, developed for marking a trail system. This galvanized, or stainless steel hardware. To includes color, placement, frequency, and make it easier to read the sign, the top end form of the markers. A common system of the post should be cut at a 45˚ angle; to is to use a primary color for each major prevent it from being uprooted, attached trail and to have a standard color for all a cross-piece (wood, rebar, spikes) to the secondary trails. This enables users to bottom of the post before backfilling the know when they have diverged from a hole. Locate the sign carefully, keeping main trail whenever they see that color, it off the pathway, but close enough that regardless of which of the major trails they visitors notice it. Signs located near roads may be following. Colors considered most (particularly those in the right-of-way) visible by experienced trail builders include may require a permit or be subject to size blue, red, yellow, white, and orange. Keep limitations. Check with the municipality in mind the use of the trail when selecting (if a township road) or PennDOT (if a a color—white might not be a good choice state road) to determine any restrictions. for a trail used in the winter. If a sign is destroyed or removed Markers should be placed carefully. by vandals, temporary signs made of They should be as close to the trail laminated paper or paperboard can be alignment as possible and plainly visible used where critical information needs when walking the trail in all seasons, to be conveyed. These types of signs are preferably without the need for routine also appropriate in cases where there is a clearing of foliage. Eye level is generally temporary hazard or obstacle soon to be considered most effective, slightly higher remedied (e.g., fallen tree, landslide, gully). if the trail is used in winter. Large trees

164 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

should be used in preference to smaller HAZARD TREE ones and never use a dead tree. If markers MONITORING PROGRAM are light-colored, dark trees should be used, and vice-versa. Markers should not ll landowners are required to make be placed on trees or features that are a reasonable effort to prevent important elements of a view or setting; trees within their property from they should be visible but not mar the A causing injury or property damage (real visual character of the trail. or pretended ignorance does not diminish The frequency of marker placement is a your responsibility or liability). This is best balance between reassuring, not confusing, accomplished through a regular program the user and maintaining the natural of monitoring areas of high use such as character of the trail. If part of a trail public roads, adjacent properties with has markers, all of it should be marked, structures, and sites used for recreational but abrupt changes in spacing should be (play areas, benches, boardwalk, bird blind, avoided, as they are confusing to users. Be sleeping platforms, cabins) or educational conservative. It’s better to improve tread (pavilion, bleachers, rustic amphitheater) visibility than to rely on markers. activities. These areas should be monitored The marking decisions should be based at least once each year and after major on traffic traveling in both directions. storm events. Ideally, the landowner Where a trail has a clearly defined should hire a certified arborist (list treadway, markers should be placed only available from the International Society at points of possible uncertainty. Markers of Arboriculture, see Resources, page 211 should be clearly visible from any point for contact information) to perform the where the trail could be lost. When a trail inspection. Private landowners who cannot turns into or off another trail or road, a afford an arborist or who wish to augment double mark should be placed, one directly this annual inspection with their own above the other. Then, after the change in direction, another marker should be placed so that it can be clearly seen from the turning point. Markers should also be placed immediately after road crossings in a location where it will not be affected by street maintenance or snow clearing activities and where it is unlikely to be vulnerable to vandalism. Holly Harper A hazard tree situation

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 165 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

NATURAL LANDS TRUST HAZARD TREE PROGRAM

Policy The Natural Lands Trust will make a reasonable effort to minimize the potential for injury and property damage associated with hazard trees on the properties it owns and manages. It is our understanding that as a landowner we are responsible for the maintenance of trees outside the public right-of-way. The Trust will strive to eliminate, in a timely fashion, any tree deemed hazardous. Because the Trust has extensive land holdings and limited fiscal and staff resources, each year we will address the most hazardous trees to the limit of our dedicated resources.

Implementation All NLT properties will be inspected on a periodic basis using standardized criteria for identifying hazard trees. The standard for rating the potential risk of a tree will be the hazard evaluation system used by the National Park Service. The Trust’s Arborist will administer this program and have final judgment concerning the mitigation measures to be taken to address any tree identified as a hazard. All trees identified as a hazard will be treated (monitored, pruned, removed) according to the degree of hazard and their value to the Trust and the local community. The degree of hazard is a function of the likelihood of tree failure and the presence of people or built resources (targets) near each tree. Trees along trails will be evaluated according to different criteria than trees along public roads and other high target areas (including next to trail structures). Because of the Trust’s desire to provide wildlife habitat and the relatively low frequency of use of the trails, only those trees that have failed and are either obstructing the trail or hanging over the trail will be removed, if reasonably possible.

Type of Area Implementation Strategy

Public road borders Monitor on foot every 12 months (1st quarter of each year) Property borders adjacent to structures Monitor after major storms* and lawns Remove hazard trees NLT estate and programmatic areas Internal roads, parking lots, and trails to buildings

Trails and trail structures (bridges, Monitor as part of trail inspection program benches, signage) Monitor after major storms* Remove hazard trees

* Because storm events can be very localized, the preserve manager will need to make a reasonable determination of the need for hazardous tree assessment on a preserve by preserve basis. For the purpose of this policy, a “major storm” is one that results in downed trees or large (> 4-inch diameter) limbs in the surrounding area.

Documentation For each tree that shows some degree of hazard the monitor will complete a hazard tree form that catalogs its size, location, current condition, degree of hazard, and recommended course of action. The completed forms for each property will be sent to the Trust’s Arborist who will coordinate the appropriate action (further review by Trust Arborist, monitoring, pruning, or removal) for each tree. A sheet will be completed for each preserve that summarizes all related activities. A master summary of all hazard tree activities on Trust preserves will be completed each year by the Trust’s Arborist.

166 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS ongoing monitoring can attend workshops Regular monitoring followed by reasonable on hazard trees. Morris Arboretum (see Resources, page 211 for contact information) action will not only prevent potential injury holds workshops on hazard trees on a regular basis. Public landowners could or damage, it will help to significantly also consider training one or more staff members in the identification of hazard reduce the landowners liability if a tree does trees to reduce monitoring costs. Of course, once a hazard tree is cause injury or damage. identified the landowner should make a reasonable effort to address the hazard as the maturing of the forests in our region soon as possible. The first course of action and the fact that few landowners are aware is to make sure that the tree is within your of their responsibility and as a result have property boundary. Along public roads, not addressed hazard trees in the past. trees within the public right-of-way (for Unless your resources are unlimited, you this purpose it is the base of the tree that or your contractor will need to prioritize matters) are usually the responsibility of your actions in addressing hazard trees, the municipality or state. Contact your removing the most hazardous trees first. municipality to determine the width of Regular monitoring followed by the right-of-way along your property. If reasonable action will not only prevent the tree is completely within the right- potential injury or damage, it will help of-way, notify the municipality or state to significantly reduce the landowner’s of the hazard tree. Although it may be liability if a tree does cause injury or technically their responsibility (hazard tree damage. Although the landowner is law is still evolving), often municipalities responsible for any injury or damage will not address the hazard tree due to regardless of the actions taken, showing lack of resources or other priorities. In this that you have made a reasonable effort to case you will need to weigh the cost of identify and address hazard trees will help removing the tree against the possibility preclude any charge of negligence. of being sued, along with the municipality, The final key to an effective hazard tree if injury or damage occurs. If the tree is program is documentation. All activities outside the right-of-way the landowner related to the program should be cataloged, should engage a qualified contractor to including monitoring (when, where, and eliminate the hazard through pruning or by whom) and actions taken and by whom. felling the tree. This will be the proof that the landowner For trees along a common boundary, made a reasonable effort to identify and if any part of the base is within your address hazard trees in the unfortunate property you are jointly responsible for occurrence of injury or damage. the tree; a tree with its base entirely On the previous page is the hazard within your property is, of course, your tree program used by Natural Lands Trust sole responsibility. on its 42-property preserve system in Often, when a landowner initiates a southeastern Pennsylvania and southern hazard tree program, a large number of New Jersey. trees are identified as hazards. This reflects

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 167 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

PLANTING TREES normal habit of growth (avoid chlorotic, dwarf, “weeping,” or other atypical Use the following guidelines for selections). They should be sound, planting balled and burlapped (B&B), healthy and vigorous, well branched, containerized, and bare-root trees. Videos and have dense foliage. They should be are also available on the Pennsylvania free of disease and insect pests, eggs, or Horticultural Society website (www. larvae. They should have healthy, well- pennsylvaniahorticulturalsociety.org). developed root systems. • Use only native tree species (ordinary, • All plants should be balled and wild-type species, no hybrids or burlapped (B&B), containerized, or cultivars) appropriate to site conditions properly handled bare-root seedlings (see Native Plant Materials, pages 172– or saplings. 200). Ideally, they should be grown from • Unless protected from deer browsing, local seeds or cuttings. trees should be 6–8 feet tall at planting • All plants should be nursery grown in to help ensure that they can outcompete accordance with the American Standards invasives and so that some of their for Nursery Stock, latest edition. foliage and the terminal bud(s) of the central branch are above the reach of • All plants should be typical of their browsing deer. Bare-root trees are less species or variety and should have a expensive than container trees but their survival rates are lower, although bare-root trees now are often shipped BALLED AND BURLAPPED TREE PLANTING with their roots coated in a hydrogel—a synthetic water-absorbing compound—to If staking is protect them from dessication. Container necessary, use 1 trees are easier to plant and have a much or 2 stakes with greater survival rate than bare-root separate flexible trees, especially if soil conditions in the ties. Stakes Keep mulch and ties should away from planting area become dry. remain no longer trunk base • Bare-root stock must be planted in fall than 1 year. and root or early spring, preferably when most collar. deciduous trees are leafless or nearly so; Be sure the root using container or balled and burlapped collar is exposed. 2”–4” layer trees extends the planting season by of mulch several weeks at both times. • Roots of all transplant plants should be adequately protected at all times from sun, drying winds, and frost. The roots of Gently pack bare-root seedlings should be kept moist backfill around Set ball on at all times until planting. root ball base. Width of firmly packed • Forest gaps and afforestation areas Use water to planting hole soil to prevent settle remaining is 2–3 times settling. should be planted with trees on a 10- backfill, or tamp root ball foot x 10-foot spacing (if resources are lightly. diameter. US Forest Service, Northeastern Area

168 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

limited, spacing can be increased to as the root ball. As necessary, mound soil much as 15-feet x 15-feet) and protected in the hole so that the top of the plant’s from deer damage with fencing, tree root ball will be at or slightly above shelters, flexible tree guards, or rigid ground level. stakes. Fencing and tree shelters prevent • All burlap, twine, and wire should be deer from browsing leaves and buds. removed from at least the upper half of The tree wraps and stakes minimize the ball and laid flat in the hole or cut damage to the bark and cambium layer away completely after the plant has been of young trees caused by antler rubbing. set in place. It is essential to completely The wraps should cover the trunk from remove all synthetic string and fabric 1–5 feet above the ground. The stakes from around the root ball (natural fiber should be placed in the ground close burlap will decompose in time). to, and on opposite sides of, the trunks. They can be made of wood, metal, or • Backfill with soil and lightly tamp other rigid materials (including bamboo) soil surface. and should be at least 5 feet tall (above • If space permits, temporarily mound ground level). soil into a collar 4–5 inches high • The planting hole should be 2–3 times surrounding the perimeter of the root as wide as the diameter of the root ball ball to help retain water until the tree or spread of roots, but not deeper than is established.

BARE-ROOT TREE PLANTING

Before planting, Prune damaged soak overnight but or weak roots not over 24 hours. and branches. STEP 1 STEP 2

Set on firm mound of good topsoil, Dig a hole wider but at spread roots. same depth as root length.

Plant at the same depth or slightly Small trees, above the level STEP 3 8’ tall or less, grown in the nursery. usually do not need support. Fill with good STEP 4 topsoil. Tamp firm. Support larger trees if necessary Fill basin with for one growing water. Add topsoil season only. to reshape basin. NDSU Extension Service, North Dakota State University

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 169 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

• If planting on a slope, mound the soil the firm support necessary for proper downslope to level the ground above root development, but not too tall to the root ball and help keep runoff from permit the tree to flex in the wind. The washing soil away. stakes should all be the same height • Watering at the time of planting is for uniform support. All stakes and ties recommended, especially if the plant should be removed from the tree after is not dormant or planted during one year. warm or dry weather. If water is easily • Heavy equipment should be used only accessible, water all plants at the time in extreme situations, for instance, of planting to help remove air pockets when large trees are transplanted using from backfilled soil. Ideally, the planting a tractor-mounted tree spade. If it is hole should be backfilled ¾ full with necessary to use heavy equipment in a soil, watered well, filled the rest of the planted area, protect trees and shrubs by way with soil after the water has been staying as far away as possible (at least absorbed, rewatered, and tamped lightly. outside the drip line) to prevent soil Monitor the plantings for at least the compaction and trunk scarring. first summer, watering them if conditions • Mow or hand-trim as necessary within become dry. A little maintenance goes the drip line to maintain any herbaceous a long way. If available, put a layer vegetation at a height no greater than of mulch 2–3 inches thick over the 6 inches until areas are permanently planting area, but no closer than 2 reestablished with new plantings. If trees inches from planted trees’ trunks. are planted in fields covered by sod (old • Stakes and flexible ties should not be pasture, meadow), it is best to kill the used unless the tree is planted with grass in the planting area before planting a loose root ball or later found to be trees. This is especially important for displaced. If they are required, use one small seedlings which have difficulty or two hardwood stakes, no less than competing with sod grasses for water 2 inches x 2 inches across, driven into and nutrients. If spraying is needed the ground outside the root ball. The after planting, tree shelters can protect stakes should be tall enough to provide seedlings from herbicides. US Forest Service, Northeastern Area (both)

170 Stewardship Techniques and Procedures LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

PRUNING TREES 2. Parallel branch. 3. Branch growing at a sharp angle. When • Although it may occur in conjunction such a branch becomes larger, it may with the removal of invasive plants or rub on the trunk, split out, or even cause other undesired vegetation, pruning rot to develop by giving water a chance within forests should be minimized to collect. and selective. 4. Temporary branch. • Branches that pose a safety hazard 5. Crossing branches. These interfere with should be pruned. each other’s growth and create bad form. • No cleats should be used in climbing 6. Water sprouts. healthy trees. 7. Basal sprouting from the root crown. • All cuts should be made close to the This drains energy from the tree. trunk or parent limb without cutting into the branch collar (see below far left). • Avoid slitting or peeling the bark by precutting all branches that are too heavy to handle (see below left). 1 • Cuts and wounds should not be treated with wound dressing. • Any girdling roots at the base of a tree’s trunk that are visible at or above the ground surface should be severed. • Any pruned limbs or related debris should be spread thinly on the ground to be left to rot, used to create brush piles for wildlife habitat, or fly-chipped on-site. • Heavy equipment should be used only in 6 5 extreme situations, for instance, when 2 a crane is necessary to safely remove a large limb (or the entire tree). If it is necessary to use heavy equipment, 3 protect trees and shrubs by staying as far away as possible (at least outside the drip see diagrams line) to prevent soil compaction and on previous page 4 trunk scarring.

What to Look For 1. Forked top. If left as is, this will cause 7 the development of two leaders, thus wasting growth energy. Later, as the two leaders get larger, the fork may split and damage the tree.

Stewardship Techniques and Procedures 171 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Native Plant Materials

early 1,600 vascular plant species herbaceous species, and each of those are known to be native to the groups is further broken down into height Ngreater southeastern Pennsylvania classes, based on the maximum height region (the roughly 15 counties that that each species could attain under ideal lie south and east of Blue Mountain or growing conditions. Maximum height Kittatinny Ridge). They include almost is particularly important in meadow 1,350 herbaceous species (wildflowers, plantings. Most native meadow species grasses, sedges, rushes, ferns), 133 shrubs, have low tolerance of shade and require 102 trees, and 19 woody vines. Here we full sun for at least a part of every day to suggest a relatively small fraction of those survive. If species of markedly different species for use in natural land restoration heights are planted together, the shorter and landscaping. For natural land species are likely to fail due to shade restoration we highlight 134 wildflowers; suppression. In any given patch of meadow, 48 grasses, sedges, and rushes; 19 ferns; the mix of species planted from seeds or 68 shrubs; 62 trees; and 2 woody vines in plugs should range across no more than tables on pages 173–190. A shorter list two consecutive size categories (the overall of plants that provide wildlife benefits planting can be a mosaic of patches of and horticultural values can be found on different heights). pages 191–198. All species were selected All of the shrub and herbaceous species for their ability to thrive under a range of listed under “Native Forest Plants” have environmental conditions and for their intermediate to high tolerance of shade. commercial availability (see sources of The list of upper canopy trees includes a native plants on page 198), mainly from mixture of species with low, intermediate, nurseries and seed suppliers who specialize and high shade tolerance, but all native in plants that are native to southeastern upper canopy tree species—including those Pennsylvania and immediately adjacent that are highly shade tolerant—should be areas of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, planted where they will get at least some Delaware, and Maryland. Don’t be full sun every day. (Subcanopy trees species discouraged if the availability of some of generally are more tolerant of shading, these plants is limited. Your interest will but will also benefit from some direct sun encourage nurseries to increase their supply. exposure while they become established; The plants we recommend for a few have low shade tolerance and thrive restoration projects are sorted into three best in savannas or open woodlands, major habitat categories: forest, shrubland, including pitch pine, Virginia pine, black and meadow. Within each major category jack oak, post oak, sassafras, and black are separate lists of trees, shrubs, and willow.) Seedlings and saplings of even

172 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

the most shade tolerant tree species tend to provide sufficient sunlight, it often to grow extremely slowly or not at all in becomes a race to fill the gap between deep shade. Shade tolerance does not shade tolerant tree species, which are allow young trees of upper canopy species already established and have a head start to grow to full size in the shade; it merely but have slower maximum growth rates, enables them to survive many years in a and shade intolerant tree species, which suppressed state until adult trees in the must start from seed but generally grow canopy above them die. The natural course much more rapidly. Owners or managers of forest canopy renewal takes place when of natural lands can choose the winners old trees fall or die, opening up a canopy in this race by judicious weeding and by gap that admits enough sunshine to fuel a planting tree seedlings or saplings of upper growth spurt of the advance regeneration canopy species far enough apart that none (established seedlings and saplings), which will shade or otherwise interfere with each soon fill the gap. If the gap is large enough other’s growth.

FOREST TREES

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: 70–140 feet or more (upper canopy) Acer rubrum red maple dry to wet Acer saccharinum silver maple moist to wet Acer saccharum sugar maple dry to moist Betula lenta sweet birch, black birch dry to moist Betula nigra river birch moist Carya cordiformis bitternut hickory moist Carya laciniosa shellbark hickory moist to wet Carya ovata shagbark hickory dry to moist Carya tomentosa mockernut hickory dry to moist Celtis occidentalis common hackberry dry to moist Fagus grandifolia American beech moist Fraxinus americana white ash moist Fraxinus pennsylvanica red ash, green ash moist to wet Gleditsia triacanthos honeylocust moist Juglans nigra walnut moist Liquidambar styraciflua sweetgum moist to wet Liriodendron tulipifera tuliptree moist Nyssa sylvatica blackgum, sourgum, tupelo dry to wet Pinus echinata shortleaf pine dry

Native Plant Materials 173 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

FOREST TREES, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: 70–140 feet or more (upper canopy) Pinus strobus white pine dry to wet Platanus occidentalis American sycamore moist to wet Prunus serotina black cherry moist Quercus alba white oak dry to moist Quercus bicolor swamp white oak moist to wet Quercus coccinea scarlet oak dry to moist Quercus falcata southern red oak dry to moist Quercus montana [=Quercus prinus] chestnut oak dry Quercus palustris pin oak moist to wet Quercus phellos willow oak moist to wet Quercus rubra northern red oak dry to moist Quercus velutina black oak dry to moist Tilia americana basswood moist Tsuga canadensis eastern hemlock moist Ulmus americana American elm moist to wet Ulmus rubra slippery elm moist to wet maximum height: 30–65 feet (subcanopy) Amelanchier arborea shadbush, serviceberry, juneberry dry to moist Amelanchier laevis shadbush, serviceberry, juneberry dry to moist Aralia spinosa devil’s walking-stick, Hercules’-club moist Asimina triloba pawpaw moist Carpinus caroliniana American hornbeam, musclewood moist Cercis canadensis redbud rich Cornus florida flowering dogwood moist Diospyros virginiana persimmon dry to moist Ilex opaca American holly moist Juglans cinerea butternut moist Magnolia virginiana sweetbay magnolia moist to wet Malus coronaria sweet crabapple dry to moist Morus rubra red mulberry moist

174 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

FOREST TREES, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: 30–65 feet (subcanopy) Ostrya virginiana hop-hornbeam dry to moist Pinus rigida pitch pine dry Pinus virginiana Virginia pine dry Quercus marilandica blackjack oak dry Quercus stellata post oak dry Salix nigra black willow wet Sassafras albidum sassafras dry to moist Viburnum lentago nannyberry moist

FOREST SHRUBS

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: 20–25 feet Alnus serrulata smooth alder wet Amelanchier canadensis shadbush, juneberry, serviceberry moist Cornus alternifolia alternate-leaved dogwood moist Euonymus atropurpureus wahoo moist to wet Prunus americana wild plum moist Prunus virginiana choke cherry dry to moist Viburnum prunifolium black-haw wet maximum height: 10–15 feet Cephalanthus occidentalis buttonbush wet Clethra alnifolia sweet pepperbush wet Cornus amomum silky dogwood wet Cornus racemosa gray dogwood wet Cornus rugosa round-leaved dogwood dry Corylus americana American filbert dry to moist Corylus cornuta beaked hazelnut dry to moist Hamamelis virginiana witch-hazel dry to moist Ilex verticillata winterberry, black-alder wet

Native Plant Materials 175 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

FOREST SHRUBS, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: 10–15 feet Kalmia latifolia mountain-laurel dry to moist Lindera benzoin spicebush moist Photinia melanocarpa black chokeberry dry to wet [=Aronia melanocarpa] Photinia pyrifolia red chokeberry moist to wet [=Aronia pyrifolia] Physocarpus opulifolius ninebark moist to wet Rhododendron arborescens smooth azalea moist Rhododendron maximum rosebay rhododendron moist to wet Rhododendron periclymenoides pinxter-flower dry to moist Rhododendron viscosum swamp azalea wet Salix discolor pussy willow moist to wet Sambucus canadensis American elder moist to wet Sambucus racemosa red-berried elder moist Staphylea trifolia bladdernut dry to moist Vaccinium corymbosum highbush blueberry dry to wet Viburnum cassinoides witherod moist to wet Viburnum dentatum southern arrow-wood wet Viburnum recognitum northern arrow-wood wet Viburnum trilobum highbush-cranberry wet

maximum height: 5–7 feet Amelanchier stolonifera low juneberry, low shadbush dry to moist Dirca palustris leatherwood dry to moist Euonymus americanus hearts-a-bursting moist Gaylussacia frondosa dangleberry dry to wet Hydrangea arborescens sevenbark, wild hydrangea dry to moist Ribes americanum wild black currant moist to wet Rosa palustris swamp rose wet Rubus idaeus red raspberry dry to moist Rubus occidentalis black-cap, black raspberry dry to moist Spiraea alba meadow-sweet moist to wet

176 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

FOREST SHRUBS, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: 5–7 feet Spiraea latifolia meadow-sweet moist to wet Taxus canadensis American yew moist Vaccinium stamineum deerberry dry Viburnum acerifolium maple-leaved viburnum moist maximum height: 2–4 feet Diervilla lonicera bush-honeysuckle dry Gaylussacia baccata black huckleberry dry to wet Spiraea tomentosa hardback, steeple-bush moist to wet Vaccinium angustifolium low sweet blueberry dry to moist Vaccinium pallidum lowbush blueberry dry to moist

FOREST VINES

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE Lonicera sempervirens trumpet honeysuckle moist Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia-creeper moist

FOREST PERENNIAL WILDFLOWERS

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: tall (6–8 feet) Actaea racemosa black cohosh dry to moist [=Cimicifuga racemosa] Aralia racemosa spikenard moist Polygonatum biflorum Solomon’s-seal dry to moist maximum height: intermediate (3½–5 feet) Arisaema triphyllum jack-in-the-pulpit moist Eurybia divaricata white wood aster dry to moist [=Aster divaricatus]

Native Plant Materials 177 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

FOREST PERENNIAL WILDFLOWERS, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: intermediate (3½–5 feet) Eurybia macrophylla bigleaf aster dry to moist [=Aster macrophyllus] Eurybia schreberi [=Aster schreberi] Schreber’s aster dry to moist Maianthemum racemosum false Solomon’s-seal, dry to moist [=Smilacina racemosa] Solomon’s plume Medeola virginiana Indian cucumber-root moist Polygonatum pubescens Solomon’s-seal dry to moist Sanicula odorata yellow-flowered sanicle, moist fragrant snakeroot Solidago caesia bluestem goldenrod dry to moist Solidago flexicaulis zigzag goldenrod moist Symphyotrichum cordifolium blue wood aster dry to moist [=Aster cordifolius] Triosteum aurantiacum wild-coffee moist

maximum height: short (1½–3 feet) Actaea pachypoda doll’s-eyes dry to moist Allium tricoccum ramps, wild leek dry to moist Aquilegia canadensis wild columbine dry to moist Aralia nudicaulis wild sarsaparilla dry to moist Aristolochia serpentaria Virginia snakeroot dry to moist Caulophyllum thalictroides blue cohosh dry to moist Dicentra eximia wild bleeding-heart dry to moist Geranium maculatum wild geranium dry to moist Hybanthus concolor green-violet moist Hydrophyllum canadense Canadian waterleaf moist Hydrophyllum virginianum Virginia waterleaf moist Lysimachia quadrifolia whorled loosestrife dry Mertensia virginica Virginia bluebells moist Oclemena acuminata wood aster moist Osmorhiza claytonii sweet-cicely moist Osmorhiza longistylis anise-root moist

178 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

FOREST PERENNIAL WILDFLOWERS, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: short (1½–3 feet) Phlox divaricata ssp. divaricata eastern wild blue phlox dry to moist Podophyllum peltatum mayapple moist Polemonium reptans spreading Jacob’s-ladder moist Scutellaria serrata showy skullcap moist Thalictrum dioicum early meadow-rue moist Trillium cernuum nodding trillium moist Trillium erectum purple trillium, wakerobin moist Trillium flexipes declined trillium moist to wet Trillium grandiflorum large-flowered trillium moist Uvularia perfoliata bellwort moist Uvularia sessilifolia bellwort moist Zizia aptera golden-alexander moist Zizia aurea golden-alexander moist maximum height: very short (up to 1 foot) Asarum canadense wild ginger moist Hydrastis canadensis goldenseal moist Iris cristata dwarf crested iris dry to moist Jeffersonia diphylla twinleaf dry to moist Maianthemum canadense Canada mayflower moist Mitchella repens partridge-berry moist Sanguinaria canadensis bloodroot dry to moist Thalictrum thalictroides rue anemone dry to moist Tiarella cordifolia foamflower moist

Native Plant Materials 179 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

FOREST GRASSES, SEDGES, AND RUSHES

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: tall (6–8 feet) Scirpus cyperinus wool-grass wet

maximum height: intermediate (3½–5 feet) Carex crinita fringed sedge, short-hair sedge wet Carex folliculata northern long sedge wet Carex gynandra nodding sedge wet Carex lurida lurid sedge, shallow sedge wet Carex scoparia broom sedge moist to wet Carex stipata stalk-grain sedge, owlfruit sedge wet Carex tribuloides blunt broom sedge, wet bristlebract sedge Chasmanthium latifolium Indian wood-oats moist Elymus hystrix bottlebrush-grass moist Glyceria canadensis rattlesnake mannagrass wet Glyceria melicaria slender mannagrass wet Glyceria striata fowl mannagrass wet Leersia virginica whitegrass moist to wet

maximum height: short (1½–3 feet) Carex intumescens greater bladder sedge wet Carex pensylvanica Pennsylvania sedge dry to moist Carex plantaginea plaintain sedge dry to moist Carex platyphylla broad-leaf sedge dry to moist Carex vulpinoidea fox sedge, brown fox sedge wet Cyperus esculentus yellow nutsedge moist to wet Juncus tenuis path rush dry to moist

180 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

FOREST FERNS

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: intermediate (3½–5 feet) Athyrium filix-femina lady fern moist Dennstaedtia punctilobula hay-scented fern moist Deparia acrostichoides silvery glade fern moist Diplazium pycnocarpon narrow-leaved glade fern moist Dryopteris goldiana Goldie’s wood fern moist Dryopteris marginalis marginal wood fern moist Matteuccia struthiopteris ostrich fern moist to wet Onoclea sensibilis sensitive fern wet Osmunda cinnamomea cinnamon fern wet Osmunda claytoniana interrupted fern moist to wet Osmunda regalis royal fern wet maximum height: short (1½–3 feet) Adiantum pedatum northern maidenhair fern dry to moist Asplenium platyneuron ebony spleenwort dry to moist Dryopteris carthusiana spinulose wood fern moist to wet Dryopteris intermedia evergreen wood fern moist Polystichum acrostichoides Christmas fern dry to moist Thelypteris noveboracensis New York fern moist to wet Woodwardia areolata netted chain fern moist to wet

Native Plant Materials 181 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

SHRUBLAND TREES AND SHRUBS

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: 30–40 feet Aralia spinosa devil’s walking-stick, Hercules’-club moist Asimina triloba pawpaw moist Betula populifolia gray birch dry Cercis canadensis redbud dry to moist Chionanthus virginicus fringetree moist Cornus florida flowering dogwood moist Juniperus virginiana eastern red-cedar dry to moist Malus coronaria sweet crabapple dry to moist Pinus pungens Table Mountain pine dry Quercus marilandica blackjack oak dry Rhus typhina staghorn sumac dry Salix bebbiana long-beaked willow, gray willow dry to moist Viburnum lentago nannyberry moist maximum height: 20–25 feet Alnus serrulata smooth alder wet Amelanchier canadensis shadbush, juneberry moist Cornus alternifolia alternate-leaved dogwood moist Euonymus atropurpureus wahoo moist to wet Prunus americana wild plum moist Prunus virgininana choke cherry dry to moist Rhus copallina winged sumac, shining sumac dry Salix eriocephala heart-leaf willow moist to wet Salix exigua sandbar willow wet Salix lucida shining willow wet Viburnum prunifolium black-haw wet maximum height: 10–15 feet Celtis tenuifolia dwarf hackberry, Georgia hackberry dry Cephalanthus occidentalis buttonbush wet Clethra alnifolia sweet pepperbush wet Cornus amomum silky dogwood wet

182 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

SHRUBLAND TREES AND SHRUBS, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: 10–15 feet Cornus racemosa gray dogwood moist to wet Cornus rugosa round-leaved dogwood dry Corylus americana American filbert moist Corylus cornuta beaked hazelnut dry Hamamelis virginiana witch-hazel moist Ilex verticillata winterberry, black-alder wet Kalmia latifolia mountain-laurel dry to moist Lindera benzoin spicebush moist Photinia melanocarpa black chokeberry dry to wet [=Aronia melanocarpa] Photinia pyrifolia red chokeberry moist to wet [=Aronia pyrifolia] Physocarpus opulifolius ninebark moist to wet Quercus ilicifolia scrub oak, bear oak dry Quercus prinoides dwarf chestnut oak, dry dwarf chinkapin oak Rhododendron maximum rosebay rhododendron moist to wet Rhododendron viscosum swamp azalea wet Rhus glabra smooth sumac dry Salix discolor pussy willow moist to wet Salix humilis upland willow, sage willow dry to moist Salix sericea silky willow wet Sambucus canadensis American elder moist to wet Sambucus racemosa red-berried elder moist Staphylea trifolia bladdernut dry to moist Vaccinium corymbosum highbush blueberry dry to wet Viburnum cassinoides witherod moist to wet Viburnum dentatum southern arrow-wood wet Viburnum recognitum northern arrow-wood wet Viburnum trilobum highbush-cranberry wet

Native Plant Materials 183 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

SHRUBLAND TREES AND SHRUBS, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: 5–7 feet Amelanchier stolonifera low juneberry, low shadbush dry to moist Comptonia peregrina sweet-fern dry Dirca palustris leatherwood dry to moist Euonymus americanus hearts-a-bursting moist Gaylussacia frondosa dangleberry dry to wet Hydrangea arborescens sevenbark, wild hydrangea dry to moist Myrica pensylvanica bayberry dry to moist Ribes americanum wild black currant moist to wet Rosa palustris swamp rose wet Rosa virginiana wild rose, pasture rose moist Rubus idaeus red raspberry dry to moist Rubus occidentalis black-cap, black raspberry dry to moist Spiraea alba meadow-sweet moist to wet Spiraea latifolia meadow-sweet moist to wet Taxus canadensis American yew moist Vaccinium stamineum deerberry dry Viburnum acerifolium maple-leaved viburnum dry to moist maximum height: 2–4 feet Diervilla lonicera bush-honeysuckle dry Gaylussacia baccata black huckleberry dry to wet Rosa carolina pasture rose dry Spiraea tomentosa hardback, steeple-bush moist to wet Vaccinium angustifolium low sweet blueberry dry Vaccinium pallidum lowbush blueberry dry

184 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

MEADOW PERENNIAL WILDFLOWERS

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: very tall (9–10 or more feet) Coreopsis tripteris tall tickseed moist to wet Eutrochium fistulosum hollow-stemmed joe-pye-weed, moist to wet [=Eupatorium fistulosum] trumpetweed Helianthus giganteus swamp sunflower wet Rudbeckia laciniata cutleaf coneflower wet

maximum height: tall (6–8 feet) Angelica atropurpurea purple-stemmed angelica moist to wet Apocynum cannabinum Indian-hemp moist to wet Asclepias incarnata swamp milkweed wet Asclepias syriaca common milkweed moist to wet Baptisia australis blue false-indigo moist to wet Boltonia asteroides aster-like boltonia moist to wet Eupatorium perfoliatum common boneset wet Eutrochium purpureum joe-pye-weed, sweet-scented dry to wet [=Eupatorium purpureum] joe-pye-weed Filipendula rubra queen-of-the-prairie moist Helenium autumnale common sneezeweed moist to wet Helianthus divaricatus rough sunflower, woodland dry sunflower Heliopsis helianthoides ox-eye dry to wet Hypericum pyramidatum great St. John’s-wort moist to wet [=H. ascyron] Lespedeza capitata round-headed lespedeza dry Liatris spicata dense blazing-star moist Lilium canadense Canada lily moist to wet Lilium superbum Turk’s-cap lily moist to wet Lobelia cardinalis cardinal-flower wet Lobelia siphilitica great blue lobelia moist to wet Mimulus ringens Allegheny monkey-flower wet Oenothera biennis common evening-primrose dry to moist Penstemon digitalis tall white beard-tongue dry to moist Polygonatum biflorum smooth Solomon’s-seal dry to moist

Native Plant Materials 185 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

MEADOW PERENNIAL WILDFLOWERS, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: tall (6–8 feet) Rudbeckia triloba three-lobed coneflower dry to moist Senna hebecarpa northern wild senna dry to moist Senna marilandica southern wild senna dry Solidago canadensis Canada goldenrod dry to moist Solidago gigantea smooth goldenrod moist to wet Solidago rigida stiff goldenrod moist [=Oligoneuron rigidum] Solidago rugosa wrinkle-leaf goldenrod dry to wet Solidago speciosa showy goldenrod dry to moist Symphyotrichum lanceolatum panicled aster dry to wet [=Aster lanceolatus, A. paniculatus, A. simplex] Symphyotrichum novae-angliae New England aster dry to moist [=Aster novae-angliae] Symphyotrichum novi-belgii New York aster moist to wet [=Aster longifolius] Symphyotrichum pilosum heath aster dry to moist [=Aster ericoides var. pilosus, A. pilosus] Verbena hastata blue vervain, simpler’s-joy moist to wet Verbesina alternifolia wingstem moist Vernonia glauca Appalachian ironweed, dry tawny ironweed Vernonia noveboracensis New York ironweed moist to wet Veronicastrum virginicum Culver’s-root moist

maximum height: intermediate (3½–5 feet) Asclepias purpurascens purple milkweed dry to moist Eupatorium hyssopifolium hyssop-leaved thoroughwort dry Gentiana andrewsii bottle gentian, moist to wet prairie closed gentian Gentiana clausa meadow closed gentian, moist bottle gentian Geum laciniatum herb-bennet, rough avens wet Hypericum punctatum spotted St. John’s-wort moist [=H. maculatum]

186 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

MEADOW PERENNIAL WILDFLOWERS, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: intermediate (3½–5 feet) Ludwigia alternifolia seedbox, false loosestrife wet Monarda fistulosa horsemint, wild bergamot dry to moist Monarda punctata spotted bee-balm dry Physostegia virginiana false dragonhead moist Pycnanthemum virginianum Virginia mountain-mint moist to wet Rudbeckia fulgida eastern coneflower moist Rudbeckia hirta black-eyed-susan dry to moist Scutellaria incana downy skullcap dry to moist Solidago bicolor silver-rod, white goldenrod dry Solidago juncea early goldenrod dry to moist Solidago nemoralis gray goldenrod dry Symphyotrichum laeve smooth blue aster dry [=Aster laevis var. laevis] Vicia americana purple vetch moist

maximum height: short (1½–3 feet) Allium cernuum nodding onion dry Asclepias tuberosa butterfly-weed dry Asclepias verticillata whorled milkweed dry Chrysopsis mariana golden aster dry Conoclinium coelestinum mistflower, wild ageratum dry to moist [=Eupatorium coelestinum] Dodecatheon meadia shooting-star, pride-of-Ohio dry to moist Geranium maculatum wood geranium moist Iris prismatica slender blue flag moist Juncus tenuis path rush dry to moist Lupinus perennis blue lupine dry to moist Oenothera fruticosa sundrops, narrow-leaved dry to moist evening-primrose Packera aurea [=Senecio aureus] golden ragwort moist Penstemon hirsutus northeastern beard-tongue dry Phlox maculata wild sweet-william moist to wet

Native Plant Materials 187 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

MEADOW PERENNIAL WILDFLOWERS, continued

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: short (1½–3 feet) Phlox pilosa downy phlox, prairie phlox moist to wet Pycnanthemum tenuifolium narrow-leaved mountain-mint moist Sisyrinchium angustifolium narrow-leaved blue-eyed-grass moist to wet Tradescantia ohiensis Ohio spiderwort, blue-jacket moist Tradescantia virginiana spiderwort, widow’s-tears, dry to moist Virginia spiderwort Zizia aptera golden-alexander moist Zizia aurea golden-alexander, golden zizia moist to wet

MEADOW PERENNIAL COOL-SEASON GRASSES

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: intermediate (3½–5 feet) Calamagrostis canadensis Canada bluejoint wet Deschampsia cespitosa tufted hairgrass moist to wet Deschampsia flexuosa wavy hairgrass, common hairgrass dry Dichanthelium clandestinum deer-tongue, deer-tongue grass moist [=Panicum clandestinum] Elymus canadensis Canada wild-rye moist Elymus riparius riverbank wild-rye moist to wet Elymus virginicus Virginia wild-rye moist to wet Leersia oryzoides rice cutgrass wet Poa palustris fowl bluegrass wet maximum height: short (1½–3 feet) Danthonia compressa northern oatgrass dry Danthonia spicata poverty grass, poverty oatgrass dry Hordeum jubatum foxtail-barley dry [=Critesion jubatum]

188 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

MEADOW PERENNIAL WARM-SEASON GRASSES

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: very tall (9–10 feet or more) Andropogon gerardii big bluestem, turkeyfoot dry to moist Tripsacum dactyloides gammagrass wet

maximum height: tall (6–8 feet or more) Andropogon glomeratus bushy bluestem, bushy broomsedge moist to wet Andropogon virginicus broomsedge, Virginia broomsedge dry Panicum virgatum switchgrass dry to moist Sorghastrum nutans Indian-grass dry to moist Spartina pectinata prairie cordgrass, freshwater moist to wet cordgrass Tridens flavus purpletop dry to moist maximum height: intermediate (3½–5 feet) Bouteloua curtipendula side-oats grama, tall grama dry Muhlenbergia capillaris hairgrass, short muhly dry Schizachyrium scoparium little bluestem dry to moist Sporobolus cryptandrus sand dropseed dry Sporobolus heterolepis prairie dropseed dry maximum height: short (1½–3 feet) Andropogon gyrans Elliott’s beardgrass dry to moist Eragrostis spectabilis purple lovegrass, tumblegrass dry

Native Plant Materials 189 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

MEADOW SEDGES AND RUSHES

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: tall (6–8 feet or more) Scirpus cyperinus wool-grass wet

maximum height: intermediate (3½–5 feet) Carex lurida lurid sedge, shallow sedge wet Carex scoparia broom sedge moist to wet Carex stipata stalk-grain sedge, owlfruit sedge wet Carex tribuloides blunt broom sedge, wet bristlebract sedge maximum height: short (1½–3 feet) Carex intumescens greater bladder sedge wet Carex vulpinoidea fox sedge, brown fox sedge wet Cyperus esculentus yellow nutsedge moist to wet Juncus tenuis path rush dry to moist

MEADOW FERNS

SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME(S) SOIL MOISTURE PREFERENCE

maximum height: intermediate (3½–5 feet) Dennstaedtia punctilobula hay-scented fern dry to wet Onoclea sensibilis sensitive fern wet Pteridium aquilinum northern bracken fern dry

190 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS WILDLIFE USERS Buds, flowers, and leaves and flowers, Buds, birds many for food provide and Chipmunks mammals. and some eat seeds and squirrels nest for use twigs songbirds building. maple. See red maple. See red and used by redpolls are Catkins is used by Foliage siskins. pine browsers. See river birch. DESCRIPTION same 40'–60', Spread: Height: with age. rounded in youth and is pyramidal Habit acid, slightly but prefers soils, most of Tolerant occurs in wet area. Naturally conditions. moist color. fall Excellent 40'–50' 50'–70', Spread: Height: a rounded form which branches spreading strong Has best the of One soil types. many of Tolerant crown. found (often wet conditions poor soils and for trees be limited should of this tree Use on floodplains). use as human heavy and buildings of free to areas loss of subsequent and decay to internal it is prone shade. fast Provides branches. 40'–50' 60'–70', Spread: Height: well moist, habit. Prefers oval to rounded Upright shade. some Tolerates soils. drained 40'–60' 40'–70', Spread: Height: Often with age. rounded in youth and Pyramidal soils to moist Best adapted multistemmed. grown that are Used in areas on floodplains). found (often dry. wet and alternately 35'–45' 40'–55'+, Spread: Height: rounded, an irregular, in youth, forming Pyramidal Best in at maturity. crown wide-spreading sometimes often however, soils, acid slightly moist, rich, deep, 2"– catkins, Flowers are sites. drier on rocky, found birches. best among are leaves in fall Yellow 3" long.

REGION Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain PHYSIOGRAPHIC COMMON NAME red maple red silver maple sugar maple river birch sweet birch NAME SCIENTIFIC Acer rubrum Acer Acer saccharinum saccharum Acer Betula nigra Betula lenta NATIVE TREES AND SHRUBS FOR LANDSCAPING WILDLIFE NATIVE Trees Large

Native Plant Materials 191 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS WILDLIFE USERS Leaves are used by browsers. used by browsers. Leaves are by deer, also consumed are Nuts and wood ducks, foxes, turkey, squirrels. Fruit is popular with winter waxwing, cedar especially birds, robin. and mockingbird, and eaten by birds are Beechnuts food important are and mammals squirrels. and chipmunks for to wildlife. importance Moderate Seeds eaten by wood ducks, cardinals. and finches, See white ash. Limited wildlife value. DESCRIPTION Height: 60'–80', Spread: 40'–60' 60'–80', Spread: Height: Bark breaks crown. trunk with an oblong Straight start as Difficult to transplant, up in thin plates. border. woodland Good for seedling. same 40'–60', Spread: Height: is crown the in old age In youth weakly pyramidal; Medium branches. ascending-arching top of a broad but grows soils, moist rich, Prefers growth. to fast acid soils; withstands rocky or sandy, heavy, in dry, wet or very dry moderately conditions; or alkaline orange full sun. Fruit is fleshy, wind; tolerates areas; in September to October. ripening purple, to dark tree Useful in fall. yellow to yellow-green Leaves are conditions. adverse growing for same 50'–70'+, Spread: Height: crown. trunk with wide-spreading Often has short well in full Can grow soils. well drained moist, Likes sun or shade. same 50'–80', Spread: Height: an open later developing in youth and Pyramidal well drained best on deep, Grows crown. rounded full sun. soils and 25'–30' 50'–60'+, Spread: Height: spreading upright, in youth, developing Pyramidal in in full sun and quickly Grows habit at maturity. on found Naturally soil conditions. of range a wide bottomlands moist same 30'–70', Spread: Height: Fast trunk with open, oval crown. has short Usually but conditions of range a wide Withstands grower. on found (often bottomlands moist rich, prefers floodplains).

REGION Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain PHYSIOGRAPHIC COMMON NAME shagbark hickory common hackberry beech American white ash ash red common honeylocust , continued NAME SCIENTIFIC Carya ovata Celtis occidentalis Fagus grandifolia Fraxinus americana Fraxinus pennsylvanica Gleditsia triacanthos Large Trees Large

192 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS WILDLIFE USERS Nuts are eaten by woodpeckers, eaten by woodpeckers, are Nuts squirrels. and foxes, eaten by foliage and Twigs eaten most Seeds are browsers. waxwings. by cedar extensively provides foliage Evergreen cover for roosting and nesting mockingbirds, robins, sparrows, warblers. and juncos, purple finches and Goldfinches seeds. eat winged wildlife importance. Moderate are cardinal and purple finch The users. principal by many Fruit is relished wood include Users songbirds. woodpeckers, robins, ducks, and flickers, thrashers, mockingbirds. DESCRIPTION same 50'–75', Spread; Height: rich, Prefers trunk with an oval crown. Well-formed Difficult to on bottomlands. Often found soils. moist Produces be started as seedling. should transplant; it giving plants to many poisonous are which toxins but creating in open field situations an advantage gardeners. for problems 8'–20' 40'–50', Spread: Height: slightly and young when pyramidal Densely growth. of rate Medium in old age. pendulous moist deep, Prefers adverse conditions. of Tolerant only in youth. Handsome shade Will tolerate soils. blue fleshy small bark. Produces brown reddish hedges. belts, shelter windbreaks, for Useful cones. 40'–50' 60'–75'+, Spread: Height: at maturity. crown in youth, rounded Pyramidal on Occurs naturally soils. acid moist, deep, Likes bottomlands. 30'–50' 70'–90', Spread: Height: Fast canopy. trunk with a narrow straight Long, loam. a well drained in full sun and Plant grower. weak. somewhat Wood 20'–30' 30'–50', Spread: Height: at crowned irregularly in youth and Pyramidal Full soils. acid well drained, moist, Prefers maturity. Deep taproot. sun or semi-shade.

REGION Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain PHYSIOGRAPHIC COMMON NAME black walnut eastern redcedar American sweetgum tuliptree black gum , continued NAME SCIENTIFIC Juglans nigra Juniperus virginiana Liquidambar styraciflua Liriodendron tulipifera Nyssa sylvatica Large Trees Large

Native Plant Materials 193 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS WILDLIFE USERS Provides valuable cover and cover and valuable Provides and songbirds sites for nesting used as are Needles mammals. eaten Seeds are material. nesting grosbeaks, chickadees, by quail, woodpeckers. and nuthatches, of are in general, Oaks, to wildlife. importance major the top of at the are Acorns wood list for preference food grackles, pheasants, ducks, thrushes, nuthatches, jays, foxes, rabbits, woodpeckers, deer. and squirrels, See white oak. See white oak. Limited wildlife value. cover for excellent Provides site Nesting songbirds. and deer Seeds are warblers. several for and chickadees, eaten by juncos, siskins. DESCRIPTION Height: 50'–80'+, Spread: 20'–40'+ 50'–80'+, Spread: Height: has several at maturity in youth, crown Pyramidal Fast grower. branches. ascending and horizontal soils but is very well drained best on fertile, Grows adaptable. 50'–80' 100', Spread: Height: rounded and broad in youth, becoming Pyramidal as small Transplant branches. spreading with wide Difficult soils. well drained moist, Prefers tree. available as Sometimes nurseries. to obtain from seedling. 25'–40' 60'–70', Spread: Height: of One branches. with ascending pyramidal Strongly in naturally Full sun. Found oaks. growing faster the soil types. to many wet soils but is adaptable 40'–50' 60'–75'+, Spread: Height: Full sun. symmetrical. and is round-topped Habit Fast growing. soils. well drained loamy, Prefers 35'–50' 60'–80', Spread: Height: shape with a rounded in youth, assuming Pyramidal soils, moist deep, Prefers Full sun or part shade. age. soils. heavier of but is tolerant 25'–35' 40'–70', Spread: Height: pendulous more in youth becoming Pyramidal Plant soils. well drained moist, Likes with age. Relatively fast shade. Tolerates area. in sheltered hedges. screens, for Excellent growing.

REGION Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain PHYSIOGRAPHIC COMMON NAME eastern white pine white oak pin oak oak red linden American eastern hemlock , continued NAME SCIENTIFIC Pinus strobus Quercus alba Quercus palustris Quercus rubra Tilia americana canadensis Tsuga Large Trees Large

194 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS WILDLIFE USERS Important berry producer during during berry producer Important Fruit months. early summer the bluebirds, eaten by crows, Foliage tanagers. and cardinals, used by browsers. Limited wildlife value. Limited wildlife value. for source Fruit is an important evening including songbirds and robins cardinals, grosbeak, waxwings. cedar Limited wildlife value. by many extensively Used thrushes, including songbirds bluebirds, catbirds, mockingbirds, provides Foliage thrashers. and mammals. and songbirds cover for Seeds are Wildlife value is low. and mammals eaten by some is used by several Foliage birds. building. nest for birds DESCRIPTION Height: 6'–20', Spread: 10' 6'–20', Spread: Height: well on the Blends clumped. often stems, Erect edge. forest 25'–35' 20'–30', Spread: Height: well moist, Likes crown. with rounded tree Small only on limestone naturally Found soils. drained Full sun to light soils in Pennsylvania. or diabase shade. same 12'–20', Spread: Height: moist, Prefers than high. wider Open habit, often full sun. fertile soils and 15'–20' 20', Spread: Height: Place in well with flat-topped crown. tree Small character Has shade. soil. Full sun to partial drained seasons. in all four 20'–25' 20'–30', Spread: Height: moist Prefers shrub. or multi-stemmed tree Small shade. soils in full sun or partial 18'–25' 15'–30', Spread: Height: up with age. in youth, opening pyramidal Dense, soil. Full sun or partial well drained in moist, Plant females. every three for male one Use shade. same 10'–20', Spread: Height: soils. wet, acid Likes open shrub. Multi-stemmed, shade. Tolerates

REGION Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain PHYSIOGRAPHIC COMMON NAME shadbush or shadblow serviceberry eastern redbud white fringetree flowering dogwood common witchhazel holly American sweetbay magnolia NAME SCIENTIFIC Amelanchier arborea/laevis Cercis canadensis Chionanthus virginicus Cornus florida Hamamelis virginiana opaca Ilex Magnolia virginiana Small Trees/Large Shrubs Small Trees/Large

Native Plant Materials 195 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS WILDLIFE USERS WILDLIFE USERS Fruit eaten by grouse, Fruit eaten by grouse, songbirds. other and chickadees, chokeberry. See red Limited wildlife value. fruit and wildlife value for High variety by a wide Used browse. songbirds, and mammals of evening cardinals, including thrush, vireos, robins, grosbeaks, waxwings. cedar and of variety used by a wide Berries wildlife. Used by grouse, brown thrasher, thrasher, brown by grouse, Used and squirrels, waxwing, cedar deer. See nannyberry. DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION Height: 6'–10', Spread: 3'–5' 6'–10', Spread: Height: open and somewhat shrub, multi-stemmed Upright Full sun to soil types. to many Adaptable rounded. half shade. chokeberry. See red 4'–6' 3'–8', Spread: Height: leafy shrub. dense, erect, Oval, round-topped, Full sun or soils. organic moist into Transplant shade. heavy and wet areas for Good plant shade. 10'–15' 10'–15', Spread: Height: spreading shrub with short multi-stemmed Erect, colonies. large forms and profusely Suckers branches. but soils, wet or dry withstanding adaptable, Very Full sun or conditions. well drained moist, prefers shade. 8'–10' 6'–8', Spread Height: Prefers shrub. rounded multi-branched, Upright, soils. acid moist, Height: 15'–18', Spread: 6'–10' 15'–18', Spread: Height: to a with open habit. Adapts tree Shrub or small shade. Sun or partial soil conditions. of range wide 8'–12' 12'–15', Spread: Height: shrub. or multi-stemmed tree Round-headed Sun or shade. soil types. to many Adaptable

REGION REGION Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain PHYSIOGRAPHIC PHYSIOGRAPHIC , continued COMMON NAME COMMON NAME red chokeberry red black chokeberry summersweet clethra silky dogwood inkberry nannyberry blackhaw virburnum NAME NAME SCIENTIFIC SCIENTIFIC Aronia arbutifolia Aronia melanocarpa Clethra alnifolia Cornus racemosa glabra Ilex Viburnum lentago Viburnum prunifolium Small Trees/Large Shrubs Small Trees/Large Shrubs

196 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS WILDLIFE USERS Used extensively by many by many extensively Used thrushes, particularly songbirds, bluebirds, robins, mockingbirds, thrashers. and used by some Fruit capsules are songbirds. twigs. and eat foliage Mammals by mammals extensively Utilized shelter. winter for birds and Fruit is eaten by a variety quantities in small birds of swallows and tree including warblers. myrtle as Limited wildlife value except cover winter and deer for browse songbirds. for as Limited wildlife value except grouse and deer for browse DESCRIPTION same 6'–10', Spread: Height: to Tends shrub holly. deciduous Oval, rounded, and Does well in light clumps. multi-stemmed form Red fruit soils. organic moist, Prefers soils. heavy for is necessary plant A male is beautiful in winter. fertilization. 6'–8' 3'–5', Spread: Height: moist, Prefers branches. shrub with clustered Erect wet areas. Suited for Full sun or shade. fertile soils. color. fall Excellent same 7'–15', Spread: Height: open with age. becomes shrub, robust Large, soils in full sun or well drained moist, Requires shade. same 5'–12', Spread: Height: Deciduous colonies. large to form to sucker Tends shrub. dense rounded, Upright, to semi-evergreen. poor including soil conditions, to many Adaptable shade. Full sun to partial soils. same 4'–10', Spread: Height: well in moist, Plant shrub. evergreen Rounded, shade. partial soil. Prefers drained 6'–8' 4'–6', Spread: Height: to dry, Adapted shrub. stoloniferous Multi-stemmed, naturalizing. for Useful soils. rocky sandy,

REGION Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain PHYSIOGRAPHIC COMMON NAME winterberry Virginia sweetspire laurel mountain northern bayberry rosebay rhododendron pinxter-flower , continued NAME SCIENTIFIC Ilex verticillata Ilex Itea virginica latifolia Kalmia Myrica pensylvanica Rhododendron maximum Rhododendron periclymenoides Shrubs

Native Plant Materials 197 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

SOURCES

Nurseries Specializing in Native Plants David Brothers Bean Road Nursery P.O. Box 123

WILDLIFE USERS Whitehall and Bean Roads Worcester, PA 19490 610-584-1550 Used heavily by grouse, scarlet by grouse, heavily Used and thrushes, bluebirds, tanager, songbirds. other and eaten by deer are Twigs Fruit is used by grouse. rabbits. thrasher, brown by grouse, Used and squirrels, waxwing, cedar deer. Edge of the Woods Native Plant Nursery 2415 Route 100 Orefield, PA 18069 610-395-2570 www.edgeofthewoodsnursery.com

Natural Landscapes 354 North Jennersville Road West Grove, PA 19380 610-869-3788

DESCRIPTION North Creek Nurseries, Inc. 388 North Creek Road Landenberg, PA 19350 877-ECO-PLUG www.northcreeknurseries.com

Height: 6'–12', Spread: 8'–12' 6'–12', Spread: Height: shrub with spreading multi-stemmed Upright, Full sun soils. well drained moist, Requires branches. shade. or light 3'–4' 4'–6', Spread: Height: soils. to dry Adaptable shrub. sparsely branched Low, tolerant. shade Extremely 6'–15' 6'–8', Spread: Height: Adaptable shrub. rounded dense, Multi-stemmed, well drained. but prefers soil conditions, to most freely. Suckers Octoraro Farm and Gardens

698 Lees Bridge Road Nottingham, PA 19362

610-932-0225 www.octorarofarm.com REGION Piedmont Piedmont Piedmont Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Coastal Plain Octoraro Native Plant Nursery PHYSIOGRAPHIC 6126 Street Road Kirkwood, PA 17536 717-529-3160 www.octoraro.com

Pinelands Nursery COMMON NAME

highbush highbush blueberry maple-leaved viburnum southern arrow-wood 323 Island Road Columbus, NJ 08022 609-291-9486 www.pinelandsnursery.com , continued NAME SCIENTIFIC Vaccinium Vaccinium corymbosum Viburnum acerifolium Viburnum dentatum Shrubs

198 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Redbud Native Plant Nursery New Moon Nursery 1214 N. Middletown Road 13 Ways Lane Glen Mills, PA 19342 Kennett Square, PA 19348 610-358-4300 888-998-1951 www.redbudnativeplantnursery.com www.newmoonnursery.com

Sylva Native Nursery and Seed Company Princeton Nurseries 3815 Roser Road P.O. Box 185 Glen Rock, PA 17327 Allentown, NJ 08501 717-227-0486 800-916-1776 www.sylvanative.com www.princetonnurseries.com

Temple University/Ambler Nursery Shemin Nurseries 580 Meetinghouse Road P.O. Box 649 Ambler, PA 19002-3994 100 Green Tree Road 215-283-1330 Oaks, PA 19456 (Wholesale only) 610-666-0595 www.sheminnurseries.com Yellow Springs Farm (Wholesale only) 1165 Yellow Springs Road Chester Springs, PA 19425 Wildflower Sources 610-827-2014 www.yellowspringsfarm.com Brandywine Conservancy Box 141 Other Nurseries That Carry Chadds Ford, PA 19317 Native Plants 610-388-2700

Buddies Nursery Ernst Conservation Seeds P.O. Box 14 9006 Mercer Pike Birdsboro, PA 19508 Meadville, PA 16335 610-582-2410 800-873-3321 www.ernstseed.com Moon Nurseries P.O. Box 672 Prairie Nursery 145 Moon Road P.O. Box 306 Chesapeake City, MD 21915 Westfield, WI 53964 800-803-TREE 800-476-9453 www.moonnurseries.com www.prairienursery.com

Musser Forests Sandy Wilson 1880 Route 119 North Native Plants and Aquatic Nursery Indiana, PA 15701 834 Church Road 800-643-8319 Harleysville, PA 19438 www.musserforests.com 610-584-6302 (Seedlings only)

Native Plant Materials 199 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Additional Sources for Information Sources General Lists Manual for Woody Landscape Plants Guide to Pennsylvania Nursery Stock Michael Dirr Pennsylvania Nurserymen’s Association, Stipes Publishing Company, 1990 Inc. 1924 North Second Street American Wildlife and Plants: A Guide to Harrisburg, PA 17102 Wildlife Food Habits Alexander C. Martin, et. al. New England Wild Flower Society, Inc. Dover Publications, 1951 Garden in the Woods 180 Hemenway Road The Plants of Pennsylvania, An Illustrated Framingham, MA 01701 Manual, 2nd Edition 508-877-7630 Ann F. Rhoads and Timothy A. Block University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007

200 Native Plant Materials LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Glossary

Acidic – Describes soil or water with a pH Baseflow – The water that percolates to lower than 5.5. the groundwater and reaches the stream Advance regeneration – Young trees in the slowly over long periods of time. Because it forest ground and tall shrub/sapling layers, sustains streamflow during rainless periods some of which will grow up into the forest it is also called dry-weather flow. canopy when a disturbance opens a gap in Bedrock – The solid rock that is exposed the existing canopy. Where white-tailed at the surface or underlies the soil or other deer are extremely abundant, advance unconsolidated material at the surface. regeneration is often absent, or, if present, Best management practices (BMPs) – only the fraction that is above 6 feet in The current, most generally accepted height (tall saplings) has a significant way to perform a given management task. chance of one day reaching canopy height. Examples include: how to establish a Afforestation – The establishment of native meadow; how to plant a tree; how forest trees by planting or seeding in an to harvest timber near water resources; area not currently or recently forested. how to manage stormwater. (Compare reforestation.) Biennial – Describes an herbaceous plant Anaerobic – Describes processes that occur that lives its entire life cycle in two growing in the absence of molecular oxygen. seasons, germinating and establishing in Annual – Describes an herbaceous plant the first year, then resprouting, flowering, that lives its entire life cycle, from seed fruiting and dying in the second year. germination to producing its own seeds, (Compare annual, perennial.) in one growing season and then dies. Biocide – A poisonous chemical substance (Compare biennial, perennial.) that can kill living organisms, especially Barrens – Woodland, shrubland, grassland, microorganisms. or savanna communities on upland (mesic Biodiversity – Biological diversity; the to xeric) sites where tree establishment variety of plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, or growth is suppressed by environmental and other organisms, the communities they conditions and the disturbance regime. form, and the ecological functions they Most often associated with thin or rapidly perform at the genetic, individual, patch or draining soils. stand, landscape, and regional levels.

Glossary 201 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Biomass – The collective mass of living Conifer, coniferous – Any of a large group organisms and their residues (dead of cone-bearing trees and shrubs, mostly leaves, branches, logs, animal carcasses, evergreens such as pines, spruces, firs, excrement, etc.) in an ecosystem. cedars, and yews. Most of these species Blowdown – Tree that has fallen down do not lose their leaves (needles) at the across a trail. end of the growing season but retain them through the year (exceptions include Calcareous – Describes soil, groundwater, tamarack and bald-cypress). Foresters often or surface water with high calcium call them softwoods. concentrations, often derived from limestone, dolomite, marble, or calcium- Conservation – The wise use and rich glacial deposits. management of natural resources. Canopy – The upper level of a forest, Conservation easement – A legally consisting of branches and leaves of taller binding agreement between a landowner trees. A canopy would be complete (or has and a qualified conservation organization, 100% cover) if the ground were completely such as a land trust, or government agency, hidden when viewed from above the such as a township, which ensures that the canopy during the growing season. conditions of the easement are met over time. The easement permanently limits Cavity tree – A tree with cavities in which a property’s use and binds all present and birds, mammals, or insects such as bees future owners of the land. The property may nest (also called a den tree). remains in private ownership and does Clearcutting – A harvesting and not need to be opened to the public. Tax regeneration technique that removes all benefits may apply to the donor. of the trees, regardless of size, on an area Cover – The percentage of the ground in one operation. Clearcutting is most surface that is covered or shaded by the often used with species like aspen or leaves or stems of a plant species or a group black cherry, which require full sunlight of plant species during the growing season. to reproduce and grow well, or to create specific habitat for certain wildlife species. Cover type – General category of Clearcutting produces an even-aged stand. vegetation or human use used to classify the earth’s surface (land and water); Codominant – Describes a species with examples from this handbook include relatively high abundance or percent forests, hedgerows, shrublands, meadows/ cover in a community that is not grasslands, pasture/cropland, wetlands, overwhelmingly dominated by a single streambanks/riparian areas, ponds, and species; two or more species providing lawns/landscaped areas. roughly equal cover, abundance, or influence in a community or stratum. Crown – The upper leaves and branches of a tree or shrub. Also, the swollen area Community – An assemblage of of a shrub’s trunk at or just below the populations of plants, animals, fungi, ground surface from which the roots bacteria, and other organisms sharing extend downward and the stem or stems a common environment and interacting extend upward. with each other and with the physical environment.

202 Glossary LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Deciduous – Senescence of all leaves Edge – The boundary between open land at the end of the growing season, leaves and woodland or between any two distinct dropping before or during winter, and ecological communities. Also, the zone sprouting new leaves the following spring. roughly 100 meters (305 feet) wide on Deed restriction – A written stipulation either side of the boundary. This transition contained within a deed that restricts area between environments provides certain future uses of the property, generally valuable wildlife habitat for some species, inserted at the time of transfer. A deed but can be problematic for sensitive restriction may include restrictions similar species, due to increased predation and to those contained within a conservation parasitism. (See interior species.) easement. However, enforcement may Emergent – Describes upright, rooted only be carried out by the prior owner or vegetation that may be temporarily to other parties to the transaction and the permanently flooded at the base, with restrictions may be cancelled at any time the upper portions of the plant growing by mutual written agreement. erect above the water surface; emergent Denitrification – The process by which plant species do not tolerate prolonged nitrate in water or sediments is converted inundation of the entire plant. to nitrogen gas, which is then lost to the Endangered species – Species in atmosphere. danger of extinction throughout all or Detritus – Organic material composed of a significant part of its range. Can be dead plants and animals, or parts thereof either on a federal or state list. Federally (leaves, branches, grass clippings) that listed species are protected by the United fall to the ground or settle to the bottom States Endangered Species Act, 1973. of a water body. Bacteria and fungi Pennsylvania species of special concern are slowly decompose detritus, thus recycling part of the environmental review in the nutrients and stored energy back into the permitting process for land development soil or water body’s ecosystem. or disturbance. Dominant – A species with the greatest Eutrophication – The process of physical, abundance, percent cover, or influence in a chemical, and biological changes associated community or stratum. with nutrient, organic matter, and silt enrichment and sedimentation of a lake or Dormant – Resting, or non-growth, phase. reservoir, often resulting in proliferation of Ecology – Scientific study of interactions algae and submerged plants and conversion among living organisms and between of water from clear to cloudy. If the process organisms and their environment, and is accelerated by human influences, it is how those interactions determine the termed cultural eutrophication. distribution and abundance of organisms. Evapotranspiration – The water transfer Ecosystem – A natural unit comprising from the soil to the atmosphere by direct living organisms, their environment, evaporation and by transpiration from the and all of the interactions and their surfaces of plants. consequences, including the circulation, transformation, and accumulation of energy and matter.

Glossary 203 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Even-aged stand – A group of trees that Goods and services – In natural lands, do not differ in age by more than 10 to this term refers to the products and 20 years or by 20% of the rotation age; functions that site features (soil, water often a result of clearcutting or farmland resources) and native plant communities abandonment. Young, even-aged stands provide to human and wildlife populations. are typically low in species and structural These include clean water and air, food, diversity due to crowding of canopy trees recreational opportunities, income- and lack of canopy gaps, resulting in dense generating products (lumber, edible and shade at the forest floor. medicinal plants), and beautiful viewsheds. Exclosure – An area fenced to exclude Also called ecosystem services. white-tailed deer. Grassland – Open area dominated by grass Exotic – Refers to species not native to species, usually with an admixture of forbs Pennsylvania, or to the area in which they and low shrubs. A grassland with scattered occur; synonymous with non-native. trees is often called a savanna. Fauna – The animals of a specified Ground layer – The herbs, tree seedlings, region or time. small shrubs, and creeping vines within about 3 feet of the ground surface in a Floodplain – The flat to nearly flat lowland forest; or the lowest layer of vegetation in adjacent to a river or lake subject to at an open-canopy community. least intermittent flooding. Floodplains are designated by the frequency of the flood Groundwater – Water underground in that is large enough to cover them. For openings in rock strata and soils. (See example, the 10-year floodplain is covered, water table.) on average, once every 10 years and the Growing space – The major resources 100-year floodplain, on average, once and conditions—light, water, inorganic every 100 years. nutrients, temperature, humidity, soil Flora – The plants of a specified structure, and other factors—that support region or time. plant growth in a given area. Forb – A broad-leaved (not grass-like Habitat – The geographically defined or sedge-like) herbaceous plant. (See area where environmental conditions herb, herbaceous.) (e.g., climate, topography, etc.) meet the life needs (e.g., food, shelter, etc.) of an Forest – An area dominated by trees organism, population, or community. where the majority of tree crowns are overlapping, typically with between 60% Hardwoods – Trees that have broad leaves, and 100% leaf cover. (Compare woodland.) produce a fruit (e.g., berry, drupe, winged samara, dry capsule, acorn, nut), and Fragmentation – The segmentation of a generally lose their leaves in the winter large tract or contiguous tracts of forest into (a few hardwoods are evergreen, such as smaller patches, often isolated from each American holly). (Compare softwoods.) other by nonforest habitat. Fragmentation results from the collective impact of Hazard tree – A tree with compromised residential and commercial development, structural integrity located near a “target,” highway and utility construction, and other that is, an area of human use or a structure. piecemeal land use changes. A hazard tree has the potential to fall—in part or in whole—and injure people or damage property.

204 Glossary LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Herb, herbaceous plant – Plant with no Interior grassland or meadow – An area woody stem above the ground that persists dominated by herbaceous plant species through the winter, as distinguished from (with no trees or just a few sparsely trees, shrubs, and woody vines. (See scattered trees) at least 100 meters (305 annual, biennial, perennial.) feet) from a hedgerow or the edge of any Herbaceous layer – The layer of contrasting cover type. vegetation in a forest or shrubland in Intermittent – Refers to small streams which herbs are common or dominant, that do not flow continuously throughout more accurately called the ground layer the year. where it includes tree seedlings, low shrubs, Invasive plants, invasives – Non-native and creeping vines. plants that have the ability to usurp Herbicide – Any chemical substance used growing space from established native to kill plants, especially weeds, or to check vegetation. Typically, they seed prolifically, their growth. grow fast, spread rapidly and aggressively, Herbivore – Any animal that eats mainly and lack the diseases, herbivores, or plant leaves, twigs, shoots, or roots (e.g., predators that keep their populations in white-tailed deer, most butterfly and check in their places of origin. Only a small moth larvae). minority—less than 5%—of the non-native plant species that have escaped to the wild Hydric – Describes soils that are in Pennsylvania have become invasive. periodically wet and that support the growth of wetland vegetation. Wetlands Litter – The uppermost layer of the are most often recognized and delineated forest floor consisting chiefly of decaying by the presence of wetland-indicator plant organic matter that still has recognizable species, but hydric soils have distinctive fragments; it lies on top of the humus layer. characteristics that make them a reliable Marsh – A wetland dominated by indicator of wetlands even in the absence herbaceous vegetation and usually having of visible vegetation, for instance, in little or no peat accumulation. herb-dominated communities in winter. Mast – All fruits of trees and shrubs used (Compare mesic, xeric.) as food by wildlife. Hard mast includes Hydrology – The study or description nuts and nutlike fruits such as acorns, of the way water is distributed in the beechnuts, hickory nuts, walnuts, landscape, moves over the ground surface and chestnuts. Soft mast includes the and underground; includes precipitation, fleshy fruits of black cherry, dogwoods, evaporation, transpiration, and flow. serviceberries, blackgum, and sassafras. Hydrophyte, hydrophytic – Describes Meadow – Open area dominated by grass, any plant adapted to growing in water sedge, and forb species. or on a substrate that is at least Mesic – Describes soils with intermediate periodically deficient in oxygen as a r moisture content; moist but well drained. esult of water saturation. (Compare hydric, xeric.) Interior forest – A forested area at least Mineral soil – Soil with little or no organic 100 meters (305 feet) from the edge of any matter content; in undisturbed soils, contrasting cover type. describes the soil layers beneath the litter and humus layers and above solid bedrock.

Glossary 205 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Native – Describes species that occurred Palustrine – Describes wetlands; in Pennsylvania (or in the area in areas intermediate between aquatic which they are found) prior to European and terrestrial habitats, supporting settlement; not introduced by human predominantly hydrophytic vegetation, activities. Synonymous with indigenous. where conditions are at least periodically (Compare exotic.) wet enough during the growing season Natural regeneration – The replacement to produce anaerobic soil conditions and of one forest stand by another through thereby influence plant growth. natural seeding or sprouting. Parent material – The underlying type of Non-point-source pollution – Consists bedrock or unconsolidated material (e.g., primarily of polluted stormwater runoff sand and gravel deposited by rivers or from urbanized areas and agricultural fields, glaciers or along ancient coastlines) from in contrast to point-source pollution, which a soil type is derived. which is discharged from pipes at industrial Patch – A small area of a particular facilities or sewage treatment plants. ecological community surrounded Old growth – Forests that approximate the by distinctly different ecological structure, composition, and functions of communities, such as a forest stand native forests prior to European settlement. surrounded by agricultural lands, a small They vary by forest type, but generally opening surrounded by forest, or an include more large trees, variation in tree area dominated by forbs surrounded by size, vertical structure (layers), standing grassland. (See stand.) snags, canopy gaps, native species, and Perennial – A plant that persists and dead organic matter than do young, even- produces reproductive structures year aged, or intensively managed forests. (See after year; refers to streams and wetlands even-aged stand, virgin forest.) that contain water at or near the surface Open area – An area dominated by shrubs throughout the year. (Compare annual, or herbaceous plants and not by trees; may biennial.) have scattered trees up to 25% canopy Pioneer species – Species adapted to cover. (See barrens, grassland, meadow, colonize and persist in open areas following savanna, shrubland.) major disturbances such as fire, flooding, Outslope – The grade from the upslope or wind. They typically have light, edge of the treadway to the downslope wind-blown, long-lived seeds, and, once edge. Trails, especially sidehill trails, should established, have a rapid growth rate. have an outslope of 3% to allow for proper Plug – A plant grown in a small (1–2 sheet drainage. inches square) container that can be Overseeding – The process of adding transplanted into a desired location. additional seed to an already established Point-source pollution – Contaminated grassland or meadow either by broadcasting water discharged from pipes at industrial the seed or using a no-till drill to insert the facilities or sewage treatment plants, in seed into the ground. contrast to non-point-source pollution, Overstory – Trees in the upper level, or which consists primarily of polluted canopy, of the forest. stormwater runoff from urbanized areas and agricultural fields.

206 Glossary LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Preservation – A management philosophy Root graft – Physical union of the or goal that seeks to protect indigenous cambium, phloem, and xylem of two ecosystem structure, function, and integrity different roots. Root grafts are common from human impacts. Management and can occur between roots of the same activities are generally excluded from tree, trees of the same species, or trees of “preserved” lands. different species. Water and nutrients, as Prime agricultural soils – Soils that are well as toxic substances (herbicides) and deep, well-drained, and moderately sloped pathogens (Dutch elm disease), can be that can support high yields of crops with transported through root grafts. little management. Sapling – A small tree, usually defined as Puncheon – Also known as a bog bridge. being between 2– 4 inches in diameter at A simple bridge constructed of two base breast height. logs (or sills) set perpendicular to the trail Savanna – Area dominated by herbaceous and two stringers, parallel to the trail and plants or shrubs with sparse, scattered trees spiked to the top of the base logs. between 10% and 25% canopy cover. Rare species – Species that exist only in (Compare grassland, shrubland, woodland.) one or a few restricted geographical areas Seasonally wet – Areas with poorly or habitats or occur in low numbers over a drained soils or high water table that relatively broad area. hold water during certain periods of the Recruitment – The addition of new year, typically during the late winter and individuals to a population. early spring. Reforestation – The reestablishment of Second growth – The forests reestablished forest cover by natural or artificial means following the removal of virgin (previously on areas recently supporting forest cover. unharvested) or old growth stands. Most of (Compare afforestation.) Pennsylvania’s forests are either second or third growth. Regeneration – The replacement of one forest stand by another as a result of natural Seedling – A young tree originating from seeding, sprouting, planting, or other seed that is less than 4 feet tall and smaller methods; also young trees in the forest than 2 inches in diameter at ground level; ground layer, some of which will grow up or a newly germinated plant of any kind into the forest canopy when a disturbance originating from a seed. opens a gap in the existing canopy. Seep – A class of wetland created by a Riparian zone – An area adjoining a spring (emerging groundwater) on lower body of water, normally having soils and slopes forming small pools, usually covered vegetation characteristic of floodplains or and surrounded by vegetation. These areas transitional to upland zones. These create snow-free zones critical for wildlife areas help protect the water by removing feeding during winter. or buffering the effects of excessive nutrients, sediments, organic matter, pesticides, and pollutants.

Glossary 207 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Shade tolerance – The ability of a plant Spring – Location of concentrated to grow under conditions of less than groundwater discharge. full sunlight. Shade tolerant: having the Stand – A grouping of vegetation ability to become established and survive sufficiently uniform in species composition, in low light conditions for an extended age, and condition to be distinguished from period of time. Intermediate in shade surrounding vegetation types and managed tolerance: able to become established as a single unit. (See patch.) under a forest canopy and persist for short periods if small, localized canopy openings, Stewardship – The wise management and for instance, created by a fallen branch, use of natural resources to ensure their provide sunlight for part of the day during health and productivity for the future with the growing season. Shade intolerant: regard for generations to come. requires full sun conditions to colonize a Stratum – A horizontal layer of vegetation. site and persist. Forest strata consist of the ground layer Shrubland – An area dominated by shrubs (herbaceous plants, tree and shrub and small trees with less than 25% total seedlings, small shrubs, and creeping cover by trees; herbaceous plants may be vines), the tall-shrub and sapling layer, the present. A shrubland with scattered trees subcanopy tree layer, and the canopy layer. totaling 10% to 25% cover is often called a (See vertical structure, vegetation layers.) shrub savanna. Stream order – A system of classification Sidehill – Describes a trail, often literally of perennial waterways according to their cut out of the side of a hill, that gains relationship to other streams. If a stream elevation by moving up a slope, gradually is seasonal or precipitation-dependent (an following the contour. ephemeral or intermittent stream), it is not included in stream order. A perennially Snag – A standing dead tree with few flowing stream whose only sources are branches, or the standing portion of a upwellings of groundwater—that is, it is broken-off tree. Snags may provide feeding not fed by other streams—is a first-order and nesting sites for wildlife. stream. First-order streams join to form Softwoods – Conifers or cone-bearing second-order streams. If two second-order trees, most of which are evergreen (a streams join they form third-order streams, few softwoods are deciduous, including and so on, as the streams create a network tamarack and bald-cypress). (Compare of waterways. hardwoods.) Stress – An ongoing impact on an Species – The level of classification organism, population, community, or immediately subordinate to genus; ecosystem (e.g., drought, browsing, reproductively isolated organisms that competition for growing space) that does have common characteristics, such as not cause immediate death or extirpation. eastern white pine or white-tailed deer. Structure – The spatial arrangement of The scientific name of an organism consists vegetation layers within a community; also, of its genus and species names, sometimes the juxtaposition of patches of different followed by a subspecies or variety name. species composition within a cover type. Species richness – The number of species (See patch, stratum, vertical structure.) present in a community or a defined area.

208 Glossary LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Structural diversity – The number Understory – The vegetation beneath the of different vegetation layers (canopy tree canopy in a forest (herbaceous plants, tree, subcanopy tree, tall shrub/sapling, low vines, shrubs, seedlings, saplings, small ground) within a forest; also, the variety trees); collective term for the strata within of patches of different species composition the vertical zone between the canopy and within a cover type. A structurally diverse the litter or soil surface of the forest floor. forest provides habitat for the most (See stratum.) wildlife species. This term can be used to Uneven-aged stand – A group of trees of characterize other plant communities, such diverse ages and sizes growing together in a as meadow or shrubland, for instance, a forested area. meadow with high structural diversity may be a patchwork of tall grasses and forbs, Upland – An area with well-drained dry to short grasses and forbs, and areas with mesic soils. sparse vegetation, with scattered tall shrubs Vernal pool or pond – A small, shallow, and short shrubs and an occasional tree. temporary pool of water present in spring Succession – The natural series of and fall, which typically does not support replacement of one plant community (and fish but is an important breeding ground the associated fauna and other organisms) for many species of amphibians. Some by another over time and in the absence species, such as spring peepers, wood frogs, of disturbance. and mole salamanders, in many areas are totally dependent upon such ponds. Switchback – On a sidehill trail, a sharp turn in the opposite direction used to Vertical structure – The arrangement gain elevation. of plants in a given community from the ground layer (herbaceous plants, Terrestrial – Describes uplands; where tree seedlings, low shrubs, and creeping vegetated, supporting vegetation that is vines), through the tall shrub-sapling not predominantly hydrophytic. and subcanopy layers into the main forest Threatened species – A species likely canopy; a complex vertical structure is to become endangered in the foreseeable characterized by lush undergrowth and future, throughout all or a significant successive layers of woody vegetation portion of its range, unless protected. extending into the crowns of dominant Trailhead – Beginning of a trail or trail and codominant trees. (See stratum, section, or an access point, sometimes with structural diversity.) parking, information signs, etc. Virgin forest – A forest that has never Tread, treadway – That part of the trail been harvested or altered by humans. that is walked upon; the footpath. (See old growth.) Turnpike – A low, linear, elevated earthen Water table – The uppermost level of walkway across a flat wet area, with fill groundwater. Where groundwater is within held in place by rock or log cribbing. reach of plant roots, the level of the water table usually varies through the year, being highest just prior to the start of the growing season, and decreasing as plants transpire water. Plant roots will usually not grow below the water table due to insufficient oxygen.

Glossary 209 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Waterbar – Rock or log structure Windthrow – The uprooting of trees diagonally across the trail to divert water by wind. and mitigate erosion. Woodland – An area dominated by Watershed – A region or area defined by trees, but having an open character patterns of stream drainage. A watershed with between 25% and 60% tree cover. includes all the land from which a (Compare forest, savanna.) particular stream or river is supplied. Xeric – Very dry; describes areas with dry, Wetland – An area that is either well drained to extremely well drained transitional between land and water soils. (Compare hydric, mesic.) (where the water table is at or near the Xerophyte – Describes any plant adapted land surface) or area of land covered by to growing in xeric soils. shallow water (such as a marsh, swamp, bog, or fen). These areas fulfill many essential roles in our landscapes by maintaining water quality, stabilizing shores and streambanks, controlling floods and erosion, and providing critical habitat to many plant and animal species.

210 Glossary LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Resources

CONTACTS FOREST/TREE CARE MEADOW CROPLAND WETLANDS RIPARIAN PONDS STORMWATER FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) www.nrcs.usda.gov Conservation Security Program (CSP) Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) Farm and Ranch Lands Protection Program (FRPP) Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (WHIP) Agricultural Management Assistance (AMA) Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP) Pennsylvania NRCS X X X X X X X X www.pa.nrcs.usda.gov/index.html Bucks/Montgomery County Perkasie Service Center Hilltown Executive Campus 1000 E. Walnut Street, Building 700 Perkasie, PA 18944 215-822-5840 Chester/Delaware County West Chester Service Center 601 Westtown Road West Chester, PA 19380-0990 610-696-0398

Resources 211 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS FOREST/TREE CARE MEADOW CROPLAND WETLANDS RIPARIAN PONDS STORMWATER FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

US Fish and Wildlife Service Pennsylvania Field Office 315 South Allen Street X X X X State College, PA 16801-4850 814-234-4090 www.fws.gov/northeast

US Forest Service www.fs.fed.us Northern Research Station 11 Campus Boulevard, Suite 200 Newtown Square, PA 19073 610-557-4017 Publications Distribution 359 Main Road Delaware, OH 43015 740-368-0120 X X X X PA DCNR, Bureau of Forestry 6th Floor, Rachel Carson State Office Building P.O. Box 8552 Harrisburg, PA 17105-8552 717-705-5194 www.dcnr.state.pa.us/forestry Valley Forge District Office (Berks, Bucks, Chester, Delaware, Lancaster, Montgomery, Philadelphia counties) 845 Park Road Elverson, PA 19520-9523 610-582-9660

Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (DCNR) 7th Floor, Rachel Carson State Office Building P.O. Box 8767 X X X X X 400 Market Street Harrisburg, PA 17105-8767 717-787-2869 www.dcnr.state.pa.us

212 Resources LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS FOREST/TREE CARE MEADOW CROPLAND WETLANDS RIPARIAN PONDS STORMWATER FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) Southeast Regional Office 2 East Main Street X X X X X Norristown, PA 19401 484-250-5900 www.depweb.state.pa.us/southeastro/site/default.asp

Pennsylvania Game Commission (PGC) Southeast Region (Berks, Bucks, Chester, Dauphin, Delaware, Lancaster, Lebanon, Lehigh, Montgomery, Northampton, Philadelphia, Schuylkill, York counties) X X X X X X X 448 Snyder Road Reading, PA 19605 610-926-3136 Private Landowner Assistance Program

Penn State Cooperative Extension Southeast Region Penn State Berks-Lehigh Valley College Tulpehocken Road P.O. Box 7009 Reading, PA 19610-6009 610-378-4362 www.extension.psu.edu/seregion Bucks County Neshaminy Manor Center 1282 Almshouse Road X X Doylestown, PA 18901-2896 215-345-3283 Chester County 601 Westtown Road, Suite 370 West Chester, PA 19380-0990 610-696-3500 Delaware County 20 Paper Mill Road Springfield, PA 19064 610-690-2655 … continued

Resources 213 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS FOREST/TREE CARE MEADOW CROPLAND WETLANDS RIPARIAN PONDS STORMWATER FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

Penn State Cooperative Extension, continued Montgomery County X X 1015 Bridge Road, Suite H Collegeville, PA 19426-1179 610-489-4315

Bucks County Conservation District 1456 Ferry Road, Suite 704 Doylestown, PA 18901 215-345-7577 www.bucksconservation.org Chester County Conservation District 601 Westtown Road, Suite 240 P.O. Box 2747 West Chester, PA 19380-0990 610-696-5126 www.chesco.org/conservation X X X X Delaware County Conservation District 1521 N. Providence Road Media, PA 19063 610-892-9484 http://delcocd.org Montgomery County Conservation District 143 Level Road Collegeville, PA 19426 610-489-4506 www.montgomeryconservation.org

School of Forest Resources Cooperative Extension Office The Pennsylvania State University 7 Ferguson Building X University Park, PA 16802-4302 814-863-0401 http://rnrext.cas.psu.edu

214 Resources LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS FOREST/TREE CARE MEADOW CROPLAND WETLANDS RIPARIAN PONDS STORMWATER FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

Association of Consulting Foresters of America, Inc. (National Office) 723 N. Washington Street, Suite 4-A X Alexandria, VA 22314 703-548-0990 www.acf-foresters.com

Hardwood Lumber Manufacturers’ Association of Pennsylvania, Inc. 545 W. Chocolate Avenue Hershey, PA 17033 X 800-232-HLMA 717-312-1244 www.hlma.org

International Society of Arboriculture 2101 West Park Court Champaign, IL 61821 X 888-472-8733 www.isa-arbor.com

Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania 100 East Northwestern Avenue Philadelphia, PA 19118 X 215-247-5777 www.business-services.upenn.edu/arboretum

The Nature Conservancy 4245 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 100 Arlington, VA 22203 703-841-5300 www.nature.org X X X Pennsylvania Field Office 15 East Ridge Pike, Suite 500 Conshohocken, PA 19428 610-834-1323 [email protected]

Resources 215 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS FOREST/TREE CARE MEADOW CROPLAND WETLANDS RIPARIAN PONDS STORMWATER FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE

Pennsylvania Forestry Association 56 East Main Street Mechanicsburg, PA 17055 X 717-766-5371 http://pfa.cas.psu.edu

Pennsylvania Horticultural Society 100 N. 20th Street, 5th Floor Philadelphia, PA 19103 X X X X X 215-988-8800 www.pennsylvaniahorticulturalsociety.org

Pennsylvania Tree Farm (sponsored by the Pennsylvania Forestry Association) Area 6 (Berks, Bucks, Carbon, Chester, Dauphin, Delaware, Lancaster, Lebanon, Lehigh, Montgomery, Schuylkill counties) X X X X X 17 Weavers Road Pottsville, PA 17901 570-385-0172 http://patreefarm.cas.psu.edu

Society of American Foresters 5400 Grosvenor Lane Bethesda, MD 20814-2198 X X 301-897-8720 www.safnet.org

Stroud Water Research Center 970 Spencer Road Avondale, PA 19311 X X X X X 610-268-2153 www.stroudcenter.org

216 Resources LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Pennsylvania Sustainable Forestry SOURCES Initiative, www.sfiofpa.org Silvics of North America, http://www. na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_ Forest Ecology and Management of_contents.htm Diameter-Limit Cutting and Silviculture in Northeastern Forests: A Primer General for Landowners, Practitioners, and Policymakers, Laura S. Kenefic and Ralph Ecological Restoration, D. Nyland, US Department of Agriculture, http://ecologicalrestoration.info Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry (NA-TP-02-05) Natural Areas Association, www.naturalarea.org Forest Ecology, Stephen H. Spurr and Burton V. Barnes, John Wiley and Sons, Society for Ecological Restoration, Inc., 1964 http://ser.org

A Land Manager’s Guide to Improving Habitat for Forest Thrushes, Cornell Lab Hazard Trees of Ornithology A Photographic Guide to the Evaluation A Land Manager’s Guide to Improving of Hazard Trees in Urban Areas, Nelda P. Habitat for Scarlet Tanagers and other Matheny and James R. Clark, International Forest-interior Birds, Cornell Lab of Society of Arboriculture, 1994 Ornithology The International Society of A New Tree Biology: Facts, Photos, and Arboriculture, www.isa-arbor.com Philosophies on Trees and Their Problems The Morris Arboretum of the and Proper Care, Alex Lloyd Shigo, Shigo University of Pennsylvania, and Trees, Associates, 1986 www.business-services.upenn.edu/ The Once and Future Forest, Leslie Jones arboretum Sauer and Andropogon Associates, Island Press, 1998 Invasive Plant Species Planting and Care of Fine Hardwood Citizen’s Guide to the Control of Invasive , Hardwood Tree Improvement Seedlings Plants in Wetland and Riparian Areas, and Regeneration Center, www.agriculture. Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay, 2003 purdue.edu/fnr/HTIRC/publications.html Invasive Plants: Weeds of the Global , David M. The Practice of Silviculture Garden, John M. Randall and Janet Smith, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1986 Marinelli, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 1996 , Best Management Practices for Loggers Native Alternatives to Invasive Plants, http://www.usabmp.net C. Colston Burrell, Brooklyn Botanic Center for Urban Forest Research, Garden, 2006 http://wcufre.ucdavis.edu

Resources 217 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Plant Conservation Alliance, Areas, Jil Swearingen, et al, National Park Alien Plant Working Group, Service and US Fish and Wildlife Service, http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien 2002 Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council, Weed Control Methods Handbook: Tools http://www.tneppc.org and Techniques for Use in Natural Areas, Mandy Tu, Callie Hurd, John M. Randall, US Department of Agriculture, Wildland Invasive Species Team, The Agricultural Research Service, Invaders Nature Conservancy, 2001 Database System, List of Noxious Weeds, http://invader.dbs.umt.edu/noxious_weeds Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Invasive Plants, http://www.bbg.org/gar2/pestalerts US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Federal Interagency Committee for the Service, Information Management Management of Noxious and Exotic System for Invasive Species, Weeds, http://www.fws.gov/ficmnew http://www.invasivespecies.org

Iowa State University Forestry US Department of Agriculture, Forest Extension, Weed Control for Seedlings, Service, Northeastern Area, Invasive http://www.forestry.iastate.edu/topics/ Plants, http://www.na.fs.fed.us/fhp/ woodland_mgmt/weedcontrol.html invasive_plants/weeds/index.shtm

Invasive Plants of the Eastern United Virginia Department of Conservation States: Identification and Control, and Recreation, List of invasive plants, http://www.invasive.org/eastern http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/dnh/invinfo. htm Mid-Atlantic Exotic Pest Plant Council, http://www.ma-eppc.org Mapping National Biological Information Infrastructure and National Invasive Delaware Valley Regional Planning Species Council, Commission, www.dvrpc.org http://www.invasivespecies.gov Pennsylvania Spatial Data Access, The Nature Conservancy, The www.pasda.psu.edu Invasive Species Initiative, http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu Monitoring New England Wildflower Society, http:// Is Our Project Succeeding? A Guide www.newfs.org/conserve/invasive.htm to Threat Reduction Assessment for Pennsylvania Department of Conservation, Richard Margoluis and Conservation and Natural Resources, Nick Salafsky, Biodiversity Support Invasive Exotic Plant Tutorial for Natural Program, Washington, D.C., 2001 (may be Lands Managers, http://www.dcnr.state. downloaded at http://www.worldwildlife. pa.us/forestry/invasivetutorial/List.htm org/bsp/publications/aam/threat/tra.pdf)

218 Resources LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Measures of Success: Designing, Geologic Map of Pennsylvania, compiled Managing, and Monitoring Conservation by T.M. Berg, W.E. Edmunds, A.R. and Development Projects, Richard Geyer, and others, 2nd edition, Bureau Margoluis and Nick Salafsky (eds.), Island of Topographic and Geologic Survey, PA Press, 1998 Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, 1980 Monitoring Plant and Animal Populations, Caryl L. Elzinga, Daniel W. The Geology of Pennsylvania, edited Salzer, John W. Willoughby, James P. Gibbs by Charles H. Shultz, Pennsylvania (eds.), Blackwell Science, Inc., Oxford, Geological Survey, Pittsburgh Geological UK, 2001 Society, 1999

Restoring Life in Running Waters: Better Rock Types of Pennsylvania, compiled Biological Monitoring, James R. Karr and by T.M. Berg, W.D. Sevon, and R. Abel, Ellen W. Chu, Island Press, 1998 Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey, PA Department of Conservation Wildlife Restoration: Techniques for and Natural Resources, 1984 Habitat Analysis and Animal Monitoring, Michael Morrison and Paul Krausman, County Soil Surveys, Pennsylvania office, Island Press, 2002 USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service Open Space Design Rare and Endangered Species Conservation Design for Subdivisions: A Practical Guide to Creating Open Space Pennsylvania Natural Heritage Program, Networks, Randall Arendt, Island Press, www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us 1996

Growing Greener: Putting Conservation Stormwater Management into Local Plans and Ordinances, Randall Arendt, Island Press, 1999 A Homeowner’s Guide to Stormwater Management, Office of Watersheds, Greener Prospects, Philadelphia Water Department, www.greenerprospects.com www.delawareestuary.org/pdf/ HomeownersGuideSWMgmnt.pdf

Physical Resources Stormwater, The Journal for Surface Water Quality Professionals, Atlas of Preliminary Geologic Quadrangle http://www.stormh2o.com/sw.html Maps of Pennsylvania (Map 61), compiled and edited by Thomas M. Berg, Christine Partnership for the Delaware Estuary, M. Dodge, Bureau of Topographic and www.delawareestuary.org Geologic Survey, PA Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, 1981

Resources 219 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Stream Restoration Native Plants of the Northeast: A Guide for Gardening and Conservation, Donald Stream Restoration in Pennsylvania: J. Leopold, Timber Press, 2005 Ten Case Studies, Delaware Riverkeeper Network, 2001 Native Trees, Shrubs, and Vines: A Guide to Using, Growing, and Propagating North American Woody Plants, William Trails Cullina, Houghton Mifflin, 2002

Complete Guide to Trail Building and Newcomb’s Wildflower Guide, Lawrence Maintenance, Carl Demrow and David Newcomb, Little, Brown and Company, Salisbury, Appalachian Mountain Club, 1989 1998 The Plants of Pennsylvania, An Design, Construction, and Maintenance, Illustrated Manual, 2nd edition, Ann F. William Birchard, Jr., Robert D. Proudman, Rhoads and Timothy A. Block, University and the Regional Staff of the Appalachian of Pennsylvania Press, 2007 Trail Conservancy, Appalachian Trail Conference, 2000 The Tallgrass Restoration Handbook: For Prairies, Savannas, and Woodlands, Natural Surface Trails by Design, Troy Stephen Packard and Cornelia F. Mutel, Scott Parker, Natureshape, 2004 Island Press, 1997

Trail Construction and Maintenance Terrestrial and Palustrine Plant Notebook, US Department of Agriculture, Communities of Pennsylvania, Jean Fike, Forest Service, 2000 Pennsylvania Natural Diversity Inventory, Pennsylvania Department of Conservation Natureshape, Shaping Trails by Design, www.natureshape.com and Natural Resources, The Nature Conservancy, Western Pennsylvania Conservancy, 1999 Vegetation (general) The Trees of Pennsylvania, Ann F. Rhoads The Ferns and Fern Allies of Pennsylvania, and Timothy A. Block, University of Thomas R. Lord and Holly J. Travis, Pennsylvania Press, 2004 Pennsylvania State University Press, 2008 The Vascular Flora of Pennsylvania: Field Guide to North American Annotated Checklist and Atlas, Ann Wildflowers, Eastern Region, John W. F. Rhoads and William M. Klein, Jr., Thieret, William A. Niering, Nancy C. American Philosophical Society, 1993 Olmstead, National Audubon Society, 2001 Wildflowers, Northeastern/North-central North America, Roger Tory Petersen and Field Guide to North American Trees, Margaret McKenny, National Audubon Eastern Region, Elbert L. Little, National Society, National Wildlife Federation, Audubon Society, 1993 Roger Tory Petersen Institute, 1996

Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, Michael A. Dirr, Stipes Publishing Company, 1998

220 Resources LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

Wildflowers of Pennsylvania, Mary Center for Watershed Protection, Joy Haywood and Phyllis Testal http://www.cwp.org Monk, Botanical Society of Western Pennsylvania, 2000 (Copies may be Ecology and Management of Small ordered by contacting Sister Mary Joy Ponds, http://darwin.wcupa.edu/ponds Haywood at Carlow College, 3333 Fifth National Wetlands Inventory, Avenue, Pittsburgh 15213; cost is $20 plus http://www.nwi.fws.gov tax and postage.) Pennsylvania Stream Releaf Program, Delaware Valley Fern and Wildflower http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/ Society, http://www.dvfws.org watermgt/WC/Subjects/StreamReLeaf/ Directory of Herbs, http://hortweb.cas.psu. default.htm edu/extension/vegcrops/herbs_directory.php River Corridor and Wetland Restoration, The Pennsylvania Flora Project, US Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.paflora.org http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/restore

The Pennsylvania Native Plant Society, River Network, http://www.rivernetwork.org http://www.pawildflower.org

US Department of Agriculture, NRCS White-tailed Deer Plants Database, http://plants.usda.gov Chester County Deer Forum, http:// chester.extension.psu.edu/Horticulture/ US Forest Service Tree Information Deer%20Forum/DeerForum.htm Database, http://www.fs.fed.us/database/ feis/plants/tree The Ecosystem Management Project, www.ecosysmp.com Wild Ones – Native Plants, Natural Landscaping, http://www.for-wild.org Managing White-tailed Deer in Forest Habitat From an Ecosystem Perspective, Water Resources Report of the Deer Management Forum, convened by Audubon Pennsylvania and The Pond Guidebook, Jim Ochterski, Bryan the Pennsylvania Habitat Alliance, 2005, Swistock, Clifford Kraft and Rebecca available at http://pa.audubon.org Schneider, Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service, 2006, NRAES- 178 Wildlife Management Attracting Butterflies and Hummingbirds Riparian Forest Buffers: Function and to Your Backyard: Watch Your Garden Design for Protection and Enhancement Come Alive With Beauty on the Wing, of Water Resources, David J. Welsch, US Sally Roth, Rodale Books, 2002 Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 1992 The Audubon Backyard Birdwatcher, Robert Burton and Stephen W. Kress, Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay, National Audubon Society, 1999 http://www.acb-online.org

Resources 221 LAND FOR LIFE – A HANDBOOK ON CARING FOR NATURAL LANDS

The Bird Garden, Stephen W. Kress, The Pennsylvania Audubon Society, National Audubon Society, 1995 http://pa.audubon.org

Bringing Nature Home: How Native US Forest Service Wildlife Information Plants Sustain Wildlife in Our Gardens, Database, http://www.fs.fed.us/database/ Douglas W. Tallamy, Timber Press, 2007 feis/wildlife/index.html

Cornell Lab of Ornithology, www.birds.cornell.edu

222 Resources land for life Nature needs you. It may seem counter-intuitive, but nature can’t care for itself. We humans have left our imprint on every landscape in our region and the consequences are far reaching. Invading plant and animal species overtake native ones. Overabundant deer decimate our native forests. Disappearing habitats threaten beloved wildlife species. However, with your help, degraded landscapes can be transformed into thriving habitats filled with life. You can help improve the ecological well-being of our region and Land for Life can show you how. Compiled from Natural Lands Trust’s five decades of experience in caring for open spaces, Land for Life is a straight-forward guide to dealing with the most common challenges you face as a landowner—whether you’re caring for one acre or one hundred. It offers practical, proven solutions that Natural Lands Trust’s nationally-recognized team of land managers use day in and day out. Natural Lands Trust

Praise for land for life and Natural Lands Trust Land for Life contains supremely Natural Lands Trust has assembled an important resource useful, in-depth information for land management in the region. Land for Life is about land management. It is an extraordinarily comprehensive and will answer all of the indispensable resource for me and questions you have about responsible land stewardship as my family as we work to restore well as many that you would never have thought to ask. and maintain our meadows and woodlands. — Doug Tallamy, Author of Bringing Nature Home, Chair of Entomology and Wildlife Ecology, University of Delaware — Nancy Ondra, garden writer

Natural Lands Trust and The wealth of knowledge in Land for Life is the result of more than the handbook have been five decades of land management practice.Natural Lands Trust’s invaluable as we have professional land stewards know what works (and what doesn’t!) transformed a field into a and we’re fortunate to have their collective experience and expertise lovely, thriving meadow captured on paper. habitat. It is my kingdom! I — Jonathan Alderson, Landscape Architect just love walking waist-deep along the paths, seeing the birds and butterflies that flock here. — Penny Watkins, gardener, This handbook is an exceptionally reader-friendly guide for almost Certificate of Merit holder anyone interested in managing natural areas. Its 220 pages address from the Garden Club of how to restore forests, manage deer impacts, establish native America meadows and grasslands, and more. Very highly recommended. — Randall Arendt, landscape planner, lecturer, noted author